Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Department of Telecommunications
----------------------------------------------------------

SMALL-SCALE FADING AND

MULTIPHATH

Lectured by Ha Hoang Kha, Ph.D.

Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
Email: hahoangkha@gmail.com
Content

1. Small-scale multipath fading

• Factors influencing small-scale fading
• Doppler Shift
2. Impulse response of model of a multipath channel
3. Parameters of mobile multipath channels
• Time dispersion parameters
• Coherence bandwidth and coherence time
4. Types of small-scale fading
• Multipath delay spread: flat and frequency selective fading
• Doppler spread: Fast and slow fading
5. Rayleigh and Ricean distributions
6. Simulations of wireless channels

H. H. Kha 2
References

 Ta Tri Nghia, Wireless Communications, lecture notes.

 T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall
PTR, 1996.
 Tallal Elshabrawy, wireless Communications, lecture
notes.

H. H. Kha 3
 1. Small-scale multipath fading 100

100
90

90
80
80

70

Distance Pathloss 70

60

Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr 60

50
PL=137.744+ 50

40
35.225log10(dKM) 40
20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21

30
0 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 d

15
0

10

Lognormal 5
-10
Rapid Changes in
-20
Signal Strength over a
Shadowing 0

small traveling
-30

Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr -5

distances
-40

Shadow Model -10

-50
20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21

-15
0 10 10 20 30 40 50 60
d

20
0

10

-10
0

-10 -20

Small-Scale Fading -20

-30
-30

Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr -40

-40

Jakes’s Rayleigh Fading -50 -50

20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21

Model -60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
d

H. H. Kha 4
Multi-Path Propagation

Multi-Path in the radio channel creates small-scale fading. The three

most important effects are:
• Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval
• Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different
multi-path signals
• Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multi-path propagation delays

H. H. Kha 5
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling

Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

Multi-path results from reflection, diffraction, and scattering off environment surroundings
Note: The figure above demonstrates the roles of reflection and scattering only on multi-path

H. H. Kha 6
Multi-Path Propagation Modeling

Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the strength of each
multi-path component varies
H. H. Kha 7
Multi-Path Propagation Modeling

Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the strength of each
multi-path component varies
H. H. Kha 8
Multi-Path = Frequency-Selective

f=0 0.5 0.5

1 1
0.5

1 μs
1 μs

f=1 MHz
1 0.5 0.5 1
0.5

-0.5
-1 1 μs -1

1 μs

f=500 KHz 1
1 0.5 0.5
0.5

-0.5
-1
-1 1 μs
1 μs

H. H. Kha 9
Multi-Path = Frequency-Selective

h(t) |H(f)|
0.5 0.5 1

f (MHz)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
1 μs

 A multi-path channel treats signals with different

frequencies differently
 A signal composed of multiple frequencies would be
distorted by passing through such channel

H. H. Kha 10
Small-scale multipath Propagation
 Small-scale fading, or simply fading, is used to
describe the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a
radio signal over short period of time or travel distance.
 Fading is caused by interference between two or more
versions of the transmitted signal which arrive at the
receiver at slightly different times.
 Multipath waves, combine at the receiver antenna to
give a resultant signal which can vary widely in
amplitude and phase, depending on distribution of the
intensity and relative propagation time of the waves
and the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.

H. H. Kha 11
1.1. Factors Influencing Small-scale Fading
 Multipath propagation
• The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the
channel creates a constantly changing environment that
dissipates the signal energy in amplitude, phase, and
time
• The random phase and amplitudes of different multipath
components causes fluctuations in signal strength,
including small-scale fading, signal distortion or both
 Speed of the mobile
• The relative motion between the base station and the
mobile results in random frequency modulation due to
different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath
components

H. H. Kha 12
Factors Influencing Small-scale Fading

 Speed of surrounding objects

• Induce a time varying Doppler shift on multipath
components
• If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate
than the mobile, this effects dominates the small-
scale fading
 The transmission bandwidth of the signal
• If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater
than the “bandwidth” of the multipath channel, the
received signal will be distorted
• The received signal strength will not fade much
over a local area (i.e. the small-scale signal fading
will not be significant)

H. H. Kha 13
1. 2. Doppler Shift

The difference in path S

lengths traveled by the wave
from source S to the mobile
at X and Y is Δl
Note: Assume SX, SY >>d such that angle of
arrival is nearly equal at X and Y Δl

=Δl d=
cos θ vΔt cos θ
θ θ
Phase Difference due to X d Y
variation in path lengths v
2πvΔt 2πvΔt
Δφ =
= cos θ
λ λ
1Δφ v
Doppler Shift is given by =fd = cosθ
2π Δt λ
H. H. Kha 14
Doppler Shift - Example

Consider a transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal carrier

frequency of 1850MHz. For a vehicle moving 60mph,
compute the received carrier frequency of the mobile is
moving
(a) Directly towards the transmitter
(b) Directly away from the transmitter
(c) In a direction which is perpendicular to the
direction of arrival of the transmitted signal

H. H. Kha 15
Doppler Shift - Example
3*108
 Wavelength of carrier frequency =λ c=f = 6
0.162m
1850*10
 Vehicle speed
= =
v 60 mph 26.82m / s
 The vehicle is moving directly towards the transmitter
26.82
f = f c + f d =1850*10 +
6
=1850.00016 MHz
0.162
 The vehicle is moving directly away from the transmitter
26.82
f = f c − f d = 1850*10 −6
= 1849.999.834 MHz
0.162
 The vehicle is moving perpendicular to the angle of arrival
of the transmitter:
=θ 90
= 0
, cos θ 0
=f f=
c 1850 MHz
H. H. Kha 16
2. Impulse Response Model of a Multipath
Channel

 Consider the case where the receiver moves along the

ground at some constant velocity v.

 For a fixed position d, the channel between the transmitter

and the receiver can be modeled as a linear time invariant
system (LTI).
 Due to the different multipath waves, the impulse response
of the liner time invariant channel should be a function of
the position of the receiver
• Channel impulse response can be expressed as h(d,t)
H. H. Kha 17
Impulse Response Model of a Multipath
Channel
 The received signal
∞
y (d , t ) =x(t ) ⊗ h(d , t ) =∫ x(τ )h(d , t − τ )dτ
−∞

 For a casual system, h(d,t) = 0 for t < 0

t
y (d , t ) =x(t ) ⊗ h(d , t ) =∫ x(τ )h(d , t − τ )dτ
−∞

 Since the receiver moves along the ground at a constant

velocity v, the position of the receiver can be expressed as
t

d = vt =
y (vt , t ) ∫ x(τ )h(vt , t − τ )dτ
−∞

H. H. Kha 18
Impulse Response Model of a Multipath
Channel
 Since v is a constant, y(vt,t) is just a function of t, and
can be expressed as
t
y (t ) =∫ x(τ )h(vt , t − τ )dτ =x(t ) ⊗ h(d , t ) =x(t ) ⊗ h(vt , t )
−∞
 Since v may be assumed constant over a short time
(or distance) interval, let
• x(t) is transmitted bandpass waveform
• y(t) is received waveform
• h(t, τ) is the impulse response of the time varying
multipath radio channel
- Variable t represents the time variations due to motion
- τ represents the channel multipath delay for a fixed value of t

H. H. Kha 19
Impulse Response Model of a Multipath
Channel

{
x(t ) = Re c(t )e 2 jπ fct } 1
(t ) c(t ) ⊗ hb (t ,τ )
r=
y (t ) = Re {r (t )e 2 jπ f c t
} 2

H. H. Kha 20
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation

 Excess delay: the propagation delay relative to that

of shortest path
 As the vehicle moves over a short distance, the
strength of each path varies because the surface
are complex

H. H. Kha 21
Excess Delay Concept

H. H. Kha 22
Excess Delay Concept
 Discretize the multipath delay axis τ of the impulse response
into equal time delay segments called excess delay bins

 Any number of multipath signals received within the ith bin

are represented by a single multipath component having
delay τi
 The maximum excess delay spread of the channel is NΔτ
 This model can be used to analyze transmitted signals
having bandwidths less than 1/(2Δτ)
H. H. Kha 23
Example

Assume a discrete channel impulse response is

used to model urban radio channels with excess
delays as large as 100 µs and microcellular
channels with excess delays not larger than 4 ms .
If the number of multipath bins is fixed at 64 find:
(a) Δτ
(b) Maximum bandwidth, which the two models
can accurately represent.

H. H. Kha 24
Example

 The maximum excess delay of the channel model is given

τ N= N ∆τ
 The maximum bandwidth represented accurately by model
100 µ s
∆
= τ τN = N = 1.5625µ s
64
= 1 (2∆τ ) 1/(2*1.6525
= µ s) 0.32 MHz
 For urban microcell model
τ=
N 4 µ s, ∆τ =
N τN N
= 62.5ns

 The maximum bandwidth that can be represented is

1 (2∆τ ) 1/(2*62.5
= = ns ) 8MHz

H. H. Kha 25
Mathematical Model of Base- band Impulse
Response
 Since the received signal in a multipath channel
consists of a series of attenuated, time-delayed, phase
shifted replicas of the transmitted signal, the baseband
impulse response of a multipath channel can be
expressed
N −1
=hb (t ,τ ) ∑ ai (t ,τ )e δ [τ − τ i (t )]
− j [ 2π f cτ i ( t ) +φi ( t ,τ )]

i =0

• ai(t,τ) and τi(t) is real amplitudes and excess delays

of ith multipath component at time t
• = θ (t ,τ ) 2π f τ (t ) + φ (t ,τ ) represents the phase shift due to
c i i

free space propagation of the ith multipath

component, plus any additional phase shifts
encountered in the channel

H. H. Kha 26
Mathematical Model of Base-band Impulse
Response
 If the channel impulse response is assumed to be
time invariant, or is at least wide sense stationary
over a small-scale time or distance interval,
channel impulse response may be simplified as
N −1
hb (t ,τ ) = ∑i
a ∗ e − jθi
∗ δ [τ − τ i ]
i =0

• When measuring or predicting hb (τ ) , a probing pulse p(t)

which approximates a delta function is used at the
transmitter
p (t ) ≈ δ (t − τ )

H. H. Kha 27
Mathematical Model of Base- band Impulse
Response
 For small-scale channel modeling, the power delay
profile of the channel is found by taking the spatial
τ
2
average of b h (t , ) over a local area
 By making several local area measurements of
in different locations, it is possible to build an
ensemble of power delay profiles, each one
representing a possible small-scale multipath
channel state hb (t ,τ )
2

 The received power delay profile in a local area is

given by
P(t, τ ) ≈ k hb (t, τ )
2

H. H. Kha 28
Power Delay Profile
The power delay profile depicts the spatial average of received
power within the multi-path channel over a radius that is
comparable to the signal wavelength

Multi-Path Profile from a 900 MHz cellular system in San Francisco

H. H. Kha 29
Small-Scale Multipath Measurements

 Several Methods
• Direct RF Pulse System
• Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel Sounding
• Frequency Domain Channel Sounding
 These techniques are also called channel sounding
techniques

H. H. Kha 30
Direct RF Pulse System
The channel may be probed or “sounded” by transmitting a pulse p(t) and
recording the response at the receiver
Tx

fc

Pulse Generator

RF Link

Rx

BPF Digital
Detector
Oscilloscope

H. H. Kha 31
Probing the Channel

 Narrowband signals

H. H. Kha 32
Probing the Channel

 Wideband signals

H. H. Kha 33
Example

Example of an Indoor Multi-Path Profile; rms delay spread, mean excess delay,
maximum excess delay (10 dB)
H. H. Kha 34
3. Parameters of Mobile Multi-Path Channels

 The power delay profile is used to derive some

parameters that can help characterize the effect of the
wireless channel on signal communication
 Time dispersion parameters
- Mean excess delay
- Rms delay spread
- Excess delay spread (X dB)
 Coherence bandwidth

 Doppler shift: Doppler spread and coherence time

H. H. Kha 35
Time Dispersion Parameters

Mean Excess Delay

P(τ)
∑ P(τ ) τ k k
τ= k

∑ P(τ ) k
k

RMS Delay Spread

()
2
στ
= τ2 − τ
τ0 τ1 τ2 τ3 τN τ
∑ P(τ ) τ k
2
k
τ 2
= k

∑ P(τ ) k
k
Power Delay Profile

Note: These delays are measured relative to the first detectable signal (multi-path
component) arriving at the receiver at τ0=0

Maximum Excess Delay (XdB) or Excess Delay Spread (XdB):

Time delay during which multi-path energy falls to X dB below the maximum (Note that
the strongest component does not necessarily arrive at τ0)
H. H. Kha 36
Measured values of RMS Delay Spread

H. H. Kha 37
Coherence Bandwidth (BC)

• Range of frequencies over which the channel can be

considered flat (i.e. channel passes all spectral
components with equal gain and linear phase).
– It is a definition that depends on RMS Delay Spread.
• Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than
Bc are affected quite differently by the channel.

f1

Receiver
f2

Multipath Channel Frequency Separation: |f1-f2|

H. H. Kha 38
Coherence Bandwidth

A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over

which the channel is can be considered to be “flat” (i.e., a
channel which passes all spectral components with
approximately equal gain and linear phase)

Coherence Bandwidth Coherence Bandwidth over

over which the frequency which the frequency
correlation function is 0.9 correlation function is 0.5
1 1
BC = BC =
50σ τ 5σ τ

H. H. Kha 39
 Time domain view Freq. domain view

x(t ) X(f )

Range of freq over

which response is flat
στ delay spread Bc

High correlation of amplitude

between two different freq.
components

H. H. Kha 40
Example
Calculate the mean excess delay, RMS delay spread, and the
maximum excess delay (10dB) for the multipath profile given in the
figure below. Estimate 50% coherence bandwidth of the channel.
Would this channel be suitable for AMPS or GMS service without
the use of an equalizer ?
Pr (τ )

0 dB

-10 dB

-20 dB

-30 dB

0 1 2 5 τ (µ s)

H. H. Kha 41
Example
 The mean excess delay for the given profile
(1)(5) + (0.1)(1) + (0.1)(2) + (0.01)(0)
τ = 4.38µ s
(0.01 + 0.1 + 0.01 + 1)
 The second moment for the given power delay profile
(1)(5) 2
+ (0.1)(1) 2
+ (0.1)(2) 2
+ (0.01)(0)
τ 2
= 21.07 µ s 2
1.21
 The RMS delay spread σ τ = 21.07 − (4.38) 2 = 1.37 µ s
 The coherence bandwidth is
1
BC ≈ =
146 KHz
5σ τ
 Bc is greater than 30 KHz AMPS will work without an
equalizer. However, GSM requires 200 KHz bandwidth
which exceeds Bc thus an equalizer would be needed.
H. H. Kha 42
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
 Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters which describe the
time varying nature of the channel
 Doppler spread BD (=fm) is a measure of spectral broadening due to the
Doppler shift associated with mobile motion
 Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time duration over which
the channel impulse response is essentially invariant

Coherence time is inversely Coherence time over which

proportional to Doppler the time correlation function
spread is 0.5
1 9
TC ≈ TC ≈
fm 16π f m

where fm is the maximum Doppler shift given by fm=v/λ

A Common Rule: 9 1 0.423

= TC =
16π f m f m fm
H. H. Kha 43
4. Type of Small-scale Fading

 The time dispersion and frequency dispersion

mechanism in a mobile radio channel lead to four
possible distinct effects, which are manifested
depending on the nature of the transmitted signal,
the channel and the velocity
 Multipath delay spread leads to time dispersion
and frequency selective fading
 Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion and
time selective fading

H. H. Kha 44
Flat Fading Vs Frequency Selective Fading

P(τ)
Flat Fading Power Delay Profile

BS << BC TS >> σ τ
A Common Rule of Thumb:
τ0 τ1 τN τ
TS>10σt  Flat fading Symbol Time (Digital Communication) TS

1 0 1 + Minimal
Wireless
Channel ISI
+

τ0 τN
τa
45
Flat Fading

BS << BC TS is the reciprocal bandwidth

TS >> δτ BS is the bandwidth
H. H. Kha 46
Flat Fading Vs Frequency Selective Fading

Frequency
P(τ)
Selective Fading Power Delay Profile

BS > BC TS < σ τ
A Common Rule of Thumb: τ0 τ1 τ2 τ3 τN τ
TS<10σt  Frequency Selective
Fading Symbol Time (Digital Communication) TS

1 0 1 + Significant
Wireless
Channel ISI
+

τ0 τa τN

H. H. Kha 47
Frequency Selective Fading

BS > BC TS < σ τ

A common rule of thumb is that a

channel is frequency selective if
σ τ > 0.1TS
H. H. Kha 48
Slow Fading Vs Fast Fading

P(τ 0,t)
Power Delay Profile
P(τ)
P(τ 0,TC)P(τ ,2T )
0 C

P(τ 0,3TC)
P(τ 0,KTC)

τ0 τ
0 TC 2TC 3TC KTC τ

 Consider a wireless channel comprised of a single path component.

 The power delay profile reflects average measurements
 P(τ0) shall vary as the mobile moves

Fast Fading Slow Fading

TS > TC BS < BD TS << TC BS >> BD
Frequency dispersion (time
selective fading)

H. H. Kha 49
Type of Small-scale Fading

H. H. Kha 50
5. Clarke’s Model for Flat Fading
Assumptions: z
y
 Mobile traveling in x
direction
 Vertically polarized wave
 Multiple waves in the x-y in x-y
plane arrive at the mobile plane
antenna at the same time α
 Waves arrive at different x
angles α

For N waves incident at the mobile antenna

Each wave arriving at an angle αn will experience a different Doppler shift fn

v N
fn = = cosα n ⇒ E z E0 ∑ Cn cos ( π2 f c t +θ n ) =
θn 2πf n t + φn
λ n =1

E0 amplitude of the local average E-field

Cn random variable representing the amplitude of individual waves
fc carrier frequency
φn random phase shift due to distance traveled by the nth wave
H. H. Kha 51
Clarke’s Model for Flat Fading

 N   N 
Ez ( t ) E0  ∑ Cn cosθ n cos (2π f c t ) − E0  ∑ Cn sin θ n sin (2π f c t )
 n 1=  n 1 

E z ( t ) Tc ( t ) cos ( π2 f c t ) − Ts ( tsin
) 2π( fc t )
 N   N 
Tc ( t ) E0  ∑ Cn cos ( π2 f= φ n )
n + Ts ( t ) E0  ∑ Cn sin ( π2 f n +φ n )
 n =1   n =1 

Given that:
• Φn uniformly distributed over 2π
• N is sufficiently large (i.e., the central limit theorem is
applicable)
Therefore:
Both Tc(t) and Ts(t) may be modeled as:
Gaussian Random Processes

H. H. Kha 52
Clarke’s Model for Flat Fading

E z ( t ) Tc ( t ) cos ( π2 f c t ) − Ts ( tsin
) 2π( fc t )
Tc ( t ) cos ( π2 f c t )

Ez ( t ) = Tc2 ( t ) + Ts2 ( t ) = r ( t )

−Ts ( t ) sin ( π2 f c t ) =E z ( t ) r ( t ) cos ( π2 f c t +ψ ( t ))

N

∑ C=
2σ2: Average received power
If 2
n c
2
2
1σ T= T= s
2
= E
2 2
0
n =1
Power received at mobile antenna ∝ E z ( t ) =
2
r2
 r  r2 
 2 exp  − 2  0 ≤ r ≤ ∞ Rayleigh
p(r) = σ  2σ 
 Distribution
 0 r <0
H. H. Kha 53
 Rayleigh Fading Distribution
Main Assumption: z
y
- No LOS
- All waves at the mobile
receiver experience
approximately the same dα in x-y
attenuation plane

N α
Ez E0 ∑ Cn cos ( π2 f c t +θ n ) x
n =1

N
0.6065/σ
constant
∑C
n =1
2
n =1 p(r)

 r  r2 
 2 exp  − 2  0 ≤ r ≤ ∞
p(r) = σ  2σ 
 r <0
 0
σ2: Time average received power before evelope detection
σ : rms value of received voltage before evelope detection
r
σ
H. H. Kha 54
Rayleigh Fading Statistics
R
 R2 
Probability the received signal Pr ( r ≤ R ) =∫0 p ( r ) dr =−
1 exp  − 2 
does not exceed a value R  2σ 

∞
π
Mean value of the Rayleigh
distribution
r=
mean [ r ] ∫ rp ( r=
E= ) dr σ = 1.2533σ
0
2

∞
π
σ r 2 = E  r 2  − E 2 [ r ] = ∫ r 2
p ( r ) dr − σ 2
Variance of the Rayleigh 2
0
distribution
 π
σ r = σ  2 − = 0.4292σ 2
2 2

 2

rmedian
1
∫ p ( r ) dr ⇒ r =
Median of the Rayleigh = 1.177σ
median
distribution 2 0

H. H. Kha 55
Example

 Consider a channel with Rayleigh fading and average

received power Pr=20 dB. Find the probability that the
received power is below 10 dB.

 Ans: 0.095

H. H. Kha 56
Ricean Fading Distribution
Main Assumption: z
y
- LOS
- There is a dominant
wave component at the
mobile receiver in addition dα in x-y
to experience multiple plane
waves that experience α
approximately the same x
attenuation

 r  r2 + A2   Ar 
 2 exp  −  I0  2  A ≥ 0,0 ≤ r ≤ ∞
p(r) = σ  2σ 2
 σ 
 r <0
 0
A : Peak amplitude of the dominant signal
I(.): Modified Bessel function of the first kind and zero-order
2σ2: Time average received power of the non-dominant components
H. H. Kha 57
Bessel function

H. H. Kha 58
Riciean & Rayleigh Fading

Define K called the Ricean A2 A2

Factor: K = 2 ⇒ K ( dB ) =
10 log 2
The ratio between the deterministic 2σ 2σ
signal power and the power of the
non-dominant waves

p(r) K=-∞ dB

Rayleigh
Distribution
K=6 dB

H. H. Kha 59
Level Crossing and Fading Statistics

H. H. Kha 60
Level Crossing and Fading Statistics

 The level crossing rate (LCR) is defined as the expected

rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope, normalized to
the local rms signal level, crosses a specified level in a
positive-going direction
 The number of level crossing per second is given by
∞
=  ( R, r ) dr
∫= 2π f m ρ e − ρ
2
NR rp ρ = R Rrms
0

 Where
 is time derivative of r(t) (the slope)
r
p ( R, r ) is the joint density function of r and 
r at r = R
Rrms = 2σ 2 rms signal level

H. H. Kha 61
Example

 For a Rayleigh fading signal, compute the positive-going

level crossing rate for ρ = 1 when the maximum Doppler
frequency is 20 Hz
 What is the maximum velocity of the mobile for this Doppler
frequency if the carrier frequency is 900 MHz?

Solution:
 Use the equation for LCR
=NR 2π ( 20 )(1) e −1 18.44
=
 Use equation of Doppler frequency

= Dλ
v f= 20 (1=
3) 6.66m / s

H. H. Kha 62
Level Crossing and Fading Statistics

 The average fade duration is defined as the average

period of time for which the received signal is below a
specified level R. 1
=τ Pr [ r ≤ R ]
NR

 For a Rayleigh fading signal, it is given by

1
Pr [ r ≤ R ] =∑τ i
T i
R

∫ p ( r ) dr =
= (
1 − exp − ρ 2 )
0

 So, the average fade duration can be expressed as

ρ2
e −1
τ=
ρ f D 2π

H. H. Kha 63
Example

 Find the average fade duration for threshold levels ρ = 0.01

when the Doppler frequency is 200 Hz

Solution
 Average fade duration is
0.012
e −1
=τ = 19.9 µ s
( 0.01) 200 2π

64
6. Simulation of Fading Channel

H. H. Kha 65
Simulation of Fading Channel

H. H. Kha 66
Simulation of Fading Channel

H. H. Kha 67
Simulation of Fading Channel

H. H. Kha 68
Simulation of Fading Channel

H. H. Kha 69