Sustainability 12 04192

sustainability
Article
Bioclimatic Approach for Climate Classification
of Nigeria
Tolulope Dorcas Mobolade and Parastoo Pourvahidi *
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architecture, Cyprus International University,
Via Mersin 10, 99258 Nicosia, Turkey; toludorcas0@gmail.com
* Correspondence: ppourvahidi@ciu.edu.tr

Received: 31 March 2020; Accepted: 13 May 2020; Published: 20 May 2020
Abstract: One of the fundamental determinants of buildings is the protection of the people who live
and work within them from a harsh climate, but a lot of buildings in Nigeria are no longer providing
the required comfort needed. The gas emissions through the use of mechanical equipment and
lack of energy efficiency in buildings are the major causes of climate change. The way architecture
responds to climate change is important. Thus, this research attempted, by using the new bioclimatic
chart, to prepare the new climate classification of Nigeria. The research was aimed at establishing
a bioclimatically based approach for architecture in Nigeria. By retrieving the climatic data from
thirty-six Nigerian meteorological stations about characteristics of each region, bioclimatic analysis
was achieved. According to the bioclimatic analysis of this research, Nigeria can be divided into
five different climatic regions, such as hot-dry, hot-humid, temperate-dry, temperate-humid, and
temperate-dry with a cool climate. We aimed to prove that the climate classification gives the proper
answer, dependent upon the vernacular architecture analyzed on Nigeria.
Keywords: Nigeria; climate classification; vernacular architecture; bioclimatic; energy efficiency
1. Introduction
One of the most important influences on vernacular architecture is the macro climate of the region
in which the building is constructed. Vernacular architecture is characterized by the use of local
materials and the experience of the residents, generally without the professional architect’s supervision.
Vernacular buildings, whether residential or built for other purposes, are usually simple and functional.
The vernacular architecture of Nigeria can be given a description through the building materials,
forms, and techniques leading to the vernacular forms of architecture, especially with respect to the
architecture of the three major ethnic groups, which are namely the Hausa’s in the northern region
of Nigeria, the Yoruba’s in the southwestern region of Nigeria, and the Igbo’s in the southeastern
region of Nigeria. Therefore, architectural forms within this context are tied to different ethnic cultural
practices [1].
Vernacular buildings across the geographic zones of Nigeria are known to show a response to the
climate and the techniques in which they are developed. Multiple vernacular buildings are associated
with the availability of natural materials for local builders as well as culture [2].
The primary function of buildings is to adapt to the prevailing climate and provide an internal
and external environment that is comfortable and conducive to the occupants [3]. Climate change
has taken a toll on the world and affects every aspect of the buildings [4]. It is the world’s greatest
environmental challenge. It is currently more obvious that the emission of greenhouse gases, related to
industrialization and economic growth from a world population that has multiplied six-fold in two
hundred years, is causing global warming at an unsustainable rate. The need for climate design in
architecture has always been of great importance [5]. The climatic design of buildings became a concern
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4192; doi:10.3390/su12104192 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 4192 2 of 23
when European and North American builders began to work in unusual environments—the tropics, in
the postwar years. The unfamiliar nature of these climates necessitated an analytical examination [6].
Buildings in Nigeria have been faced with undesirable thermal comfort. Most buildings are
characterized by poor design in relation to the climate, which requires a great deal of energy for
cooling during climatic extremes [3]. This causes an overutilization of energy in buildings and also has
negative environmental effects. Undesirable thermal conditions lead to discomfort among occupants,
which, in turn, has an adverse effect on their productivity and efficiency [7].There is a need for change
in the way buildings are made to ensure they have thermal comfort and also conserve energy, as well
as to produce buildings that accomplish ideal conditions for their occupants, while making the least
requests on fossil-based energy. It is therefore important to study, evaluate, and implement bioclimatic
architectural systems that contribute to reducing energy [8].
Furthermore, there are certain research works that show a challenging picture of Nigeria concerning
the building sector, focusing on aesthetics and high technology and lack of sensitivity to building
performance and sustainability issues. Secondly, due to the ideology that Nigerians have in the building
sector, which is that expensive means better, there is a challenge in mapping the manufacturing and
supply chains at the local level. For instance, Bellini’s (2020) research consisted of developing a business
environment adapted to the social/economic context and challenges, capable of stimulating a new
housing market and attracting and involving different users, such as modular settlements, to integrate
low-cost houses. The settlements are characterized by predefined housing rates affordable to at least
70% of the population; local culture-appropriate typological; incorporation of sustainable materials
and infrastructure to ensure efficient and accessible access to energy. In addition, there was an aim to
develop large-scale business ecosystems to create local markets and attract international investors to
revamp the building and related sectors. This revamp included defined production strategies (from
modern processes to local manufacturing), building material types, their sources (local resources,
recycled materials), building component types, local and foreign stakeholders, and business partnership
modes [9]. Therefore, understanding each climatic region in Nigeria for assessing this purpose was
vital. Another point of view, such as that of Sdino et al., suggests that by being fair-minded to work,
the idea of sustainability could be more comprehensive. It means that an involvement first should be
proper, meaning economically achievable; good, meaning socially accurate; and, in the end, beautiful,
meaning environmentally satisfactory [10]. Thus, in this research, by focusing on the environmentally
satisfactory aspect, the Olgyay bioclimatic chart was used to analyze the climatic characteristics of the
thirty-six selected cities, to get the climatic regions. Hence, the purpose of this research was to provide
residents with comfort in buildings and moderate energy consumption for cooling and heating to be
reduced. As a result, energy savings and a safe environment will be attainable. This prompted this
study that took a general overview of analysis in vernacular Nigerian architecture.
All this analysis also helps to achieve the goal of optimizing the advantages of climate designs and
reducing the use of mechanical temperature control devices in the building’s interior spaces. Using
local building materials and vernacular construction methods fuses the use of natural energy that can
bridge the gap between vernacular accomplishments of sustainable design and current needs [11].
2. Climate and Different Typology of Nigerian Vernacular Architecture

Each climate shows different characteristics, and so does the vernacular building of each region.
The differences are in the urban form, the building plan, material, roof type, opening size, and other
factors, according to the climate zone. Hence, this research investigated the vernacular architecture
by estimating five different climatic regions such as hot-dry, temperate-dry, hot-humid climate,
temperate-humid, and temperate-dry with cool winter. It should be demonstrated that these five
climatic regions are the same as it is proposed in section three. As a result, in the following, the typology
of Nigerian vernacular buildings in each estimated climatic region will be explored.
2.1. Hot-Dry Climate

The climate is marked by a long dry season and thus a short rainy season. This zone encompasses
some of the highlands and desert regions, with the strong influence of the wind pattern causing sand
storms. The hot-dry climate is characterized by high temperatures during the day with a sharp drop at
night and sunshine all year round, but the hours of sunlight drop a little in winter. Humidity is low,
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 28
especially in the summer, which causes rapid evaporation low rainfall [12].
The urban2.1.pattern
Hot-Dry is a compact settlement [2]. Houses in these climates are frequently arranged
Climate
in compact patterns, joinedis marked
The climate buildings and
by a long dryenclosed
season andspaces,thus a short one very
rainy near
season. Thistozoneanother,
encompassesleaving small
separations in some of the of
the form highlands
alleysand desert regions, with
or courtyards. Thethe strong influence
generation of the wind
of shade betweenpatternneighboring
causing sand buildings
storms. The hot-dry climate is characterized by high temperatures during the day with a sharp drop
reduces the warming of their walls and at the same time enables them to be cooled by contact with the
at night and sunshine all year round, but the hours of sunlight drop a little in winter. Humidity is
fresh air at night
low,[13]. Theinurban
especially enclosure
the summer, can help
which causes the city cope
rapid evaporation with [12].
low rainfall harsh climatic factors. Public
The urban pattern is a compact settlement [2].
enclosures will provide the residents of this area with a comfortable environment Houses in these climates are frequently andarranged
shade. Cities in
in compact patterns, joined buildings and enclosed spaces, one very near to another, leaving small
the hot and dryseparations
climate have problems with sand storms. Therefore, in
in the form of alleys or courtyards. The generation of shade between neighboring
order to protect buildings from
sandstorms, urban spaces and streets had to be closed on different
buildings reduces the warming of their walls and at the same time enables them to be cooled bysides with tall walls. These spaces
contact with the fresh air at night [13]. The urban enclosure
also have narrow, irregular streets, and discontinuous and compressed building patterns. can help the city cope with harsh climatic
factors. Public enclosures will provide the residents of this area with a comfortable environment and
Building shade.
formsCities are either round or rectilinear in shape. Central courtyards and open spaces are
in the hot and dry climate have problems with sand storms. Therefore, in order to
also provided.protect
It creates comfort in a building
buildings from sandstorms, and and
urban spaces is also
streets one
hadof the
to be main
closed elements
on different sidesofwith
developing a
tall walls. These spaces also have narrow, irregular streets,
house’s natural cooling system. The windows are placed toward the courtyard. The buildings are and discontinuous and compressed
building patterns.
composed of small and few openings of windows and doors. This is to create natural ventilation in
Building forms are either round or rectilinear in shape. Central courtyards and open spaces are
buildings, keep dust
also out, and
provided. alsocomfort
It creates reduce in ahot air from
building and is entering
also one of the indoor
the main spaces
elements during the
of developing a day [14].
The use ofhouse’s
a dome naturalroof cooling
and system.
flat roof Thedepends
windows are on placed toward the
the amount of courtyard.
rainfall in Thethebuildings
region. are Most earth
composed of small and few openings of windows and doors. This is to create natural ventilation in
roofing in Kano, Katsina, and Sokoto is flat, reflecting the scanty rainfalls in these areas. While towards
buildings, keep dust out, and also reduce hot air from entering the indoor spaces during the day [14].
the southwards region The use (Zaria), the and
of a dome roof roofs
flat are dome-shaped
roof depends on the amount to facilitate
of rainfall inquicker
the region.run-off
Most earthof the heavy
rainfall. Highroofing
floor in toKano,
ceiling Katsina,
heightsand Sokoto
are used is flat,toreflecting
allow room the scanty forrainfalls in thesehot
the lighter areas. While
air to rise and be
towards the southwards region (Zaria), the roofs are dome-shaped to facilitate quicker run-off of the
replaced by the heavier cooler air at the lower human level [15].
heavy rainfall. High floor to ceiling heights are used to allow room for the lighter hot air to rise and
In the dwellings
be replaced found in these
by the heavier climates,
cooler air at the the
lowerkitchen
human level is located
[15]. outside, to avoid adding heat to
interior spaces, whichIn the could
dwellings found intheir
worsen these living
climates,conditions.
the kitchen is located
The zankooutside,istothe avoid adding heat to projection,
horn-shaped
interior spaces, which could worsen their living conditions. The zanko is the horn-shaped projection,
which is often which
usedisasoften decoration on many compounds [16].
used as decoration on many compounds [16].
The buildingThe materials are stone,
building materials thatch,
are stone, thatch,and adobe
and adobe clay,clay,
whichwhich
have been have
jointlybeen jointly
used [17]. The used [17].
walls are
The walls are made ofmade
adobe of adobe
clay, clay,
which whichis ais good
a good thermal
thermal regulator,
regulator,to control temperature
to control extremes extremes
temperature
between day and night, keeping the interior cool during the hot day and warm during the cold nights.
between day and night, keeping the interior cool during the hot day and warm during the cold nights.
Round huts are roofed with conical thatched roofs made from cornstalks and grass that is very solid
Round huts are androofed
resistantwith conical
to insects. thatched
Rectilinear roofs
buildings made
usually have from cornstalks
flat mud and grass
roofing—timber pieces that is very solid
are laid
across each other and plastered with mud [14]. Table 1 demonstrates
and resistant to insects. Rectilinear buildings usually have flat mud roofing—timber pieces are laid the character of the vernacular
building in hot-dry climatic region in Nigeria.
across each other and plastered with mud [14]. Table 1 demonstrates the character of the vernacular
building in hot-dry climatic region Table 1.in Nigeria.
Urban and building typology in the hot and dry climate.
Hot and Dry Climate Source

Table
Urban form 1. Urban and
Compact building
settlement, typology
joined in the hot and dry climate.
buildings; [2]
Enclosed spaces,
Hot andnarrow streets;
Dry Climate Source
Inward-oriented building.
Compact settlement, joined buildings;
Urban form Enclosed spaces, narrow streets; [2]
Building form Rectilinear in shape,
Inward-oriented central courtyard and open spaces and high walls.
building. [14]
Rectilinear in shape, central courtyard and open spaces and high walls.
Building form [14]
Adobe served as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties;

Building material
Building material Adobe
Stone; served as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties; [1,17,18]
[1,17,18]
Straw, Thatch.
Stone;

Straw, Thatch.
Roof Table
Flat roof reflects scanty 1. Cont.
rainfall; [16]
Insulated roof slab Dry
Hot and helps decrease heat gain in summer and heat loss in
Climate Source
winter.
Flat roof reflects scanty rainfall; [16]
Roof Insulated roof slab helps decrease heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter.
Central courtyard and balcony The courtyard helps to create a state of comfort in the building and is one of the [19]
Central courtyard The courtyard helps to create a state of comfort in the building and is one [19]
main elements of developing a house's natural cooling system. No balcony.
and balcony of the main elements of developing a house's natural cooling system. No
Connection of building to ground The buildings are not raised because there is a low chance of a flood occurring.
balcony.
0.40 m–0.50 m wall thickness (insulating barrier);
Building wallConnection
and thickness of Highbuildings
The walls for larger
are notshaded
raisedareas, providing
because a reduction
there is of radiation
a low chance from the
of a flood [15,20]
sun;
building to ground occurring.
High walls allow the lighter hot air to rise and be replaced by heavier, cooler air
Building wall and at the lower human
0.40m–0.50m level, 4 m–4.5
wall thickness m. barrier);
(insulating [15,20]
thickness The use
High of light
walls colors
for larger in order
shaded to reflect
areas, excess
providing solar radiation;
a reduction of radiation from
Colours and vegetation [20]
Vegetation is also used to limit solar gain and it is often a feature of another
the sun;
passive cooling strategy.
High walls allow
The buildings havethe lighter
small and hot
few air to riseofand
openings be replaced
windows by heavier,
and doors;
Natural ventilation [14]
The Windows
cooler air at theare placed
lower toward
human the4m–4.5m.
level, courtyard to keep dust out and also reduce
the radiation and hot air from entering the indoor spaces.
Colours and The use of light colors in order to reflect excess solar radiation; [20]
2.2. vegetation
Temperate-Dry Vegetation is also used to limit solar gain and it is often a feature of another
passive cooling strategy.
The climate is marked by an average dry season and thus a short rainy season. This area is
Natural ventilation The buildings have small and few openings of windows and doors; [14]
associated with cold and dry harmattan wind, hot afternoon high-temperature range, and intense
The Windows are placed toward the courtyard to keep dust out and also
sunshine and cold nights, but not as much as the hot-dry climate. Temperature is characterized by
reduce the radiation and hot air from entering the indoor spaces.
high temperatures in the day with a drop at night. There are no severe changes in temperature like
the hot-dry climate. The climatic conditions generally exhibit only two different seasons, namely,
2.2. Temperate-Dry
a short wet season and a prolonged
The climate is marked bydry season
an average dry[12].
seasonThere
and thusis avery
short little rainfall,
rainy season. Thisbright
area is sunshine,
and average humidity, which
associated with coldcauses
and dryrapid evaporation
harmattan and average
wind, hot afternoon rainfall [2].
high-temperature The
range, andurban
intense settlement
characteristics sunshine
include:and cold nights, but not as much as the hot-dry climate. Temperature is characterized by
high temperatures in the day with a drop at night. There are no severe changes in temperature like
the hot-dry climate. The climatic conditions generally exhibit only two different seasons, namely, a
• Semi-compact.
short wet season and a prolonged dry season [12]. There is very little rainfall, bright sunshine, and
• The settlement
averagepattern
humidity,iswhich
compact.
causes rapid evaporation and average rainfall [2]. The urban settlement
characteristics include:
• Joined buildings and enclosed spaces.
• 
Continuous buildingSemi-compact.
pattern.
 The settlement pattern is compact.
• Narrow and irregular
 streets [20].
Joined buildings and enclosed spaces.
 Continuous building pattern.
The building forms are and
Narrow rectilinear and other
irregular streets [20]. characteristics of the building form in the temperate
dry climate include:
The building forms are rectilinear and other characteristics of the building form in the temperate
dry climate include:
• Small openings of windows and doors.
 Small openings of windows and doors.
• Central courtyard
 and open
Central spaces.
courtyard and open spaces.
• Flat or hipped roof.
Building materials are uniquely used by master builders, further subdivided into: earth, straw,
timber, and the stones with the earth material as the most prominent [21]. Earth is the most common
and abundant obtainable material, influenced by the temperate environment. Stones prevent moisture
and humidity, which are used in building foundations, walls, and facades [22]. Materials with high
thermal capacity, such as stone, are used in the open and semiopen spaces—their capacity to store heat
and emit it with a delay, when the air temperature is lower, is appreciated and used. Timber used is
obtained from the trunks of a male palm tree used to make frame constructions, elements for carrying
flat and domed roofs. The ashes of the timber are often used as an insulating layer when spreading
on top of flat roofs, treated with infusions from pods or roots to waterproof the top of flat roofs [21].
Table 2 verifies the typology of vernacular buildings in the temperate-dry climate in Nigeria.
totop of flat
store heatroofs
and[21].
emitTable 2 verifies
it with a delay,the typology
when of vernacular
the air temperature buildings
is lower,inisthe temperate-dry
appreciated and climate
used.
in Nigeria.
Timber used is obtained from the trunks of a male palm tree used to make frame constructions,
elements for carrying flat and domed roofs. The ashes of the timber are often used as an insulating
layer when spreading on Table
top 2.
ofUrban and building
flat roofs, typology
treated with in temperate
infusions dry climate.
from pods or roots to waterproof the
top of flat roofs [21]. Table 2 verifies the typology of vernacular
Temperate Dry Climate buildings in the temperate-drySource
climate
in Nigeria.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4192
Urban form Compact settlement, joined buildings, enclosed spaces, continuous [20] 5 of 23
Tablebuilding
2. Urbanpattern, irregular
and building streets.in temperate dry climate.
typology
Building form Rectangular form, small openings of windows and doors, central [20,21]
Temperate
Table 2. Urban and Drytypology
building Climate in temperate dry climate. Source
Urban form Compact settlement, joined buildings, enclosed spaces, continuous [20]
Temperate Dry Climate Source
building pattern, irregular streets.
Urban form Compact settlement, joined buildings, enclosed spaces, continuous building [20]
Building form Rectangular form, streets.
pattern, irregular small openings of windows and doors, central [20,21]
Rectangular form, small openings of windows and doors, central courtyard and [20,21]
Building form
open spaces.
Building material Timber; [1,21]

Stone;
Earth (high thermal capacity).
Timber;
Building
Roof material
Building material Timber;
Dome roof reflects more rainfall in this region and for a quicker run- [1,21]
Stone; [16] [1,21]
Earth
Stone; (high thermal capacity).
off.
Dome
Earth roofthermal
(high reflects capacity).
more rainfall in this region and for a quicker run-off.
Roof [16]
Roof Dome roof reflects more rainfall in this region and for a quicker run- [16]
Central courtyard and balcony off.

Central
Central courtyard Central courtyard
courtyardandandopen
openspaces areare
spaces also provided,
also thatthat
provided, act as
acta as
ventilator
a [20]in [20]
the summer days and serve as relaxation spots. No balcony.
and balcony ventilator in the summer days and serve as relaxation spots. No
Connection of building to ground Building on the ground.
balcony.
0.30 m–0.40 m wall thickness;
Building wall and thickness
Connection of Building ontothe ground. [15]
High walls create shaded areas, and reducing radiation from the sun, 3 m–4 m.
Central courtyard Central courtyard and open spaces are also provided, that act as a [20]
building to ground Light colors;
Colors and vegetation
and balcony ventilator in the summer days and serve as relaxation spots. No [20]
Shading by vegetation (vines) reduce the amount of heat gain during summer
Building wall and 0.30m–0.40m wall thickness; [15]
balcony.
while achieving sun exposure during winter.
thickness High walls to create shaded areas, and reducing radiation from the
Natural ventilation
Connection of The buildings
Building on the have small and many openings of windows and doors because the
ground. [14]
sun, 3m–4m.
dust and a sandstorm are less in this region than the hot-dry region.
building to ground
Colors wall and
Building and 0.30m–0.40m
Light colors;wall thickness; [20]
[15]
2.3. Hot-Humid Climate
vegetation
thickness Shading
High wallsby
tovegetation (vines)
create shaded reduce
areas, andthe amountradiation
reducing of heat gain
fromduring
the
summer
sun, 3m–4m.while achieving sun exposure during winter.
This exhibits a hot humid climate, which is referred to as the tropical rainforest climate or the
Natural
equatorial monsoon.
Colors ventilation
This The
andclimate buildings have smallby
is influenced
Light colors; and many
the openings
South of windows
Atlantic and doors
Ocean monsoons[14]
[20] brought into
the country by the air mass ofShading
vegetation the maritime tropical
by vegetation (MT),the
(vines) reduce a warm
amount ofmoist seaduring
heat gain with the seasonal wind of
the surface. The warmth andsummer high humidity give
while achieving sun it a strong
exposure tendency
during winter. to ascend and produce a large
amount of rainfall, which is aThe
Natural ventilation result of the
buildings havecondensation of water
small and many openings vapor in
of windows andthe rapidly
doors [14] rising air.
The hot-humid region is the southeastern part of Nigeria, which comprises of majorly the Igbo
culture. The buildings in this region seek to integrate spiritual, cultural, and lifestyle values into their
architecture. Igbo vernacular society is both phosphorous and communal. There are two vernacular
aspects of the Igbo culture, namely that the religious and group characteristics have always been
articulated and reflected in every Igbo society architectural design [14].
The temperature is characterized by high temperatures and a very small temperature range.
The temperature levels throughout the year are almost constant. Some areas record a maximum
of 28 ◦ C for the hottest month, while the lowest is 26 ◦ C in the coldest month [12]. There is very
high humidity throughout the year, which causes slow evaporation and lots of rainfall. The area is
haracterized by a humidity percentage of 70–90%. The rainfall is heavy and short in duration, often
characterized by frequent storms. The area has a lot of vegetation. The type of vegetation in this region
is mangrove swamp and freshwater swamps. The settlement pattern is open and widespread because
of the high amount of humidity [1].
A typical building contains a number of building units [1]. The design forms are generally
rectangular. Roof forms are also built in accordance with the building form and hipped roof.
The compounds are enclosed by an earthen wall with one entrance door [14].
Hipped roofs are used according to the amount of rainfall in the region [23] because flat roofs are
more susceptible to leakages and thus permit the incursion of water or rain more than ridged roofs. The
flat roofs often allow the accumulation of dirt and the growth of vegetation on them, thereby promoting
the retention of water, which leads to cracks [24]. Roofs are light in order to avoid heat storage from
radiation and allow cooling by air circulation and flow in and out of the building. The pitched thatch
roof and thatched roof with palm leaf fronds and grasses are commonly available in that part of the
country [1].
Ventilation is also very important in order to dissipate the heat in the interior and to reduce the
humidity of interior spaces. So, the buildings have large openings protected from the sun, while the
typical implantation of buildings uses long, narrow forms that are sometimes independent and distant
from each other, trying not to create barriers between the various buildings for the breezes. This is
also done by using courtyards. Open spaces within the compound make up courtyards [14]. Raised
floors are built so that they are protected from floods and also permeable to the air, thus completing
the ventilation facility of the whole envelope of the house.
The hot humid primary construction materials are grasses, clay, and bamboo. They are used
to manage climate
Sustainabilityconditions. Clay
2019, 11, x FOR PEER is used in creating adobe walls that adequately control
REVIEW 7 of 28 indoor
and outdoor temperatures. Thatched roofing is achieved by the use of either dried palm fronds
Table 3. Urban and building typology in the hot-humid climate.
or interwoven dried grass tied to wooden trusses [14]. It also utilizes ‘wattle and daub’ mud wall
construction, which are often then Hot Humid Climate
whitewashed to increase the resistance to rain [25]. Source
Based on Urban
all form
the2019,
Sustainability 11, x FORThe
overhead settlement
analysis
PEER pattern is open
REVIEW related andhot-humid
to the widespread because of the high
climatic zone,amount [13]
the authors
7 of 28 did the
generalization in Table 3. of humidity.

Table 3. Urban and building typology in the hot-humid climate.
Building form Long, narrow forms to avoid barriers between the buildings for the breezes. [1,14]
Table 3. Hot Humid
Urban and Climate
building typology in the hot-humid climate. Source
Urban form The settlement pattern is open and widespread because of the high amount [13]
Hot Humid Climate Source
of humidity.
Urban form The settlement pattern is open and widespread because of the high amount of [13]
Building form Long, narrow forms to avoid barriers between the buildings for the breezes. [1,14]
humidity.
Long, narrow forms to avoid barriers between the buildings for the breezes.
Building form [1,14]
Building material Timber, grasses; [14,25]

Bamboo;
Moisture-permeable finishes;
Clay used
Timber, in creating adobe walls that adequately control indoor and
grasses;
Building material Bamboo;
Timber,
outdoor grasses;
temperatures. [14,25]
Building material [14,25]
Moisture-permeable finishes;
Bamboo;
Clay used in creating adobe walls that adequately control indoor and outdoor
Roof temperatures.
Hipped roofs, light, permeable
Moisture-permeable finishes; roof to allow hot air escape. [23,24]
Hipped
Clay roofs,
used in light, permeable
creating roof tothat
adobe walls allow hot air escape.
adequately control indoor and
Roof [23,24]
outdoor temperatures.
Roof Hipped roofs, light, permeable roof to allow hot air escape. [23,24]
Central courtyard and balcony The courtyard is used for protection. Activities occur in the courtyards, during [14]
Central courtyard The courtyard is used for protection. Activities occur in the courtyards, [14]
the summer season creating shade. No balcony.
and balcony during the summer season creating shade. No balcony.
Connection of building to ground The floors of the buildings are raised in many cases, to obtain better exposure to [13]
Connection of Thebreeze
the floorsand
of the buildings
protection fromare raised
floods in event
in the manyofcases, to obtain better [13]
storms.
The walls to
arethe
lightly made
and of wattle and daub. Walls andevent
roofing materials are
Building wallbuilding to ground
and thickness exposure breeze protection from floods in the of storms.
[14]
rather light than heavy and are often permeable to air, 0.25 m–0.30 m.
Central courtyard
Building wall and The walls
courtyard is used
are lightly for of
made protection.
wattle andActivities occur
daub. Walls andinroofing
the courtyards,
materials [14]
Have high ceilings for enhancing ventilation that is strongly needed in the hot
and balcony
thickness during
and thelight
humid
are rather summerthanseason
climate, m–4.5creating
4heavy shade.
m. are often
and No balcony.
permeable to air, 0.25m–0.30m.
Connection of Whitewashed
The
Havefloors of to
theincrease
high ceilings the resistance
buildings
for enhancing raisedtoin
rain;
are ventilation many
that iscases, to needed
strongly obtain better
in the [13]
Colours and vegetation The vegetation is used to create shade; [25]
building to ground exposure
hot and to the climate,
humid breeze and protection from floods in the event of storms.
4m—4.5m.
Most vegetation that blocks the flow of air in this region is cut down.
Building wall and The
Natural ventilation walls are lightly madeopenings.
of wattle These
and daub. Wallsare
and roofing materials
from the sun[14]
Colours and The buildings
Whitewashed have large
to increase the resistance to openings
rain; protected [25] [14]
thickness using
are verandas.
rather light than heavy and are often permeable to air, 0.25m–0.30m.
vegetation The vegetation is used to create shade;
Have high ceilings for enhancing ventilation that is strongly needed in the
Most vegetation that blocks the flow of air in this region is cut down.
2.4. Temperate-Humid hot and humid climate, 4m—4.5m.
Natural ventilation The buildings have large openings. These openings are protected from the [14]
This zone Colours
is associated and with
Whitewashed to increase
coolverandas.
and warmthe resistance
winds, to rain;
cool temperatures, and low sunlight [25] during
sun using
vegetation The vegetation is used to create shade;
the day. The temperate humid climate of the southern part of Nigeria is characterized by high ambient
temperatures; 2.4. the Most vegetation
average temperature
Temperate-Humid that blocks
rarely fallsthe flow
out ofofthe
air in
24–30 ◦ C is
this region cut down.
range. High humidity ranges
from 60–95%,Naturalwhich prevents
Thisventilation
zone sweat
is associated
The evaporation.
with cool
buildings and
have warm
large Hot nights
winds,
openings. are experienced,
cool openings
These temperatures, and low
are protected which
the makes
sunlight
from duringsleeping
[14]
difficult [12].theThere
day. The temperate
is fairly humid
distributed climate
heavy
sun using verandas. of the southern
rainfall from part
March of Nigeria
to is
October, characterized
which by high as the
diminishes
ambient temperatures; the average temperature rarely falls out of the 24–30 ℃ range. High humidity
ranges
2.4. from 60–95%, which prevents sweat evaporation. Hot nights are experienced, which makes
Temperate-Humid
sleeping difficult [12]. There is fairly distributed heavy rainfall from March to October, which
This zone
diminishes as isthe
associated with cool and
wind penetrates warm winds,
northwards. The cool temperatures,
settlement pattern and low sunlight
is open, during
diffused, and
the day. Thebecause
widespread temperate humid
of the climate of
high amount ofhumidity.
the southern part of Nigeria is characterized by high
ambient temperatures; the average temperature rarely falls out of the 24–30 ℃ range. High humidity
ranges from 60–95%, which prevents sweat evaporation. Hot nights are experienced, which makes
sleeping difficult [12]. There is fairly distributed heavy rainfall from March to October, which
wind penetrates northwards. The settlement pattern is open, diffused, and widespread because of the
high amount of humidity.
The houses are built around courtyards, more often as four rectangular units facing one another [21].
There are sometimes secondary courtyards—these courtyards let in light and help to collect rainwater [1].
There is a simplified floor plan, with covered entrance veranda—each of these is a transition
zone between semiprivate indoor and public or semipublic outdoor spaces [26]. Roofs are Hipped,
hip-and-gable, mono-pitch local hardwood. This is done for environmental protection and conditioning
from too much rainfall. Buildings are also protected from solar radiation by shading from eaves,
verandas, and balconies.
Large openings used to let in and out air to keep occupants comfortable. High temperatures
and high humidity discourage evaporation of sweat from the body, but air movement promotes
evaporation, which brings comfort to the occupants. The building was raised with a foundation
platform in a case of flooding, raised about four feet (1.2 m) from the ground. The ceiling space usually
serves as a storage area for items such as valuables like clothes and other preserved foods [1].
Rammed earth is the most used material for buildings in the temperate humid region.
One significant benefit of rammed earth is a high thermal mass. It can absorb heat during the
daytime and release it at night. This action moderates daily temperature variations and reduces
the need for air conditioning and heating. Moisture-impermeable finishes are avoided because they
impair the ability of a wall to absorb moisture, which is a necessary quality to preserve. They are
also inherently fireproof,
Sustainability 2019, resistant toREVIEW
11, x FOR PEER termite damage, and nontoxic. Rainfall is usually heavy 9 of 28 in this
region, so permeable surfaces are needed to reduce storm water runoff, which if not attended to leads
Table 4. Urban and building typology in Temperate-humid climate.
to erosion and gullies2019,
Sustainability [26].
11, xTable 4 illustrates
FOR PEER REVIEW the typology of vernacular buildings in temperate
9 of 28 dry
climate in Nigeria. Temperate Humid Climate Source
Table 4. Urban and building typology in Temperate-humid climate.
Urban form The settlement pattern is open, diffused and widespread because of the high [26]
Table 4. Urban Temperate
andofbuilding
amount humidity. Humid Climate
typology in Temperate-humid climate. Source
Urban form
Building form The settlementorpattern
Rectangular squareisunits
open,and
diffused and widespread
the rooms because
all open onto of the
a wide high [26]
veranda [26,27]
Temperate Humid Climate Source
amount
aroundof humidity.
the courtyard.
Urban form The settlement pattern is open, diffused and widespread because of the high [26]
Building form Rectangular or square units and the rooms all open onto a wide veranda [26,27]
amount of humidity.
around the courtyard.
Rectangular or square units and the rooms all open onto a wide veranda around
the courtyard.
Building material Rammed earth; [26]

Moisture-permeable finishes
Rammed earth;
Building material
Building material Rammed earth; [26] [26]
Roof Moisture-permeable finishes
Hipped roof to facilitate quicker runoff of rain. [26]
Moisture-permeable finishes
Hipped roof to facilitate quicker runoff of rain.
Roof [26]
Roof Hipped roof to facilitate quicker runoff of rain. [26]
A big veranda or small courtyards.

Central courtyard and balcony
Central courtyard A big veranda or small courtyards. [1,26]
[1,26]
Balconies built in front of the room. These balconies act as thermo-regulators and
and balcony have the advantage
Balconies of both
built in front increasing
of the solarbalconies
room. These gain andact
preventing heat loss to the
as thermo-regulators
exterior.
Central courtyard Aand
big have
veranda
the or small courtyards.
advantage of both increasing solar gain and preventing heat [1,26]
Connection of building to ground The building was raised with a foundation platform in a case of flooding, raised [28]
and balcony Balconies built
loss tofour in front
the exterior. of the room. These balconies act as thermo-regulators
about feet (1.2 m) from the ground.
and have the advantage of both increasing solar gain and preventing heat
Connection of 0.20
The m–0.30
buildingm was
wallraised
thickness;
with a foundation platform in a case of flooding, [28][27]
Building wall and thickness
Multiple
loss to thefloors, 3 m–4 m.
exterior.
building to ground raised about four feet (1.2 meters) from the ground.
Colors and vegetation No color. missing
Connection of
Building wall and The building was
0.20m–0.30m wallraised with a foundation platform in a case of flooding, [28]
thickness; [27]
Natural ventilation Large openings, windows are required to let in and out air that is required to [29]
building to ground
thickness raised about
Multiple
keep the four3m—4m.
floors,
occupants feetcomfortable.
(1.2 meters) Air
from the ground.
movement promotes evaporation which
Building brings comfort to the occupants.
Colors wall and
and 0.20m–0.30m
No color. wall thickness; [27]
missing
thickness
vegetation Multiple floors, 3m—4m.
Colors and No
Natural ventilation color.
Large openings, windows are required to let in and out air that is required to missing
[29]
vegetation keep the occupants comfortable. Air movement promotes evaporation which
Natural ventilation Large openings,
brings windows
comfort to are required to let in and out air that is required to
the occupants. [29]
keep the occupants comfortable. Air movement promotes evaporation which
2.5. Temperate-Dry with Cool
brings Climate
comfort to the occupants.
The highlands of Nigeria’s temperate-dry region with cool climate are well above sea level at
2.5.
1520Temperate-Dry with Cool
m. This elevation Climate
is high enough to hit the cool–temperate climate line. The location is in one of
the highest areas above
The highlands sea level,
of Nigeria’s with mountains
temperate-dry andwith
region plateau
coolregions,
climatewhich areabove
are well located
seaabove
levelthis
at
2.5. Temperate-Dry with Cool Climate

The highlands of Nigeria’s temperate-dry region with cool climate are well above sea level at
1520 m. This elevation is high enough to hit the cool–temperate climate line. The location is in one of the
highest areas above sea level, with mountains and plateau regions, which are located above this height
have a cool mountain climate [30]. These areas are associated with cool and comfortable weather.
Temperature fluctuation between day and night in not large. There is low humidity and
precipitation. Heavy rainfall in the rainy season ranges from 1300 mm to over 2000 mm. The rainy
season lasts for four months, from June to September, with July and August being the wettest months.
Winter nights are cold. The rains are generally heavy and long in duration, often characterized by
frequent storms and ice pallets [31]. Hence, the general characteristics of the urban settlements in this
climate can be defined as:
• Compact settlement pattern.

• Narrow Streets to protect the pedestrian from the cold wind during the wintertime.
• Adjoined buildings to keep the thermal heat of the buildings for a long time.
• Outward-oriented buildings and inward-oriented buildings.
This region is cold for some months and most nights all year. Therefore, the settlement pattern
is compact and the majority of the buildings are connected. Thus, by connecting the buildings, the
contact of the warm space of the building with the cold environment will be less [32].
The building materials used are clay, timber, and stone. The adobe serves as a significant heat
reservoir because of the thermal properties. The climate has very cool nights and the high thermal
mass of adobe moderates the high and low temperature of the living space. Due to the extent of
movement with seasonal changes, walls are often built of impermanent materials such as reeds and
elephant grasses in very simple techniques [31]. Building forms in temperate dry and cool climates
have the characteristics such as:
• Building plan are square, rectangular.

• They are simple, more regimented.
• Centered on the exaggerated corridors.
• Balcony.
• Hipped roof to let the rainwater easily run off.
• Central courtyards.
• Inward oriented buildings with a central courtyard.
• Small spaces to make warming easier and faster.
Table 5 demonstrates the typology of vernacular buildings in the temperate-dry climate in Nigeria.
A major consideration in architecture has always been the need to design for the climate.
Bioclimatic analysis should be considered in relation to other environmental factors as an indicator
of thermal comfort in buildings. Thus, this research can be a reference for architects and designers
in Nigeria. The analysis of Nigerian vernacular architecture represents an altered characteristic of
a building regarding differences in climate. Hence, Nigerian vernacular architecture demonstrates
having five different climates. So, the purpose of estimating the climate of each city could be a step
forward in the architectural design the building by concentrating on the climatic factor, which could be
helpful to use less mechanical energy and more natural resources.
Table 5 demonstrates the typology of vernacular buildings in the temperate-dry climate in
Nigeria.
Table 5. Urban and building typology in temperate dry and cool climate.
Temperate Dry and Cool Climate Source

Sustainability 2020,Urban
12, 4192
form Semi compact settlement pattern; [30,32] 9 of 23
Narrow streets to protect the pedestrian from the cold;
Adjoined buildings to keep the thermal heat of the buildings for a longer
Table 5. Urban and building typology in temperate dry and cool climate.
time.
Temperate Dry and Cool Climate Source
Semi compact settlement pattern;
Urban form Building form Rectangular form;
Narrow streets to protect the pedestrian from the cold; [14,32]
[30,32]
Adjoined buildings to keep the thermal heat of the buildings for a longer time.
Balcony and corridors;
Rectangular form;
Central courtyards.
Balcony and corridors;
Central courtyards.
Adobe;
Building Material Timber;
Adobe; [31]
Building Material Stone; [31]
Timber;
Grass;
The high thermal mass of adobe moderates the high and low temperature of the
Stone;
living space.
Grass;
Roof Hipped roof to let the rainwater easily run off. [20]
Small central courtyard because the weather in most of the months is cool, and to
Central courtyard and balcony [20]
keep the space warmer, it should be small.
Has balcony.
Connection of building to ground Building on the ground
Building wall and thickness 0.30 m–0.40 m wall thickness. Walls are built of impermanent materials such as [32]
reeds, and elephant grasses in very simple techniques because of the seasonal
change, so they can be adjusted according to seasons. 3 m–3.5 m wall height.
Colors and vegetation Dark, matt or textured surfaces which absorb and re-radiate more energy than [32]
light, smooth, and reflective surfaces.
natural ventilation Moderate number of windows and doors required for the building. [32]
This research identified the role of bioclimatic charts in thermal comfort and energy-efficient
buildings. The purpose was to spread awareness among designers of the importance, how it can be
achieved, and to help solve the problems of overutilization of energy and discomfort in buildings.
Furthermore, the authors attempted to find out the climate classification in Nigeria for having energy
efficiency as it had in the past. Thus, in the following section, first, previous climate classification
that had been done by other researchers will be investigated. Secondly, this research represents the
analysis of thirty-six cities in Nigeria by using the new bioclimatic charts based on the Olgyay chart,
which can be used to acheive thermal comfort inside the buildings, limiting the use of additional
energy required for heating and cooling. This can be achieved by taking advantage of the climatic
conditions and adapting the architectural design to the environmental conditions. Although there are
other climatic charts that can assist the architect to better understand the climatic issue, authors in
previous research [33] retrieved an accurate result of the Iranian climate by using the new bioclimatic
chart, so in this research the same methodology was used. Consequently, in the following section,
the bioclimatic approach and methodology will be described for better clarity of the process of this
investigation for proving these five different climatic zones in Nigeria.
3. Analysis
3.1. Climate Classification

Climate is one of the most important factors that affect both architectural design and urban
planning. Due to various geographical positions on earth, height above sea level, topography, and
vegetation, a location’s climate develops. As a result of all these conditions, different climate regions
exist, and thus different climatic design criteria have been established [34]. Human beings have
adapted for centuries to the changing climate around them [35]. Adaptation is a process whereby
communities are better able to cope with an uncertain future. Adapting to climate change means
taking the right steps to reduce the negative (or mitigate the positive) effects of climate change by
making the right adjustments and improvements [36].
In most climates, a tremendous amount of energy is required to achieve comfort in buildings,
to reduce this energy demand the building envelope (roof, external walls, doors, and windows) must
obstruct the transfer of energy. The building envelope design needs to address and neutralize thermal
energy conduction, convection, and radiation related to thermal transmission, solar radiation, and
infiltration. Neutralizing begins with the optimization of the building’s orientation and geometry.
Consequently, one of the objectives that motivated the authors to do this research was related to the
climate change that most countries face now and will face in the near future.
Climate classification is a tool used to classify, group, explain, and simplify climate similarities and
differences between geographical areas to improve the scientific understanding of the climate. Climatic
zones are defined for a better understanding of the workings of the global climatic system [37]. Climate
classification methods are majorly divided into two types. The empirical methods, which focus on the
effects of climate, and genetic methods, which focus on the causes of climates. Empirical methods are
used to observe environmental data such as temperature, humidity, and precipitation. On the other
hand, genetic methods identify a climate based on its causal elements, behavior, and characteristics of
all factors (circulation systems, solar radiation, topography, etc.) that give rise to spatial and temporal
climate data patterns. While empiric classifications are largely climate-descriptive, genetic methods
are explanatory. However, empiric classifications are widely adopted for all practical applications [38].
Köppen climate classification is the most widely recognized and used classification in
Nigeria. It is a vegetation-based and empirical climate classification system developed by German
botanist/climatologist Wladimir Köppen [39]. Köppen climate classifications of Nigeria are warm
desert climate (BWh), warm semi-arid climate (BSh), monsoon climate (Am), and tropical savanna
climate (Aw) (Figure 1). It is used in extreme events, like drought or an unusual cold snap, or even is
significant in controlling vegetation distribution. Due to the fact that in climate classification, factors
such as wind and sunshine are more significant than vegetation, Koppen did the classification based on
that [40]. However, this research’s analysis was based on the new bioclimatic chart of Olgay in order
to find out the climate classification based on the mean maximum air temperature, mean maximum
relative humidity, mean minimum air temperature, and mean minimum relative humidity.
Figure
Figure 1. 1. Köppenclimate
Köppen climate classification
classificationof Nigeria [41]. [41].
of Nigeria
According to Olgyay (1963), the “classifications are not directly applicable to housing”. This can
be connected to the absence of humidity as a variable for classification, an important thermal comfort
factor [42].
Nigeria is a tropical area and these areas are generally referred to as the overheated regions [43].
Based on Bowen’s latitudinal classification, Nigeria—being 4° and 14° N—strictly falls within the
area labelled as a warm-humid region. The general climate in sub-Saharan West Africa is controlled
by two main factors:
According to Olgyay (1963), the “classifications are not directly applicable to housing”. This can
be connected to the absence of humidity as a variable for classification, an important thermal comfort
factor [42].
Nigeria is a tropical area and these areas are generally referred to as the overheated regions [43].
Based on Bowen’s latitudinal classification, Nigeria—being 4◦ and 14◦ N—strictly falls within the area
labelled as a warm-humid region. The general climate in sub-Saharan West Africa is controlled by two
main factors:
(1) Daily heating and cooling of the landmass of the Sahara Desert;
(2) Heating and cooling of the large body of water in the Atlantic Ocean [44].
Therefore, there are two recognized seasons in Nigeria, the dry season starts November to March
and the rainy season starts April, ending in October. The dry season is the result of the Saharan air
mass, starts from the end of October to March approximately. This is called the harmattan’s winter
season and it is unusually dry wind. The wet season is a result of the moist, cool air mass of the
Atlantic, which starts from May and ends [20]. There is a major variation of climate as one moves from
the coast to the northern parts of the country, and the climate of a particular location varies with the
time of the year, the latitude of the location, and landscape [45].
In recent times, a number of researchers have focused their activities on the classification of the
Nigerian climate using different methods of classification. It has been divided into various climatic
zones, some of these classifications are in conflict with the other, with different methods of classification.
For example, Ogonsote mentioned that Nigeria has six zones, such as the coastal zone, forest zone,
transitional zone, savannah zone, highland zone, and semidesert zone [38], and Komolafe has four
zones, such as hot-dry, temperate-dry, hot-humid, and warm-humid [46]. Most of the classifications
were not made with the consideration of building design and contrasting variations within each
classification. More notably, the climate classification of Köppen demonstrated the conflict with today’s
climatic situation in different regions of Nigeria. Due to all of these facts, this research endeavored to
do a classification by considering temperature and relative humidity.
Climatic classification useful for architectural building design must consist of a combination of
temperature, relative humidity, and mean radiant temperature and wind velocity. Climate conditions
do not affect the comfort of people alone—they can also affect the protection of buildings, cause damage
to building materials, and premature fatigue [47]. Most of the classifications that are already done are
based on temperature, relative humidity, and mean radiant temperature and wind velocity.
There are similarities in the climate classification done by all the researchers seen above, appearing
in different titles. The major difference is the variable used to define climate classification. A common
disadvantage of the climate classification is that they show distinct boundaries between the zones they
define, rather than of the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature. Köppen
defining climate zones based on Vegetation. The northern part of Nigeria has a zone with a high
altitude and surrounded by mountains, which was not detected in Köppen’s climate classification.
The zone has a cool climate and higher rainfall than other parts of the hot and dry region. For climate
classification accuracy, it needs to be done with mean temperature and humidity (Table 6).
The definition of climatic zones for architectural design in Nigeria done by other researchers
is contradicting. Divisions of the country into southern and northern regions done by the National
Universities Commission are obviously too simplistic and lacking in scientific conviction. It will also
not be good for architectural building design. Other detailed methods, like the Atkinson, Ogunsote O.
O, and Komolafe classifications, are capable of showing scientific relations between the climates and
building design.
Table 6. Climate classification of Nigeria.
Researcher Climate Division Method Climate Classification

Warm Dessert Climate (BWh),
Vegetation-based empirical Warm Semi-arid Climate (BSh),
Wladimir Peter Köppen 4 climate classification system Monsoon Climate (Am),
Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw)
Zone I
The analysis was done based on Zone II, IIa
Nick Hollo 4 climate descriptions Zone III, IIIa
Zone IV
Analysis of hot climates in relation Composite
to building needs using
Temperate
Atkinson Classification 4 temperature, humidity,
precipitation, sky conditions, Solar Hot-Dry
Radiation and special conditions Warm Humid
Northern Zone
Analysis of seasons, air
National Universities Southern Zone
2 temperature, humidity, wind, and
Commission Method
annual rainfall Transitional Zone
Hot-Dry,
Temperate Dry
Komolafe 4
Hot-Humid And
Warm Humid
Coastal Zone
Based on the concept of
Forest Zone
adaptation and set theory. Layout,
Ogunsote O. O 6 Spacing, Air Movement, Transitional Zone
Openings, Walls, Roofs, Rain Savannah Zone
Protection, Outdoor Sleeping
Highland Zone
Semi-Desert Zone
The classification of Ogunsote O. O is done based on the concept of adaptation and set theory.
According to Sommerhof (1968), adaptive systems are characterized as systems that have the ability
to react to their environment in a manner favorable to the system’s continued operation [48]. This
uses the Sommerh concept of adaptation to create the relation between the set of climates and the
set of possible alternative architectural responses, so that one and only one element in the second
set results from any element in the first set. However, when basic climatic information is given for
any location in Nigeria, the proposed system can be used to determine the climatic design zone [42].
Consequently, architects in Nigeria are faced with different classifications, however, none of these
classifications can be applied because they are not recent and due to climate change that humans will
face in the near future. In addition is the fact that some of the previous classifications only considered
the primary elements of the building, adaptations of the building, or they only did the classification by
vegetation. Thus, this research was done by collecting the latest data from meteorological organizations,
endeavoring to achieve the most updated version of the classification, which will be useful for the future.
3.2. Methodology
The comfort zone is a situation in which a person has to make the least effort to adapt to the
environment. To obtain thermal comfort in buildings, the use of the bioclimatic chart is important.
A bioclimatic chart is a preliminary analysis tool used throughout the first planning stages of a building
project. Olgyay were the pioneers of bioclimatic charts. They proposed a process of building design
that is based on human thermal requirements and local climatic conditions [49].
The use of a bioclimatic chart can help an architect use specific building techniques and methods
to scale back energy consumption, including a passive solar heating plant, natural cooling systems and
techniques, and natural lighting systems and techniques [50]. Historical data related to temperature
and relative humidity are plotted in the chart. The comfort zone for various types of built environments
can be explored in this chart and corrective measures essential for factors such as wind, solar radiation,
and shading can also be identified [8].
The methodology used is the preliminary qualitative analysis, including assessment of the
bioclimatic elements of the urban form and vernacular dwellings of Nigeria. It is also based on the
quantitative methods of using climate data. Data are based on climatic conditions in this study. So,
they are obtained from the meteorological stations in Nigeria. In this research, the concept of a passive
house is characterized as a house that does not require a mechanical HVAC system to be used for
heating or cooling purposes.
Plotting the bioclimatic charts of thirty-six cities in Nigeria was done by finding the data of mean
minimum and mean maximum air temperature and the mean relative humidity each month for twelve
months. Afterwards, by arranging them based on similar behaviors, this study classified them into five
different groups. The bioclimatic tool is well known and is believed to be an appropriate chart for the
investigation of a strategy for designing residential buildings [51] that correspond to the climate. The
proposed climate classification model can easily be used in architecture by just considering the climatic
region where the building is going to be constructed. In summary, the flow chart below demonstrates
the different steps of this research to attain the five different climate classification (Figure 2). 17 of 28
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Analyzing typology of vernacular Nigerian architecture
Nigerian vernacular typology variation

demonstrates different climatic region
Investigating the previous studies regarding

Nigerian climatic classification.
Due to climate change, this research attempted to develop an up-to-date climate

classification of Nigeria by using the new bioclimatic chart
Plotting the new bioclimatic charts of thirty-six cities in Nigeria.
Nigeria divided into five different climatic regions
2. Different steps
Figure 2. steps of
of achieving
achieving climate
climate classification
classification of
of Nigeria.
Nigeria.
In
In the
the following
following section,
section, the
the accomplishment
accomplishment of the bioclimatic analysis in the different
different climatic
climatic
zones in Nigeria has been clarified.
zones in Nigeria has been clarified.
3.3.
3.3. Bioclimatic
Bioclimatic Analysis
Analysis of
of Different
Different Climate
Climate Zones
Zones in
in Nigeria
Nigeria
The
The bioclimatic
bioclimaticchart
chartanalysis
analysisenables
enablesthe
thedetermination
determination ofof
appropriate strategies
appropriate to to
strategies be be
adopted in
adopted
the building design in order to achieve indoor thermal comfort. Due to the different climatic
in the building design in order to achieve indoor thermal comfort. Due to the different climatic conditions
in each climatic
conditions zone,
in each different
climatic studies
zone, havestudies
different been done
have[33].
been done [33].
To create a new bioclimatic chart of Nigeria, the monthly statistical data were collected from
cities for five years. The chart was plotted using the mean maximum and minimum temperature and
the average maximum and minimum relative humidity by retrieving all the climatic data from the
climate meteorological center. These were plotted according to the data of each month, over a period
of one year. Therefore, in each bioclimatic chart, there are twelve lines that represent the twelve
months of a year. Afterwards, thirty-six states of Nigeria were chosen, and a city was selected from
To create a new bioclimatic chart of Nigeria, the monthly statistical data were collected from cities
for five years. The chart was plotted using the mean maximum and minimum temperature and the
average maximum and minimum relative humidity by retrieving all the climatic data from the climate
meteorological center. These were plotted according to the data of each month, over a period of one
year. Therefore, in each bioclimatic chart, there are twelve lines that represent the twelve months of a
year. Afterwards, thirty-six states of Nigeria were chosen, and a city was selected from each state of
Nigeria, thereby leaving thirty-six bioclimatic charts. The temperature unit (◦ C) and relative humidity
(%) was attained from the meteorological center of Nigeria. According to the new bioclimatic chart,
based on thirty-six cities, there are five different climate regions in Nigeria such as: the hot and dry,
temperate-dry, hot-humid, temperate-humid, and temperate-dry with a cool climate (Table 7).
Table 7. Climate classifications based on climatic division and new bioclimatic chart.
Hot-Dry Temperate Hot-Humid Temperate Temperate Dry with
Dry Humid Cool Climate
Mean average values of dry Min. 25–31 18–24 20–37 23–30 13–20
bulb temperature Max. 31–45 29–35 20–37 26–28 25–30
Average of relative humidity (min-max) (%) 25–60 40–80 70–100 60–90 40–80
Precipitation (mm) 50–155 1500 2000–4000 2000 1100–2000
Sky conditions Clear Clear Fog, cloudy Fair cloudy Clear
Solar radiation Direct, strong Strong, Painful glare Strong, Strong
direct direct
Winds Hot, dusty Coastal Low velocity Trade winds Coastal winds
winds calm
Vegetation Sparse Sparse Luxuriant Very Green
luxuriant
Special Conditions Dust sand storms Dust and Fog Fog Heavy dew, fog, hail
termites sand storms thunder-storm thunder-storm
In the following figures, five samples randomly chosen beyond the thirsty-six cities to describe
the characteristics of each climate on the new bioclimatic charts are shown.
In Figure 3, the new bioclimatic chart on the left-hand side represents all the lines that are above
the comfortable zone and are located in the area that needs wind and the average relative humidity
is between 70–100%. Therefore, this climate has humidity, and since the mean maximum and mean
minimum dry bulb temperature is 28 ◦ C, this study considered it a hot-humid climate. In the right-hand
side new bioclimatic chart, the majority of the lines are so close to the comfort zone and close to the
area that needs wind. In addition, the average relative humidity in this climatic region is between
60–90%. Also, the mean maximum and mean minimum of dry bulb temperature is between 26 ◦ C and
27 ◦ C. As a result, this study classified it as a temperature-humid climate.
In the following Figure 4, this study classified the other climatic region as the temperate-dry with
a cool climate. Some of the lines are positioned beyond and under the comfortable zone. This can
signify both temperate and also a sun-needed zone. The mean maximum and mean minimum dry
bulb temperature, which is between 16–27 ◦ C, means it is not very cold and also it is not very hot.
Hence, this study considered it a temperate-dry with cool climate. On the right-hand side, in the
new bioclimatic chart that represents the hot-dry climatic region, all the lines are allocated toward
the moisture-needed zone that represents the dry climatic condition and also since the maximum air
temperature is between 28–38 ◦ C characterized as the hot and dry climatic region.
Furthermore, the fifth climate classification is revealed by concentrating all the lines in and above
the climatic zone (Figure 5). Considering the lines close to the moisture-needed area that signify the
dry climatic condition and the mean maximum and mean minimum air temperature, which is 21 to
32 ◦ C, this study categorized it as the temperate-dry climate in Nigeria. Table 8 demonstrates all the
cities in different climatic zones with their bioclimatic chart. Furthermore, it should be clarified that
this grouping of classification was done based on graphical distribution lines on each bioclimatic chart.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Hot-humid (a) climate and temperate-humid (b) climate of Nigeria.
In the following Figure 4, this study classified the other climatic region as the temperate-dry
with a cool climate. Some of the lines are positioned beyond and under the comfortable zone. This
can signify both temperate and also a sun-needed zone. The mean maximum and mean minimum
dry bulb temperature, which is between 16–27 ℃, means it is not very cold and also it is not very hot.
Hence, this study considered it a temperate-dry with cool climate. On the right-hand side, in the new
(a)
bioclimatic chart that represents the hot-dry climatic region, all the lines(b) are allocated toward the
moisture-needed zone that represents the dry climatic condition and also since the maximum air
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Hot-humid (a)
(a) climate
climate and
and temperate-humid
temperate-humid (b)
(b) climate
climate of
of Nigeria.
Nigeria.
temperature is between 28–38 ℃ characterized as the hot and dry climatic region.
In the following Figure 4, this study classified the other climatic region as the temperate-dry
with a cool climate. Some of the lines are positioned beyond and under the comfortable zone. This
can signify both temperate and also a sun-needed zone. The mean maximum and mean minimum
dry bulb temperature, which is between 16–27 ℃, means it is not very cold and also it is not very hot.
Hence, this study considered it a temperate-dry with cool climate. On the right-hand side, in the new
bioclimatic chart that represents the hot-dry climatic region, all the lines are allocated toward the
moisture-needed zone that represents the dry climatic condition and also since the maximum air
temperature is between 28–38 ℃ characterized as the hot and dry climatic region.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Temperate-dry with cool climate (a) and hot-dry (b) climate of Nigeria.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Temperate-dry with cool climate (a) and hot-dry (b) climate of Nigeria.
Figure 5. Temperate dry climate of Nigeria.
Table 8. Climate classification map of Nigeria showing five climatic regions from the
Table 8. Climate classification map of Nigeria showing five climatic
bioclimatic chart. regions from the bioclimatic chart.
Five climate
Five climate classification of Nigeria
classification of
Nigeria

Hot-Humid
Climate (a)
Hot-Humid Climate Hot-Humid
(a)
Climate (a)
Cities: Cross River, Anambra, Imo, Ebonyi, Delta, Bayelsa, Ogun, Lagos,
Rivers,
Cities: Cross River, Anambra, Imo, Ebonyi, Delta,Akwa Ibom,
Bayelsa, Abia
Ogun, Lagos, Rivers, Akwa Ibom, Abia
Cities: Cross River, Anambra, Imo, Ebonyi, Delta, Bayelsa, Ogun, Lagos,
Bioclimatic
Bioclimatic chart Rivers, Akwa Ibom, Abia
chart
Bioclimatic
chart
Temperate-
Table 8. Cont.
Temperate-
Humid Climate
Temperate-
Temperate-
Humid
Temperate-Humid Climate (b)Climate
Humid (b)
Climate
Humid Climate
(b)
(b)
(b)
Cities: Benue, Kwara, Oyo, Ekiti, Kogi, Osun, Edo, Ondo, Enugu
Cities: Benue, Kwara, Oyo, Ekiti, Kogi, Osun, Edo, Ondo, Enugu
Cities:
Bioclimatic
Cities: Benue,
Benue, Kwara,
Kwara, Oyo,Oyo,
Ekiti,Ekiti,
Kogi,Kogi,
Osun,Osun, Edo, Enugu
Edo, Ondo, Ondo, Enugu
Bioclimatic Benue, Kwara, Oyo, Ekiti, Kogi, Osun, Edo, Ondo, Enugu
Cities:
chart
Bioclimatic
Bioclimatic
chart
Bioclimatic chart
chart
chart
Temperate-Dry
Temperate-Dry
With Cool
Temperate-Dry
Temperate-Dry
With Cool
Climate
Temperate-Dry With Cool Climate (c)
(c) Cool
With
With Cool
Climate (c)
Climate (c)
Climate (c)
Cities:
Cities: Plateau
Plateau
Cities: Plateau
Bioclimatic
Bioclimatic chart Cities: Plateau
Bioclimatic Cities: Plateau
chart
Bioclimatic
Bioclimatic
chart
chart
chart

Table 8. Cont.
Hot-Dry
Hot-Dry
Climate (d)
Climate (d)
Hot-Dry Climate (d)
Cities:Sokoto,
Cities: Sokoto, Kebbi,
Kebbi, Zamfara,
Zamfara, Katsina,
Katsina, Kano,Kano, Jigawa,
Jigawa, Bauchi,Bauchi, Yobe, Borno
Yobe, Borno
Cities: Sokoto, Kebbi, Zamfara, Katsina, Kano, Jigawa, Bauchi, Yobe, Borno
Bioclimatic
Bioclimatic chart
Bioclimatic
chart
chart

Table 8. Cont.
Temperate-Dry
Temperate-Dry
Climate (e)
Temperate-Dry Climate (e)
Climate (e)
Cities:Nassarawa,
Cities: Nassarawa, Taraba,
Taraba, Kaduna,
Kaduna, Niger,Niger, Federal
Federal CapitalCapital
TerritoryTerritory
Cities: Nassarawa, Taraba, Kaduna, Niger, Federal Capital Territory
Bioclimatic
Bioclimatic chart
Bioclimatic
chart
chart
dry climatic condition and the mean maximum and mean minimum air temperature, which is 21 to
32 ℃, this study categorized it as the temperate-dry climate in Nigeria. Table 8 demonstrates all the
cities in different climatic zones with their bioclimatic chart. Furthermore, it should be clarified that
this grouping of classification was done based on graphical distribution lines on each bioclimatic
chart.
Based on the analysis, the five different climate regions of Nigeria found were hot-dry,
Based on the temperate-dry
temperate-dry, analysis, the five
with different climate
cool climate, regions of Nigeria
temperate-humid, found were
and hot-humid hot-dry,
regions (Table 8).
temperate-dry, temperate-dry
In the hot-dry climate, the with cool climate,
temperature temperate-humid,
difference between day and and night
hot-humid regions (Table
temperatures is high,8).
while
In the hot-dry climate,
humidity the temperature
and precipitation difference
are low. between day
The hot-humid and night
climate temperaturesbyis high,
is characterized moistwhile
weather,
humidity andabove
generally precipitation are humidity.
70% relative low. The Thehot-humid climate is climate
temperate-humid characterized by moist
is associated weather,
with warm winds,
generally
warmabove 70% relative
temperatures, andhumidity. The temperate-humid
sunlight during climate iswith
the day. Temperate-dry associated
a cool with warm
climate doeswinds,
not have
warm temperatures,
a large andfluctuation
temperature sunlight during
betweentheday
day.and
Temperate-dry with a cool climate
night. Mild temperatures, does
sunshine innot have but
summer
a large
nottemperature fluctuationand
harsh, low humidity, between day and The
precipitation. night. Mild temperatures,
temperate-dry climatesunshine in summer
is associated but and
with cold
not harsh, low humidity,
dry harmattan and afternoon
wind, hot precipitation.
highThe temperate-dry
temperature range,climate is associated
and intense sunshine with
andcold
coldand
nights,
dry but
harmattan wind,ashot
not as much theafternoon high temperature range, and intense sunshine and cold nights,
dry hot climate.
but not as much as the dry hot climate.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
Figure 5. Temperate
Figure 5. Temperate dry
dry climate
climate of
ofNigeria.
Nigeria.
Table 8. Climate classification map of Nigeria showing five climatic regions from the
bioclimatic chart.
Five climate
classification of
Nigeria
Based on the analysis, the five different climate regions of Nigeria found were hot-dry,
temperate-dry, temperate-dry with cool climate, temperate-humid, and hot-humid regions (Table 8).
In the hot-dry climate, the temperature difference between day and night temperatures is high, while
humidity and precipitation are low. The hot-humid climate is characterized by moist weather, generally
above 70% relative humidity. The temperate-humid climate is associated with warm winds, warm
temperatures, and sunlight during the day. Temperate-dry with a cool climate does not have a large
temperature fluctuation between day and night. Mild temperatures, sunshine in summer but not
harsh, low humidity, and precipitation. The temperate-dry climate is associated with cold and dry
harmattan wind, hot afternoon high temperature range, and intense sunshine and cold nights, but not
as much as the dry hot climate.
4. Conclusions
The prime purpose of this study was to analyze the bioclimatic charts of thirty-six cities in
Nigeria. Furthermore, we extracted the most appropriate and effective applicable design strategies,
quantitatively and qualitatively, for the preliminary stage of buildings from the vernacular architecture
and bioclimatic approach to prove the new bioclimatic charts are correct. The bioclimatic charts that
were used in this study were plotted for thirty-six cities in Nigeria, which have to be adopted for
comfort in buildings. The results, with the appropriate strategies for each area, can be used as a
preliminary guide for bioclimatic design before the detailed architectural analysis. It is expected that
this approach of bioclimatic analysis and strategies will assist Nigerian architects and engineers in
building designs that can stand different climate conditions without using mechanical equipment.
There are many techniques and concepts that vernacular architects used to design buildings for
years that could be brought back. In regards to building form, urban form, and the building material,
each climate zone of Nigeria has different approaches. For instance, in the hot-dry climate, most of the
vernacular buildings have high walls, these act as shading for the urban forms and provide protection
from sand storms and also shading for the central courtyard. The hot air in the building also goes
up, while the cool air stays at the lower level creating comfort in buildings. This study of vernacular
architecture in the various climatic regions would be beneficial in achieving new ideas for modern
architecture. In line with the bioclimatic study and comparison of Nigerian vernacular architecture,
this study revealed that form follows function in modern architecture, while Nigeria’s vernacular
architecture, the urban form, building form, and building material is done according to climate.
Finally, having major problems occurring today, including outflows of greenhouse gas emissions
leading to global warming and acid rain, alternative solutions are needed. Vernacular architecture
continues to prove its importance and efficiency. Taking care of every detail, from climatic issues to low
cost, putting the necessary materials for construction and their significant environmental impacts into
consideration. Climate-based architecture protects buildings and provides residents with comfort in
the buildings, while energy consumption for cooling and heating is estimated to be reduced, resulting
in significant energy savings. Therefore, in order to keep the air safer and free from gas emissions,
mechanical systems will not be used unless the need for human comfort cannot be achieved by climatic
architecture. The authors in this research endeavored to find the best approach for climate classification
in Nigeria to assist the architect find a way to design the building based on the climatic region. Due to
climate change, humans will face many climatic issues in the near future. Thus, at least identifying the
climate of the region and designing the space based on climate could be one step toward the sustainable
future in architecture in Nigeria.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.P. and T.D.M.; methodology, P.P.; validation, T.D.M.; formal analysis,
P.P. and T.D.M.; investigation, T.D.M.; resources, T.D.M.; data curation, T.D.M.; writing—original draft preparation,
T.D.M.; writing—review and editing, P.P.; visualization, T.D.M.; supervision, P.P.; project administration, P.P. All
authors have read and agree to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research did not recive any external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors appreciate Faculty of fine art, design and architecture, department of architecture
at Cyprus international university.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Keywords: Nigeria; climate classification; vernacular architecture; bioclimatic; energy efficiency

Sustainability 2020, 12, 4192; doi:10.3390/su12104192 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Climate and Different Typology of Nigerian Vernacular Architecture

2.1. Hot-Dry Climate

Hot and Dry Climate Source

Adobe served as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties;

Sustainability 2020, 12, 4192 4 of 23

Building material Timber; [1,21]

Central courtyard and balcony off.

generalization in Table 3. of humidity.

Building material Timber, grasses; [14,25]

Building material Rammed earth; [26]

A big veranda or small courtyards.

2.5. Temperate-Dry with Cool Climate

• Compact settlement pattern.

• Building plan are square, rectangular.

Temperate Dry and Cool Climate Source

3.1. Climate Classification

Table 6. Climate classification of Nigeria.

Researcher Climate Division Method Climate Classification

Analyzing typology of vernacular Nigerian architecture

Nigerian vernacular typology variation

Investigating the previous studies regarding

Due to climate change, this research attempted to develop an up-to-date climate

Plotting the new bioclimatic charts of thirty-six cities in Nigeria.

Nigeria divided into five different climatic regions

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 28

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 28

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 28

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 28

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 28

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