DIFFERENTIAL CA

328 AN INTRODUCTION TO
ANALYSIS:
ALCULUS
if the functional values c
c) are do0s
=
continuous at x
means that f is
his of f at r c, f mus e =

Je) when r is close to c. Thus

and also in some neighbourhood
for continuity
around c; otherwise
we can not find defined at r

to f(c). Hence
for continuity of f at a point
must exist and equals C, We must
have

is defined at i.e., f(c) exists.

1. f c

2. lim f(x) exists i.e., lim f(r) = lim f(T), or, f(c+0)= f(c-0)
¢ T

3. f(c) and lim f(r) must be equal.

If any of these conditions fail, then f is NOT continuous at cor f is discontin

at r = C. tinuous
Sometimes a function f may be continuous on one side of c. We call such
uch a continuity
s one-sided continuity. More explicitly,

Definition 8.2.2 1. f is said to be right-continuous(or continauous from the righd

a point z=a, if lim flr) = f(a), i.e., given any e>0, 38> 0 such that

(4,a+6) we have If(e)- fla)l <

Va ¬

Here f must be defined in some right neighbourhood of a.

2. f is said to be left-continuous
(or, continuous from the left)
lim f(z) = f(6), i.e., given any e>0, 36>0 such that
at a point z =
b,i

YzE(b-6,6) we have IJ(=)- f(6)| <e.

Here f must be defned in some
left-neighbourhood of b.
We next define
continuity in an Interval
Continuity of f in an open interval (a, b) » fis continuous at every
where a<e<b, in the sense
of Definition 8.2.1. P
Continuity of f in a closed interval
[a, b|»
1. If c is an interior point qla, then
Definition 8.2.1. b, f is continuous at t =C 1u
Senseu
o
2. At the left end
point a, f is
and 3 At the right end point b, f is right-continuous.
left-continuous.
The definition of
quence
continuity at a
point can also be defined in
in the
tneE language

Definition 8.2.3 f is said to be

in I havingthe limitc, the continuous at Convergent sequencef a l

sequence {f(c.)} is c if
every converge r =

f¢
convergent and
=

and lim f{x,)

 ON
AN INTERVAL I
fiIstprove.that the two definitions are equivalent. 329

10 T
p r o v e :
DEFINITION
DEFI
8.2.1 DEFINITION 8.2.3.
according to
a)
I f sc o n
ntinuous
Definition 8.2.1, then for
each e>03a6>0
If()-fle) <E, whenever such
z E
l - c <6nI.
arbitrary
sequence
{#n} EI converges to c.
Leta

c o r r e s p o n d
to this ð> 0, a anatural
Then, number rno such that
nc<K6, Vn2 no.
MTE-c<6~f(zn)-fll <e, n2 no
a last line proves thatJ(Tn)} converges to f
Aprove: DEFINITION 8.2.3 DEFINITION 8.2.1.
se
eshall here
here indirect
use method. Suppose a point cE I such that
to Definition 8.2.3, but not according to Definition 8.2.1. f is continuous
This means that
ontinuous at z cby Definition8.2.3 but 3 an Eo >0 such
=

that for every 6>0,

ie-flc)l2 Eo, for at least one point c in la -cl<ónI.
Lt= . We can find c1 E lTcl<SonI such that

f(T1)fc)}l 2 so
NoticeZ c. Let 61 = min.{2,lci-c
We can find rz ¬ d1-nbd of c,
such that |f(T2)-flc) 2 6o
Againa c and t2 #*1 for xi does not lie in the 81-nbdof c. It must be observed

r this construct a sequence {rn such that cn ¬ ôn-nbd

a manner, we can

eand ba S on-1, and |f(n)-f(c)|2s for every n.

It is easy to see that ft,} converges to c but {f(z.)} does not converge to f{e),
ch contradicts our Hence must conclude tha
ypothesis (i.e., Definition 8.2.3).
we
hyp
atever Definition 8.2.3 holds Definition 8.2.1 cannot but be true.

iscontinuity Criterion of f at by Definition

x = c

EI such that (Tn} converges

8.2.3:

s discontinuous: {z,n}
eOUS at c
iff therëexists a sequence
to s(e).
does not converge
esponding sequence {f(cn)}
Note 8.2.1 R and let g be
the restriction of f to A
gla)= f{ Let AC A).BG R, E
let
Then it is
f: B
easy to see that

ff is contin
4U0us at cE A, then g is also
continuous at c. that
e following exam continuous at e, it
need not follow
that ifg is
Continuous at C. Crample shous
and
< 0, A =
[0,1
AMPLE 8.2.1 1, V z2 0, f(r)
= -1 for t
e t f(x)
=
 A N A L Y S I S :

TO
I N T R o D U C T I O N

AN
330
Graphical Considerations

is ro
break in thegraph y f() at the
(i) f(r) is continua at
xoThere

and in its
immediate
neighbourhood.
pon
where the abscissa is to of y f(r) is unbroken
=
.

la,b]»The graph
a b s c i s s a is b.
the pout
is c o n t i n u o u s in the
(i) fr) abscissa is a to the point
wherè
significance:
where the
following
unbroken used above has the
The term changes in the ordinate of the grap
cause small
Small changes in the
values ofa small.
small, f(r) -f(a) is also
1.e., whenr- a
is

Examples:
defined bY J(T)
=
5r +3 is
ExAMPLE 8.2.2 Show that thefunction f contina..

SOLUTION: Here the domain D of definition of the function f is R. fis contie

at z = 1 if lim flz) = f(1) i.e., if lim(5z +3) = 5.1 +3 =8. inuous
T1
This statement is true if, for any e >0, we can find o> 0 such that
rERE |z - 1| < 6, we have |5x 3-8|<E. 9
But 15+3-8 =5|-11, Hence |5x+3-81<e whenever |z -1|<e/5.
Taking 6 = c/5, our requirement for the definition of limit is met.

fis continuous at r = 1.

EXAMPLE 8.2.3 Show that f(r) = sin c is continuous for all values of . What
about the continuity of cos
for all real values of c?
SOLUTION: Here also the domain of
Take any value a of c,
f(r) =
sin c is R, the set of all real numbers
where a E Rya
sin will be continuous for
such that = a if for any e 0, we can find a value or
O
sin sin al <e, whenever
Now, sin sin al |2sin cos
-

=
al d.
2 sin
Observe that (cos 1 for
cos
every value of x ¬ R.
and sin

sin< lel< |tan zl for 0

sin c sin a= 2
sin: <<T|
i.e., sin rt is
is;
sinz sinal <e for
continuous at any all z for which | a
arbitrary point a E R. al<8, where
real values of a. 6 = 6. -

al
tor

We can similarl Thus sin ? is continuous

prove the
continuity of cosx for all
real values of .
 OON. A POINT AN
T AND O
8.2.
N NTERVAL I
that f(o) is
Show that
Show 331
8.2.4

continuous at r=0
EXAMPLE
and r =1 where
-, 0
fr)= 0<r<1
2-, 21
LUTION: l
(i) when
whe
=0, f0)=0, f{0-0)=
limf(z)- lim (-) =0. T0-0
and

d f0+0)
f(0+0): lim f(c)
0+0
=
lim z=0.
0+
T0-0

=
0.
:
0+0)=f(0-0)
is continuous 0. at
n

Hence f

when
1,f(1) =1. Now see that
(i)
f(1+0) lim() lim (2-t) = lim (2-1+h) =1.
T+1+ h0+

f1-0) lim f(a) = lim a=lim (1 +h) =1.

1 T+1-
h+0
. f(1+0) = f(1-0)=1 and hence f is continuous at z =1.

EXAMPLE 8.2.5 Investugate the continuity of the function:

S l/z, when x # 0
) -1, when =0.
SOLUTION: The function has a left-hand continuity at c =0; since

f0-0) lim f(z) =

lim -z/s = -1 = f(0).
0

lim /a +1#f(0).
lim f(r)
=

Sut see that f(0+0) T+0+0

=

T+0+0

0.
not continuous at r =

(0+0)# f(0-0) and hencef is

EXAMPLE 8.2.6
sin hen r #0
fo)= 1 when a=0.
This function is continuous at a = 0. im sin T =1=f0
at a =0,
is continuous
AAMPLE 8.2.7 Prove that the follouing function f{c)
0
tohen z
z sin
e)= 0, whena=0.
= 0.
continuous at z
f is
and hence (see
0 = f(0) Chapter 7
shown in
=
sin(1/c)
validity Y imt =
0 has
been
of the ex
ed Ex. 7.3,10) stence of limrsin(1/z)
0
7.3,10)
 ANALYSIS:

TO
I N T R O D U C T I O N

AN interval I
332
is
continuous
in the
closed
(-a,a (a>
Prove that
r2
EXAMPLE
8.2.8
we can
prove thee following thre
foll
it
continuous
in |-a,a)
2will be
SOLUTION:

statements:

<a.

is continuous in
-a <t
i)
left-continuous
at a.

(i) a* is

*2 is right-continuous
at -a
(ii) c 2 U. 1 0 prove t is continauous at
<a; then
be any point in 0<
(i) First, let c
is the same as to prove
c
lima=c
e 0, we can find 6> 0 such sthat
This limit-statement is TrUE if, for any
<
|z*-¢]<efor all z e r-c
Now c<E^c2 -E < <+e and hence clearly,
0 <+E
or, Vc +e <T< Vc +eE
or, -(c+ V+e) <-c<vc2+e-c.
Since vc +e-e< vc+6+c, we choose 6 =the lesser of the two values c+V¢+
and v C + e - c = vc2 +e - c.

Thus I2-<e, whenever z e l c<8where = V+e -C.

The
0
contiuity of z
<a.
at any point c E0r<a implies that 2 is continuous"
Next, let (-c) be any point in -a <
t 0; c20.
Toprove: is continuous at -c i.e., to prove lim c = (-c)' = ¢.
C C
ie., for any e > 0, we are
to find 6> 0 such that
- < e, Voe lt +cl< 8.
As
before, see that j - c"| < t h e lesser o

the two values vc+-c e, whenever lc

and
z ¬ + cl<6, where o
Vc+e+c Vc+e
The continuity of at any
point of-a < t0
c.

Thus is continuous at any point of

is established.
-a < r <a.
(ii)2is left-continuonus at a, if
lim a2 =

ie., if, for any

&> 0, 38>0 such
l22<6, whenever 0
a - <6. that |r2- a2<e, Va Ea-
. ie,
 poSIl,

is any
that
1.
Suppose a in RT cov
verges toa.
1/q where
Case numbers

SOLUTION:
sequence
of
irrational
number
of the
rm
form 1/g where is a positive Thea
be a positive
Let fn} 0 while fla)
= a

s(Tn)
=
at a.
im is
discontinuous
RT.
integer.
Hence f number
in
irrational inteoer
3 a positive no such that
Case 2. Let b be an
property, numbe
Archimedean rational
of
the number
Then by finite
Let e> 0.
There a r e only
a
(b-1,6+1).
r
<e.
1 o r 1/no interval
E
ToE the open the solution of 3. of Exercise
than no in to see
i n a t o r less a r e advised
students
the
explanations
further
For neighbourhood
6,b +) contains
(6-6,6-
VII Section [B]] small that
the
chosen s o
0 can be less than no.
Hence 6 > denominators

numbers
with have
rational R*we
no and a e
for |r -
b|<6
It then follows that |f(»)|S E
SO)|=
Ifa)-
irrational number b.R
at the
continuous
precisely at
the irrational points
noin
Thus f is is
continuous

Thomac's function f ,
Consequently

in Rt
is irrational
is rational
but f(t) = 1-t,. if z
Let f() =
*, if r
EXAMPLE 8.2.11
at any other point.
is continuous at a =
1/2 but not
Prove that f

SOLUTION: At - )
if z is rational

is irrational

l0-)-(1- if z

is irrational.
i.e., even if r

ational

or*
(rational
Given any E> 0, we can make f(r) - f ()|<e
Vr

e r - < ôwhere d =e, i.e., f is continuous at =

At other points f is clearly discontinuous (why?).
t i o n s

Obserwation: The previous examples give answers to some intrig ntinuous at a

Can a function fail to be continuous everywhere? If a function is continr ointo r

n e x ta r t i o e

does it mean that it should be continuous in some neighbourhood o r e ext a

it possible that a function may be continuous at merely one point? lIn t
We shall see that how discontinuities can arise in various ways.
 oiecewise Contimuous Funct;tions:
Discontinm Functio
Continuous Functions
p e c e w i s eC o

netimes useful Iseful to consider

er functions which, while not
s0re nevertheless
made up of a finitecontinuous in a whole
number of continuous
erval,

nterva

led
are
a r e

preceuise
ontinuous functions.Tne formal definition is as pieces. They are
follows:
pefinition 8.3.1
a1 We
We say that j, defned 7
a, 6], is piecewise continuous if
and lim f(z) both erist;
im flz)
inuous at all but a finite number of points
f i s Continuou
in (a, b);
both left and right-hand
all points of(a,0) limits erist.

Digcontinuities

I noint at which a function f is not continuous is called a point of discontinuity of f.

will be obviously a point of discontinuity of f if f is not defined at

1ADoint co
also be point of discontinuity
2 Suppose that f is defined at to,-then To can a

mder any one of the following conditions:

does not exist. (Discontinuity of the Second

t either f(to +0) or f(to -

0)
kind.)
values (Non-removable
f(to- 0) exist but have different
tboth f(t0 +0) and
Discontinuity of the First kind). value is not
equal but this equal
both exist and are
o+0) and f(to-0) Discontinuity of
First kind)
a l to
fo). (Removable
then f is said
infinite (-oo or +),
s1f either f(co +0)
both are
or f(ro -

0) or

have an infinite discontinuity at To discontinuity

of first kind
point of point of
Any
nyopoint of discontinuity which is
not a
second kind, nor also a

Vemovable
able orA n o r a point of discontinuity of
Discontinuity
te discontinuity 18 called a point
of
Oscillatory

Juump yDiscontinuity
interval a, bj
Let f be defined on
a
closed
a n function
valued
) Let c be and at
point of la, b]. exist and arefinite
i f¢+0)
an
interior lim f(x)
both
then f is said
=lim
=
different,
f(r) and f(c-0)
and
f are
height
the telgnt
and f(c+0) calledthe
is called
wo of the f(c-0) a
f(c-0) flc- 0) is
umbers f(c),
f ( c + 0 ) - f ( c - 0 )

numbers
three nu
ethe yump
p mpdi
Moreover,

yat
discontinuity at C.i
at c.

mp Cof flr) at x = c.)

at c. also called Saltus
336

Discontinuity

Second kind
Infinite Oscillatory
First kind

Non-removable
Removable

For this function

0 and A (whatever A may be).
f(0)
vég, f(a)
=
\zl/7, for r # discontinuity at r =0,the
1 . Thus f has a jump
f(0 0) -1 f(0) A; f(0+ 0)
=

2.
height of the jump being
exists finitely and is
different from f(a), thenwe
(i At the point a a: If f(a +0) the
=

at a, height of the jump being f(a +0) -fla,

say that f has a right-hand jump

from f6) thene

i At the point z b: If f(b- 0) exists finitely and is different
=

say that f has aleft-hand jump at b, the height in this being f(b) --f{b-0)

An Important Erample of Jump discontinuity is the following:

than
GEXAMPLE 8.3.1 f(c) ={c|, uhere Ta]= integral part of t but not greu
has a jump-discontinuity at each integral value of , the height being l
SOLUTION: Let n> 0 be a
positive integer. We know
for n 1 <r<n, f(c) =
n 1
for n <n+1, (c) =
m.

Hence f(n+0) = n and f(n -

0) =n-1 and
f has a
jump discontinuity at r f(n) = n.
T.
=
n, the height of the jump Deing
f(n+0)-f(n -0) =n- (n -1)= 1.
take
Now n, a
negative
nayarie

tusion: for everyinteger or zero.

jat the conclusion
integer n, f hasArguing
manner we n
in a similk
eight 1.
a
jump discont
continuity of
 EWISE
CONTINUC
FUNCTIONS:
8.3.
P I E C

1SCONTINUOUs NCTIONS 337

rerample of
Jump diScontinuity
Another

T-|]. It can be shown that

fl) =

lim - 7]= h0+

lim (1+h) 1 =0;
f(1+0)=
-

T1+0

ol= lim -

|T] m_(+ h) -0 =
1l and also
f1-0)= 1-0 +0 f(1) = 0.
iump discontinuity at r = 1 of height 1.
Hencef C.H. 1981]
low a few illustrations of various types of
Wenow give Discontinuities
of FIRST and SECOND kind:
niscontinuity

38.3
ExAMAPLE .2 (Removable): Investigate the continuity of the function:
Sr) = #/z
S
but f(0) is not defined.
Fr#0 f) =z,

SOLUTION: Here f(0+0) = 0 and f(00)= 0 i.e., f(0 +0), f(0 -0) both exist
is not defined. Hence f has a discontinuity of first kind of
d are equal; but f(0)
Removable type (Removable, because if we would have
defined f(0) 0, then f would =

be continuous at t = 0 i.e., the discontinuity would be removed).

EXAMPLE 8.3.3 (Removable) Investigate the continuity of the function.

I-çosc
flr) 4
for a #0
for =0
od=0.

OLUTION: Here f(0+0) = f(0-0) = 1/2

nfact, lim T 2sin" /2 = z/2 sin

lim/22 /2/2.1=1-1
2
= but

z0 r2
=
lim
+0
10=1.
at (removable type).
h a s will discontinuity of first kind
a be removed if we define f(0) = 1/2.
he SContinuity

0 but not
EKAY Le 8.3.4 discontinuity of
first kind at a
=

f ( 0 - 0 ) . So
in
f(r)
hatTenovabl
ever uee.
has a
0. Here f(0+0)
=
|z
-1, f(0)
=

0 , f(0-0)
=
removed.
c a n n o t be
ve we
may the discontinuity
define f(0) 3.
kind at
=
r

AMPLE 8.3.5 d i s c o n t i n u i t y of
second
f(z)= a -3 h a s
a

does not
exist.
and f(3
-

0)
TON: Here f(3 +0) defined discontinuity

e3-0This is
3. does not exi:
a
exIst,
* Is a discontinuity
we
of second kind.
0 ; f(3)
conclude
is
that
not
the given
function has a

di
Infinite Discontinuity
has an infinate discontinuity atr 0.
EXAMPLE 8.3.6 f(c) =1/z
See that here f(0+0) =
f(0 -0) = oo.

Oscillatory Discontinuity
EXAMPLE 8.3.7

sin(1/), for t # 0
flo)= 0, for = 0

has an oscillatory discontinuity at t = 0.

sin1/r assumes all values between-1 and +l infinitely often i.e., it oscillate
often between -1 and +1 in any nbd of = 0, no matter however small that inhnite
be. nbd m

ExAMPLE 8.3.8 Give an erample ofa function f and sketch its qraph shoine.
i) f has a jump discontinuity at a point in its domain of definition;-
i) f has a removable discontinuity at a certain point in its domain;
(ii)-f has an infinite discontinuity in its domain of definition;
iv f has a point c in its domain of definition uhere neither f(c +0) nor f{e-
erists.

SOLUTION: () The function f defined by f() =c/|el, if r #0; =kifr=l-

a jump discontinuity at 0, whatever may be the value of
=

k. (See Fig. 8.1(a)

AY
AY

(0,k)
(0,1)A
0.1
O 2/ 2/T
B(0-1)

Fig 8.1(a) Jump

Thediscontinuity at, a 0. = a
points (0,1) and Fig. 8.1(b) Remova
in the (0,-1)
are not included
= 0.
() The function f graph. remo
discontinuity at r detined
0 (see
= by f(a) that = a
sin(1/c)
Tsin(1/z)
f{0+0) f(0 0)=0).
r
ifif # 0, f(0)
= J =rz
8.1(b))
= 1
has

=0). (See Fig. (See Fg