SCIENCE FORUM (JOURNAL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES) 16 (2019) 18 – 42

http://dx.doi.org/10.5455/sf.19691

Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences)

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. a t b u s c i e n c e f o r u m . c o m

Petrochemistry and manganese mineralization potentials of the calc-alkaline

granitoids from Northeastern Hawal Massif, North-Eastern Nigeria
Kamaunji Dlama Vandi1*, Eyo Eyo Ntekim2, Hafizullah Abba Ahmed1,2
1
Faculty of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, PR China
2
Department of Geology, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria

ABSTRACT ARTICLE INFO

High-K calc-alkaline granitoids exposed in Mubi area, northeastern Hawal massif forms Article history:
an integral part of the well-exposed syn-to post-collisional plutons in eastern Nigeria. Received 15 December 2018
The evolution of the rocks can be linked to the thermo-tectonic period of faulting, uplift, Received in revised form
cooling, fractionation, and high-level magmatism, which initiated granite intrusion and 31 December 2018
associated rocks during the Paleoproterozoic. A total of nine granitic rocks, constituting Accepted 20 December 2018
Published 23 January 2019
seven biotite granites of varying grain sizes and two porphyritic granites were sampled in
Available online 22 January 2019
Mubi area to shed new light regarding their petrochemistry. Detailed investigations indi-
cate that the study area constitutes majorly Pan African granitoids. The massif has S-type KEYWORDS
strongly peraluminous geochemical signature, high-K calc-alkaline, magnesian, granodi-
Petrochemistry
orite, exemplified by high ASI (averagely 0.81–1.59), low Na2O (average 2.09 wt. %), and Calc-alkaline
CaO (average 2.37 wt%). More so, they exhibit low FeOt/(FeOt + MgO) ratios (0.64–0.80 Manganese mineralization
wt%), low to moderate Na2O+K2O-CaO ratio (2.41–5.41 wt%), high Na2O+K2O (average Hawal Massif
6.42 wt%), and K2O/Na2O ratios (average 2.11 wt%), as well as high Mg# (30.49–50.22),
low molar CaO/(MgO + FeOt) (0.19–0.63 wt%), and molar Al2O3/(MgO + FeOt) ratio (2.10–
4.31 wt%). Discrimination diagram shows that the granitoids are products of sedimentary
protolith (metagreywacke) formed within a syn-collision and supra-crustal setting. The
constituent mineral assemblages in the granitoids (quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, bio-
tite, hornblende, titanite, and iron oxides) from the northeastern Hawal massif are obvi-
ously related to the condition of evolution and compositions of the protolith. The manga-
nese ore and associated minerals in the area are controlled by the N-S pegmatitic quartz,
which is part of the Cameroon Volcanic Line. The manganese minerals are hydrothermally
generated from rising thermal waters due to pressure decline and subsequent reactions
with the crystalline igneous rocks, which consequently triggered the precipitation of man-
ganese oxides of metallurgical grade (44.36–49.56 wt%) that can be further processed
into desired metallic alloy to meet the required industrial standards.

Introduction Its location in a “weak” geologic zone within the

Cameroon Volcanic Province is a requisite geological
Mubi area in Hawal Massif belongs to a multiplicity of
conditionality for the accumulation of mineral depos-
the geotectonic environment whose crystalline base-
its of varying categories along its axes. Geological and
ment rocks have preserved spate of mineral resources.

* Corresponding author Kamaunji Dlama Vandi vandikamaunji@cug.edu.cn Faculty of Earth Sciences, China University of
Geosciences, Wuhan, PR China.
© 2019 Faculty of Science, ATBU Bauchi. All rights reserved
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42
Mineral Resources Surveys of Mubi area (Adamawa
State) in Northeast region of Nigeria were carried out as
part of an appraisal program toward documentation of
the vast solid mineral resources of the Adamawa State
(Ministry of Commerce and Solid Minerals, Yola, 2004).
The survey program discovered the existence of a num-
ber of mineral resources in Mubi area, including the
occurrences of manganese, barite, beryl, tantalite, iron
ore, etc., as well as other associated in the State.
The area under study is located in Mubi South Local
Government. It is part of the juxtaposed topographic
map sheets UBA 156 N.E and UBA 156 S.E, situated
within latitudes 10° 11� 00� N–10° 17� 00� N and longi-
tudes 13° 15� 00�–13° 21� 00� E (Fig. 1, Federal Surveys,
1969) and covers an area of 121 km2. The area is
accessible by Trunk “A” Gombi-Mararaba and Michika-
Mararaba Federal road and is about 172 km Northwest
of Yola and about 25 km from the Nigerian—Cameroun
border. The area forms part of the Nigerian northeast-
ern basement complex. Generally, the Pan-African gran-
ites represent diverse magmatic phase related to the
Figure 1. Topographical map of the study area and environs [after Federal Surveys (1969)].
19
Pan-African orogeny, which contribute about 70% of
materials within the crustal domain (Rahaman et al.,
1988). Importantly, Falconer (1911) introduced the term
“Older Granite” to differentiate the granites, the base-
ment complex granite from Younger Granites of the Jos
Plateau. However, Dada (2006) opines that the “Older
Granites” be replaced with “Pan African Granitoids” as
the former is solely synonymous to the age of emplace-
ment while the latter covers a wider scope of petro-
logical significance in the geological literature. The
Nigerian Pan-African basement complex is categorized
into three; the northern, western, and eastern basement
complexes. In the northern section, there is an eastward
abundant increase of the Pan-African granites, which
forms the Nigerian northeastern basement complex
constituting the Adamawa Massif, the Hawal Massif,
and the Oban Massif (Ajibade et al., 1987). The adjoin-
ing Adamawa Massif and Oban Massif have relatively
received considerable attention from various research-
ers (e.g., Bassey and Maunde, 2017; Ekwueme, 2003;
Haruna, 2014; 2017; Haruna et al., 2011; 2013; Opara
20 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42
et al., 2014; Ukaegbu and Beka, 2007). Similarly, the
Hawal Massif was studied by several researchers (e.g.
Adekeye and Ntekim, 2004; Baba, 2008; Bassey, 2006a,
b; Bassey et al., 2006, 2012; 2013; Girei, 2015; Kwache
and Ntekim, 2014; 2016; Mohammed and Mohammed,
2017; Omontese et al., 2015; Vandi, 2014). However,
most of the works done were centered on lithological
distribution and their related structural controls. No
much work was done on the petrochemistry of Mubi
area (Northeastern Hawal Massif) and its associated
manganese mineralization and/or other related min-
eralization. The abundant Pan-African granitoids in the
area, which can serve as a natural geological laboratory
for unraveling the intricacies of calc-alkaline granites
has been poorly constrained and its associated manga-
nese mineralization remains unexplored and untapped
despite the inbuilt abundant mineralization in the area.
In light of the foregoing, the present study com-
bines major element data coupled with petrographic
information and detailed field investigation aimed at:
(1) Constraining the petrochemistry of calc-alkaline
granites in Mubi area (2) shed new light on the associ-
ated manganese mineralization in the area.
Geotectonic Setting
Nigeria geologically lies wholly within the Pan-African
mobile belt bounded to the west by West African
Craton, to the north by Pharusian Tuareg shield, and
to the southeast by Congo-Gabon Craton (Fig. 2, Black
et al., 1979; Ferre et al., 1996). It occupies a reactivated
zone generated during the collision involving the West
African Craton and the Pan African mobile about 600 Ma
(Black et al. 1979; Bertrand and Caby, 1978; Burke and
Dewey, 1972; Caby et al. 1981; Dada, 2006; Trumpette,
1979). The positive gravity anomaly observed in a nar-
row zone within the Dahomey orogeny around the West
African Craton southeastern border in Togo and Benin
Republic evidently favors this hypothesis. In addition,
the existence of basic to ultrabasic rocks typically of
ophiolitic complex believed to be sourced from rem-
nants of mantle diapirs or a paleo-oceanic crust further
support these processes (Schlüter and Trauth, 2006).
The Pan-African orogeny is characterized by
intense granitization accompanied by gneissifica-
tion, which generated syntectonic granites, as well
as homogeneous gneisses (Abaa, 1983; Dada, 2006;
Ferre et al., 1996; McCurry and Wright, 1977). The
subsequent emplacement of late tectonic granites,
granodiorite, and associated contact metamor-
phism marks the last phase of the Pan-African cycle
accompanied by faulting and fracturing during the
closure of the orogeny (Gandu et al., 1986). The Pan-
African basement complex of eastern Nigeria consists
majorly of migmatite-gneiss complex, which has been
intruded by Pan-African granites and associated vol-
canic and subvolcanic rocks (Bassey and Maunde,
2017; Bassey and Valdon, 2011; Bassey et al., 2006;
2012; Ekwueme, 2003; Ferre et al., 1996; Girei, 2015;
Haruna, 2014; 2017; Haruna et al., 2013; Opara et al.,
2014; Ukaegbu and Beka, 2007; Vandi, 2014). The
rocks evolved during the thermo-tectonic period char-
acterized by faulting, uplift, cooling, fractionation, and
high-level magmatic activity, which consequently led
to the intrusion of granite and subsequent mountain
formation (Ekwueme, 2003; McCurry, 1976).
The Hawal Massif
Hawal Massif forms part of Nigerian northeastern
crystalline basement complex and is considered as
an extension of the Cameroon basement into Eastern
Nigeria. The area is bounded by Tertiary sediments of
the Chad Basin to the north, Cretaceous sediments of
the Benue Trough to the south (which separates Hawal
Massif from Adamawa Massif), and the Cameroon
Volcanic Line to the east (Fig. 3, Ferre et al., 1996;
Obaje, 2009). Hawal Massif is composed of high-grade
metamorphic rocks, extensive plutonism, and perva-
sive migmatization dated 580 ± 10 Ma (Ferre et al.,
1996).
Migmatite-Gneiss Series
The gneisses and migmatite gneisses are the old-
est rock unit within the Hawal Massif and occupy
a low-lying area or exist as residual hills (Bassey,
2006a), characterized by foliations and bandings. The
migmatitic feature of the gneisses is a consequence of
the numerous aplite and quartzofeldspathic dikes and
veins, which dissect the gneisses in all angles as exem-
plified in Mubi and Song (Bassey, 2006a; Vandi, 2014).
The gneisses have experience extreme folding, shear-
ing, and faulting and have been discordantly intruded
by the high-level Pan-African Older granites (Adekeye
and Ntekim, 2004; Baba, 2009; Bassey, 2006a; 2007;
2012; Girei, 2015, Omontese et al., 2015; Kwache and
Ntekim, 2015, 2016; Vandi 2014).
Granitic suits
The granite suits are characterized by variations in tex-
ture and composition, comprising of medium-grained
biotite hornblende granite, coarse-medium-fine-
grained biotite granite, porphyritic biotite granite, as
well as cataclasite (tectonized granite) (Bassey, 2006a;
Girei 2015; Vandi, 2014). Varieties of these granites
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42 21

Figure 2. Regional geological setting of Nigeria [after Ferre et al. (1996)].

occur as granite-gneiss with well-defined foliations and
euhedral crystals, and have experienced intense fault-
ing and shearing, and commonly intruded by the peg-
matites. These granite-gneisses outcropped in Mubi,
Song, Dunme, Uba, and Pirkasa areas (Bassey, 2006a, b;
Bassey et al., 2006). Two distinctive types of pegmatite
have been reported within the Mandara Hills in Gwoza;
the first type is moderately fractionated but impover-
ished in rare-metal mineralization, yet still contains
ferroan pyroxmangite, a potential ore of manganese.
This pegmatite is believed to have formed due to frac-
tional crystallization of a flux bearing granitic melts
and is co-magmatic with the granite suites. The other
pegmatite is barren and considered primitive, believed
to have formed due to the melting of granitic rocks at
shallow depth (Girei, 2015). Similar manganese hosted
pegmatites are widespread in Mujara in Mubi and con-
trolled the entire manganese mineralization in the area
(Vandi, 2014).
Volcanic rocks
Tertiary magmatism within the Hawal Massif occurred
between 65 to 1 Ma, which led to the emplacement of
volcanic and sub-volcanic rocks (Grant et al., 1972)
believed to be an extension of the Cameroon Volcanic
Line (Fitton and Dunlop, 1985; Moreau et al., 1987;
22 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42
Figure 3. Geological map of Nigeria showing the study area [after Obaje (2009)].
Ngako, 2006). During the Mesozoic, transitional alkali
basalts were emplaced in Shani about 146 Ma ± 7.3
< age < 127 Ma ± (Baudin, 1986; Popoff et al., 1982).
Radiometric and field studies show that basic rocks
within the Hawal Massif are largely controlled by lin-
eaments and fractures buried within the basement,
indicating a fissure type volcanic eruption during the
Tertiary (65-1 Ma). These fracture trends are akin to
the prominent river courses, including Song, Yedseram,
as well as Gongola River, which serve as a potential
source of mineralization (Bassey et al., 2012).
Bassey et al. (2013) used radiometric anom-
aly to infer possible lithologies where outcrops are
not exposed in Song area. The granitoids in north-
eastern part of Song town recorded higher radio-
metric anomalies (>34 cpm) due to the presence
of potassium (40K), a radioactive element abundant
in orthoclase and microcline while metamorphic
rocks recorded lower radioactivity (25–29 cpm) due
to their lower orthoclase feldspar content (Telford
et al., 1984).
Structural setting
The character of the magnetic residual field over
Hawal basement conforms to results obtained from
satellite imagery and structural geology of the area.
The abundant N-S lineaments within this region are in
better agreement with the basement faults and frac-
tures, some of which controlled the emplacement of
post-Precambrian rocks and river course (Bassey,
2006a; Bassey et al., 2006). These N-S lineament trends
dominate the emplacement direction of the Song and
Biu Basalt and their abundance has been confirmed
within the lower arm of the Gongola Basin (Benkhelil,
1986). Similarly, Adebayo and Dayya (2004) reported
a NW fault trend at Uba, Michika, and Chibok, some of
which occur as lateral slip fault or as normal fault well
developed in migmatite-gneiss in Mubi and Hong area.
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42
The Hawal basement, akin to other Nigerian base-
ment complex has experienced polyphase tecto-
no-thermal processes associated with metamorphism,
magmatism, and structural deformations and have
undergone folding, shearing, and faulting. Basement
fractures greatly controlled river courses which serve
as an important factor in groundwater delineation.
The Pan-African granites exposed in Mubi have under-
gone series of structural deformation associated with
faulting and shearing along the NW direction, which
became reactivated after the granites emplacements
(Bassey, 2006a; Bassey et al., 2006).
Local geology and petrography
The basement complex rocks of Mubi have been
described as undifferentiated basement rocks consti-
tuting majorly of migmatite, gneiss, and Older gran-
ites, which occur in association with pegmatite dikes,
dolerite, and a spate of the quartzofeldspathic vein.
The southeastern and northwestern parts of the area
are overlain by alluvial deposits with an abundance
Figure 4. Detailed geological map of the study area.
23
of brownish laterites believed to be derivatives of in
situ-weathering (Obiefuna et al. 1997; 2010; Omontese
et al., 2015; Vandi 2014).
Field studies reveal major rock types within the
Hawal Massif include granitoids, rhyolites, basalts,
alluvial and elluvial deposits (Fig. 4). The youngest
deposits in the area include eluvium and the alluvial
deposits. The eluvium is the weathered materials from
the Precambrian basement rocks and is mostly later-
itic, while the alluvial materials comprised of old and
young alluvium along floodplains. The old alluvium is
made up of silts, sands, silty clays, pebbles, and col-
luviums, while the young alluvium is characterized by
sands, silts, clays, and gravels (Consulint International,
1976a).
Tertiary to Recent volcanics in the study area is
composed of two major rock types; the alkali rhyolite
and basalt. The rhyolite is dark brown and occurs in
the southern part of the area; adjoins biotite gran-
ite and eluvium and is highly weathered (Fig. 5a).
Macroscopic observation shows that the rock is very
fine-grained with visible specks of quartz and a small
24 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42

quantity of light-colored minerals that dot all over the

rock. Thin section reveals ferromagnesian in the mass
of alkali feldspar (sanidine) and quartz which varies
from microcrystalline to glassy and exhibit a flow
structure (Fig. 5b). This rock shows alterations of min-
erals to clay, which indicate the weathering process.
The basalt appears dark-gray in color (Fig. 5c), fine
grained with visible crack, and occupies a small por-
tion in the extreme southwest of the study area. It out-
crops mainly as boulders and shares boundary with
eluvium and biotite granite in the southwest section
of the area. In hand specimen, the rock is fine grained
with shiny micaceous particles and dense with no
identifiable minerals, and the freshly broken surface
is dull in appearance. Microscopic examination shows
a groundmass of plagioclase (labradorite), pyrox-
ene, olivine, and opaque minerals and large fractured
brownish specks of titan-augite, with phenocrysts of
glassy green olivine, black shiny pyroxene, and white-
gray, tabular plagioclase (Fig 5d). The opaque miner-
als are tiny crystals of iron-titanium oxide. There is a
random orientation of the minerals.
Amphibolite in the area was observed in blasted
section in a quarry site, sandwiched between gran-
ite-gneiss at the top and fine-grained biotite granite
at the bottom (Fig. 5e). Hand specimen of the rock
clearly shows tiny specks of the quartz and biotite
interlocked within the dark amphiboles. A number
of quartzofeldspathic and quartz veins crosscut the
amphibolites (Fig. 5f). According to Deer et al. (1978)
and Olarewaju and Ajayi (1993), the preponderance of
amphiboles is indicative of regionally metamorphosed
rocks stable under a wide range of pressure–tempera-
ture conditions. In thin section, major mineral constit-
uents include quartz, hornblende, sphene, augite, pla-
gioclase, biotite, and iron oxide minerals. The quartz is
equigranular with defined subhedral faces and shows
weak alignment together with the mafic minerals,
while the amphibole, fragments of pyroxene, and the
plagioclase feldspar crystals are prismatic (Fig. 5g) and
biotite is platy foliated. Gneissic rocks are widespread
within the study area, with the light and dark mineral Figure 5. (a) Field relation of light-colored, fine-grained rhyolite,
constituents clearly segregated into visible bands (Fig. (b) photomicrograph (x-nicols) of light-colored rhyolite, (c) field ex-
6a). In thin section, crosshatched microcline grains posure of dark-colored, fine-grained basalt, (d) photomicrograph
exhibit altered edges, while anhedral brownish bio- (x-nicols) of dark-colored basalt. Orth = Orthoclase; Qtz = Quartz;
tite grains and grayish-white quartz crystals, which Ol = Olivine; Titan-Aug = Titan-Augite; Aug = Augite; Pl = Pla-
gioclase, (e) exposed amphibolite sandwiched between granite-
dominate the slide show, sutured boundaries (Fig. 6b).
gneiss and fine-grained biotite granite, (f) hand specimen of
These features depict intense pressure. dark-colored amphibolite showing quartz vein, and (g) photomi-
The Older granites, which are mostly biotite gran- crograph (x-nicols) of dark-colored amphibolite.
ite, are widespread in the area. The rocks range from
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42 25

Figure 6. (a) Field relation of grayish granite-gneiss showing light and dark
bandings of minerals, (b) photomicrograph (x-nicols) of grayish granite-
gneiss. Mc = Microcline; Sphene = Sphene; Hbl = Hornblende (amphiboles);
Bt = Biotite; Pl = Plagioclase; Qtz = Quartz; OP = opaque mineral, (c) hand
specimen of grayish to dark colored fine-grained biotite granite (MBS1-2),
(d) photomicrograph (x-nicols) of dark colored to grayish fine-grained biotite
granite, (e) hand specimen of light-colored medium-grained biotite granite
(MBS1-3), and (f) photomicrograph (x-nicols) of light-colored medium-grained
biotite granite.

fine–medium–coarse-grained. Most of the fine-grained
types are exposed towards the northern part, includ-
ing Mubi town and shares boundary with eluvium and
alluvium deposits, while the medium–coarse-grained
biotite granite are widespread within southern fringes
of the area (Fig. 4).
The fine-grained granite variety (represented by
MBS1-2) is gray colored with visible specks of quartz
and feldspar phenocrysts, minute crystals of mica, and
tiny black specks of biotite (Fig. 6c). Thin section of
the rock has <55% quartz and feldspar phenocryst
and (>45%) groundmass of quartz, feldspar (perthite,
microcline, orthoclase, and plagioclase), and second-
ary minerals (mainly opaque mineral, sericite, and
muscovite). The quartz (which constitutes <25% of the
phenocrysts) appears colorless, irregular, and euhe-
dral, while the feldspars (which is >30%) comprises
multiple twinned plagioclase, crosshatched micro-
cline, and single twinned orthoclase (though perthite >
microcline > orthoclase > plagioclase) and are
26 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42
subhedral to euhedral in shape (Fig. 6d). The perthite
are microcline + orthoclase or plagioclase + ortho-
clase. Sericitization of the feldspars was observed,
depicting alteration.
The medium-grained granite variety (represented
by MBS1-3) is light-colored, medium-grained with
grayish to whitish quartz, pinkish feldspar, and black
shiny biotite phenocrysts (Fig. 6e, 7a). In thin sec-
tion, all the mineral grains are anhedral to subhedral
in shape, with slight orientation in a common plane.
Quartz appears colorless and unaltered while the
feldspar which includes plagioclase, microcline, and
orthoclase shows minor alterations on their surfaces
to clay minerals and biotite occurs as short tabu-
lar and brownish crystal (Fig. 6f, 7b). Texturally, the
rock is equigranular with quartz and feldspar crystals
ranging from fine-to-medium, while biotite is medium
grained. Estimated proportion of the phenocryst min-
eral composition comprises <15% quartz, >39% feld-
spar (orthoclase > microcline > plagioclase), >1% bio-
tite, while the (>45%) matrix consist of <5% quartz,
>20% feldspar (orthoclase > microcline> plagioclase),
>15% biotite, <4% opaque mineral with accessory of
<1% sphene and zircon.
Porphyritic granite occupies a small portion
towards the central part as low-lying rocks relative
to the widespread biotite granite. In hand specimen,
it is characterized by quartz and brownish feldspar
phenocrysts, as well as biotite and muscovite flakes
embedded in groundmass (Fig. 7c). The phenocrysts
of the feldspar are subhedral in shape, while the
quartz is euhedral to subhedral (Fig. 7d) and the por-
phyritic texture consists of >35% quartz and <63%
feldspar (perthite > orthoclase > microcline > pla-
gioclase) and >1% biotite (which are slightly being
replaced by chlorite). The muscovite results from
sericitization of the feldspar. Most of the perthite are
composed of microcline + orthoclase. The minerals
are randomly oriented and most of them show minor
alterations. Pegmatites occur mainly as veins within
the biotite granites (Fig. 7e) and are characterized
by large crystals of altered plagioclase and brownish
biotite (Fig. 7f).
In the northern section, migmatite-gneiss rocks out-
crop in parts of Mubi town around Tsamiya area and
Federal Polytechnic (where it shares a boundary with
eluvium and biotite granite rocks) and in the south-
eastern part of the area around Mbulma and Monduva
(Fig. 8a). Probable geological sequence of events in the
study after McCurry and Wright (1971) is presented in
Table 1.
Geological structures
Structural features in the area include quartzofeld-
spathic veins exposed on the migmatite-gneiss and
amphibolite, aplite veins and dykes on the biotite
granite, different joint systems in almost all in situ
outcrops, as well as fold structure majorly within the
migmatite-gneiss (Fig. 8a–e). Widespread of stream
channels is an indication that the area lies wholly
within a fracture zone and alignment of the stream
channels in the same direction as the trend of most of
the structural features depict a structural control (Fig.
9). Rose diagram plot (Fig. 10a) from the cumulative
dip and strike readings of joints (Table 2) clearly show
a distinctive NE-SE, NW-SE, and N-S trending that is
consistent with the Consulint International (1976b)
fracture analysis map of the area (Fig. 10b), which con-
forms to the Pan-African granites deformational trend.
Manganese and other related mineralization potential
Geological and Mineral Resources Surveys of Adamawa
State was embarked upon by Ministry of Commerce
and Solid Minerals, Yola (2004), which lead to the
discovery of abundant mineral resources, including
manganese and associated minerals in Mujara village,
Mubi South. The abundant mineralization potential
within the Cameroun Volcanic Line also extends into
the Mubi area, which borders the Cameroun Republic
to the north (Fig. 11a, b). The manganese in the area
is largely controlled by the N-S trending pegmatitic
quartz vein aligned within the rooftops of the high-
level biotite granite intrusion (Fig. 12a), similar to
reported occurrences in within the Gwoza hills (Girei,
2015). These pegmatitic veins are believed to be part
of the Cameroon Volcanic line, which extends into
Nigeria (Ferre et al., 1996). Local Miners excavated the
exploration pit and discovered manganese ore occur-
ring in association with iron ore (Fig. 12b). Manganese
ore encountered ranges between about 3–5cm, irregu-
lar, and elongated. Two other exploration pit (Fig. 12c,
d) located on either side of the manganese pit consti-
tute whitish beryl, feldspar, barite, mica, and tanta-
lite. The wall rock of the exploration pits composed
of pegmatites, feldspars, and inclusions of the associ-
ated mineralization. The coexistence of these minerals
clearly shows the effect of the Bowen reaction series
where different minerals were formed under different
conditions of temperature and pressure.
Ministry of Commerce and Solid Minerals, Yola,
(2004), grouped the mineral resources of Adamawa
State into three groups; the metallic mineral deposits,
non-metallic, and gemstones. The metallic deposits
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42 27

Figure 7. (a) Hand specimen of medium-grained biotite granite (MBS1-6),

(b) photomicrograph (x-nicols) of medium-grained biotite granite. Mc =
Microcline; Or = Orthoclase; Perth = Perthite; Bt = Biotite; Pl = Plagioclase; Qtz =
Quartz; OP = opaque mineral, (c) hand specimen of grayish-dark porphyritic
granite showing medium-grained phenocryst of quartz embedded in ground
(MBS2-1), (d) photomicrograph of grayish-dark porphyritic granite, (e) field
relation of low-lying coarse-grained pegmatite, and (f) photomicrograph of
pegmatite showing altered plagioclase and microcline. Mc = Microcline; Or =
Orthoclase; Perth = Perthite; Bt = Biotite; Pl = Plagioclase; Qtz = Quartz.

include iron ore, manganese, lead, zinc, tinstone, tan-
talite, magnetite, wolframite, gold, silver, copper, etc.
The non-metallic deposits are sub-divided based on
their industrial applications as follows: (a) Building
and construction materials: Limestone, gypsum, feld-
spar, quartz, laterites, clays, granites, sand, gravels,
etc. (b) Chemical and fertilizer minerals: Trona, mag-
nesite, gypsum, limestone, kaoline, barites, fluorspar,
etc. (c) Insulators/refractories: Magnesite, graphite
mica, silica, clays, etc. (d) Abrasives: Corundum, quartz,
chert, etc. (e) Fuel and energy or mineral fuels: Fossil
fuel (coal) and nuclear fuel (uranium). Gemstones and
precious/semi-precious stones could either be metals
or non-metals most of which are used in jewelry and
ornamental industries and include gold, sapphire, ruby,
amethyst, platinum, tourmaline, spinel, topaz, quartz,
emerald, silica, agates, beryl, garnet, resin, aquamarine,
diamond, onyx, rock crystal, zircon, zoisite, tanzanite,
etc. Some of these minerals are considered as strategic
resources due to their critical importance to the eco-
nomic and political sustenance of the State because
they have no ready substitute as our daily lives depend
28 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42

Figure 8. (a) Field relation of migmatite-gneiss complex from Mubi South,

Hawal Massif, northeastern Nigeria, (b) feldspathic vein exposed on the
amphibolite, (c) aplite dyke and vein intruded into the medium-grained
biotite granite, (d) joint sets exposed on the weathered fine-grained
biotite granite, and (e) fold structure exposed on the migmatite-gneiss
complex.

directly or indirectly on them. Examples are building
and construction materials, chemical and fertilizer
minerals, metals, especially iron, copper, lead, etc.
Methodology
Field study
The field study involved a preliminary appraisal
of information documented in the Geological and
Mineral Resources Survey (2004) report, Adamawa
State. The aim was to have first-hand knowledge of the
area in terms of landscape, general geology, accessibil-
ity, and mineral occurrences. It also includes identifi-
cation of physiographical characteristics of the project
area from topographic maps and traversing. The field
phase also includes identification of rock samples in
the area and their lithological contacts, as well as sam-
pling of all encountered manganese ore and associ-
ated rocks in the area. In addition, field treatment of
sample (washing, crushing, or grinding the samples
into smaller pieces) was done to avoid contamination
and to put them into a transportable form.
Geological field mapping
During the detailed geologic mapping, measurements
and description of structures found on the in-situ
exposed host rock were done and recorded in the field
book and on a topographic map. Attention was paid
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42 29

Table 1.  Probable geological sequence of events of the rock units in the study area and environs [(After McCurry and Wright
(1971)].
Age Geological episode/Tectonic activity
Quaternary to recent Disintegration of uplifted areas by
sediments various petrogenetic modes such as
biochemical, endogenetic and volcanic
processes by mechanical, physical and
chemical weathering.
Cenozoic volcanic rocks Extrusion of basalt flows and cones
60 ± 70 myrs and volcanic plugs which is related to
Cameroun volcanic line and Gulf of
Guinea volcanism.
Lower Paleozoic to pre- Uplift, cooling, fractionation, faulting,
Cambrian high-level magnetic activity, granite
Pan African granites intrusion, orogenesis, deformation,
650 ± 150 myrs metamorphism, reactivation and
isostatic readjustment of pre-existing
rocks
Pre-Cambrian Intense deformation, isoclinal folding,
Eburnean granites progressive regional metamorphism,
2.8 ± 300 Ma migmatisation, formation of banded
gneiss at Gudaru granitization thru at
least 2 tectono-metamorphic cycles
Pre-Cambrian Basement
>3,000 Ma
Petrogenetic unit
Quaternary to recent
sediments
Olivine basalt flows and
cones
Fine-med grained biotite
granites, granite-gneiss,
pegmatitic granites,
amphibolites
Migmatities, migmatitic
granites, gneisses, schists
Undifferentiated basement
complex rocks such as
migmatitic granites, gneisses,
schists
Rock type (as exemplified in the
present study)
Old alluvium in northeast of Mubi
South, eluvium in north and
northwest of Mubi south
Basalts and basaltic flows
extreme southwest of Mubi south
Fine-grained (in the north),
medium-coarse biotite granites
(widespread in the area),
pegmatitic biotite granites
(exposed as low-lying) granite-
gneisses (in the eastern part of
Mubi South) and amphibolites
(exposed in western part in a
quarry and northern part of Mubi
south)
Migmatities, granites, gneisses,
and schists.
Weathered Precambrian
basement

to marking out the boundaries of rock types by using
GPS, plotting the coordinates of the rock boundaries
on the map, and joining them. After the actual map-
ping work, several field trips were undertaken to the
project site to confirm certain rock boundaries, espe-
cially in the hilly terrain and some structural features.
In carrying out this field survey, the following steps
were adopted.
  i. Locating oneself with reference to a temporary
base station by making reference to a known
physical feature which can clearly be seen on the
topographic map.
ii. Taking traverse along chosen routes
iii. Locating outcrops and again my bearings from
the outcrop, noting all superficial covers.
iv. Detailed description of the outcrops and other
structural features on the outcrop such as strike
of a plane surface and dip of joints.
  v. Collection of samples for detailed field study for
chemical analysis and thin section
vi. Macroscopic classification of all samples col-
lected (i.e., hand specimen) noting every obser-
vation in the field book.
For the geological mapping, the following equip-
ment and materials were used: Global Positioning
System (GPS), Model Garmin eTrex HC Series, com-
pass clinometer (Silva), geological hammers, hand
lens (×12) and digitized topographical map extracted
from 1:50,000 contoured topographic map sheet; UBA
SE by Federal Surveys, Log books (with hardcovers).
Other materials include a digital camera, sample bag,
Writing/drawing materials with metric rulers, col-
ored pencils, erasers, protractor, measuring tape (5
m), field shoes with grips, safety goggles, masking
tape, and chisels. In addition, two reference materials,
“Field Mapping for Geology Students by Ahmed and
Almond (1981) and “Thesis and Technical Reports in
Geology and related Sciences” by Ogezi, (1996) was
used as guide, some medications in a mini first aid box
and two penknives and a field vehicle.
30 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42

Figure 9. Drainage map of the study area showing the flow direction of the streams [after Federal Survey of
Nigeria (1969)].

Figure 10. (a). Rose diagram plot for joint readings from the area, (b) Fracture analysis map
of Mubi South [after Consulint International (1976b)].
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42 31

Table 2.  Statistical presentation of joint readings from Mubi South, Hawal Massif.
Frequency of
Joints readings taken Class interval Percentage of total
occurrences
16 (2), 11, 30 (5), 28, 14, 29 (3), 18 0–30 14 14/191 × 100 = 7.32
52 (6), 38 (9), 56, 45 (14), 59, 44 (6) 33, 47, 55 (5), 31, 38 31–60 55 55/191 × 100 = 28.79
(4), 51, 42 (5)
86 (4), 65 (9), 75 (4), 63, 61, 59, 72 (6) 87, 84, 85 (5) 61–90 33 33/191 × 100 = 17.27
98, 118, 108 (3), 93, 105 (2), 120 (3) 91–120 11 11/191 × 100 = 5.76
121 (3), 146 (4), 128, 129, 130 (5), 138, 139, 149, 125 (6), 121–150 30 30/191 × 100 = 15.70
122 (2), 141 (5)
174 (6), 178 (2), 177, 156 (6), 169 (4), 172, 151, 160 (12), 151–180 48 48/191 × 100 = 25.13
173 (7), 158 (8)
Total 191 99.88

Figure 11. (a) Geological map of Nigeria showing the Cameroun Volcanic Line [Modified after Obaje (2009)], location of some
syntectonic Pan-African granitoids along the Cameroon Line after Stars Toteu et al. (2001), Arrows: sense of displacement,
Nigerian faults and shear zones after Rahaman et al. (1984) and Ferre et al. (1998) and (b) Solid minerals map of Adamawa State
showing mineral occurrences [after Ministry of Commerce, Industries and Solid Minerals Development (2004)].

Sampling method labeled. The entire sample points were marked on the
topographic map.
During the lithogeochemical sampling, traverse sys-
Samples were collected from outcrops within the
tem was used for sampling but the spacing was irreg-
study area for the two basic tests; petrographic and
ular due to non-availability of exposures in some of
chemical analyses. The samples were taken, cleaned,
the areas, especially the southwestern part. The whole
and variedly labeled for the different tests. For the
area was traversed and fresh in situ samples were col-
chemical and petrographic analyses, about 200 g bulk/
lected from each of the rocky outcrops and properly
lump of each sample was labeled.
32 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42

Figure 12. (a) Large pegmatitic N-S vein in Mujara village hosting the manganese
mineralization, (b) manganese ore exploration excavated by local miners, (c)
exploration pit East of the Manganese Exploration where beryl, barite, and feldspar
were discovered, and (d) exploration pit West of Manganese Exploration pit where
mica, tantalite, and iron ore were discovered.

Nine granite rock samples (two coarse-grained
biotite granite, two fine-grained biotite granite, three
medium-grained biotite granite, and two porphy-
ritic granites), two representative rhyolites, basalts,
amphibolites, and three manganese minerals each
were sampled. The samples meant for detailed labora-
tory analyses were crushed with the stainless head of
the hammer and sieved using a local sieve mesh of −1
to +3. The coarse sizes were discarded and about 100
gm of the fines were bagged, labeled, and transported
to the base. At the base, the samples meant for chemi-
cal analyses were further pulverized and then treated
with concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) to decompose
in order to break down the chemical bond for easy
extraction of the constituent elements. Concentrated
nitric acid was used because of the attainable high
temperatures and oxidizing effect yield of highest ele-
mental proportions.
Chemical analysis
Chemical analyses of nine representative granite
samples and three manganese ore samples were per-
formed at the Nigerian Metallurgical Development
Center (NMDC), Jos. The chemical analysis was
done using Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence
Spectrometry. ED-XRF machine has been attached to
a scanning electron microscopes fitted with a digital
camera and computer central imaging. Fifty grams
(50 g) of each sample was ground to less than 250
mesh sizes, oven-dried at 105°C for 1 hour, and cooled.
Afterward, it was mixed with cellulose flakes binder
and shaped into pellets at 10–15 tons/inch2. The pel-
letized samples were then fed into a scanning electron
microscope, which is connected to the EDXRF equip-
ment. Suitable programs associated with the inter-
ested elements were subsequently used to analyze the
samples. Marked points on the sample were scanned
with precision and then bombarded with X-ray beam
to activate the inner electrons of the different elements
in the sample, which then emitted fluorescent x-rays of
characteristic wavelength through which their compo-
sitions were quantitatively determined.
Petrographic analysis
The thin sections were prepared in the petrological
laboratory, University of Jos. The following stages were
involved in the preparation of the thin sections. First,
the crystalline rocks were trimmed into the shape and
size of the glass slide using the cutting machine. This
gave the rock the desired section and one surface of
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42 33

the rock section was glued using silicon carbide (abra- Table 4 shows the major element concentration (in
sive) to make it smooth and parallel (flat). The other wt%) of the manganese ore. Al2O3 ranges from 13.80
surface of the glass slide was made less smooth by to 15.0, while SiO2 ranges from 20.77 to 25.80. Ranges
grinding it with silicon carbide (600 g). This was done of other oxides are K2O (0.93–1.13), Na2O (0.14–0.36),
to give a strong bond between the rock section and the CaO (0.42–0.68), TiO2 (0.10–0.27), Cr2O3 (0.06–0.18),
glass slide after gumming them together. The rock sec- MnO (44.36–49.56), Fe2O3 (13.54–15.38), CuO (0.05–
tion was then glued to the glass slide (on a hot plate) 0.06), Rb2O (0.02–0.05), ZrO2 (0.31–0.56), BaO (0.10–
using Araldite as the mounting medium. The thickness 0.20), and CeO2 (0.10).
of the rock section was trimmed significantly using
the cutting machine after 24 hours of mounting. The Discussion
thickness of the rock section was further reduced in a
The area is underlain by the Basement Complex rocks,
gradual grinding process using the grinding machine
which have sequentially been invaded by the Pan-
until the rock section was transparent under the trans-
African granites during the Pan-African thermo-tec-
mitted light of a polarizing microscope with the inter-
tonic period (Obiefuna et al. 1997; 2010; Omontese
ference color of quartz appearing yellow. Thereafter,
et al., 2015; Vandi, 2014). Field and laboratory stud-
the rock section was gradually grounded manually on
ies shows that the rocks in the area were subjected to
a lapping board using silicon carbide 800grit. This was
a wide range of tectonic disturbances involving frac-
done until the standard thickness of 0.03 mm or 30 µm
turing, faulting, granitization, and metamorphism.
was attained using the white gray interference color of
These are evidenced by the different structures dis-
quartz as index reference. Lastly, the thin rock section
covered during the course of this research, typical of
slide was labeled (i.e. sample number was written on
which are micro faults, joints infilled with veins, dikes,
the slide), after which the thin rock section was cov-
faulting, and folding. The tectonic structures trend
ered with a glass cover using Araldite.
mostly N-S, NE-SW, and subordinately NW-SE, which
form the most widespread deformation structures
Analytical Results
which occurred during the Pan-African thermotec-
Major element tonic events in the Nigerian basement (Bassey, 2006a;
Bassey et al., 2006; Dada, 1981; 2006; McCury, 1976;
Major elements data are presented in Table 3. Silica
Rahaman, 2003). The oldest rocks in the area are fine-
(SiO2) content range from 66.12 wt% to 70.65 wt%
to-medium to coarse-grained biotite granite that is
(average = 68.55 wt%) and TiO2 varies from 0.12
invaded by quartz-feldspathic veins, which is indica-
wt% to 1.87 wt%, average being 0.80 wt%. The sam-
tive of deformation brought about by tectonic stresses.
ples are significantly enriched in Al2O3, ranging from
The amphibolite and the pegmatite in the study area
14.28 wt% to 16.75 wt%, the average being 15.08
intruded into the granitic rocks. Most of the rocks
wt%. Concentration of Fe2O3 range from 2.69 wt% to
in the study area are highly weathered which is evi-
6.11 wt% with an average of 4.88 wt%. Variation of
denced by the alterations on the rocks.
MgO range from 1.27 wt% to 1.87 wt%, average being
The field and laboratory studies confirm that the
1.58 wt% while Cao is between 1.29 wt% and 2.97
area forms part of the Nigerian Precambrian basement
wt% (average = 2.36 wt%). The content of Na2O and
and the Hawal Massif, one of the principal components
K2O varies from 1.48 wt% to 2.72 wt% (average = 2.09
of the Cameroon volcanic line. The orientation of the
wt%) and 3.59 wt% to 5.93 wt% (average = 4.33 wt%),
structures from the area is a possible indication of a
respectively. The samples have a high concentration of
polyphase deformation similar to those of the Oban
K2O+Na2O (total alkali), ranging between 5.14 wt% to
Massif, Obudu Plateau (Ukwang and Ekwueme, 2009)
8.24 wt%, characterized by an average of 6.42 wt%
which also form part of the Cameroon line.
while alkali ratio (K2O/Na2O) varies from 1.37 wt%
to 2.57 wt%, the average being 2.12 wt%. Normative Geochemical affinity of Mubi granitoids
quartz range from 22.72 to 43.36, while Corundum
Results of CIPW norm determined for the granites,
varies from 0 to 6.36. Orthoclase and albite range
using the geochemical toolkit of Janousek (2006),
from 18.79 to 35.05 and 12.52 to 23.03, respectively.
show that normative diopside (Di) is completely
Anorthite varies from 3.47 to 11.86. The samples are
absent in all the granites while average normative
impoverished in apatite with values ranging from 0.04
corundum is greater than 2% in most of the rocks
to 1.68. The samples recorded elevated diopside val-
and differentiation index (DI) ranges from 76.40 to
ues, ranging from 76.36 to 86.51.
34 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42

Table 3.  Major Element (wt. %) compositions of the studied Basement complex rocks.
Rock type Biotite granite Porphyritic granite
(wt. %) MBS1-1 MBS1-2 MBS1-3 MBS1-4 MBS1-5 MBS1-6 MBS1-7 MBS2-1 MBS2-2
Cg-bg Fg-bt Mg-bt Cg-bg Fg-bt Mg-bg Mg-bg Pg Pg
SiO2 67.38 69.33 69.83 66.12 66.65 70.65 70.33 69.45 67.23
TiO2 1.87 0.92 1.28 0.33 0.49 0.25 0.63 0.12 1.27
Al2O3 14.88 16.75 14.28 15.51 15.34 15.89 14.4 14.43 14.28
Fe2O3 4.72 2.69 5.46 4.9 5.58 2.87 6.11 5.78 5.85
Mn2O3 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.16 0.02 0.04
MgO 1.77 1.37 1.27 1.86 1.87 1.45 1.83 1.28 1.55
CaO 2.93 2.37 2.73 2.97 2.39 1.41 2.81 1.29 2.38
Na2O 1.85 2.72 1.48 2.31 2.21 2.14 2.11 2.04 1.92
K2O 4.27 3.72 3.66 5.93 4.45 3.87 3.56 4.66 4.85
P2O5 0.45 0.15 0.37 0.12 0.73 0.54 0.63 0.015 0.49
Total 100.18 100.07 100.39 100.1 99.75 99.08 102.57 99.09 99.86
K2O+Na2O 6.12 6.44 5.14 8.24 6.66 6.01 5.67 6.7 6.77
K2O/Na2O 2.31 1.37 2.48 2.57 2.01 1.81 1.69 2.28 2.53
Mg# 40.33 50.22 31.55 51.28 39.91 50.02 37.24 8.78 34.42
ASI 1.19 1.29 1.56 0.81 1.28 1.59 1.29 1.35 1.18
A/NK 1.94 1.97 2.23 1.52 1.81 2.06 1.97 1.72 1.69
CIWP norm data
Q 32.64 32.41 43.36 22.72 29.76 39.17 35.95 34.19 30.89
C 2.87 3.89 5.58 0.00 4.24 6.36 4.18 3.72 2.72
Or 25.23 21.98 18.79 35.05 26.29 22.87 21.04 27.54 28.66
Ab 15.65 23.02 12.52 19.55 18.71 18.11 17.85 17.26 16.25
An 11.86 10.78 7.70 6.22 7.22 3.47 10.72 6.30 8.61
Di 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hy 4.28 3.79 4.21 3.15 7.08 4.86 7.05 3.84 5.15
Mt 6.84 3.90 7.92 5.08 8.09 4.16 8.86 8.38 8.48
Il 2.83 1.35 2.43 0.63 0.93 0.48 1.19 0.23 2.41
Ap 0.97 0.36 0.88 0.28 1.68 1.28 1.49 0.04 1.16
Sum 103.18 101.48 103.39 98.86 104.00 100.75 108.34 101.49 104.33
DI 76.39 81.31 80.26 77.31 79.00 86.51 79.02 82.71 78.52
*Cg-bg: Coarse-grained biotite granite; *Fg-bt: Fine-grained biotite granite; *Mg-bg: Medium-grained biotite granite; *Pg-Porphyritic granite.

86.51. The high differentiation index implies highly
fractionated granites. Harker diagram plots of the data
(Fig. 13) reveals that TiO2, K2O, and CaO show a nega-
tive correlation with SiO2, while Fe2O3 and Al2O3 indi-
cate positive correlation. Other elements (MgO, P2O5,
and Na2O) show a scatter plot with no definite trend.
Most of the plots show a well-defined linear trend due
to either hybridization or fractionation (Hassanen
et al., 1996). Using Frost et al. (2001) classifica-
tion plot, the rocks plot within S-type peraluminous
(Fig. 14a), a characteristic that is further confirmed
by the high (i.e., >1.1) ASI [Al/(Ca−1.67P + Na + K)],
ranging from 1.13 to 1.98 for the studied granitoids.
This is in line with the submission of Djouka Fonkwe
et al. (2008) for the crystalline basement complex rocks
from adjoining Western Cameroon. Consequently,
therefore, According to Chappell and White (1984),
and Chappell & White (2001), the origin of the Mubi
S-type granitoids with depleted Na2O, CaO, and SrO
and appreciable K, Rb, and Pb contents is related to
sedimentary or supra-crustal materials.
Majority of the Mubi granitoids samples plot in the
high-K calc-alkaline field in the Peccerillo and Taylor
(1976) diagram (Fig. 14b). This is in conformity
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42 35

Table 4.  Major element (wt. %) compositions of manganese ore

minerals.
Concentration in wt. %
S/N Oxides
Mn-O1 Mn-O2 Mn-O3
1. Al2O3 13.80 15.00 14.00
2. SiO2 25.80 22.04 20.77
3. K2O 0.93 1.13 1.06
4. Na2O 0.23 0.14 0.36
5. CaO 0.52 0.68 0.42
6. TiO2 0.15 0.27 0.10
7. Cr2O3 0.06 0.18 0.07
8. MnO 44.36 49.56 47.00
9. Fe2O3 13.54 15.38 14.70
10. CuO 0.05 0.06 0.06
11. Rb2O 0.02 0.04 0.05
13. ZrO2 0.43 0.56 0.31
14. BaO 0.15 0.20 0.10
15. CeO2 0.10 0.10 0.10

with those from the southernmost part of Nigerian
basement complex (Obiora, 2009). According to
Chappell and White (1984), the high-K calc-alkaline
are mostly granodiorite and tonalities with dark-
colored enclaves occurring as micro-granular and
forms a mass of igneous rocks that are associated with
other calc-alkaline rocks. Malcolm and John (1993)
reported that high-K calc-alkaline granites have high
incompatible elements such as Rb, Th, and U. This geo-
chemical affinity indicates the significance of crustal
rocks to have played a vital role in the magma sources.
Chemical classification and nomenclature of Mubi
granitoids (Fig. 14c, d) were done based on TAS versus
silica plot, after Cox et al. (1979) and De la Roche et al.
(1980). Most granites plot in granodiorite field with
few in the granite field. Similar plots were reported
for the granitoids from northern Adamawa Massif
(Haruna, 2014). However, the majority of the rocks
from southernmost Nigerian basement complex and
western Cameroon plot in the granite field (Djouka
Fonkwe et al., 2008; Obiora 2009).
Based on Frost et al. (2001) classification system,
granodiorite from Mubi plot within the magnesian
region (Fig. 15a), typically of Pan-African rocks derived
from the continental crust. Similar rocks from south-
ern Adamawa Massif plot straddle the ferroan and
Magnesian zone (Haruna, 2014) and those from west-
ern Cameroon and southernmost Nigeria (reported
by Djouka Fonkwe et al., 2008 and Obiora, 2009,
respectively) straddle the ferroan and magnesian
field. The ternary AFM K2O+Na2O-FeOt-MgO (Irvine
and Baragar, 1971) and binary FeOt/MgO versus SiO2
(Miyashiro, 1974) (Fig. 15b, c) show that the Mubi
granitoids are predominantly calc-alkaline and/or
subalkaline, in consistent with similar rocks from
Cameroon, Southwestern Nigeria and the Adamawa
Massif (Djouka Fonkwe et al., 2008 and Obiora, 2009;
Haruna, 2014). Calc-alkaline rocks are predominantly
enriched in feldspars, hornblende and/or augite,
impoverished in feldspathoids, alkali pyroxenes, or
alkali amphiboles. Peacock (1931) opines that the
rocks are characterized by about 55–61 wt% total SiO2
and Na2O + K2O/CaO wt% >1. Calc-alkaline granites
generally constitute biotite, quartz, hornblende, alkali
feldspar, plagioclase, titanite, and magnetite. These
groups constitute all mineral phases of petrologic
significance.
Patiño-Douce (1999) and Neves et al. (2000) opine
that granitoids need materials from both crustal and
mantle sources, also granite that originated from the
continental crustal material most at a time requires
a juvenile contribution from the mantle in form of
heat through under-plating of lower crust by basaltic
magma. The Patiño Douce (1999) molar CaO/(MgO +
FeOt) versus molar Al2O3/(MgO +FeOt) discrimination
diagram was used to establish the suitable parent (i.e.
crustal source) rocks for generation of the granitic
melt. The Mubi granitoids plotted within the field
of metagreywacke and metapelitic derived magma
(Fig. 15d, e), which affirms that the granitoids were
36 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42

Figure 13. Harker variation diagrams for granitoids from the study area.

generated by partial melting of metagreywacke and
metapelitic source rock. Furthermore, Batchelor and
Bowden (1985) geotectonic classification of granit-
oids shows that Mubi granodiorites are syn-collision
(Fig. 15f). This is similar to the granites from south-
ernmost Nigeria (Obiora, 2009), Cameroon (Djouka
Fonkwe et al., 2008) and granitoids from northern
Adamawa Massif (Haruna, 2014). According to Da
Silva et al. (2014), syn-collisional suits are 610 – 630
Ma and consist majorly of coarse-grained tonalites and
granodiorite, enriched in garnet, k-feldspar, quartz,
and biotite. Field evidence shows that these features
are common in the Mubi granitoids, which are majorly
granodiorites and granites.
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42 37

Figure 14. (a) A/NK versus ASI plots showing the distribution granitoids as strongly
peraluminous S-type (Frost et al., 2001), Boundary of I- and S-type granites is after Maniar
and Piccoli (1989), (b) K2O versus SiO2 diagram [After Peccerillo and Taylor (1976)], (c)
chemical classification and nomenclature of granitoids using TAS diagram [after Cox et al.
(1979)], and (d) R1-R2 classification diagram for granitoids from the study area [after De la
Roche et al. (1980)].

Hydrothermal alteration–implication for mineralization The concentration of ferromagnesian mineral con-

stituents was most probably dependent upon the
The major element of the manganese ore and the asso-
inter-granular spaces available in the rock. This also
ciated rocks in the study area demonstrated the behav-
refers to differential tectonic effects causing fractur-
ior of the elements and the compositional degree of
ing and filling of the cracks by the secondary miner-
correspondence between the manganese ores and the
als of manganese and iron with variable intensities.
associated rocks (Ghosh et al., 2015; Roy, 2000). In the
Low concentration of copper (0.05–0.06 wt%) in the
same vein, the occurrence of pegmatitic quartz vein
manganese ore suggests that the manganese depos-
and manganese ore minerals as common associated
its were related to Mid-Oceanic Ridge Basalt (MORB)
bodies depicts late stage crystallization of manganese
and is of hydrothermal origin. The manganese ore is
as patches and specks and reflects secondary enrich-
formed from rising thermal water derived from crys-
ment of manganese as ores and minerals in the altered
talline igneous rocks due to a decrease in pressure and
rock (Beukes et al. 2008; Öksüz and Okuyucu, 2014;
chemical changes associated with reactions with the
Shahid, 1996). The irregular distribution most proba-
country rocks, which caused precipitation of manga-
bly refers to the available spaces in the rock subjected
nese oxides (Moriyama et al., 2008; Roy, 2000; Shahid,
to alteration (Shahid, 1996).
1996).
38 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42

Figure 15. (a) Fe-index versus SiO2 diagram [after Frost et al. (2001)] for
granitoids from the study area, (b) AFM discrimination diagram, dividing line
for tholeiitic and calc-alkaline trends after Irvine and Baragar (1971), (c) FeOt/
MgO versus SiO2 discrimination diagram [after Miyashiro (1974)], (d) molar
Al2O3/(MgO + FeOt) versus CaO/(MgO + FeOt), (e) molar K2O/Na2O versus
CaO/(MgO + FeOt) diagrams for granitoids samples from the study area [after
Altherr et al. (2000)], and (f) R1-R2 tectonic diagram [after Batchelor and
Bowden (1985)].

Based on manganese content, Hoffman (1957)
categorizes four grades of manganese ore. Grade 1
is described as chemical ore as they contain 72% to
82% manganese and low iron and copper. Grade 2 is
referred to as metallurgical ore, characterized by a
minimum of 40% manganese oxide, with a manga-
nese-iron ratio of 8:1 and low phosphorus content.
The grade 3 type is the ferruginous manganese ore
containing <35% and >10% manganese and the grade
4 is described as manganiferous iron ore character-
ized by 5%–10% manganese ore. Going by this clas-
sification system, the Mubi manganese falls within the
metallurgical ore (44.36–9.56 wt%, average = 46.97).
These grades of manganese are normally processed
into a desirable metallic alloy by pyrometallurgical
processes, which are very similar to iron pyrometal-
lurgical processes (Zhang and Cheng, 2007).
 K. D. Vandi et al. / Science Forum (Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences) 16 (2019) 18 – 42
Conclusion
From the combined lines of evidence obtained from
the field investigations and chemical analysis regard-
ing the petrochemistry and manganese mineral poten-
tial of Mubi area, it can be concluded as follows:
1. Mubi area is underlain by the Precambrian
Basement Complex rocks similar to other
basement rocks in Nigeria.
2. The area was subjected to orogenesis during
the Pan-African orogeny, which involved
uplift, cooling, fracturing, faulting, and high-
level magmatic activity that gave rise to the
emplacement of Pan-African granites in the
area.
3. The granitoids are calc-alkaline (character-
ized by high ASI, low Na2O, SrO, and CaO, low
FeOt/(FeOt + MgO) ratios, low Na2O+K2O-CaO
ratio, high Na2O+K2O and K2O/Na2O ratios)
S-type (sedimentary protolith) which evolved
through low-degree melting of metagrey-
wacke materials within the mafic lower crust
and emplaced in a syn-collision setting.
4. The occurrences of manganese and other
associated minerals are largely controlled by
the N-S trending pegmatitic quartz believed to
be an extension of the Cameroon Volcanic Line
and chemical analysis shows that the quality
of manganese in the area (44.36–49.56 wt%)
can be processed into desirable metallic alloy
by pyrometallurgical processes to meet the
required industrial standard.
5. The manganese is formed from rising thermal
water derived from crystalline igneous rocks
as a result of a decrease in pressure and chem-
ical changes associated with reactions with
the country rocks which caused precipitation
of manganese oxides.
Acknowledgment
We acknowledge the immense assistance of Ephraim
Ibrahim and Emmanuel Harcort during the fieldwork.
The first author organized and typed the manuscript
and plotted all diagrams while the second and third
author provided academic guidance.
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