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 Discussion leader’s contribution: Some aspects of design and construction of deep
supported excavations
Contribution de l’animateur des débats: Quelques aspects du dimensionnement
et de la construction des fouilles profondes blindées

K. Karlsrud - Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Norway

Karlsrud, K. ~1999!. “Some aspects of design and construction of deep

supported excavation; Discussion leader’s contribution.” Proc., 14th
Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundations Engineering, Hamburg,
1997, 4, 2315–2320.
A BST R A C T

T h i s p re s e n ta tio n d ra w s u p to p i c s f o r d is c u s s io n in S e s s i o n 3 .1 . It a ls o d is c u s s e s s o m e s e le c te d is s u e s re la te d to th e f o llo w in g to p ic s : th e
u se o f b e lo w - b o tto m s tru ttin g an d g ro u n d im p ro v e m e n t, th e u se o f d e w a te rin g a n d c u t- o f f m e th o d s to im p ro v e s ta b ility , th e u s e o f
c o n tin u u m F E M m o d e ls a n d d is c r e te s o il s p rin g m o d e ls in d e s ig n , s ta b ility an d d is p la c e m e n ts o f s o il- a n c h o r e d w a lls , a n d th e u s e o f
te m p o ra ry w a lls in p e r m a n e n t s tru c tu re s .

R ESU M E

C e tte p r é s e n ta tio n e n c a d r e le s s u je ts d e d is c u s s io n p o u r la s e s s io n 3 .1 . L e s s u je ts s p é c if iq u e s s u iv a n ts s o n t a u s s i a b o rd é s : l ’ u tilis a tio n d e

b u to n s e n f o u is e t l ’ a m é lio r a tio n d u s o l, l ’ u tilis a tio n d e ra b a tte m e n t d e n a p p e e t d e p a ra f o u ille s p o u r a m é lio r e r la s ta b ilité , l ’ u tilis a tio n d e
m o d è le s d ’ é lé m e n ts f in i s c o n tin u s e t d e m o d è le s d is c re ts a v e c c o n s ta n te s é la s tiq u e s p o u r le d im e n s io n n e m e n t, la s ta b ilité e t le s
d é p la c e m e n ts d e s m u rs d ’ a n c r a g e s , e t l ’ u tilis a tio n d e m u rs te m p o ra ire s d a n s u n e s tru c tu re p e rm a n e n te .

D u rin g th e o p en d is c u s s io n f o llo w in g th e p re s e n ta tio n s by

IN T R O D U C T IO N
m y s e lf an d th e p a n e llis ts , c o m m e n ts an d q u e s tio n s f ro m th e
f lo o r sh o u ld b e d ir e c tly re la te d to th e s e to p ic s an d p re s e n ta tio n s .
A to ta l o f 1 8 p a p e rs h a v e b e e n s u b m itte d to th is s e s s io n , T a b l e
1. M o s t o f th e su b m itte d p a p e rs d e a l w ith s p e c i f i c c a s e re c o rd s
in c lu d in g b a c k - a n a ly s e s o f th e o b s e r v a tio n s . T h e r e a re a ls o s ix
U S E O F P R E - S T R U T T IN G A N D G R O U N D IM P R O V E M E N T
p a p e rs o f m o re p u re ly th e o re tic a l n a tu re d e a lin g w ith f in ite e l e ­
m e n t m o d e llin g , b e h a v io u r o f s o il a n c h o rs a n d u s e o f lim it sta te
F o r e x c a v a tio n s in d e e p an d r e la tiv e ly s o f t c la y d e p o s its , b o tto m
d e s ig n p rin c ip le s .
h e a v e s ta b ility is a c r i ti c a l is s u e . In a d d itio n , e x te n s iv e f ie ld
e v id e n c e su p p o rte d by f in ite e le m e n t a n a ly s e s h av e d em o n­
Table 1 O verview o f p apers to Session 3 .1
s tra te d th a t e x p e c te d lo a d s an d d is p la c e m e n ts a re v e ry s e n s itiv e
to th e b o tto m h e a v e s ta b ility s a f e ty f a c to r , an d h o w d e e p d o w n
M a in to p ic N u m b er o f A s p e c t d e a lt w ith
b e lo w th e e x c a v a tio n b o tto m o n e h a s a n e t u n b a la n c e d re s u lta n t
p a p e rs T h e o ry C a s e re c o rd s
e a rth p re ssu re . F ig u re 1 f ro m M a n a a n d C lo u g h ( 1 9 8 1 ) ill u s ­
Stru tte d w a lls 2 2 (2 )
tra te s th is a s p e c t.
A n c h o r e d w a lls 6 2(3) 5
How to lim it d is p la c e m e n ts an d a v o id d a m a g e to a d ja c e n t
A n c h o r p e rfo rm an c e 2 2 2
s tru c tu re s an d u tilitie s , h a s b e c o m e a d e s ig n is s u e o f g ro w in g
N a ile d w a lls 1 ( 1) 1
im p o rta n c e . B e lo w - b o tto m p re - s tru ttin g an d g ro u n d im p r o v e ­
S h e e tp ile v ib r a tio n s 1 - 1
m e n t m a y b e e f f e c ti v e w a y s o f im p ro v in g s ta b ility a n d re d u c in g
P la s ti c h in g e s 1 1
d is p la c e m e n ts . T h is w ill b e illu s tra te d b y a f e w e x a m p le s .
H ills id e s ta b iliz a tio n 3 - 3
H a rb o u r s tru c tu re s 2 - 2

18 6(9) 14(16)

In u n d e rs ta n d in g w ith th e C h a ir m a n an d th e p a n e llis ts , th e f o l ­
lo w in g to p ic s f o r p re s e n ta tio n a n d d is c u s s io n w e re s e le c te d :

• U s e o f p re - s tru ttin g a n d b e lo w - b o tto m g ro u n d im p ro v e m e n t

to a c h ie v e s ta b ility a n d re d u c e g ro u n d m o v e m e n ts
• U s e o f d e w a te rin g an d c u t- o f f m e th o d s
• U se o f c o n tin u u m f in ite e le m e n t m o d e ls v e rs u s b e am -o n
s p rin g a p p r o a c h e s in d e s ig n
• O v e r a ll s ta b ility o f s o il- a n c h o r e d w a lls a n d re q u ire d a n c h o r
le n g th s
• E f f e c ts o f s w e llin g on b o tto m s ta b ility an d lim itin g e a rth
p re s s u re s in c la y F a c to r s a f e ty a g a in s t b a s a l h e a v e

• P u ll- o u t c a p a c ity a n d re s p o n s e o f s o il a n c h o rs
• U s e o f te m p o ra ry w a lls in th e p e rm a n e n t s tru c tu re . Figure I R elationship betw een displacements an d bottom
• L o n g - te r m e f f e c ts o n e a rth p re s s u re s . heav e safety fac t o r (after M ana & Clough, 1981).

2315
 The u se o f c r o s s - l o t d ia p h ra g m w a lls m ay to d a y be co n­
sid e re d to b e u n d u ly e x p e n s iv e to p re v e n t b o tto m h e a v e an d
lim it d is p la c e m e n ts . S i m i la r e f f e c ts m ay be a c h ie v e d b y je t -
g ro u tin g p a n e ls a c ro s s th e e x c a v a tio n . T h e c o s t o f je t- g r o u ti n g
s u c h p a n e ls m a y , h o w e v e r, n o t b e m u c h lo w e r th a n d ia p h ra g m
w a lls . A t N G I a n d in N o rw a y w e h a v e m o re r e c e n tly f o u n d th at
u se o f d e e p g ro u n d im p r o v e m e n t b y c e m e n t/ lim e m ix in g is a
v e ry c o s t e f f e c ti v e w a y o f im p r o v in g s ta b ility a n d re d u c in g d is ­
p la c e m e n ts in c o n n e c ti o n w ith e x c a v a ti o n s in s o f t c la y s .
C e m e n t/ lim e c o lu m n s n o rm a lly u s e d h a v e a d ia m e te r o f 60
to 8 0 c e n tim e tr e a n d a re s e t in an o v e rla p p in g p a tte rn to c re a te
p a n e ls , F ig . 4. It is u s u a lly a p p lie d m in im u m tw o ro w s of
c o lu m n s in a p a n e l. The e q u ip m e n t c u rre n tly c o m m e r c i a l ly
a v a ila b le in N o rw a y an d Sc a n d in a v ia is b a s e d o n d ry i n - m ix in g
o f lim e / c e m e n t p o w d e r in to th e c o lu m n s . D e s ig n s h e a r stre n g th s
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
c o m m o n ly a c h ie v e d a re a b o u t 1 5 0 to 2 0 0 k P a , o r 5 - 1 0 tim e s th e
Figure 2 Layout o f tunnels through Studenterlunden in Oslo o r ig in a l s h e a r s tre n g th o f th e c la y s . T h e c o s t is a b o u t U S $ 4 0 - 5 0
(from Eide et al., 1972) p e r c u b i c m e tre s ta b iliz e d g ro u n d .
T h e f ir s t a p p lic a tio n o f lim e / c e m e n t p a n e ls in N o rw a y w a s
T h e f irs t e x a m p le is f ro m th e tw o s to r e y s u b w a y - a n d ra ilw a y f o r a 4 m d e e p e x c a v a ti o n in D r a m m e n w ith v e ry s o f t q u i c k - c l a y
tu n n e l c o n s tru c te d in th e c e n tr e o f O s l o in th e e a rly s e v e n tie s , ju s t b e lo w th e e x c a v a ti o n , a n d o ld 2 - 3 s to r y b r ic k b u ild in g s rig h t
p re s e n te d b y E id e e t a l. ( 1 9 7 2 ) , F ig . 2 . T h i s w a s at a s ite w ith n e x t to th e e x c a v a ti o n . In th is c a s e th e c e m e n t/ lim e p a n e ls w e re
s o f t n o rm a lly c o n s o lid a te d c l a y to 3 0 - 4 0 m d e p th . T h e e x c a v a ­ m a d e p rio r to d riv in g o f th e s h e e t p ile w a lls . T h i s w a s d o n e in
tio n d e p th w a s 16 m , w h ic h g a v e a s a f e ty f a c to r w e ll b e ll o w 1 .0
o rd e r to e n s u re g o o d c o n ta c t b e tw e e n th e s h e e tp ile w a ll a n d th e
a g a in s t b o tto m h e a v e . E a r l ie r stru tte d tu n n e l e x c a v a ti o n s in O s l o s ta b iliz e d p a n e ls . T h e d riv in g o f s h e e t p i l e s th ro u g h th e s ta b i­
h ad s h o w n th at f a ilu re w o u ld o c c u r a t 7 to 10 m e x c a v a ti o n liz e d p a n e ls tu rn e d o u t to in d u c e r e la tiv e ly s i g n i f i c a n t v ib r a tio n s ,
d e p th . T h e tu n n e l p a s s e d th e N a tio n a l T h e a tr e b u ild in g a t a d is ­ an d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , s o m e d a m a g e to th e n e ig h b o u rin g b u il­
ta n c e o f o n ly 5 to 1 0 m . d in g s. O th e r w is e th e s o lu tio n w o rk e d v e r y w e l l, w ith v e r y s m a ll
T h e d e s ig n a d o p te d to p re v e n t b o tto m h e a v e as w e ll a s to d is p la c e m e n ts in d u c e d d u rin g th e e x c a v a ti o n p h a se .
lim it d is p la c e m e n ts w a s a s f o l l o w s , F i g . 2 : In m o re re c e n t a p p lic a tio n s , th e lim e / c e m e n t p a n e ls to

• F ir s t th e lo n g itu d in a l tu n n e l w a lls w e re c o n s tru c te d a s in - s itu s u p p o rt e x c a v a ti o n s h a v e b e e n s e t a f te r d riv in g o f th e s h e e tp ile

c a s t c o n c r e te d ia p h ra g m w a lls e x te n d in g to 21 m d e p th o r w a ll. T o e n s u re th e b e s t p o s s i b l e c o n ta c t to th e s h e e tp ile w a ll

5 m b e lo w b o tto m g ra d e . o n e n o rm a lly s e ts s o m e a d d itio n a l c o lu m n s in th e c o n ta c t a re a

• T h e n , e v e r y 4 .5 m a lo n g th e tu n n e l, c r o s s - l o t s lu rry tre n c h e s ( F i g . 4 ) . A n a lte r n a tiv e m a y b e to s e t th e c o lu m n s f ir s t, b u t

e n s u re th a t th e s h e e tp ile w a ll is d riv e n b e f o r e s ig n i f i c a n t c u rin g
w e re e x c a v a te d to th e s a m e d e p th ( 2 1 m ) . T h e s e w e re c a s t
w ith c o n c r e te in th e lo w e r 5 m ( b e l o w b o tto m g ra d e o f th e of th e lim e c e m e n t c o lu m n s h av e ta k e n p la c e . T h at m ay ,

tu n n e l) , a n d th e n b a c k f i l le d w ith a v e ry lo w - g ra d e c o n c r e te
m ix up to th e s u r f a c e , e x c e p t ju s t b e lo w th e m id d le s la b
w h e re a h ig h g ra d e c o n c r e te a ls o w as p la c e d to f o rm a Sheet pile
te m p o ra ry stru t.
• E x c a v a tio n f o r a n d c a s tin g o f th e to p s la b w a s c a rr ie d out
f ro m th e s u rf a c e . E x c a v a tio n f o r th e tw o tu n n e ls w a s th e n
c a rr ie d o u t u n d e rn e a th th is s la b .

T h e c r o s s - l o t w a ll p a n e ls c r e a te a f o rm o f " b o tto m s h ie ld " o r Rib of

b o x e s b e lo w f in a l g ra d e , w h ic h e f f e c ti v e l y p re v e n te d b o tto m lim e/ cem ent
h e av e. T h e c r o s s - l o t w a ll p a n e ls a n d " s tru ts " a ls o e f f e c ti v e l y st a bilize d soil
a c te d as p re - s tru ttin g . A s th e s e w e re p la c e d p rio r to e x c a v a tio n ,
th is a l s o re d u c e d la te ra l d is p la c e m e n ts o f th e tu n n e l w a lls s i g n i ­
f ic a n tly . T h e m a x im u m la te ra l d is p la c e m e n t w a s o n ly 4 c m o r
0 . 2 5 % o f th e e x c a v a tio n d e p th , F i g . 3. P r o f ile

d ou b le ribs
Sheet pile

Ext ra pile s t o
ensure good
cont a ct

Figure 3 Measured lateral displacements, Studenterlunden Figure 4 Principle o f deep ground improvement by cement/
(from Karlsrud, 1981) line mixed panels

2316
h o w e v e r, c a u s e p r o b le m s w ith th e c o n tr a c to r s p h a s in g o f th e T h i s d e e p b e lo w - b o tto m p re - b ra c e d stru c tu re f o r c e s th e p o te n tia l
d if f e r e n t w o rk s . b o tto m h e a v e f a ilu re s u rf a c e to g o d o w n b e lo w th e tip o f th e
A n e w s c h e m e f o r e x c a v a ti o n su p p o rt an d p re - s tru ttin g w a s s h e e tp ile s . T h i s o f c o u rs e , p ro v id e d th a t it is p ro p e rly su p p o rte d
r e c e n tly d e v e lo p e d by N G I’s O v e E id e in c o n n e c ti o n w ith a b e lo w seab ed . W ith a lin e a rly in c r e a s in g s h e a r stre n g th w ith
p la n n e d 650 m lo n g s i x - l a n e su b m e rg e d ro a d tu n n e l c r o s s in g d e p th , th is m e a n s th a t th e s a f e ty f a c to r a ls o in c r e a s e lin e a rly
O s l o h a rb o u r. E id e w a s a n e x c e p ti o n a l ly ta le n te d e n g in e e r an d w ith th e s e le c te d p e n e tra tio n d e p th o f th e s h e e tp ile w a ll, F ig . 7 .
d e s ig n e r w h o u n f o rtu n a te ly p a s s e d a w a y la s t y e a r. It is in te n d e d to b u ild th e c o f f e r d a m a n d tu n n e l in 5 s e c tio n s ,
T h e w a te r d e p th a t th e s ite is a b o u t 11 m , w h ic h a ls o c o r r e ­ s o th at all s h e e tp ile w a lls a n d m o s t o f th e s u p p o rtin g f ra m e s are
s p o n d s to th e re q u ire d b a s e le v e l o f th e b o tto m s la b . T h e g ro u n d re u s e d at le a s t tw ic e . T h e s te e l su p p o rtin g f ra m e s a c tu a lly h a v e
c o n s i s ts o f s o f t n o rm a lly c o n s o lid a te d c la y s to la rg e d e p th s . T h e s o m e c o u p lin g s w h ic h u p o n th e ir re trie v a l o n ly le a v e s th e lo w e s t
b a s ic o r ig in a l d e s ig n w as a p re -c a st s u b m e rg e d tu n n e l. The p a rt o f th e f ra m e an d th e b e lo w - b o tto m stru t le f t in th e g ro u n d
a lte r n a tiv e c o n c e p t d e v e lo p e d b y E id e w a s b a s e d o n b u ild in g th e a f te r c o m p le tio n o f th e w o rk s .
tu n n e l in a d ry c o ffe rd a m c o n ta in in g th e f o l l o w in g m a in T h i s s o lu tio n lo o k s v e ry f a v o u ra b le c o m p a r e d to th e s u n k - in -
e le m e n ts , F i g s 5 a n d 6 : p la c e tu n n e l a lte r n a tiv e . It h a s a ls o b e e n c o m p a re d f a v o u ra b ly to
o th e r d ry c o f f e r d a m a lte r n a tiv e s lik e u s e o f a tra d itio n a l s h e e t­

• T h e c o ffe rd am i t s e l f c o n s i s ts o f f la t- w e b b e d s h e e tp ile w a lls p ile w a ll s tru c tu re s an d c o n c r e tin g o f th e b o tto m s la b u nd er

as u se d in c e llu la r c o ffe rd a m s , an d w h ic h "h an g s" in w ate r.
b e tw e e n - , a n d is s u p p o rte d b y ,- h e a v y s te e l f r a m e s s p a c e d at
10 m d is ta n c e a lo n g th e tu n n e l.
• T h e s te e l f ra m e s c o n s i s t o f s p e c ia l v e rtic a l b o x s te n d e rs w ith U S E O F D E W A T E R IN G A N D C U T - O F F M E T H O D S

th re e l e v e l s o f h e a v y d u ty c r o s s b e a m s o r in te rn a l s tru ts . T h e
s te e l f ra m e s w ill b e ja c k e d d o w n f ro m b arg e s so th a t th e E x c a v a tio n s in g ra n u la r s o i ls w e ll b e lo w th e w a te r ta b le re p re ­

lo w e s t stru t w ill b e 7 m b e lo w th e s e a b e d o r b a s e o f th e s e n ts m a y b e a s m u c h o f a d e s ig n c h a lle n g e a s e x c a v a tio n s in s o f t

c o f f e rd a m . c la y s . T h e k e y to a c h ie v in g a n a c c e p ta b le a n e c o n o m i c a l d e s ig n

• T h e s te n d e rs a n d f la t- w e b b e d s h e e tp ile s w ill e x te n d a n o th e r is to k e e p c o n tr o l o f th e p o re p re s s u re s b e lo w th e b a s e o f th e

2 m in to th e s e a b e d o r 2 0 m b e lo w s e a le v e l. e x c a v a tio n . T h e th re e m a in p r in c ip le s u s e d to c o n tro l th e p o re
p re s s u re a n d e f f e c ti v e s tr e s s e s b e lo w th e e x c a v a ti o n b a s e a re :

• In s ta llin g c u t- o f f w a lls to s u f f i c i e n t d e p th b e lo w th e b a s e .
• R e d u c in g p o re p re s s u re s b y in s ta lla tio n o f v a rio u s f o rm s o f
w e lls .
• G ro u tin g o f th e s o ils to re d u c e th e p e r m e a b ility in a b la n k e t
o r " p lu g " a t s u f f i c i e n t d e p th b e lo w th e e x c a v a tio n to a ls o
e n s u re th a t u p lif t d o e s n o t ta k e p la c e .

Fro m m y p e r s p e c tiv e , I b e li e v e d e s ig n e rs in g e n e ra l a re to o
re lu c ta n t to m a k e u s e o f w e ll d ra in a g e s o lu tio n s , an d th a t o n e

HWL + 2.0
Figure 5 Illustration o f proposed design concept fo r the Upper strut
Bjervika 6-line harbour tunnel in Oslo
Middle strut

/U p p e r strut

,-8 ->11

Tunnel slab
n é
Pinpole

Sheetpile
Stender
Cross section
Stender

Plan
Depth, De , to tip o f w all (m)

Figure 6 Details o f proposed support system fo r the Bjorvika Figure 7 Bottom heave stability in relation to depth o f
cofferdam sheetpile wall, Bjorvika cofferdam

2317
 • The p ro g ra m s g e n e r a lly a llo w a s te p w is e e x c a v a tio n an d
stru ttin g o r a n c h o rin g s e q u e n c e ,
an d r e m o v a l o f s u c h e le m e n ts .
• T h e s o il r e s p o n s e a t b o th s id e s o f th e w a ll a re m o d e lle d as
s p r in g su p p o rts at th e n o d a l p o in ts .
• In m o s t p ro g ra m s th e s p rin g s a re m o d e lle d as lin e a r e l a s ti c -
p e r f e c tly p la s tic , b u t f o r in s ta n c e in th e tw o s u c h p ro g ra m s
th a t h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d a n d u s e d in N o rw a y , th e s p rin g s a re
n o n - lin e a r a n d c a n b e g iv e n a h ig h e r s ti f f n e s s in u n lo ad in g /
re lo a d in g th a n v irg in lo a d in g .
• T h e lim itin g e a rth p re s s u re s o r y ie ld le v e l in th e s p rin g s c a n
Pressure (kPa) in m o s t p ro g ra m s be a d ju s te d at e a c h e x c a v a ti o n s te p in
® - No drainage a c c o r d a n c e w ith c l a s s ic a l e a rth p re s s u re th e o ry . S o m e p ro ­
@ - Pore pressure reduced to hydrostatic
g ra m s a re e v e n m o re f l e x i b l e a n d a llo w th e u s e r to in d e p e n ­
0 ) - Ground water level to 2m below base
d e n tly d e f in e th e lim it p re s s u re s . T h u s , o n e c a n in p rin c ip le
Figure 8 Example o f effects o f dewatering on earth pressures
ta k e in to a c c o u n t s p e c ia l g e o m e try e f f e c ts , a rc h in g e f f e c ts e tc .
and required toe depth o f wall
o n th e lim it p re s s u re s . F o r an e f f e c ti v e s tre s s b a s e d m o d e l f o r
e x c a v a ti o n u n d e r th e g ro u n d w a te r, th e p o re p re s s u re s at e a c h
d o e s n o t s e e a ll th e p o te n tia l b e n e f its o f th a t. I w ill illu s tra te th is s te p o f th e e x c a v a ti o n m u st b e a s s e s s e d an d in p u t s e p a ra te ly .
b y a v e ry s im p le d re a m e d - u p e x a m p le . C o n s id e r a 12 m d e e p
a n d r e la tiv e ly n a rro w e x c a v a ti o n in la y e re d s i l ts an d sa n d s w ith A lth o u g h m a n y o f th e p ro g ra m s s e e m to h a v e th e s a m e f e a tu re s
th e g ro u n d w a te r ta b le at 4 m d e p th , o r 8 m a b o v e th e b a s e ( Fig . a n d b u ild - u p , th e re m a y b e d if f e r e n c e s in h o w th e y h a n d le s o m e
8 ) . D u e to th e la y e rin g it is a s s u m e d th a t th e h o riz o n ta l m a s s im p o rta n t a s p e c ts w h ic h th e u s e r c a n n o t s e e . F o r in s ta n c e , h o w it
p e r m e a b ility is at le a s t an o rd e r o f m a g n itu d e la rg e r th a n th e p h y s ic a lly h a n d le s th e e a rth p re s s u re lo a d in g in v o lv e d in e x c a ­
v e rtic a l. T h u s , o n e m a y a s s u m e th a t w ith n o w e ll d ra in a g e an d v a tio n f ro m o n e le v e l to th e n e x t. M a n y p ro g ra m s s e e m to o n ly
o n ly a c u t- o f f w a ll, th e p o re p re s s u re at th e le v e l o f th e tip o f th e p u t o n a lo a d o n th e n o d e s e x p o s e d b y th e e x c a v a ti o n in a c c o r d ­
w a ll w ill c o rre s p o n d to th e o r ig in a l in - s itu v a lu e . a n c e w ith th e e a rth p re s s u re s o r lo a d s in th e s p rin g s ju s t b e f o r e
F o r th e a s s u m p tio n s m a d e , an d w ith o u t a n y w e lls , a c u t- o f f th is e x c a v a ti o n ste p . In re a lity , an e x c a v a ti o n w ill, w ith o u t an y
w a ll m u st p e n e tra te to a d e p th o f a b o u t 9 .5 m b e lo w th e b a s e . w a ll m o v e m e n ts , a ls o re d u c e e a rth p re s s u re s b e lo w th e b o tto m
T h i s is a c tu a lly g o v e rn e d b y th e to e k i c k - i n s ta b ility a b o u t th e o f th e e x c a v a tio n . I f th is a s p e c t is n o t a p p ro p ria te ly m o d e lle d ,
lo w e s t s tm t a n d n o t b y s e e p a g e g ra d ie n ts . s tre s s ch an g es an d d is p la c e m e n ts w ill be u n d e rp re d ic te d , in
A ssu m e n o w th a t b y s o m e f o rm o f w e ll p u m p in g th e p o re p a rtic u la r a t e a rly s ta g e s o f th e e x c a v a tio n .
p re s s u re b e lo w th e b a s e is re d u c e d to h y d ro s ta tic . F o r th a t c a s e P ro v id e d th a t th e lim itin g p re s s u re s h av e been c a r e f u lly
th e re q u ire d to e p e n e tr a tio n th a t g iv e s z e ro m o m e n t a b o u t th e a s s e s s e d at e a c h e x c a v a ti o n s te p , th e m a jo r is s u e a n d d if f ic u l ty
lo w e s t stru t is re d u c e d to 6 . 0 m , a n d i f th e g ro u n d w a te r le v e l w ith th e u s e o f s u c h p ro g ra m s lie s in th e a s s e s s m e n t o f a p p ro ­
in s id e th e e x c a v a ti o n is re d u c e d f u rth e r to 2 m b e lo w th e b a s e , p ria te s p rin g s ti f f n e s s e s . T h e g u id e lin e s g iv e n in th e m a n u a ls I
th e re q u ire d to e p e n e tr a tio n is o n ly 3 .6 m . h a v e s e e n a re at b e s t in c o m p le te a n d o f te n irre le v a n t a n d m is ­
A n a d d itio n a l a n d v e ry p o s itiv e e f f e c t o f w e ll d ra in a g e in s id e le a d in g . T h e y a re o f te n b a s e d o n th e c l a s s ic a l b e a m o n e la s tic
an e x c a v a ti o n , is th a t it w ill a ls o s i g n i f i c a n tl y re d u c e th e d e p th s p rin g c o n c e p t w h ic h is c o m p le te ly o u t o f lin e f o r m o d e llin g a
an d m a g n itu d e o f w a ll d is p la c e m e n ts , b e n d in g m o m e n ts in th e b r a c e d o r a n c h o re d w a ll s tru c tu re .
w a ll an d lo a d s in stru ts o r a n c h o rs . T h e s p rin g c o n s ta n t d e p e n d s p rim a rily o n th e s o il m o d u lu s
T o w h a t e x te n t u s e o f w e ll d ra in a g e in re a lity is f e a s i b l e an d a n d th e s i z e o f th e s tre s s f ie ld m o b iliz e d o n b o th s id e s o f th e
a c c e p ta b le m u s t o f c o u rs e c a r e f u ll y a s s e s s e d . In p a rtic u la r, h o w w a ll. T h i s s tre s s f ie ld w ill o f c o u rs e in c r e a s e a s th e e x c a v a tio n
it m a y i n f lu e n c e th e p o re p re s s u re o u ts id e th e e x c a v a tio n , an d d e p th i n c r e a s e s . T h u s , e v e n in a p u re ly e l a s ti c s o i l, th e s p rin g
if ,- o r to w h a t e x te n t,- th a t m a y in d u c e c o n s o lid a tio n s e ttle m e n ts . s ti f f n e s s w ill c h a n g e ( re d u c e ) d u rin g e x c a v a tio n . I a m n o t a w a re
o f a n y p ro g ra m s th at a llo w th e s p r in g s ti f f n e s s to c h a n g e d u rin g
a s te p w is e e x c a v a ti o n p ro c e s s . T h e u s e r m u st th e r e f o re , a s s e s s
U S E O F C O N T IN U U M F E M M O D E L S A N D S P R IN G w h a t h e re g a rd s a s a re p re s e n ta tiv e a v e ra g e s itu a tio n . In a n y c a s e
M O D E L S IN D E S IG N th e s p rin g s ti f f n e s s sh o u ld r e f l e c t th e g e o m e try o f th e e x c a v a ­
tio n , b o th its d e p th a n d w id th . T h e s ti f f n e s s o f th e w a ll a n d th e
B o th in N o rw a y a n d in te rn a tio n a lly it is m y c l e a r im p r e s s io n th a t su p p o rt s y s te m c a n o n ly h a v e a m a rg in a l e f f e c t o n th e s p rin g
c o m p u te r p ro g ra m s b a s e d o n th e b e a m - o n - s p rin g c o n c e p t h a v e s ti f f n e s s e s .
b e c o m e a w id e ly u s e d d e s ig n to o l, a n d h a v e to a la rg e e x te n t A f e w y e a rs a g o I h ad th e p le a s u re o f w o rk in g w ith S i n o te c h
re p la c e d th e u se of lim it e q u ilib riu m m e th o d s an d u se of E n g in e e r in g C o n s u lta n ts in T a i p e i o n th e d e s ig n o f d e e p c u t an d
e m p iric a l a p p a re n t e a rth p re s s u re d ia g ra m s . c o v e r s ta tio n s f o r th e T a i p e i s u b w a y a s w e ll a s f o r n e w ra ilw a y
M an y v o ic e s h av e been ra is e d at p re v io u s c o n fe re n c e s tu n n e ls . T h ese w h e re 18 to 24 m d eep e x c a v a ti o n s in s o ils
w a rn in g a g a in s t th e u s e a n d s h o r tc o m in g s o f b e a m - o n - s p rin g c o n s is tin g o f la y e re d s a n d s , c la y s a n d s i l ts w ith a h ig h g ro u n d ­
ty p e m o d e ls . To q u o te f r e e ly f ro m a s ta te m e n t b y G u d ehu s w a te r ta b le . T h e d e s ig n a n a ly s e s w h e re to a la rg e e x te n t b a s e d
( 1 9 9 1 ) at th e E u ro p e a n c o n f e r e n c e in F l o r e n c e in 1 9 9 1 : " T h e s e o n u s e o f a s p rin g m o d e l p ro g ra m u s in g b i - l in e a r s o il s p rin g s .
p ro g ra m s s e e m to c o m e f ro m n o w h e r e an d a re f r e q u e n tly u sed A n a p p r o x im a te e x p r e s s io n I d e v e lo p e d f o r th e s o il s p rin g s f o r
b y in e x p e rie n c e d e n g in e e rs w h o th in k s th a t a W i n k l e r s p rin g is a th e s e c a s e s w e re :
s o il c o n s t a n t ".
N e v e r th e le s s I b e li e v e th a t th e s e p ro g ra m s a re h e re to sta y ,
an d th a t o u r c h a lle n g e as p ro f e s s io n a l g e o te c h n ic a l e n g in e e rs is D / 3 + B/ 2
to g iv e g u id a n c e to th e ir u s e an d d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e m a in f e a ­
tu re s o f th e a v a ila b le b e a m - o n - s p rin g p ro g ra m s a re :
Eso = s e c a n t m o d u lu s a t 5 0 % stre n g th m o b iliz a tio n

• M o s t o f th e s e p ro g ra m s c a n m o d e l th e s tru c tu ra l e le m e n ts D = d e p th o f e x c a v a ti o n
w e ll, in c lu d in g s tru ts , a n c h o rs an d p re lo a d in g o f th e s e . B = w id th o f e x c a v a ti o n ( lim ite d to 2 x D )

2318
P e rf o rm a n c e d a ta la te r s u g g e s t th a t th is le a d to q u ite re a s o n a b le
p re d ic tio n s o f la te ra l s o il d is p la c e m e n ts a n d o v e ra ll b e h a v io u r o f
th e d ia p h ra g m w a ll s tru c tu re s .
In g e n e ra l it is re c o m m e n d e d , h o w e v e r, th a t s p rin g c o n s ta n ts
a re s e le c te d b a s e d o n b a c k c a lc u l a ti o n o f w e ll d o c u m e n te d c a s e
re c o rd s re le v a n t f o r th e p ro b le m at h a n d , o r c a lib ra te d a g a in s t
c o n tin u u m ty p e f in ite e le m e n t m o d e llin g .
A lth o u g h s p rin g m o d e ls c a n g iv e a re a s o n a b le p re d ic tio n o f
la te ra l w a ll m o v e m e n ts , it is g ro u n d s e ttle m e n ts a n d th e ir c o n s e ­
q u e n c e s th at a re th e m a in d e s ig n c o n c e r n . F ig u re 9 p re s e n ts a
PLAXIS
p ro p o s e d m e th o d f o r a s s e s s in g s e ttle m e n ts f ro m p re d ic te d la te ra l High stiffness
w a ll d is p la c e m e n ts . T h i s is b a s e d o n d a ta I h a v e g o n e th ro u g h support system
f ro m d e e p e x c a v a tio n s in O s l o a n d T a i p e i. N o te th a t th e la te ra l
e x te n t o f s e ttle m e n ts is re la te d to th e d e p th o f p re d ic te d la te ra l
Low stiffness
w a ll m o v e m e n ts ra th e r th a n th e .d e p th o f e x c a v a ti o n . T h i s is in
c o n tra s t to th e e m p iric a l d ia g ra m s o r ig in a tin g w ith P e c k ( 1 9 6 9 ) ,
w h ic h re la te th e s e ttle m e n t p r o f ile to th e e x c a v a ti o n d e p th . T h e Tip of sheetpiles
p ro p o s e d d ia g ra m s d if f e r e n tia te b e tw e e n p re d o m in a n tly s o f t c la y
c o n d itio n s a n d s a n d y s o il c o n d itio n s .
S e ttle m e n ts in d u c e d b y o th e r e f f e c ts lik e w a ll in s ta lla tio n an d
p o re p re s s u re c h a n g e s o r c o n s o lid a tio n , m u s t b e a d d e d to th o s e
Net eart h pre ssure ( kPa)
re s u ltin g f ro m w a ll d is p la c e m e n ts a lo n e . Figure 10 Predicted net resultant earth pressures from Rankine
In h is e x c e ll e n t p a p e r a n d th e m e le c tu re to th is c o n f e r e n c e , theory and the PLAXIS program fo r the Bjervika
D r. N u s s b a u m e r s h o w e d u s m a n y e x a m p le s o f a p p lic a tio n o f cofferdam
c o n tin u u m f in ite e le m e n t m o d e ls to stru tte d an d a n c h o re d e x c a ­
v a tio n s . M y o w n p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s a n d u s e o f s u c h p ro g ra m s
g o b a c k to th e e a rly 7 0 's . I a m a th e r e f o r e , a b it s u rp ris e d th a t it H H V + 2 .0
h a s ta k e n s u c h a lo n g tim e to d e v e lo p p ro g ra m s th a t a re w e ll
su ite d f o r a c tu a l d e s ig n w o rk . B u t, th e re is lig h t in th e tu n n e l,
an d I f e e l c o n v in c e d th a t w ith th e in te ra c tiv e w in d o w s - b a s e d
p ro g ra m s n o w c o m in g in to th e m a rk e t w e w ill in th e n e x t f e w
y e a rs s e e th a t s u c h p ro g ra m s g ra d u a lly w ill ta k e o v e r f ro m th e
b e a m - o n - s p r in g ty p e m o d e ls , e s p e c ia l l y s o f o r m o re c o m p le x
p ro b le m s .
T h a t c o n tin u u m f in ite e le m e n t o r d if f e r e n c e a p p r o a c h e s are
n e c e s s a r y a n d c a n p ro v id e v a lu a b le in s ig h t to d e s ig n p ro b le m s is
q u ite c l e a r to m e . I w ill illu s tra te th is b y a n a ly s e s w e c a rr ie d o u t
f o r th e h a rb o u r c r o s s in g tu n n e l d e s c rib e d e a r lie r in m y le c tu re .
il
T h i s p ro b le m w a s a n a ly s e d b y u s e o f th e P L A X I S p ro g ra m .
T h e a n a ly s is s h o w e d th a t th e n e t re s u lta n t e a rth p re s s u re , a n d as
a c o n s e q u e n c e th e lo a d in th e lo w e s t p re - in s ta lle d stru t, w a s o n
a v e ra g e a lm o s t a f a c to r o f tw o la rg e r th a n th e R a n k i n e e a rth
p re s s u re , F ig . 1 0 . F ro m th e d is p la c e m e n t p a tte rn in th e s o i l, Fig .
11 , it is e v id e n t .th at th e te n d e n c y f o r d e e p - s e a te d d is p la c e m e n ts

Figure 11 Displacements predicted with PLAXIS, Bjorvika

cofferdam

b e lo w a n d u p in to th e c o f f e r d a m a re in c o m p a tib le w ith th e m o b ­
iliz a tio n o f c l a s s ic a l lim itin g e a rth p re s s u re s . T h i s a s a ty p ic a l
a rc h in g p heno m eno n, w h ic h h as been w e ll r e c o g n is e d fo r
s e v e ra l d e c a d e s . It c a n a l s o b e s e e n in F ig . 1 0 , th at re d u c in g th e

5H=Predicted lateral displacement s ti f f n e s s o f th e s tru ts to h a l f o f th e o r ig in a l v a lu e d ra m a tic a lly

re d u c e d th e n e t u n b a la n c e d p re s s u re , a n d m a d e it a p p ro a c h th e
D = Excavation depth
c l a s s ic a l v a lu e s .
H = Predicted depth of lateral
N o b o d y w ith a n y e x p e r ie n c e w ith u s e o f c o n tin u u m f in ite
displacement e le m e n t p ro g ra m s , a n d w ith s u f f i c i e n t p ra c tic a l e x p e r ie n c e , w ill
c la im th a t e v e n w ith th e m o s t a d v a n c e d p ro g ra m s c a n w e c a p ­
“FT at: tu re a ll a s p e c ts of su c h c o m p le x s o il stru c tu re in te ra c tio n
^VM c o rT e c tly . T h e r e is a ls o e n o u g h o f ro o m f o r g o in g a s tra y w h e n
S o i l c o n d i ti o n A B C D E
SHM
y o u a l s o try to c o u p le 3 - d im e n s io n a l e f f e c ts a n d tra n s ie n t c o n ­
M o s tly c la y s 0 .7 - 1 .0 0 0 .2 0 .4 1 .0 1 .5
d itio n s in to s u c h p ro g ra m s . I b e li e v e s u c h c o m p le x e f f e c ts f o r

M o s tly san d s 0 .5 - 1 .0 0 0 .2 0 .3 0 .7 1 .0 th e tim e b e in g m a y b e b e s t a s s e s s e d a n d a c c o u n te d fo r b y d e­

c o u p le d an d s im p lif ie d ap p ro ac h e s, w h ic h a ls o a llo w s th e
Figure 9 Proposed method fo r estimating ground settlements d e s ig n e r a b e tte r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e d if f e re n t a s p e c ts .

from predicted lateral wall movements

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 S T A B I L I T Y A N D D I S P L A C E M E N T S O F S O IL - A N C H O R E D
W A LLS

T h e r e e x is t a n u m b e r o f n a tio n a l c o d e s f o r d e s ig n o f a n c h o re d
w a lls , m a n y o f th e m o r ig in a tin g w ith th e m e th o d s d e v e lo p e d b y
K ran z (1953). I h a v e p e r s o n a lly lim ite d e x p e rie n c e w ith th is
to p ic , b u t h a v e a d is tin c t im p r e s s io n th a t in s u f f i c i e n t a tte n tio n to
o v e ra ll s ta b ility o f th e a n c h o re d w a ll s tru c tu re h a s c a u s e d w a ll
d is p la c e m e n ts s i g n i f i c a n tl y la rg e r th a n e x p e c te d o r d e s ire d . It
w o u ld b e in te re s tin g to h e a r D r. N u s s b a u m e r's v ie w i f th is c o u ld
n o t h a v e b e e n a c o n trib u tin g c a u s e a t th e " D e d i s " s ite a n d o th e r
c a s e s re f e rr e d to in h is th e m e le c tu re .

U S E O F T E M P O R A R Y W A L L S IN P E R M A N E N T
ST R U C T U R E

In re la tio n to u s e o f d ia p h ra g m w a lls in th e p e rm a n e n t stru c tu re I

h a v e n o te d a w id e d if f e r e n c e in in te rn a tio n a l p r a c tic e a n d a ls o
w ith in c o u n trie s . So m e d e s ig n e rs le t th e d ia p h ra g m w a lls
su p p o rt a ll e x te rn a l s o il an d w a te r p re s s u re s . O th e r s d is re g a rd
th e m c o m p le te ly , p a rtly d u e to c o n c e r n s a b o u t w a te r tig h tn e s s
a n d c o n c r e te q u a lity . I b e li e v e d ia p h ra g m w a lls d e s e rv e to b e
m o re w id e ly u se d as p a rt of th e p e rm an e n t s tru c tu re , but
re c o g n is e th at it to s o m e e x te n t d e p e n d s o n th e ty p e an d u s e o f
th e p e r m a n e n t stru c tu re , a n d n o t th e l e a s t, th e lo c a l c o n s tru c tio n
p r a c ti c e a n d q u a lity c o n tro l.
In N o rw a y an d o th e r E u ro p e a n c o u n tr ie s w e h a v e a ls o s e e n a
c l e a r tre n d to m o re w id e ly u s e o f s te e l s h e e t p ile w a lls a s th e
o n ly p e rm a n e n t s u p p o rtin g w a ll, e s p e c ia l l y in ro a d tu n n e ls an d
u n d e rp a s s e s , b u t a ls o in d e e p b a s e m e n t s tru c tu re s . It s e e m s lik e
th e s te e l in d u s try h a s ta k e n th is is s u e s e r io u s ly an d p ro v id e
s p e c ia l jo i n t s e a lin g c o n c e p ts to p re v e n t w a te r le a k a g e . T h u s , th e
c o r r o s io n a s p e c t m a y b e th e p rim a ry r e m a in in g c o n c e r n in th e
f u tu re .

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