CHAPTER 2:

MATERIALS FOR
ROAD
CONSTRUCTION
SAMPLING AND TESTING
• Tests are needed as part of the control measures, for
ensuring that the design criteria are met during
construction.

• The satisfactory completion and performance of any civil

engineering project is dependent on Quality Control
Tests being undertaken prior and during construction.

• Risk of costly failure of major structures can be avoided

and worthwhile savings in cost of construction are
possible.
• All measuring instruments must be properly calibrated, by
an authorized agency, at regular intervals to verify their
accuracy and reliability.
• Not everyone needs to understand how to do the testing
but to recognize the benefits of knowing more about the
materials that are used in construction and maintenance
operations.
• This knowledge gives power to decision makers to
specify good materials, to know when to accept or reject
materials, and to communicate better with contractors,
consultants and others involved in the business of
building and maintaining roads.
• Every effort must be made to make sure that the sample
brought to a lab is truly representative of the material in
the field.
• All tests shall be conducted in accordance with the
standard, internationally accepted, methods of
sampling and testing should be followed.

Tests on Soils and Gravels

Tests on soils can be broadly classified into two main

categories.

• Classification tests, which indicate the general type of soil and

 the engineering category to which it belongs.

• Tests for assessment of engineering properties, such as shear

strength, the compressibility and permeability.
■ Moisture Content - determine the amount of Water present
in a soil expressed as a percentage of the mass of dry soil.
• Particle Size Distribution ‐ the relative percentages of
different sizes of particles in the sample. From this it is possible to
determine whether the soil consists of predominantly gravel, sand,
silt or clay sizes and which of these sizes is to control the
engineering properties of the soil. It may be dry or wet sieving.
► Distribution of sizes controls the mechanical behavior of coarse
grained soil.
►Dry method of sieving is used for coarser fractions (retained on
4.75 mm sieve) and wet method is used for finer fractions
(retained on 75micron sieve) and Hydrometer method is used for
fractions passing 75 micron sieve.
Figure 2.1 shows a typical grain size distribution curve.
Figure 2.1: Typical Grain Size Distribution Diagram
Blending Aggregates - May be necessary to meet a certain
grading requirement in order to utilize available sources of
aggregates of different sizes. Determining the proportions of two or
more aggregates to achieve a gradation within the specification limits
is largely a matter of trial and error.
• A trial-and-error approach guided by a certain amount of reasoning is
usually the easiest and best procedure to determine and refine a
satisfactory combination of aggregates.
• The basic equation expressing the combination is:
P = aA + bB+ cC + ...
where: P = the percentage of the combined aggregates
passing a given sieve;
a,b,c, … = proportions of individual aggregates used
in the combination where the total = 1.00,and
A,B,C,… = percentage of material passing a given sieve for
the individual aggregates.
• The combined percentages (P) for each of the different sieve
sizes should not fall outside the established grading
specification limits.

■ Liquid Limit - Empirically established moisture content at

which a soil passes from the liquid state to a plastic state. The
LL provides a means of identifying and classifying fine grained
cohesive soils.

• Both the Casagrande and the Cone Penetration methods are

based on the shear strength of the soil. It is the water content
at which the shear strength of the soil becomes so small that the
soil flows to close a standard groove in a sample of soil when
jarred in a standard manner.
• Plasticity is the property that enables a material to undergo
deformation without noticeable elastic recovery and without cracking
or crumbling. Plasticity is a major characteristic of soils containing an
appreciable proportion of clay particles.

• The Cone Penetration Method is preferred to Casagrande method

as it is a static test which depends on the shear strength of the soil.

Figure 2.3 shows a typical flow curve drawn for determination of the
Liquid Limit Value.

■ Plastic Limit & Plasticity Index - To determine the moisture

content at which a soil becomes too dry to be plastic. The PL is
determined and utilized in association with the other Atterberg limits
and the plasticity index for identifying and classifying cohesive soils.
Figure 2.2: Liquid Limit Device (Casagrande Method)
Figure 2.3: Determination of Liquid Limit
• PL is quantified for a given soil as a specific water content at
which the soil will begin to crumble when rolled into small
threads. It is defined in the lab as the lowest water content at which
the soil can be rolled into 3.2mm dia threads without breaking into
pieces.
• The Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and
the plastic limit, and is calculated by the equation: PI = LL – PL. If
either the liquid or plastic limit cannot be determined, the plasticity
index cannot be computed and should be reported as “NP”
(indicating non-plastic).

■ Linear Shrinkage - Determination of the total LS from linear

measurements on a bar of soil of the fraction of soil passing
0.425mm test sieve, originally having the MC of the liquid limit.
• Large changes in soil volume are important considerations for soils that
are to be used as fill material for highways or for soils that are to support
structural foundations (or as granular backfill for bridge abutments).
Unequal settlement resulting from such volume changes can result in
cracks in structures or unevenness in roadbeds.

• It is recommended that this test always is conducted as part of the liquid

limit testing as a check on the PI result. The moisture content must be to
within 1% of the liquid limit. The LS test is considered a more reliable
indicator than the PI for materials with low plasticity (i.e. PI < 6%).
• Moisture Density Relationship (Compaction Test)
• To obtain relationship between compacted dry density and soil
moisture content, using two different compactive efforts (Standard
and heavy Compactions).

• Four alternative procedures are provided for carrying out proctor

tests. These are methods A, B, C, and D, depending on the
maximum particle size, degree of compactive effort to be used.
• Compaction is measured in terms of dry density achieved. This is a
function of water content, the compaction effort and the nature of
soil. For the same compactive effort, this test determines the
optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density of a given
soil.
• In general the OMC is less than the PL.
• Compaction increases soil density, thereby producing three effects: an
increase in shear strength, a decrease in future settlement, and a
decrease in permeability.
• The degree of compaction is measured in terms of the dry density
achieved, which is a function of the:
► water content
► compactive effort applied to the soil, and
► nature of the soil.

• From the dry density / water content curve, we can determine two
quantities;
i) the maximum dry density (MDD), and
ii) the optimum water content (OMC) at which this maximum dry density
is achieved.
• The effect of water content on compaction
• The shearing resistance to relative movement of the soil particles is
large at low water contents. As the water content increases, it
becomes relatively easier to disturb the soil structure, and the dry
density achieved with a given compactive effort increases. However,
if the dry density is plotted against the water content for a given
compactive effort, it will be seen that the dry density reaches a peak,
after which any further increase in water content results in a lower
dry density.

• The effect of variations in compactive effort

• Both the MDD and the OMC are found to depend on the compactive
effort used.
• Increasing the compactive effort increases the MDD, but reduces the
OMC. The air void ratio at the peak density remains very much the
same. It may be seen that, at high water contents, there is little to be
gained by increasing the compactive effort beyond a certain point.

• The effect of soil type on compaction

• The highest dry densities are produced in well-graded coarse-
grained soils, with smooth rounded particles. Uniform sands give a
much flatter curve, and a lower maximum dry density. Clayey soils
have much higher OMCs, and consequently lower MDDs. The effect
of increasing the compactive effort is also much greater in the case
of clayey soils. (Please see Figure 2.6 and 2.7).
Figure 2.6: Standard and Heavy Compaction Curves
Figure 2.7: Compaction Curve for a Range of Soil Types
■ California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR)
• To obtain an indication of the strength of subgrade, subbase and
base course materials for use in the design of thickness of road and
airfield pavements. The CBR value is also requirement in design
for pavement materials of natural gravels.

• The CBR test is designed to simulate conditions that will exist at

the surface of the subgrade. A surcharge (weight) is placed on the
surface of the compacted specimen to represent the weight of
pavement above the subgrade. Furthermore, the specimen is soaked
for 96 hours to approximate the poorest field conditions.

• Normally, 3 specimens must be compacted so that their compacted

densities range from 95% (or lower to 100% (or higher) of the MDD.
Figure 2.9: CBR Load Frames (with dial gauge and Transducers)
Figure 2.10: Penetration versus Penetration Stress Curves, with correction
T 193 METI-IODS OF SAMPLING AND TESTING 377
Percent swell
Chllll8• in length in
in. duriog soakingx I OO
4.584 in,
8.5 Remove thc specimen., from the
soaking lank. pour lhc water off the top
and allow 10 drain dowoward for l 5
minutes. Care shall be lakeo not 10 dis
lUib tho surface of tho sp,:cimen, durin;i
removal of tbe wate,. After dsailw:lg.
remove the surcharge weights and perfo
rated plates.
NOTE 8-The specimuis may be woigh<d
after draining when it ti &.sired to dtu:tm:ine
lhe averae.e we1 dmsicy- cf the sO&ked and
droned material .
9. PENETRATION TEST
Application of Surcharge-Place
a s urcharge of annular and slolted
·oig.bts on the spc,eimeos equal to that
used during soaking. To ,·en1 dis
ploccn,ent of soft materials into die hole
of the 5urcbarge weigh.ts, seat the pene-
tra.Lio:n piston aftc.r one .surdla:rge weight
has been plac<:d oo thc spc,eimen. After
seating the penetration piston the remain-
•••
,oo
....
• 75
<>
.,... ...
◄ $0
u !
100
0
1..1..A IIIP'\..l'.
IIIY C:,- ; lfl..1:1111.tll DtlYltlllllTY' 81 1 • 1- 1,1 C WfT " OO Dl • l :Z4 .-.c.P',
f l(IIIO TJIII: Ca•
si,c,.vr10 11: ,,
der of tlJc SllfCbargo wcigbtS sb$II then
be placed :around the piston.
Seating Pisl01'-Sca1 the pene tration
piston with a 10 lb. (44 N) load. then se,
both the penetration dial indica tor and
the load indi.cator to uro.
Applk atiori of Load- Apply tho loads 10
the peoetration piston so the rate of
penetra1ion i! uniform •• 1.3 mm (0.05 in.)
por m.\nu1e. Re<:ord the load when the
penetration is 0.64, 1.27. 1.91,
2.S4, 5.0&, ond 7.62 mm (0.025, 0.050,
0.075, 0.100, 0.150, 0.200, and 0.300
in.). Load readings al penetratiooa of
10.16 and 12.70 mm (0.400 and O.SOO
in.) lll2Y be obtained if desired,
NOTE 9---Tbe moisture con.ten! of the
upper 25 mm (1.0 io.) may be detmnin<d
af1cr rcst.ine; if dt,S;lrod.. Moisru.re samples shall
w igh at le.a.st IOO g for fme..grained soil5
and :500 g for granular soils.
10. CALCULATIONS
Sr">1-Srrain Curv,-Plor the su-ess-
straia (rc.sistam:e IO penetration depth of
penetration) curve for each spc,e imca as
shown in Figure 2. In some
/
&'t ILOW"S
V
-
/ >O 'k.OWO •U L TE•
/l
I.
I
II.OWi iJl'Ut LATIU
,
I ' I
I
IOS no 11
IZO
tHirr DEHstn• J.S MOLD[C)-,C:F
-.t ta PIC IIIC 'I N'f OP" T [ AIOVt ...,.,.• .IIIUII' 0•1' 11:a•1n.
l't:•c1:•1 o, u4 e, . . • 11,.a "·' ·' ·
,IT U'T,I ,.o., TNI: CI• IS
FIGURE 3 Dry Densiiy v,.,.., C B lt
ins.ta.nces., the initial peDctration takes
plac:.e without a proportional increase in
the resistance to penetration and the
curve may be coacave upward To obtain
the In.le stress-strain relationships. COT·
rect the curve having concave upward
shape near the origin by adjw;ting the
location of the origin by e.:it.t.ending
the straighlline portico of the stress-
strain curve downward until it
intersects the
•bsci, sa (Se<: dasbed lioes).
California. B aring Ratio- The
eonectcd load values sllall be determined
for each specimen at 2-54 and 5.08 mm
(0.10 and 0.20 in.) pon"'8tion. Califor
nia Bearing Ratio •aloes are obtained in
pen:eot by dividing the CO!Te<:led load
values at 2.54 and 5.08 mm (0.10 and
0.20 io.) by lite standard loads of 1000
and ISOO psi (6.9 and 10.3 MPa), =poc
tively, and multiplying ll>ese ratios by
100.
CBR Corrected load valueX 100
s
land3rd Load
The CBR is geoerally se le<:tcd at 2.S4
mm (0.10 in.) poncntioo. lfche ratio at
5.03 mm (0.20 in.) peoetra tlon is greater,
the 1e51 shall b<: rerun. If tho cbeci; rest
gives a si.mil,r resul the
1
u.,,.
(JI
12:I 130
• Generally, about 10, 30, and 65 blows per layer are suitable for
compacting specimens. The CBR values for the three compactive
efforts would be plotted against the corresponding densities. The
CBR at any specified percent of the MDD can be derived from the
CBR vs dry density curve.

(Please see figure 2.10).

• In-place Density Measurement
• Four methods are available for determination of in-situ density of
compacted soil.
► Sand replacement Method,
► Rubber Balloon Method,
► Core Cuter Method, and
► Nuclear Density Guage.
■ Sand Replacement Method (AASHTO T191)
• For verification of the degree of compaction on site by a simple
procedure consisting essentially in removing and weighing a part of
compacted soil and replacing the hole with sand by a simple
apparatus, recording the volume of sand and then calculating the
density of the removed soil. This method is commonly used for soil
and granular materials. (Pls See figure 2.11).
■ Rubber Balloon method (AASHTO T191)
The principle of operation is similar to the sand replacement but the
hole is filled by a rubber balloon where water is pumped. The amount
of water can be easily determined by the graduation of the cylinder
and then the density of removed soil. (Pls see figure 2.12).
Figure 2.11 : Sand pouring cylinder and accessories
Figure 2.12: Rubber Balloon Apparatus
■ Core cutter method (ASTM D2937)
• In this method a sampling tube is driven into the soil to take a
standard volume sample, which is then removed, trimmed and
weighed. The core cutter is driven into the soil using the driving
rammer. Then the core cutter is dug out, trimmed, weighed, and
dried and the density and moisture content calculated.

• The surface soil sampler consists of a 5 kg sliding weight drop

hammer, which falls freely onto the driving head situated on top of
the sampling tube. The sampling tube is 73 mm ID x 66 mm high and
is the thin wall type. Pavement core driller is used for determination
of in‐situ density and degree of compaction of hot mix asphalt
pavements. (Plse see figure 2.13 and 2.14).
Figure 2.13: Surface Soil Sampler

Figure 2.14: Core cutter

Figure 2.15: Nuclear Density Gauge
■ In-Situ Density of Soil by Nuclear Density Gauge
• This is a non-destructive and quick method of determining the in-
situ density of soil which is based on the radiation. For this test
special equipment which measures in- place density using gamma
radiation is used. Gauge usually contains a gamma ray source on
the end of a retractable rod. Gamma rays are emitted from the
source which interacts with electrons in the surrounding material as it
passes through. Density of the material is then correlated to the
number of gamma rays received by the detector.

• Care has to be exercised on using the equipment to avoid the danger

of absorbing the radioactive emission. (Pls see figure 2.15).
• 2.3 TESTS ON AGGREGATES
■ 2.3.1 Los Angeles Abrasion (AASHTO T 96)
• The test is a measure of degradation of mineral aggregates from
a combination of actions including abrasion or impact, and grinding
in a rotating steel drum containing a specified number of steel
spheres, the number depending upon the grading of the test sample.
• Values for this test are numerically similar to the ACV for values up to
30. There is a very good correlation between Los Angeles abrasion
values and the ACV. (Pls see figure 2.16).

■ 2.3.2 Aggregate Crushing Value (BS 812, Part 110)

• The ACV value which gives a relative measure of the resistance of
an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied compressive
load, fines produced by 400KN load applied steadily in 10 minutes.
Figure 2.16: Loa Angeles Abrasion Machine
Figure 2.17: ACV Testing Mould and Compression Machine
• The method is applicable to aggregates passing a 14.0 mm test
sieve and retained on a 10.0 mm test sieve. It gives Percentage of
fines produced. Use 2.36mm sieve to separate the crushed fines.
(Pls see figure 2.17).

■ 2.3.3 Aggregate Impact Value (BS 812, Part 112)

• The test is for the determination of the aggregate impact value which
gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to sudden
shock or impact. The method is applicable to aggregates passing a
14.0 mm test sieve and retained on a 10.0 mm test sieve. A test
specimen is compacted into an open steel cup. The specimen is then
subjected to a number of standard impacts from a dropping weight. It
gives Percentage of fines produced. AIV correspond very closely to
aggregate crushing values generally. (Pls see figure 2.18).
Figure 18: AIV Testing Apparatus
■ 2.3.4 Ten Percent Fines Value (BS 812, Part 111)
• The test gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate
to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load.

• The degree of crushing is assessed by a sieving test. The

percentage of material passing 2.36 mm test sieve should fall within
the range of 7.5% to 12.5%.

• It indicates the load in kN required to produce the 10% of fines.

Certain materials show considerable weakening under the action of
water and these materials should be tested in a water saturated
state. (Pls see figure 2.19).
■ Sodium or Magnesium Sulphate Soundness
• This test is performed on aggregates directly by soaking material in
saturated sulphate solution to simulate the effect of increase in
volume of water changing to ice or freezing in the aggregate pores.

• Aggregates failing in this test may be used provided that local

experience with performance of existing structures made with the
aggregate proved satisfactory results.

■ Specific Gravity & Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

• Specific gravity is the ratio between the weight of a given volume of
the aggregate and the weight of an equal volume of water. Sp. Gr.
of aggregate is necessary for calculating the mass for the desired
volume of material since aggregates are usually batched by weight.
• Specific gravity has no clearly defined significance as a measure of
suitability of material for use as aggregate. Aggregates with sp. gr.
below 2.4 are usually suspected of being potentially unsound and,
thus, not suited for use in the exposed portions of hydraulic
structures in moderate to severe exposures. The rate of spread of
chippings, which is usually quoted in terms of weight per unit area,
also requires the specific gravity to be known.
• Water absorption is an indirect measure of the permeability of an
aggregate which, in turn can relate to other physical characteristics
such as mechanical strength, shrinkage, soundness and its general
durability potential. High water absorption indicates also a tendency
to absorb binder.
• If an aggregate is highly absorptive, it will continue to absorb
asphalt after initial mixing at the plant, leaving less asphalt on its
surface to bond aggregate particles together. Because of this, a
porous aggregate requires significantly more asphalt to make a
suitable mixture than a less porous aggregate does.

■ Bitumen Affinity (Coating and Stripping), AASHTO T182

• The test is for determining the retention of a bituminous film on an
aggregate surface in the presence of water. At the end of the test
(soaking period), and with the bitumen-aggregate mixture under
water, the total area of the aggregate on which the bituminous film is
retained is estimated visually as above or below 95%.
■ 2.3.8 Flakiness Index (BS 812, Part 105)
• The test for flat particles provides information on particle shape of
aggregates. Excessive amounts of flat particles in aggregates will
severely affect the water demand and the workability during
placement. Best interlocking is generally obtained with sharp
cornered, cubical-shaped particles. Aggregate particles are
classified as flaky when they have a 3:1 or more width to thickness
ratio. The flakiness index of an aggregate sample is found by
separating the flaky particles and expressing their mass as a
percentage of the mass of the sample tested.
• Flakiness results partly from the rock’s natural cleavage planes,
partly from the type of crusher used and partly from the method of
feeding the crusher, the reduction ratio and the setting.
Figure 2.19: Flakiness and Elongation Index Gauges
Tests on Sand Sources
• Sand for concrete and for masonry mortars requires washed and
processed material composed of quartz or other hard durable
particles. The sand particles shall be predominantly angular in shape
and be free of soft particles.
• Also, the material shall be non-plastic in nature. Sand may be
mechanically mixed with other unbound naturally occurring or
crushed materials to improve its characteristics, as fine aggregate for
bituminous mixes or in cement concrete mix.

• 2.4.2 Sand equivalent (AASHTO T 176)

• This test shows the relative proportions of fine dust or claylike
material in the sand sample. The sand equivalent value gives us the
sand proportion in percent from the total of sand and clay like
material.
■ 2.4.3 Soundness (AASHTO T 104)
• Fine aggregates are subjected to five cycles of the soundness test
and shall have a weighted average loss not greater than 10% when
sodium sulphate is used or 15% when magnesium sulphate is
used.

• AASHTO Designation M 6-93 states that fine aggregates failing to

meet the requirement may be accepted, provided that concrete of
comparable properties, made from similar aggregate from the same
source, has given satisfactory services when exposed to weathering
similar to that to be encountered.
■ 2.4.4 Silt and Clay Content (AASHTO T 11-85)
• Clay, silt and dust is material passing a 0.075 mm sieve. The
principal detrimental effects which these fine materials have on
concrete is to increase the water demand of a concrete to achieve a
given workability and, where present as coatings which are not
removed during mixing, to impair the aggregate-matrix bond.

■ Mortar Making Property (AASHTO T 71-80)

• The test is for comparing the mortar strength of a sand sample with
the mortar strength of standard sand. The standard sand can be
Ottawa sand or part of the sand sample itself after treating it with
Sodium Hydroxide solution in order to remove organic matter. The
mortar strength of the sand sample at age of 7 days should not be
less than 95% of the mortar strength of the standard sand sample.
• Organic Impurities (AASHTO T 21-81)
• Organic impurities may retard, or completely inhibit the hydration of
Portland cement and the consequent hardening of concrete, even
when present in trace concentrations. After the sample was soaked
in the standard impurities test bottles, in 3% sodium hydroxide
solution, the color of the supernatant (extract) is compared with
ASTM standard colour scales of 5 organic intensity scales mounted
in glass plastic holder. The sand is considered suitable if it
corresponds to ASTM Standard color figures 1 and 2, Color No.3
being marginally acceptable. (Please see figures 2. 20 and 2.21).
Figure 2.21: Impurities test bottle Figure 2.20: Color standards
■ 2.5 Tests on Water Sources
Water is used in earthworks, pavement layers and concrete. Water
of chemical composition acceptable for drinking is suitable for
making concrete. Where public supplies are not available, water for
concreting may have to be drawn from natural sources.

■ Chloride content (BS 3148:1980)

• The presence of soluble chloride in concrete can reduce sulpahte
resistance, and can considerably increase the risk of corrosion of
embedded steel. The sulphate resistance of sulphate-resisting
Portland cement may be impaired by the presence of chloride. The
presence of appreciable amount of chloride in reinforced concrete
introduces corrosive risks for the embedded steel.
■ 2.5.2 Sulphate content (BS 3148:1980)
• The presence of large amount of soluble sulphate in concrete made
with ordinary Portland cement may result in cracking and
expansion. This is because of their ability in the presence of excess
water to react with the calcium aluminates in the cement to form
calcium sulphoaluminate (ettringite). The accompanying increase in
volume creates forces within the hardened concrete which can lead
to its complete disintegration.

■ 2.5.3 Total dissolved solids (BS 3148:1980)

• The presence of high amounts of dissolved solids may cause
gradual deterioration of the concrete. The TDS obtained may
consist of organic matter, inorganic matter or combinations of
organic and inorganic matter.
• It is usually unlikely that water will contain sufficient salt to prevent
its use in compaction of pavement layers or in concrete mixes.

■ 2.5.4 PH Value (BS 3148:1980)

• The PH indicates the acidity or alkalinity level of the water. The
value recommended for most civil construction works is generally
from 6 to 9. The PH value is measured with a Laboratory PH
meter. (Please see figure 2.22).
PROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS
MATERIALS
Bitumen is a dark brown to black cementing material, solid or semi-
solid in consistency, in which the predominant constituents are
bitumen that occur in nature or that are complicated colloidal system
of hydrocarbon materials. In general, these hydrocarbon materials
are made up of Asphaltenes, Resins, and Oils.
• Asphaltenes are large high-molecular weight hydrocarbon
molecules. They constitute the body of the asphalt giving its
colour and hardness.
• Resins affect the adhesive and ductile properties.

• The oils influence the viscosity and flow acting as a medium in

which the asphaltenes and resins are carried.
■ Oxidation of bitumen results in the creation of asphaltenes at the
expense of resins, thus resulting in asphalt cement that is harder and
less adhesive and brittle.

■ Ductility and adhesive qualities are two of the properties that make
asphalt attractive as a highway material; hence their loss is serious.

■ When certain crude petroleum is processed to obtain gasoline,

kerosene, fuel oils, and related products, asphalt is produced as a
valuable by-product.

■ Virtually all asphalts used in the construction industry are produced

by modern petroleum refineries and are called petroleum asphalts.
• The degree of control allowed by modern refinery equipment permits
the production of asphalts with specific characteristics suited to
specific applications.
• Asphalt cement is an excellent water proofing material and is un
affected by most acids, alkalis and salts. This means that a properly
constructed asphalt concrete pavement is water proof and resistant
to many types of chemical damage.
■ 2.6.1 Petroleum Refining
• Crude petroleum is refined by distillation, a process in which
various fractions (products) are separated out of the crude.
Distillation is accomplished by raising the temperature of the crude
petroleum in stages. The asphalt residue that remains is called
straight-run asphalt. Table 2.6.1 shows petroleum fractions.
Fraction Product Type Boiling Point Range (0F)
Light distillate Gasoline 100 – 400
Medium distillate Kerosene 350 – 575
Heavy distillate Diesel Oil 425 – 700
Very heavy Lubricating Oil Over 650
Residue Asphalt
• Different types of asphalt are required for different applications. To
produce asphalts that meet specification requirements, refineries
have a way to control the properties of the asphalt they produce.
This is often accomplished by blending (mixing) crude petroleum of
various types together before processing. Blending allows refineries
to combine crudes that contain asphalts of varying characteristics in
such a way that the final product will have exactly the characteristics
required by the asphalt user.
(Figure 2.23 shows a typical refining process).
Bitumen from the Refinery Operation

LIGHT Dl:!!iTI LL.A

Tl!!
Pl I I!! LD :!!iTORAGI!! PUMPIMG
:!!iTATIOM
MI!! CIII UM CII l:S'T1 LL.AT!!

i4 i!!AW Cii ld!JTI

I.LA=

Rl!!.SIDUUM
PROCl!!S:!!i
UMIT

l := 1
OR
:STORAG I!! TU Bl!! COM DI!! MS
I!! RS
Hl!ATl!!R: I I I
ANICII INC llfl'G
FIITRC 1. l!IU M
GAS COOL! !
DAND
UN D Att D WAT l!R
AIR CUTBACK
ASf!!MAJ,.T,S
S'l'I LL

Figure 2.23: Petroleum Refining

■ 2.6.2 Classification and Grading of Paving Asphalts

• Paving asphalts are classified in to three general types:

■ Asphalt Cements,

■ Cutback Asphalts, and

■ Emulsified Asphalts.

• The most common use of asphalt cements in highway

construction is in hot-mix bituminous concrete, which is used to a
great extent in the higher class of highways. Cutbacks and
emulsions are mainly used in the paving of secondary highways
where surface treatment type of construction is common.
■ 2.6.3 Physical Properties of Asphalt
• The physical properties of asphalt that are of most interest to
highway design, construction, and maintenance personnel are:
i)Durability
• Durability is the measure of how well asphalt retains its original
characteristics when exposed to normal weathering and aging
process. It is a property judged by primary through pavement
performance, and is therefore difficult to define in terms of the
asphalt alone.
• Tests used to approximate asphalt durability are the Thin-Film Oven
Test (TFOT) and the Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test (RTFOT).
ii) Adhesion and Cohesion
• Adhesion is the asphalt s ability to stick to the aggregate in the
paving mixture.
• The ductility test does not directly measure adhesion or cohesion;
rather, it tests the property of the asphalt that is considered by some
to be related to adhesion and cohesion. Consequently, the test is a
pass-fail type that can indicate only whether or not the sample is
sufficiently ductile to meet minimum requirements.
iii) Temperature Susceptibility
• All asphalts are thermoplastic; they become harder (more viscous)
as their temperature decreases and softer (less viscous) as their
temperature increases. This characteristic is known as temperature
susceptibility, and is one of asphalt s most valuable assets.
 iii) Hardening and Aging
• Asphalt tends to harden in the paving mixture during construction
and in the pavement itself. The hardening is caused primarily by
oxidation, a process that occurs most readily at higher temperatures
such as construction/mixing temperatures and in thin asphalt films.
• Aging, oxidation and polymerization are the chief causes of
hardening. The process can be retarded if the voids content in the
final pavement is low, and the asphalt coating on the particles is
thick.
i) Penetration- ASTM D5
• The distance a 100 gm needle of prescribed dimension penetrates
the surface of the asphalt cement at 25 0C, for exactly 5 seconds, is
recorded in units of 0.1mm. The number of units is called the
“penetration” of the sample. (please see figure 2.24).
Figure 2.24: Automatic Penetrometers
 ii) Flash Point - ASTM D92
• The flashpoint of a bitumen is the lowest temperature at which
volatile materials separate from a sample in sufficient concentration
to “flash” in the presence of an open flame.

• The flashpoint of asphalt cement is determined to identify the

maximum temperature at which it can be handled and stored without
danger of flashing (safety). (Please see figure 2.25).

iii) Ductility - ASTM D113

• Ductility is a measure of how far a sample of asphalt cement can be
stretched before it breaks into two parts (flexibility). The length of the
thread of material at the moment it breaks is measured in
centimeters and is designated as the sample’s ductility value.
(Please see figure 2.26).
Figure 2.25: Cleveland flash tester
Figure 2.26: Ductility machine
 iv) Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) - ASTM D1754
• Thin film oven test is a procedure that exposes a sample of asphalt
to conditions that approximate those that occur during hot-mix plant
operations. Viscosity or penetration tests made on the sample after
TFO procedures are used to measure the anticipated hardening
of the material during construction and pavement service.

• The TFO procedure involves placing a measured sample of asphalt

cement into a flat-bottomed pan and then placed on a rotating shelf
in an oven and kept at a temperature of 163 0C for 5 hours. The
artificially-aged and hardened sample is then tested for its viscosity
value, penetration value, or both. (Please see figure 2.27).
Figure 2.27: Oven for rolling thin-film oven test
 v) Solubility – ASTM D2042
• Solubility test is a procedure for measuring the purity of asphalt
cement. A sample is immersed in a solvent (trichloroethylene) in
which the active cementing constituents of the sample dissolve.
Impurities such as salts, free carbon, and non-organic contaminants,
do not dissolve, but remain in particle form.
vi) Specific gravity – ASTM D 70
• The specific gravity of asphalt is usually determined by the
pycnometer method. Because specific gravity varies with the
expansion and contraction of asphalt cement at different
temperatures, results are normally expressed in terms of Specific
Gravity at a given temperature for both the material and the water
used in the test.
• The specific gravity requirements usually are not part of asphalt
specifications but are of value in the design of bituminous mixtures
and for billing and shipping purposes.

vii) Viscosity – ASTM D 2170

• Paving job specifications usually call for certain asphalt viscosity

values at 140 0F (60 0C) and 275 0F (135 0C). The viscosity at 140 0F
is used to grade asphalt cement. It represents asphalt viscosity at
the maximum temperature the pavement is likely to experience while
in service. The viscosity at 275 0F (135 0C) approximates the viscosity
of the asphalt during mixing and lying down.
■ 2.6.5 Asphalt Cements

• Asphalt cements are graded according to three different systems.

These are: Viscosity, Viscosity after aging, and Penetration.
• Five Penetration Grades of Asphalt Cements:
40 – 50, 60 – 70, 85 – 100, 120 – 150, and 200 – 300

■ 2.6.5 Asphalt Cutbacks

• Cutback asphalts are made by adding a solvent to asphalt cement

with objective of producing a liquid asphalt that can be handled with
equipment without the use of high temperatures. After the cutback is
in place, it can revert back to normal penetration asphalt cement by
curing, a process in which the volatile component (solvent)
evaporates.
• Cutback liquids asphalts are graded by viscosity. In each grade the
top viscosity limit is double the minimum grade designation. In this
grading system, both RC and MC cutbacks are in the following
grades: 70, 250, 800, and 3000. In addition the MC is often specified
for a grad 30 (MC 30). The same grades of SC liquid asphalts exist
as for the RC and MC materials; thus an SC-70 will have the same
viscosity as an MC-70 or an RC-70.
i) Rapid Curing Cutbacks – RC
• RC cutbacks are made by diluting base asphalt having penetration
ranging from 70 – 110 at 25oC with a typical naphtha or gasoline
(highly volatile). Careful control of the gasoline diluents will keep the
flash point of the material above 80oF.
ii) Medium Curing Cutbacks – MC
• MC are manufactured by diluting a base asphalt having a penetration
of 70 -250 at 25oC with a kerosene (less volatile).

• There are two important differences between RC and MC liquid

asphalts. RC have a hard base asphalt and a solvent that will
evaporate at low temperatures, resulting in material that will cure
rapidly.
iii) Slow Curing (Road Oils) Cutbacks – SC
• SC liquid asphalts are manufactured by straight –run distillation, in
the same manner as asphalt cements except that the distillation
process was cut off early so that many of the lubricating oil fractions
remained in the asphalt residue. Principal uses of SC asphalts are in
road – mixing and dust –laying applications.
Asphalt Emulsions
• An emulsion may be defined as an intimate mixture of two
immiscible liquids, one of which is dispersed in the other in the
form of very fine droplets. Asphalt emulsion is another means of
liquefying asphalt for use. Specifications of various emulsions are
standardized by ASTM D977.
• Emulsions are graded by three properties:
- Rate of Set (Break)
Breaking is the separation between the asphalt residue and water
allowing asphalt globs to come together forming the binder. It is
controlled by the amount and type of emulsifying agent used.
• Rapid Setting (RS)

• Medium Setting (MS)

• Slow Setting (SS)

■ Grading by Charge
• Cationic – Positive electrostatic charge at the head portion of the
emulsifying molecule. (the letter C before rate of set is used),

• Anionic – Negative electrostatic charge at the head portion of the

emulsifying molecule (No additional letters before the rate of set).

■ Grading by Saybolt viscosity at 60 C (140 F)

• Grade 1 - less viscous
• Grade 2 - more
viscous Examples:
CMS‐1 would be cationic medium‐setting emulsion with low
viscosity SS‐2 would be anionic slow‐setting emulsion with high
viscosity
Specifications of Paving Asphalts

Table 2.7.2: Specification Requirements for Asphalt Cement (AASHTO M 20)

Penetration Grade
Properties 40 ‐ 50 60 ‐ 70 85 ‐ 100
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.

Penetration, 250C,
40 50 60 70 85 100
100g, 5sec.
Flash Point, Cleveland
450 - 450 - 450 -
Open Cup (0F)
Ductility at 250C,
100 - 100 - 100 -
5 Cm/min, (Cm)
Solubility in
99 - 99 - 99 -
trichloroethylene (%)
Thin film oven test, 3.2
mm, 1630C, 5hr Loss 0.8 - 0.8 - 1.0
on heating, (%)
Penetration of residue,
58 54 - 50 -
Percent of original
Ductility of residue at
50 - 75 -
250C, 5cm/min, cm
68 S PECIFICATIONS FOR MATERIALS M ,81

TAlilU 1
RC-'l'O RC- RC-800 RC-.JOOO
'M"in Max Min MD Mlm M""'- Mm Mu
Kinematic vi
"""'$
ty u 60"'C ( J WF,1
70 ] 40 250 500 WO 1600 3'000 6000

- -
'F'la:slt N«o(nlg.
IS...polnt l opc:,<1-<:up ). C (F) 2.7 CSIO} 27 ($0) 27 (80)
w..c,;. pe=11(
0..2 0 .2 0.2 - 11..2
o;nm- [a ',_

I>iwJla1c.. llil•E<O by""'..mc,of1-1 di.$·

jjl!Ju< "' :3i'ill"C (680"F')--
1.o• l'ilO"c (:>74 °1-) 10
ro

l
.... p_s-c (&31"'F) IS
1.o260'c(500"¥) 70 60 45
,o. 3IS-C (&00"'.Fl u - 80 - 75 - '70
R.csidoc from diuilll1icot IO '.lliO'C CMrO'F)
v-<>1um<o ....,...._..., or Mllll'ie diffm.n""
s,, -
2S
M
- -
-n -
-
Tll!:SH. Ml ttiijdl.JIC rrora :i l] ari oni :
81()

A-- vio=,;izy al WC (14ft)

(S,,,, Noi,, 3} Pa (po;..,.s) M J40 (iO Z40 60 240 {ii() 2.40
('600) (24QQJ c (M OO,) (600) 1:2-100} 1,600 } ('2400),
Du i:l il -. :5, Cl'l\l'ntill I: Q?F") cm J OO - - -
- - -
1 00 100 l.00
Sol1bim1y p«COrn
Spot,_ (SeQ Nou, 2} """h
w.o 99 .o '19.0 99,D

S<:an<lud _r>aph.0..
J)l•J1ln l- y ..,J,,mi. P"l'00JM "'-l'lU>(
Uti jorII"1l
\'Ir: fc,:r.all des. r
1-kpunc ,.'.,"knt: sollve1u , ·pe rc cr u NcptiYC lo,; oil ·I

i
.:c;yk:nc
NOT£ L-M !JIA- "\N;l lt.- ,'1.ICOSl 1, may spcci:l"aetl ;a f caau."S:
RC-10---l'l.<"' .I ·•.I "'

l»-
- (l Li> J
,li:l ._
Clnd,, RC-:250-Fwvl·•- Ya< 6'ft CJ""1"F)-llS "' SO•·
I\C=---

i
Gndo ·•L..,,,.;,, .. '2-""C CUN1'1'1- l 00 !<> 100 • ·
. ,-....,,...s'i .. n.rc
R C- l!OOO---.l'uo ot CllWl'\I- •I
NQT'E, :l---The g.f !illC' !W:1:fi. J11 option al. ified.. ltu:i enpM..-cr lllMll .i.nd.ii::ak:i tber Im11l l , ill!:II. . W ifll, .- MM llCi.liol't:tlL o r lbrl; b!
"O' ,olYc'lllill .....11 M In dcl;cfflUllin.a 1.1.aJ,c:c 'lldib 'ilk: a. ,IM , ln ilc i;t(h illi:¥1i=nc- $Dl"l'!etll$, !ifhe- <if' IQ" !io-kl ,..utd .
· .., l:!n in.s ,a1ilJi iopt:iMI, i:..- lfl9C!i ,._tnlU-OII :u l lJO JI-,:, .3 :s. lS"C ("?7-:F'",1 i:i6 :I0-1:liO :f'cir Gir.adc:J. t.C--70,. StC'-;'Uf.l,
1iea DI ·....-llC05il}' cd" ·W rrsi thn
,
&C-3QJ.. lll.d 11..r;;..:x.Q'J. Ii "«. ill DO i;- w.-,W ittq

t
70 SPECIFICATIONS FOR MATERIALS M82

MC3'0
Min Mu
TA.Bl.£ J
'MC-70
:P.. io t,t.,.
MC-2:50
Min Ma><
MC.BOO

M ill Ma.
MC-3000
Min Mee
I
r
K:i...,awlc ,•ilcoAry a WC (1'(/"1-) ,I
-
 (Seo
mm•t•tilcn I) JO OQ 7Q 1-'0 2:50 500 ioo ldOO 3000 6000
fblt, !>O<"'
op<:l'H:q>}. <Tai- J.i -
- - 66
1

n, (i6
(100) , 1 00 :1 ( I SO) Cl50'l !
CO"}
'W' llk •r.,
OlsdllMi<H,
nl
ten: o.l - O.? - 0.:2 - O.l 0.'l
DidlllaJc. pe,,ca11as, b,y · <>lomo, o f !CCIII
- l lan!, IO 360°C (680°!')
1
ro l (4$1'F) 0 20 0 10
,,. 2«rC (j(} 4 20 «I :S.S 0
,s 1.

"
()"P) S 0 I S
,s
JS
70
to31S"C ( 9' 6S 9(J 60 8'1 .&S 80 IS
&:i;io.., ft<i<M dis Eotio,, 10 360"C {61JO'F) 55 , 75 80
"<llumo o f $irmplc differ-. 61
CIKle so
Tetu an residue from cmtilllllii"" :
Ahoo h m: vis<icnil)r ■t 6(rC
(140"f')

f
30 ()OQ 1::Q ( L Z.00) 30 (300) 120 (1200) 30 000> 120 (1200)30 (;l()I)) 120 (1'21Mll 30 (3,00) l:?O (1200)
cSeo
Dlx:tili l'lc,ie h ·• (Poi.su)
l)-. S 4J.......,.._ an ($.,. 'NOie. 2) ) 1.00 too 100 100 100
SQ!obi.lity m T richJol'ocili)•l.cnc. pcn:a,L 99.0 99 .0 99 -0 9!>-0 911.0
pa.' tel< (s« t'l- 3> _,
S
Ncpi Y Cor all ....
llap-
'Nophtha-x lCK oolvcnt. pcre,eni yleno Ncpivc kir .Ill grado;o
Hcplmo""l'"'" l>QI j>HCCIIC )'"'"1 N:cpti r"' all_.p;l--ll_k_S__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NOTE 1--J\.i: u u......,.., Sl,.:,t,c,i:,"'"11 ,iK<>o.i!a,o mw, N - lll..J u roi1o.,... _
Gndo MC-70- l'llml -- M Wt; ft "' I •·
Vl'&dc MC -JO- F urol .. {??"fl-?'S "' 1:50 s,
en,,, M .. WC(140'1')-l:tS'ID u:, ..
Gro.d< MC,IOO-Flrul . ,. Q, l Z"C nto"F'l---lOO 1D lOO J..
MC- ., 82..2"C LI W'F}-.]IO(I iO «II) ._
'NOTE :>-ll tbf, tty a' li C' fi',...,.,.
I, la,s Ulan 100.. Cbci - •ill tat XOli:PTll>!i: II m, iliia.'1it) iu; 13..S"C {iW"F} i• 1'IJiWC' 'than l<t0..
NOn n,• ..., f .._ , miiO,p<io,o1L ,._ opcdn.d, ..... ,q: l nm<ohalL indioal• _,.., Ito< OWl4>NI .. pn oh■ d••s,Ul,o .- )'t<!flO .-.,._ o,ill•
;,;:, ne J: Will be: m n ,;. compli.ada! ·<11,iil.ft lllM- fllq,uiftmcail. 111d !Will,, n lb:! cue <1f ·th!! ii;:,tJl!mi :mlV'Cffl.J.. i:t,;, ol X)'liN:c lD h.!i llllnl.
NOT£ ......, lieu of .,{j,Qmjl) · ie,r .. n=..-.::. 1AC ,peclfyinc. 11.l(UlJ. a i!'!li op<Kln, .-,.;ily p;:ttet n .-J 100 g ;. 5 s m 2S"'C (7TF) « ,I lQI r.o 2)(1 fer MC. 30..,
M.C-70.. :,..,,,c ,.2:S•Q .:-.te-800. ■nd t..1·e ■, ooo.. Hu .. in i,o e-.c: -..ru both be RqUlm:t.