DR. CARLOS S.

LANTING COLLEGE

College of Maritime Education

Course Output

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of the

Course AUTOMATION 2

Under the Program

Bachelor of Science in Marine ENGINERRING

Title: INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL – Research no.1

Presented by: Obando, Jerico Reanzares. Date: September 14, 2021

Instructor: C/E Romel L. Cleofas,

MME Department Head: C/E Erikson

Bentulan Dean: 2/m Juanito Merano,

MaEd
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Introduction............................................................................................................................4

1.1 Define what is meant by Instrumentation........................................................................5

2.0 Define Process Control.............………..............………………………………………….5

3.0 Defining Measurement........................................................................……………….........6

4.0 Define Basic Characteristic of Measurement..................................................................6

4.1 Accuracy .............................................................................................................6

4.2 Repeatability.......................................................................................................7

4.3 Resolution............................................................................................................7

4.4 Hysteresis.............................................................................................................7

4.5Sensitivity.............................................................................................................7

4.6 Precision..............................................................................................................8

4.7 Reproducibility....................................................................................................9

5.0 Explain the Three Variables involve in Process Control.................................................9

5.1 Manipulated Variable..........................................................................................9

5.2 Disturbance Variable........................………………………………………......10

5.3 Controlled Variable............................................………....……………...….…11

6.0 Describe simple Process Control Loops using Black Diagrams....................................12

7.0 Difference Between Open Loop and Close Loop System..............................................15

7.1 Open Loop System.............................................................................................15

7.2 Close Loop System............................................................................................16

7.3 Key Difference Between Open Loop and Close Loop System..........................18

7.4 Comparison Chart..............................................................................................19

8.0 State the Essential Requirements for Automatic Operation of Machinery....................20

9.0 Difference Between Pneumatic, Hydraulic, and Electro-Technical Control.................21
Systems

9.1 Pneumatic Control System...............................................................................21

9.2 Hydraulic Control System................................................................................24

9.3 Electrical Control System.................................................................................25

10.0 Differentiate Between Analogue and Digital Device..................................................26

10.1 Comparison Chart...........................................................................................26

10.2 Definition of Analog vs Digital Signals.........................................................28

10.3 Properties of Analog and Digital Signals.......................................................28

10.4 Difference Usage and Equipment...................................................................29

10.5 Comparison of Analog and Digital Quality....................................................30

10.6 Difference in Application...............................................................................30

Conclusion...........................................................................................................................30

Recommendation.................................................................................................................30

Reference.............................................................................................................................31

3|Page
INTRODUCTION

An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates process physical variables such as

flow, temperature, level, or pressure etc. Instruments include many varied contrivances which can be
as simple as valves and transmitters, and as complex as analyzers. Instruments often comprise
control systems of varied processes. The control of processes is one of the main branches of applied
instrumentation. Control instrumentation includes devices such as solenoids, valves, circuit breakers,
and relays. These devices can change a field parameter and provide remote or automated control
capabilities. Transmitters are devices which produce an analog signal, usually in the form of a 4–20
ma electrical current signal, although many other options using voltage, frequency, or pressure are
possible. This signal can be used to control other instruments directly, or it can be sent to
a PLC, DCS, SCADA system, or other type of computerized controller, where it can be interpreted
into readable values and used to control other devices and processes in the system. Instrumentation
plays a significant role in both gathering information from the field and changing the field
parameters, and as such are a key part of control loops.

Control engineering or control systems engineering is the engineering discipline that applies
control theory to design systems with desired behaviors. Control engineers are responsible for the
research, design, development, and control devices/systems, typically in manufacturing facilities and
plants. The practice uses sensors to measure the output performance of the device being controlled
and those measurements can be used to give feedback to the input actuators that can make
corrections toward desired performance. When a device is designed to perform without the need of
human inputs for correction it is called automatic control (such as cruise control for regulating a car's
speed). Multi-disciplinary in nature, control systems engineering activities focus on implementation
of control systems mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse range.

4|Page
1.1 DEFINE WHAT IS MEANT BY INSTRUMENTATION

Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments that are used for indicating,

measuring, and recording physical quantities. The term has its origins in the art and science
of scientific instrument-making. Instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct-
reading thermometers, or as complex as multi-sensor components of industrial control systems.
Today, instruments can be found in laboratories, refineries, factories, and vehicles, as well as in
everyday household use (e.g., smoke detectors and thermostats)

Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and

operation of measuring instruments which are used in design and configuration of automated
systems in electrical, pneumatic domains etc. They typically work for industries with automated
processes, such as chemical or manufacturing plants, with the goal of improving system
productivity, reliability, safety, optimization, and stability. To control the parameters in a process
or in a particular system, devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but
their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.

2.0 DEFINE PROCESS CONTROL

An industrial process control in continuous production processes is a discipline that

uses industrial control systems to achieve a production level of consistency, economy and safety
which could not be achieved purely by human manual control. It is implemented widely in
industries such as automotive, mining, dredging, oil refining, pulp and paper manufacturing,
chemical processing and power generating plants.

There is a wide range of size, type and complexity, but it enables a small number of
operators to manage complex processes to a high degree of consistency. The development of large
industrial process control systems was instrumental in enabling the design of large high volume
and complex processes, which could not be otherwise economically or safely operated. The
applications can range from controlling the temperature and level of a single process vessel, to a
complete chemical processing plant with several thousand control loops.

5|Page
3.0 DEFINE MEASUREMENT

Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to

compare with other objects or events. The scope and application of measurement are dependent on
the context and discipline. In natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not apply
to nominal properties of objects or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of
the international vocabulary of metrology published by the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures. However, in other fields such as statistics as well as the social and behavioral sciences,
measurements can have multiple levels, which would include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
scales.

Measurement is a cornerstone of trade, science, technology and quantitative research in

many disciplines. Historically, many measurement systems existed for the varied fields of human
existence to facilitate comparisons in these fields. Often these were achieved by local agreements
between trading partners or collaborators. Since the 18th century, developments progressed
towards unifying, widely accepted standards that resulted in the modern International System of
Units (SI). This system reduces all physical measurements to a mathematical combination of seven
base units. The science of measurement is pursued in the field of metrology.

4.0 DEFINE BASIC CHARACTERISTIC OF MEASUREMENT

Characteristics that show the performance of an instrument are accuracy, precision,

resolution, sensitivity etc. It allows users to select the most suitable instrument for specific
measuring jobs.

4.1 ACCURACY

Defined as the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaching the true
value of the quantity to be measured. The measured quantity may be different from the true value
because of temperature, humidity, etc.,

Accuracy is expressed in the “percentage of full-scale reading”. In the case of instruments having a
uniform scale, the accuracy can be expressed as “Percentage of Full-scale reading.

6|Page
 The best way to develop the ideas of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the percentage of the
true value of a quantity being measured.

4.2 REPEATABILITY

Repeatability or test–retest reliability is the closeness of the agreement between the results

of successive measurements of the same measure, when carried out under the same conditions of
measurement.  In other words, the measurements are taken by a single person or instrument on the
same item, under the same conditions, and in a short period of time. A less-than-perfect test–retest
reliability causes test–retest variability. Such variability can be caused by, for example, intra-
individual variability and inter-observer variability. A measurement may be said to
be repeatable when this variation is smaller than a pre-determined acceptance criterion.

4.3 RESOLUTION

It is the smallest quantity being measured which can be detected with certainty by an
instrument. If a non-zero input quantity is slowly increased, the output reading won’t increase until
some minimum change in the input takes place. The minimum change which causes the change in
output is termed resolution.

4.4 HYSTERESIS

Hysteresis is a phenomenon that illustrates the different output effects when loading and
unloading. Many times, for the increasing values of input an instrument, may indicate one set of
output values. For the decreasing values of the input, the same instrument may indicate its different
set of output values. When output values are plotted against input the following kind of graph is
obtained.

4.5 SENSITIVITY

Sensitivity can also be derived as for the smallest changes in the measured variable for
which the instrument responds. Sensitivity can be defined as the ratio of a change in output to
change in input which causes it, in steady-state conditions. The usage of this term is generally
limited to linear devices, where the plot of output to input magnitude is straight.

7|Page
 Sensitivity = Change in output / Change in input

Sensitivity can also be derived as for smallest changes in the measured variable instrument
responds.

The term sensitivity is sometimes used to describe the maximum change in an input signal that
will not initiate on the output.

Note: The sensitivity of the instrument should be high.

4.6 PRECISION

Precision is the degree of exactness for which the instrument is designed. It composed of
two characteristics: conformity and significant figures. More significant figures estimated precision
is more. For example, two resistors for values of 1792 ohms and 1710 ohms. A person even
repeated measurement it indicates 1.7 K ohms. The reader cannot read the true value from the
scale. He estimates from the scale reading consistently yield a value of 1.5 M ohms. This is as
close to the true scale as he can read the scale by estimation although there are no deviations from
the observed value, the error created by the limitation of the error is called precision error. This
example indicates that the conformity is necessary but not enough condition, because of the lack
of significant figures obtained.

8|Page
4.7 REPRODUCIBILITY

The reproducibility of an instrument is how close the measurements of a single test sample
are when the same measurement procedures are used but when the operator, the instrument and/or
the laboratory are changed.

5.0 EXPLAIN THE THREE VARIABLES INVOLVE IN PROCESS CONTROL

In process control, there are three variables involve in process control the manipulated
variable, disturbance variable, controlled variable.

5.1 MANIPULATED VARIABLE

A manipulated variable is the independent variable in an experiment. It’s called

“manipulated” because it’s the one you can change. In other words, you can decide ahead of time
to increase it or decrease it. In an experiment you should only have one manipulated variable at a
time.

9|Page
An experiment generally has three variables:

1. The manipulated or independent variable is the one that you control.

2. The controlled variable is the one that you keep constant.
3. The responding variable or variables is what happens as a result of the experiment (i.e. it’s
the output variable).

You want to find out what the effect is of changing lesson lengths is on student exam
performance. The manipulated variable would be the lesson times, as that’s what you’re going to
change. Controlled variables would be things like ensuring the exam times are the same, or that the
students aren’t hungry (perhaps they should all be tested at the same time). The responding
variable is exam success, measured by actual scores on exams.

Manipulated Variables in Process Control

In process control there are two types of input variables: manipulated variables and
disturbance variables. In this context, the manipulated variable is the input that is controlled by the
process operator or control system. The manipulated variables are adjusted by the process operator
(or control system) to keep the controlled variables in the system at constant settings. The
disturbance variable is a second type of input, and it affects the process outputs. However, unlike
manipulated variables they can’t be adjusted by the control system. As a simple example, let’s say
you wanted to keep speed constant in a car. External factors like acceleration, friction or tire
pressure cause it to change. An accelerator (gas pedal) can keep the speed constant — figuring out
when to use the accelerator is the control. The state of the accelerator is the manipulated variable.
The process is speeding up, via the accelerator and the speed itself is the controlled variable.

5.2 DISTURBANCE VARIABLE

Disturbance variables are external factors with an undesirable effect on the Controlled
system. In the example of a (closed loop) controlled heating system, they can be fluctuations in the
outside temperature or the opening of a door and/or window. If the controller is well adjusted for
the expected disturbance variables, it exhibits a good disturbance response, and the impact of the
disturbance variable remains relatively small. If the Control loop includes an I element, constant
disturbance variables are fully corrected in the stationary state.
10 | P a g e
 Disturbance variables can occur at any point before, in or after the controlled system. If
one occurs after the controlled system, the reference transfer function is identical to the disturbance
transfer function. Consequently, the controller responds in exactly the same way to a disturbance as
to a change in the reference variable. If the disturbance variable acts on the controlled
system input, the interfering signal passes through the controlled system and is changed
accordingly.

5.3 CONTROLLED VARIABLE

A controlled variable is one which the researcher holds constant (controls) during an

experiment. It is also known as a constant variable or simply as a "control." The control variable is
not part of an experiment itself it is neither the independent nor dependent variable but it is
important because it can have an effect on the results. It is not the same as a control group.
Any given experiment has numerous control variables, and it's important for a scientist to
try to hold all variables constant except for the independent variable. If a control variable changes
during an experiment, it may invalidate the correlation between the dependent and independent
variables. When possible, control variables should be identified, measured, and recorded.

Examples of controlled variables

Temperature is a common type of controlled variable. If a temperature is held constant
during an experiment, it is controlled. Other examples of controlled variables could be an amount
of light, using the same type of glassware, constant humidity, or duration of an experiment.

Importance of Controlled Variables

Although control variables may not be measured (though they are often recorded), they
can have a significant effect on the outcome of an experiment. Lack of awareness of control
variables can lead to faulty results or what are called "confounding variables." Additionally,
noting control variables makes it easier to reproduce an experiment and establish the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables.

For example, say you are trying to determine whether a particular fertilizer has an effect on
plant growth. The independent variable is the presence or absence of the fertilizer, while the
dependent variable is the height of the plant or rate of growth. If you don't control the amount of

11 | P a g e
light (e.g., you perform part of the experiment in the summer and part during the winter), you may
skew your results.

6.0 DESCRIBE SIMPLE PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS USING A BLOCK DIAGRAM

First we need to know what are the major components a traditional control loop has.

1. The controller
2. A sensor/transmitter
3. A final control element

A controller that seeks to maintain the measured process variable (PV) transmitted by a
sensor or a transmitter. and a the final control element that implements in real life the decision or
solution taken by the controller. Common examples of a final control element are control valves,
relay switches and variable frequency drive to name a few.

To design and implement a controller, we must: have identified a process variable we seek
to regulate (e.g., room temperature like in the example mentioned), be able to measure it with a
sensor, and be able to transmit that measurement as an electrical signal back to our controller, and
have a final control element that can receive the controller output (CO) signal, react in some
fashion to impact the process (e.g., a control valve moves or a relay switch turns on/off), and as a
result cause the process variable to respond in a consistent and predictable fashion.

12 | P a g e
 As shown below Animation, the home heating control system described by wiki can be
organized as a traditional control loop block diagram. Block diagrams help us visualize the
components of a loop and see how the pieces are connected.

A home heating system can be a simple on/off control or a proportional control by adjusting
the amount of hot fluid by throttling a control valve. Nevertheless, we introduce the idea of control
loop diagrams by presenting a home heating system in the same way we would a more sophisticated
commercial control application.

A home heating system can be a simple on/off control or a proportional control by adjusting the
amount of hot fluid by throttling a control valve. Nevertheless, we introduce the idea of control loop
diagrams by presenting a home heating system in the same way we would a more sophisticated
commercial control application.

Starting from the far right in the diagram above, our process variable of interest is the house
temperature. A temperature sensor, such as a thermistor in a modern digital thermostat, measures
temperature and transmits a signal to the controller. The measured temperature PV signal is
subtracted from set point to compute controller error, e(t) = SP – PV. The action of the controller is
based on this error, e(t). In this example, home heating system, the controller output feds a varying or
proportional milliamp signal to a variable operating solenoid or servo valve (our Final Control
Element) that controls the flow of hot water.

13 | P a g e
As the energy output of the furnace rises or falls, the temperature of our house increases or
decreases, and a feedback loop is complete.

The important elements of a home heating control system can be organized like any commercial
application:

Control Objective: maintain room temperature at (SP) despite disturbances

Process Variable: room temperature

Measurement Sensor: temperature sensor, Thermistor

Measured Process Variable (PV) Signal: signal transmitted from the thermistor

Set Point (SP): desired room temperature

Controller Output (CO) or Manipulated Variable (MV): signal to the variable operating solenoid
valve.

Final Control Element (FCE): variable operating solenoid valve to control hot water flow

Manipulated Variable: hot water flow rate to chamber

Disturbances (D): heat loss from doors, walls and windows; changing outdoor temperature; sunrise
and sunset; rain…

With the loop closed as shown in the diagrams, we are said to be in automatic mode and the
controller is making all adjustments to the Final Control Element. If we were to open the loop and
switch to manual mode, then we would be able to issue controller output commands through buttons
or a keyboard directly to the Final Control Element.

Therefore:

Open Loop = Manual Mode

Closed Loop = Automatic Mode

14 | P a g e
This control loop block diagram will be a framework to more simple process control and even to
more sophisticated commercial control application. I hope you learned something. jump in to more
of my posts.

7.0 DIFFIRENCE BETWEEN OPEN LOOP AND CLOSE LOOP SYSTEM

One of the significant differences between the open loop and closed loop control system is
that in an open loop system the desired output does not depend on the control action. While in the
closed loop system the desired output depends on the control action of the system. The other
differences between the open and closed loop system are shown below in the comparison chart.

7.1 OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

In open loop control system, the output does not affect the control action of the system. In
other words, the system whose working depends on time is known as the open loop control system.
The open loop system is free from the feedback. Let’s understand this with the help of the few
examples.

Consider the clothes dryer whose control action is done manually by the operator.
Depending on the wetness of the clothes suppose the operator set the timer for 30 minutes. After 30
minutes the timer will stop even after the clothes are wet.

15 | P a g e
 The dryer stops working even if the desired output is not obtained. This shows that the
system has no feedback. Here clothes dryer is the example of the open loop system, and the timer is
the controller of the system.

The automatic washing machine is the example of the open loop system. The operator
manually sets the operating time of the machine. The machine stops operating after the set time, even
the desire cleanliness of clothes are not obtained. This happens because the machine has no feedback
system which signals the control action of the system for desired output.

The open loop system is simple, require less maintenance. Also, it is fast in operation and very
economical. But the accuracy of the system is less, and it is less reliable.

7.2 CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

The closed-loop control system means the output of the system depends on their input. The
system has one or more feedback loops between its output and input. The closed-loop system design
in such a way that they automatically provide the desired output by comparing it with the actual
input. The closed-loop system generates the error signal which is the difference between the input
and output.

16 | P a g e
 Suppose in the above example of closed dryer we are using the transducer which senses the
dryness of the clothes and provides the feedback signal to the controller relating to dryness. Here the
dryness is the output of the system. The sensor act as a feedback of the system. The sensor gives the
signal to the controller of the machine, and hence the dryer provides the desired output.

The air conditioner is the example of the closed-loop system. The air conditioner regulates the
temperature by comparing it with the surrounding temperature. The comparison of temperature is
done with the help of the thermostat. When the AC provides the error signal which is the difference
between the surrounding temperature and room temperature the thermostats turn on or off the
compressor.

The closed loop system is more reliable and accurate. But this system is very expensive and
requires high maintenance

17 | P a g e
7.3 KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

 The open loop system means the output of the system is free from their input. In the closed-
loop system, the desired output depends on their input.

 The open loop system is called the non-feedback system while the closed loop is the feedback
system.

 The control and controlled process are the two components of the open loop system. The
closed loop requires some components likes an amplifier, controller, controlled process,
feedback system etc.

 The construction of systems is easy because few elements are used in the system. The
construction of the closed-loop system is quite difficult.

 The open loop system is not reliable whereas the closed-loop system is reliable.

 The accuracy of the system is less as compared to the closed-loop system.

 The open loop system is more stable as compared to a closed loop system. Here the word
stable means the output of the system remains constant even after the disturbances.

 The open loop system is not optimized, whereas the closed-loop system is optimized.

 The open loop system gives the fast response, whereas the closed loop system gives the slow
response.

 The calibration of open loop system is difficult as compared to the closed-loop system.

 In an open loop system, the disturbance affected the output, whereas in a closed loop system
the output is not much affected by the disturbances.

 The output control system has a non-linear response, whereas the input control system has
linear responses.

 The traffic light, automatic washing machine, etc. are the examples of the output system,
whereas the temperature controller, toaster etc. are the examples of the closed-loop system.

18 | P a g e
7.4 COMPARISON CHART

19 | P a g e
8.0 STATE THE ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENT FOR AUTOMATIC OPERATION OF
MACHINERY

(UNATTENDED MACHINERY SPACES)

 Bridge control of propulsion machinery. The bridge watch keeper must be able to take
emergency control action, Control and instrumentation must be as simple as possible.
 Centralized control and instruments are required in machinery space. Engineers may be
called to the machinery space in emergency and controls must be easily reached and fully
comprehensive.
 Automatic fire detection system. Alarm and detection system must operate very rapidly.
Numerous well sited and quick response detector (series must be fitted.
 Fire extinguishing system in addition to conventional hand extinguishers a control fire
station remote from the machinery space is essential. The station must give control of
emergency pumps. generators, valves, ventilators, extinguishing media, etc.
 Alarm system. A comprehensive machinery alarm system must be provided for control and
accommodation areas.
 Automatic bilge high level fluid alarms and pumping units. Sensing devices in bilges with
alarms and hands or automatic pump cut in devices must be provided.
 Automatic start emergency generator. Such a generator is best connected to separate
emergency bus bars. The primary function is to give protection from electrical blackout
conditions:
 Local hand control of essential machinery.
 Adequate setting tank storage capacity.
 Regular testing and maintenance of instrumentation.

9.0 DIFFIRINTIATE PNEUMATIC, HYDRAULIC, AND ELECTRO-TECHNICAL

CONTROL SYSTEM

There are three control system Pneumatic control system, Hydraulic Control System and
Electro-Technical Control System.

9.1 PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM

20 | P a g e
 Pneumatics is a section of technology that deals with the study and application of
pressurized gas to produce mechanical motion. Pneumatic systems used extensively inn industry
ate community powered by compressed air or compressed Inert gases, A centrally located and
electrically powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, and other pneumatic devices. A
pneumatic system controlled though manual or automatic solenoid valves is selected when it
provides a lower cost more flexible. or safer alternative to a electric motors and actuators.
Pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas

Advantages:

Infinite availability of the source

 Air is the important thing in pneumatic system, and as we all know, air is always available
in world around us in unlimited quantities and places.

Easy channeled

 Air is a substance that is easily passed or move from one place to another through a small
pipe, the long and winding.

Temperature is flexible

21 | P a g e
  Air can be used flexibly at various temperatures are required, through designed for specific
circumstances, even in quite extreme conditions, the air was still able to work.

Safe

 The air can be loaded more safely than it’s not flammable and does not short circuit occurs
(consulting) or explode, so protection against both things pretty easily. unlike the electrical
system that could lead to fires consulting.

Clean

 The air around us are tend to clean without chemicals that are harmful, and also, it can be
minimized or cleaned with some processes, 30 it is safe to use pneumatic systems to the
pharmaceutical industry, food and beverages and textiles.

The transfer of power and the speed is very easy to set up

 Air could move at speeds that can be adjusted from low to high or vice versa. When using a
pneumatic cylinder actuator, the piston speed can each 3 m/s. For pneumatic motors can
spins at 30.000 rpm, while the turbine engine systems can reach 450.000 rpm,

Can be stored

 the air can be stored through the seat tube fed excess air pressure. Moreover, it can be
installed so that the pressure boundary or the safety of the system to be safe. ·

Easy utilized

 Easy air either directly utilized to clean surfaces such as metal and machinery. or
indirectly, i.e., through pneumatic equipment to produce certain movements.

Disadvantages

22 | P a g e
Requires installation of air-producing equipment

 Compressed air should be well prepared to meet the requirements. Meet certain criteria,
such as dry, clean. and contain the necessary lubricant tor pneumatic equipment. Therefore,
require installation of pneumatic system are datively expensive equipment such as
compressors, air filter. lube tube, dryer, regulators. etc.

Easy to leak

 One of the properties of pressurized air is like to always occupy the empty space and the air
pressure is maintained in hard work. Therefore, we need a seal so that air does not leak,
Seat leakage can cause energy loss. Pneumatic equipment should be equipped with airtight
equipment that compressed air leaks in the system can be minimized.

Potential noise

 Pneumatic using opera system, meaning that the air that has been used will be thrown out
of the system, the air comes out loud and noisy so will cause nausea, especially on the
exhaust tract. The fix is to. put a silencer each dump line.

Easy condenses

Pressurized air is easily condensed, so before entering the system must be processed first
in order to meet certain requirements, such as dry, have enough pressure, and contains a small
amount of lubricant to reduce friction in the valves and actuators.

9.2 HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEM

Hydraulic control systems include any operation rather than electronics are pneumatic
power. When control units within these systems are shifted the internal fluid moves throughout
the machines inner workings As it moves, this non- compressible fluid transfers force throughout
the system to shift gears or influence motion Hydraulic control systems rely on Pascal's law,

23 | P a g e
which states that liquid pressure will remain equally distributed within a sealed system. Many
modern machines rely on either hydraulic controls or a hybrid electric-hydraulic system.

Many types of equipment rely on some form af hydraulic control system, including
aircraft and aerospace vessels, Marine vessels and elevators also use these types of controls. as do
hydraulic eranes. Cars and tnicks typicaily contain nydraulic brake systems, and a variety of and
manutacturing machines also rely on these controls for safe and eftective aperation.

Advantages:

 No problem with misalignment which is the case for mechanical systems

 Compact and strong with no to gearbox for speed reduction

 No wear - na rustinig an everything is being lubricated constantly

 Easy to handle shock loads with a built in damper

Disadvantages:

 Relatively low accuracy icampared to electrical systema with speed reduction)

24 | P a g e
  Need to power pack and hosing

 Relatively slow

 Expensive and needs too many accessories

9.3 ELECTRICAL CONTROL SYSTEM

Electrical control system is the conreol of a machine or device by switches, relay or rheostats
as contrasted with electronic by electron tubes or by devices that do the work of electron tubes.

Advantages

 No time lag or transmitsion delay

 Linear and quick response and good accuracy

 No entrainment or contamination in controi medium

 Integrated control system and easier interconnections

 Low power requirements

 Speed of respense is substantially instartaneous

Disadvantages

25 | P a g e
  Complex networks

 Difficult maintenance and test kit requirements

 Not possible far fiame proof arcas

 Skilled maintenance regulationm

 Expensive layout

 Good and safe wiring layout required

 Suscoptible to line fluctuations of voltage and frequenry

10.0 DIFFIRINTIATE ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL DEVICE

Analog and digital signals are used to transmit information, usually through electric

signals. In both these technologies, the information, such as any audio or video, is transformed
into electric signals. The difference between analog and digital technologies is that in analog
technology, information is translated into electric pulses of varying amplitude. In digital
technology, translation of information is into binary format (zero or one) where each bit is
representative of two distinct amplitudes.

10.1 COMPARISON CHART

Analog versus Digital comparison chart

Analog Digital

Signal Analog signal is a continuous Digital signals are discrete time

signal which represents physical signals generated by digital
measurements. modulation.

26 | P a g e
 Analog versus Digital comparison chart

Analog Digital

Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves

Representatio Uses continuous range of values to Uses discrete or discontinuous

n represent information values to represent information

Example Human voice in air, analog Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other
electronic devices. digital electronic devices.

Technology Analog technology records Samples analog waveforms into a

waveforms as they are. limited set of numbers and records
them.

Data Subjected to deterioration by noise Can be noise-immune without

transmissions during transmission and write/read deterioration during transmission
cycle. and write/read cycle.

Response to More likely to get affected Less affected since noise response
Noise reducing accuracy are analog in nature

Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in

implementation.

Uses Can be used in analog devices Best suited for Computing and
only. Best suited for audio and digital electronics.
video transmission.

Applications Thermometer PCs, PDAs

Bandwidth Analog signal processing can be There is no guarantee that digital

done in real time and consumes signal processing can be done in
less bandwidth. real time and consumes more
bandwidth to carry out the same
information.

Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit

Power Analog instrument draws large Digital instrument drawS only

27 | P a g e
 Analog versus Digital comparison chart

Analog Digital

power negligible power

Cost Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily portable

Impedance Low High order of 100 megaohm

Errors Analog instruments usually have a Digital instruments are free from
scale which is cramped at lower observational errors like parallax
end and give considerable and approximation errors.
observational errors.

10.2 DEFINITIONS OF ANALOG VS. DIGITAL SIGNALS

An Analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature (variable)
of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another
time varying signal. It differs from a digital signal in terms of small fluctuations in the signal
which are meaningful.

A digital signal uses discrete (discontinuous) values. By contrast, non-digital (or analog)

systems use a continuous range of values to represent information. Although digital
representations are discrete, the information represented can be either discrete, such as numbers
or letters, or continuous, such as sounds, images, and other measurements of continuous
systems.

10.3 PROPERTIES OF DIGITAL VS ANALOG SIGNALS

Digital information has certain properties that distinguish it from analog communication
methods. These include

Synchronization – digital communication uses specific synchronization sequences for

determining synchronization.
Language – digital communications requires a language which should be possessed by
both sender and receiver and should specify meaning of symbol sequences.

28 | P a g e
 Errors – disturbances in analog communication causes errors in actual intended
communication but disturbances in digital communication does not cause errors enabling
error free communication. Errors should be able to substitute, insert or delete symbols to
be expressed.
Copying – analog communication copies are quality wise not as good as their originals
while due to error free digital communication, copies can be made indefinitely.
Granularity – for a continuously variable analog value to be represented in digital form
there occur quantization error which is difference in actual analog value and digital
representation and this property of digital communication is known as granularity.

10.4 DIFFERENCES IN USAGE IN EQUIPMENT

Many devices come with built in translation facilities from analog to digital. Microphones
and speaker are perfect examples of analog devices. 

Analog technology 

Analog Technology is cheaper but there is a limitation of size of data that can be
transmitted at a given time. n analog technology, signals are easy to synchronize with
smaller bandwidth. Another advantage is that they are easy to process and allow an
infinite range of values to be stored. However, a major con of analog signals is that
they produce unwanted noise and disturbance in the transmitted data.

Digital technology 

Digital technology is a base two process. Digitized information is recorded in binary code
of combinations of the digits 0 and 1, also called bits, which represent words and images.
Digital technology enables immense amounts of information to be compressed on small storage
devices that can be easily preserved and transported. Digitization also quickens data
transmission speeds. Digital technology has transformed how people communicate, learn, and
work.

29 | P a g e
10.5 COMPARISON OF ANALOG VS DIGITAL QUALITY

Digital devices translate and reassemble data and in the process are more prone to loss of
quality as compared to analog devices. Computer advancement has enabled use of error
detection and error correction techniques to remove disturbances artificially from digital signals
and improve quality.

10.6 DIFFERENCES IN APPLICATIONS

Digital technology has been most efficient in cellular phone industry. Analog phones
have become redundant even though sound clarity and quality were good.

Analog technology comprises of natural signals like human speech. With digital technology this
human speech can be saved and stored in a computer. Thus, digital technology opens up the
horizon for endless possible uses.

CONCLUSION

Based on the research that conducted there are some characteristics of measurement
that will help us to determine specific value. We understand the variables that involve in the
process control world and different kind of control system that utilize onboard ship. It has
benefits on maritime industry for better measurement.

RECOMMENDATION

I recommend this research to those students’ marine students to understand the

characteristic of measurement that help them to determine the value and to understand the
control system that use onboard ship specially the difference each kind of control system. It
utilizes onboard ship to know the function of different control system.
30 | P a g e
REFERENCES

https://ifsolutions.com/what-is-instrumentation-and-control-engineering-
systems-equipment/#:~:text=Instrumentation%20and%20control%20refer
%20to,Interfaces%20(HMI)%2C%20Piping%20and

https://instrumentationtools.com/what-is-instrumentation-and-control-
engineering/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_control

https://www.forecast.app/faqs/what-is-the-difference-between-accuracy-and-
precision

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeatability

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducibility

https://www.statisticshowto.com/manipulated-variable/

https://forumautomation.com/t/what-is-process-variable-and-types-of-process-
variables/2818

https://glossar.item24.com/en/glossary-index/article/item//disturbance-
variable.html

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/control-variable/

https://www.admet.com/open-loop-vs-closed-loop-systems-materials-testing-
industry/#:~:text=The%20main%20difference%20between%20an,known
%20as%20non%2Dfeedback%20controls.

https://www.academia.edu/16674084/ESSENTIAL_REQUIREMENTS_FOR_T
HE_AUTOMATIC_OPERATION_OFMARINE_MACHINERY
31 | P a g e