Jurisprudence, Interpretation & General Laws

(JIGL)

Q1) a. Distinguish between ‘Admission’ and ‘Confession’ under Indian Evidence Act,
1872.
An admission is defined in Section 17 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 as a
statement, oral or documentary or contained in electronic form which suggests any
inference as to any fact in issue or relevant fact, and which is made by any of the
persons, and under the circumstances mentioned under Sections 18 to 20 of the
Indian Evidence Act, 1872.

Thus, whether a statement amounts to an admission or not depends upon the

question whether it was made by any of the persons and in any of the circumstances
described in Sections 18-20 and whether it suggests an inference as to a fact in issue
or a relevant fact in the case. Thus admission may be verbal or contained in
documents as maps, bills, receipts, letters, books etc.

An admission must be clear, precise, not vague or ambiguous. Sections 24 to 30 of

the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 deal with confessions. However, the Act does not
define a confession but includes in it admissions of which it is a species. Thus
confessions are special form of admissions. Whereas every confession must be an
admission but every admission may not amount to a confession.
b. Discuss briefly the grounds for opposing the ‘foreign award’ made under the
Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.
Section 48 of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 enumerates the conditions
for enforcement of foreign awards and provides that the party, against whom the
award is invoked, may use one or more of the following grounds for the purpose of
opposing enforcement of a foreign award, namely:
(i) the parties to the agreement referred to in section 44 of the Arbitration and
Conciliation Act, 1996 were, under the law applicable to them, under some
incapacity, or the said agreement is not valid under the law to which the parties
have subjected it or, failing any indication thereon, under the law of the country
where the award was made; or
(ii) the party against whom the award is invoked was not given proper notice of the

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 appointment of the arbitrator or of the arbitral proceedings or was otherwise
unable to present his case; or
(iii) the award deals with a difference not contemplated by or not failing within
the terms of the submission to arbitration, or it contains decisions on matters
beyond the scope of the submission to arbitration or
(iv) the composition of the arbitral authority or the arbitral procedure was not in
accordance with the agreement of the parties, or, failing such agreement, was not
in accordance with the law of the country where the arbitration took place; or
(v) the award has not yet become binding on the parties, or has been set aside or
suspended by a competent authority of the country in which or under the law of
which, that award was made; or
(vi) the subject-matter of the difference is not capable of settlement by arbitration
under the law of India; or
(vii) The enforcement of the award would be contrary to the public policy of India.
Attempt all parts of either Q. No. 2 or Q. No. 2A
Q2) a. What is ‘documentary evidence’ under Indian Evidence Act, 1872 ? Explain
briefly.
Documents produced for the inspection of the Court is called Documentary
Evidence. The contents of a document must be proved either by primary or by
secondary evidence. As per Section 62 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, primary
evidence means the document itself produced for the inspection of the Court. The
rule that the best evidence must be given of which the nature of the case permits has
often been regarded as expressing the great fundamental principles upon which the
law of evidence depends.

The general rule requiring primary evidence of producing documents is commonly

said to be based on the best evidence principle and to be supported by the so called
presumption that if inferior evidence is produced where better might be given, the
latter would tell against the withholder. Secondary evidence is generally in the form
of compared copies, certified copies or copies made by such mechanical processes as
in themselves ensure accuracy. Section 63 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 defines
the kind of secondary evidence permitted by the Act.
b. Explain in brief the ‘International Commercial Arbitration’ under the Arbitration
and Conciliation Act, 1996.
According to Section 2(1)(f) of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996,
International Commercial Arbitration means an arbitration relating to disputes
arising out of legal relationships, whether contractual or not, considered as

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 commercial under the law in force in India and where at least one of the parties is —
(i) an individual who is a national of, or habitually resident in, any country other
than India; or
(ii) a body corporate which is incorporated in any country other than India; or
(iii) an association or a body of individuals whose central management and
control is exercised in any country other than India; or
(iv) The Government of a foreign country.

OR (Alternate question to Q. No 2)
Q2A) a. Explain in brief ‘Principle of Estoppel’ under Indian Evidence Act, 1872.
Estoppel is based on the maxim ‘allegans contratia non est audiendus’ i.e. a person
alleging contrary facts should not be heard. The principles of estoppel covers one
kind of facts. It says that man cannot approbate and reprobate, or that a man cannot
blow hot and cold, or that a man shall not say one thing at one time and later on say
a different thing.

The doctrine of estoppel is based on the principle that it would be most inequitable
and unjust that if one person, by a representation made, or by conduct amounting to
a representation, has induced another to act as he would not otherwise have done,
the person whom the representation should not be allowed to deny or repudiate the
effect of his former statement to the loss and injury of the person who acted on it.
(Sorat Chunder v. Gopal Chunder).
b. Ramesh, a travelling auditor in the service of the railway company detected
defalcations in the accounts of accused Suresh, a booking clerk of the company.
Upon detection of defalcations, Ramesh said to Suresh, 'You better pay the
amount defalcated rather than going to jail and it will be better for you to tell the
truth." After all this, Suresh, the accused was brought before the Traffic Manager
in whose presence he signed a receipt for and admitted having defalcated a sum
oft 1,500. Suresh, the accused, was subsequently put on trial for criminal breach of
trust as servant in respect of this and other sums. Is the receipt signed by Suresh,
the accused, admissible in evidence? Also give reasons.
According to Section 24 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, any confession obtained
under threat or inducement is inadmissible as evidence in criminal proceedings.
Here, Suresh was accused by Ramesh, the auditor, that he had better tell the truth
and pay the amount he had earlier defalcated, as it was better than going to jail.
Hence, the receipt that Suresh signed before the Traffic Manager for an amount of
Rupees 1500 representing the amount he had defalcated will not be admitted as
evidence in the criminal proceedings initiated against him later.
Q3) a. The ‘Privileged Communications’ are based on Public Policy and a witness cannot
be compelled to answer the same during the evidence in the Court or before any

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 other authority. Explain in brief.
There are some facts of which evidence cannot be given though they are relevant,
such as facts coming under Sections 122, 123, 126 and 127 of the Indian Evidence
Act, 1872, where evidence is prohibited. They are also referred to as ‘privileged
communications’ A witness though compellable to give evidence is privileged in
respect of particular matters within the limits of which he is not bound to answer
questions while giving evidence.
These are based on public policy and are
(i) Evidence of a Judge or Magistrate in regard to certain matters(Section 121)
(ii) Communications during marriage(Section 122)
(iii) Affairs of State(Section 123)
(iv) Official Communications(Section 124)
(v) Source of Information of a Magistrate or Police officer or Revenue officer as to
commission of an offence or crime(Section 125)
(vi) In the case of Professional Communication between a client and his barrister,
attorney or other professional or legal advisor (Sections 126 and 129). But this
privilege is not absolute and the client is entitled to waive it. Under Section 122
of the Act, communication between the husband and the wife during marriage is
privileged and its disclosure cannot be enforced. This provision is based on the
principle of domestic peace and confidence between the spouses.
b. Distinguish between Arbitration and Conciliation under the Arbitration and
Conciliation Act, 1996.
Arbitration is the means by which parties to a dispute get the same settled through
the intervention of a third person (or more persons) but without recourse to a Court
of Law. The settlement of dispute is arrived by the judgment of the third person (or
more persons) who are called Arbitrators. The parties repose confidence in the
judgement of the arbitrator and show their willingness to abide by his decision. The
essence of arbitration is thus based upon the principle of keeping away the dispute
from the ordinary Courts enabling the parties to substitute by a domestic tribunal.

Section 2(1)(a) of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996, defines the term
“arbitration” as to mean any arbitration whether or not administered by a
permanent arbitral institution. Conciliation is an informal process in which the
conciliator (the third party) tries to bring the disputants to agreement. He does this
by lowering tensions, improving communications, interpreting issues, providing
technical assistance, exploring potential solutions and bringing about a negotiated
settlement.

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 It can succeed only if the parties are willing to re-adjust. Conciliation involves
building a positive relationship between the parties to the dispute. Conciliation tries
to individualize the optimal solution and direct parties towards a satisfactory
common agreement. The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996(Part III containing
Section 61 to 81) gives a formal recognition to conciliation in India.
Q4) a. Explain the powers of Special Courts for offences triable by it under Special
Courts, Tribunal under Companies and other legislations.
According to Section 436(1) of the Companies Act, 2013, notwithstanding anything
contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973,—
a) all offences specified under Section 435(1) shall be triable only by the Special
Court established for the area in which the registered office of the company in
relation to which the offence is committed or where there are more Special
Courts than one for such area, by such one of them as may be specified in this
behalf by the High Court concerned;
b) where a person accused of, or suspected of the commission of, an offence under
this Act is forwarded to a Magistrate under Section 167(2) or Section 167(2A) of
the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, such Magistrate may authorize the
detention of such person in such custody as he thinks fit for a period not
exceeding fifteen days in the whole where such Magistrate is a Judicial
Magistrate and seven days in the whole where such Magistrate is an Executive
Magistrate. Where such Magistrate considers that the detention of such person
upon or before the expiry of the period of detention is unnecessary, he shall
order such person to be forwarded to the Special Court having jurisdiction.
c) the Special Court may exercise, in relation to the person forwarded to it under
clause (b), the same power which a Magistrate having jurisdiction to try a case
may exercise under section 167 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 in
relation to an accused person who has been forwarded to him under that section;
and
d) A Special Court may, upon perusal of the police report of the facts constituting
an offence under this Act or upon a complaint in that behalf, take cognizance of
that offence without the accused being committed to it for trial.

Section 436 (2) of the Act provides that when trying an offence under this Act, a
Special Court may also try an offence other than an offence under this Act with
which the accused may, under the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 be charged at
the same trial. As per Section 436 (3) of the Act, notwithstanding anything contained
in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, the Special Court may, if it thinks fit, try in
a summary way any offence under this Act which is punishable with imprisonment
for a term not exceeding three years.

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b. Discuss in brief the provisions for filing an appeal before the National Company
Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) under the Companies Act, 2013
Section 421 of the Companies Act, 2013 deals with appeal from orders of National
Company Law Tribunal and provides as under:

1. Any person aggrieved by an order of the National Company Law Tribunal may
prefer an appeal to the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal.
2. No appeal shall lie to the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal from an
order made by the National Company Law Tribunal with the consent of parties.
3. Every appeal shall be filed within a period of forty-five days from the date on
which a copy of the order of the National Company Law Tribunal is made
available to the person aggrieved and shall be in such form, and accompanied by
such fees, as may be prescribed: Provided that the National Company Law
Appellate Tribunal may entertain an appeal after the expiry of the said period of
forty-five days from the date aforesaid, but within a further period not exceeding
forty-five days, if it is satisfied that the appellant was prevented by sufficient
cause from filing the appeal within that period.
4. On the receipt of an appeal, the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal
shall, after giving the parties to the appeal a reasonable opportunity of being
heard, pass such orders thereon as it thinks fit, confirming, modifying or setting
aside the order appealed against.
5. The National Company Law Appellate Tribunal shall send a copy of every order
made by it to the National Company Law Tribunal and the parties to appeal.

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