Chapter 23

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION, AC CIRCUITS,

AND ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGIES
 Outline
• Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux
• Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law
• Motional Emf
• Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping
• Electric Generators
• Back Emf
• Transformers
• Inductance and RL Circuits
• RLC Series AC Circuits
 History
• In 1820 the Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered an electric
current flowing through a wire can cause a compass needle to deflect,
showing that magnetism and electricity were related.
• In 1830 Michael Faraday (British) and Joseph Henry (American)
independently discovered that a changing magnetic field produced a
current in a coil of wire. Faraday, who was perhaps the greatest
experimentalist of all time, came up with the idea of electric and magnetic
“fields.” He also invented the dynamo (a generator), made major
contributions to chemistry, and invented one of the first electric motors.
• In the 19th century James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist and one of
the great theoreticians of all times, mathematically unified the electric and
magnetic forces. He also proposed that light was electromagnetic
radiation.
 Induction
• The basic process of generating emfs (electromotive
force) and, hence, currents with magnetic fields is known
as induction; this process is also called magnetic
induction to distinguish it from charging by induction,
which utilizes the Coulomb force.
 Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/generator

It is the change in
magnetic field that
creates the current.

• Faraday’s apparatus for demonstrating that a magnetic field can produce a current. A change
in the field produced by the top coil induces an emf and, hence, a current in the bottom coil.
When the switch is opened and closed, the galvanometer registers currents in opposite
directions. No current flows through the galvanometer when the switch remains closed or
open.
 Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux

Reversing the poles

• Movement of a magnet relative to a coil produces emfs as shown. The same emfs are
produced if the coil is moved relative to the magnet. The greater the speed, the greater the
magnitude of the emf, and the emf is zero when there is no motion.
Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux

• Rotation of a coil in a
magnetic field produces an
emf.
• This is the basic construction
of a generator, where work
done to turn the coil is
converted to electric energy.
• Note the generator is very
similar in construction to a
motor.
 Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux
• The change in magnitude or direction of a
magnetic field produces an emf.

• Magnetic flux Φ is related to the magnetic

field and the area over which it exerts.

• It refers to the magnetic field lines that

penetrate a given surface.
 Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux

Units:
The flux is maximum
when the surface is
perpendicular to the field
and is minimum when
the surface is parallel to
the field.

• The flux Φ is related to induction; any change in Φ induces an emf.

 Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law
• emf is directly proportional to change in flux.

• emf is greatest when the change in time is smallest.

• emf is also proportional to number of turns.

Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law
(a) When this bar magnet is thrust
into the coil, the strength of the
magnetic field increases in the coil.
The current induced in the coil
creates another field, in the
opposite direction of the bar
magnet’s to oppose the increase.
This is one aspect of Lenz’s law—
induction opposes any change in
flux. (b) and (c) are two other
situations. Verify for yourself that
the direction of the induced Bcoil
shown indeed opposes the change
in flux and that the current
direction shown is consistent with
RHR-2.
 Problem 1

(a)The planes of the two coils are perpendicular.

(b)The wire is perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
 Example 23.1 Calculating Emf: How Great Is the Induced Emf?
Calculate the magnitude of the induced emf when the magnet in Figure 23.7(a) is thrust into
the coil, given the following information: the single loop coil has a radius of 6.00 cm and the
average value of B cos θ (this is given, since the bar magnet’s field is complex) increases from
0.0500 T to 0.250 T in 0.100 s.

While this is an easily measured voltage, it is certainly not large enough for most practical
applications. More loops in the coil, a stronger magnet, and faster movement make induction
the practical source of voltages that it is.
Problem 11
 Quiz
A magnet is moved into a coil of wire attached to a galvanometer.
At which of the following times will a current be detected?
I. when the magnet is entering the coil
II. when the magnet is stationary in the coil
III. when the magnet is moving through the coil

I., II., and III.

II. only
I. only
I. and III. only
 Quiz
A magnet is moved into a coil of wire attached to a galvanometer.
At which of the following times will a current be detected?
I. when the magnet is entering the coil
II. when the magnet is stationary in the coil
III. when the magnet is moving through the coil

I., II., and III.

II. only
I. only
I. and III. only
 Quiz
What type of energy change takes place in a motor?

a) Electrical energy to mechanical energy

b) Mechanical energy to electrical energy
 Quiz
What type of energy change takes place in a motor?

a) Electrical energy to mechanical energy

b) Mechanical energy to electrical energy
 Quiz
What orientation of a magnetic field will cause the magnetic flux
through an area to be zero even though the magnetic field is not
zero?

perpendicular to the area

parallel to the area
 Quiz
What orientation of a magnetic field will cause the magnetic flux
through an area to be zero even though the magnetic field is not
zero?

perpendicular to the area

parallel to the area
 Quiz
According to Lenz’s law, when a bar magnet is thrust into a coil,
what is always the direction of the coil’s induced field?

the direction that opposes the magnet’s field

the direction that opposes the magnet’s motion
the direction opposite the current
the direction that opposes the change in flux
 Quiz
According to Lenz’s law, when a bar magnet is thrust into a coil,
what is always the direction of the coil’s induced field?

the direction that opposes the magnet’s field

the direction that opposes the magnet’s motion
the direction opposite the current
the direction that opposes the change in flux
 Quiz
A conducting rod moves perpendicularly through a uniform
magnetic field. How does the emf change if both the velocity of
the rod and the length of the rod are doubled?

It increases by a factor of 2.
It decreases by a factor of 1/2.
It increases by a factor of 4.
It decreases by a factor of 1/4.
 Quiz
A conducting rod moves perpendicularly through a uniform
magnetic field. How does the emf change if both the velocity of
the rod and the length of the rod are doubled?

It increases by a factor of 2.
It decreases by a factor of 1/2.
It increases by a factor of 4.
It decreases by a factor of 1/4.
 Quiz
A conducting rod moves perpendicularly through a uniform
magnetic field. How does the emf change if the magnetic field is
increased by a factor of 4 and the time required for the rod to
move through the field is decreased to half of the original time?

It increases by a factor of 2
It increases by a factor of 4
It increases by a factor of 8
It increases by a factor of 16.
 Quiz
A conducting rod moves perpendicularly through a uniform
magnetic field. How does the emf change if the magnetic field is
increased by a factor of 4 and the time required for the rod to
move through the field is decreased to half of the original time?

It increases by a factor of 2
It increases by a factor of 4
It increases by a factor of 8
It increases by a factor of 16.
 Quiz
What is the purpose of the magnetic field in a cathode ray tube?

Increase the speed of electrons

Detect the charge
Block the path of electrons
Change the direction of electrons’ motion
 Quiz
What is the purpose of the magnetic field in a cathode ray tube?

Increase the speed of electrons

Detect the charge
Block the path of electrons
Change the direction of electrons’ motion
 Quiz
A current-carrying wire is in a uniform magnetic field. How are the
force per length of wire and the current in the wire related?

They are proportional.

They are inversely proportional.
 Quiz
A current-carrying wire is in a uniform magnetic field. How are the
force per length of wire and the current in the wire related?

They are proportional.

They are inversely proportional.
Motional emf

• Motional emf is induced when a

conductor moves in a magnetic
field or when a magnetic field
moves relative to a conductor.
• Any change in magnetic flux
induces an emf opposing that
change—a process known as
induction.
• Motion is one of the major causes
of induction.
• Ex: Hall effect
 Motional emf
• (a) A motional emf = Bℓv is induced between the rails
when this rod moves to the right in the uniform
magnetic field. The magnetic field B is into the page,
perpendicular to the moving rod and rails and, hence,
to the area enclosed by them.
• (b) Lenz’s law gives the directions of the induced field
and current, and the polarity of the induced emf. Since
the flux is increasing, the induced field is in the
opposite direction, or out of the page. RHR-2 gives the
current direction shown, and the polarity of the rod
will drive such a current. RHR-1 also indicates the
same polarity for the rod.
Example 23.2 Calculating the Large Motional Emf of an Object in Orbit

• Motional emf as electrical power conversion for the

space shuttle is the motivation for the Tethered Satellite
experiment. A 5 kV emf was predicted to be induced in
the 20 km long tether while moving at orbital speed in
the Earth’s magnetic field. The circuit is completed by a
return path through the stationary ionosphere.

• Calculate the motional emf induced along a 20.0 km

long conductor moving at an orbital speed of 7.80 km/s
perpendicular to the Earth’s 5.00×10−5 T magnetic field.
 Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping
• Motional emf is induced when a conductor moves in a magnetic field
or when a magnetic field moves relative to a conductor.
• If motional emf can cause a current loop in the conductor, we refer to
that current as an eddy current.
• Eddy currents can produce significant drag, called magnetic damping,
on the motion involved.
 Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping

• A common physics demonstration device for exploring eddy currents and magnetic damping.
(a)The motion of a metal pendulum bob swinging between the poles of a magnet is quickly
damped by the action of eddy currents.
(b)There is little effect on the motion of a slotted metal bob, implying that eddy currents are
made less effective.
(c) There is also no magnetic damping on a nonconducting bob, since the eddy currents are
extremely small.
 Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping

• A more detailed look at the conducting plate
passing between the poles of a magnet. As it
enters and leaves the field, the change in flux
produces an eddy current. Magnetic force on the
current loop opposes the motion. There is no
current and no magnetic drag when the plate is
completely inside the uniform field.
• Eddy currents induced in a slotted
metal plate entering a magnetic field
form small loops, and the forces on
them tend to cancel, thereby making
magnetic drag almost zero.
Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MglUIiBy2lQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1m2r8fh8JMA
 Applications of Magnetic Damping

Metals can be separated from other trash

by magnetic drag. Eddy currents and
magnetic drag are created in the metals
Magnetic damping of this sensitive balance slows
its oscillations. Since Faraday’s law of induction sent down this ramp by the powerful
gives the greatest effect for the most rapid change, magnet beneath it. Nonmetals move on.
damping is greatest for large oscillations and goes
to zero as the motion stops.
 Applications of Magnetic Damping

A soldier in Iraq uses a metal detector to The rows of rare earth magnets
search for explosives and weapons. (protruding horizontally) are used for
(credit: U.S. Army) magnetic braking in roller coasters. (credit:
Stefan Scheer, Wikimedia Commons)
 Quiz
Why is magnetic damping not as effective on a object made of a
slotted metal?

The eddy currents are smaller.

The magnetic field is stronger.
A current cannot be induced.
 Quiz
Why is magnetic damping not as effective on a object made of a
slotted metal?

The eddy currents are smaller.

The magnetic field is stronger.
A current cannot be induced.
 Quiz
A recycling center uses magnetic damping to detect and separate
certain materials. Which materials will respond to this method?
I. Ferromagnetic conductors
II. Nonferromagnetic conductors
III. Insulators

I., II., and III.

I. only
I. and II. only
 Quiz
A recycling center uses magnetic damping to detect and separate
certain materials. Which materials will respond to this method?
I. Ferromagnetic conductors
II. Nonferromagnetic conductors
III. Insulators

I., II., and III.

I. only
I. and II. only
 Quiz
A metal disc is moved to your right through a magnetic field that
is directed away from you. As the disc begins to enter the field,
what effect will you notice on the motion of the disc?

Its speed will increase.

Its speed will decrease.
It will begin to move toward you.
It will begin to move away from you.
 Quiz
A metal disc is moved to your right through a magnetic field that
is directed away from you. As the disc begins to enter the field,
what effect will you notice on the motion of the disc?

Its speed will increase.

Its speed will decrease.
It will begin to move toward you.
It will begin to move away from you.
 Electric Generators
Electric generators induce an emf by rotating a coil
in a magnetic field.
The generator coil shown in Figure 23.20 is rotated
through one-fourth of a revolution (from θ = 0o to θ = 90o )
in 15.0 ms. The 200-turn circular coil has a 5.00 cm radius
and is in a uniform 1.25 T magnetic field. What is the
average emf induced?
What is the emf at any
given instant?

When this generator coil is rotated

through one-fourth of a revolution,
the magnetic flux Φ changes from
its maximum to zero, inducing an Average Value over
emf. 1/4th of a revolution
 Electric Generators
Motional

Component of v perpendicular to B is v sin θ

Emf induced on each side is

Total emf around the loop is

A generator with a single rectangular

coil rotated at constant angular velocity
in a uniform magnetic field produces an
emf that varies sinusoidally in time.
Note the generator is similar to a
motor, except the shaft is rotated to
produce a current rather than the other
way around.
 Example 23.4 Calculating the Maximum Emf of a Generator

Calculate the maximum emf, emf0 , of the generator that was the subject of Example 23.3.
 Quiz
A coil is rotating between the magnetic poles of a generator.
What is the angle between the coil’s velocity vector and the
magnetic field when the induced emf is maximum?

45
0
90
 Quiz
When does a motor act as a generator?

anytime that the coil rotates

only when the coil is made to spin backwards
only as the coil starts or stops spinning
 Quiz
You want to buy a hand generator, but there are several choices. Assuming
all other characteristics of the generators are the same, would you want
each of the following to be high or low in order to induce a high emf?
•number of turns in the coil
•radius of the circular coil
•magnetic field strength
You would want a high number of turns and field strength, but a low radius.
You would want a high field strength, but a low number of turns and radius.
You would want all of them to be high.
You would want all of them to be low.
 Back emf

Any coil rotating in a

magnetic field will have
an induced emf—
in motors, this is called
back emf, since it
opposes the emf input to
the motor.

The coil of a DC motor is represented as a resistor in this schematic. The back emf is
represented as a variable emf that opposes the one driving the motor. Back emf is zero when
the motor is not turning, and it increases proportionally to the motor’s angular velocity.
 Quiz
How is a motor’s back emf different from its driving emf?

Back emf powers the motor, but driving emf is generated by the
motor.
Driving emf powers the motor, but back emf is generated by the
motor.
 Transformers

Transformers — transform voltages from one value

to another.
Ex: cell phones, laptops, video games etc have
transformer built into their plug-in unit that
converts 120 V or 240 V AC into whatever voltage
the device uses.

The plug-in transformer has

become increasingly familiar with
the proliferation of electronic
devices that operate on voltages
other than common 120 V AC.
Most are in the 3 to 12 V range.
(credit: Shop Xtreme)
 Transformers

• Transformers change voltages at several points in a power distribution system. Electric

power is usually generated at greater than 10 kV, and transmitted long distances at
voltages over 200 kV—sometimes as great as 700 kV—to limit energy losses. Local power
distribution to neighborhoods or industries goes through a substation and is sent short
distances at voltages ranging from 5 to 13 kV. This is reduced to 120, 240, or 480 V for
safety at the individual user site.
 Transformers
A typical construction of a simple transformer has two
coils wound on a ferromagnetic core that is laminated to
minimize eddy currents. The magnetic field created by
the primary is mostly confined to and increased by the
core, which transmits it to the secondary coil. Any change
in current in the primary induces a current in the
secondary.

Induced voltage (assuming coil resistance is small)

Vp – primary coil voltage

Transformer equation Vs - secondary coil voltage
Np – number of loops in the primary coil
Ns – number of loops in the secondary coil
Transformers
 Transformers
The output voltage of a transformer can be less than, greater than, or
equal to the input voltage, depending on the ratio of the number of
loops in their coils.

Assuming, that coil resistance is negligible, the electrical power output of a transformer
equals its input. This is nearly true in practice—transformer efficiency often exceeds 99%.

Is – output current of transformer

Ip – input current of transformer

If voltage increases, current decreases. Conversely, if voltage

decreases, current increases.
 Example 23.5 Calculating Characteristics of a Step-Up Transformer

A portable x-ray unit has a step-up transformer, the 120 V input of which is transformed to
the 100 kV output needed by the x-ray tube. The primary has 50 loops and draws a current of
10.00 A when in use. (a) What is the number of loops in the secondary? (b) Find the current
output of the secondary.
 Problem 45

𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
= = 0.5
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑝𝑝
Problem 48
Transformers

Transformers do not work for pure DC

voltage input, but if it is switched on and
off as on the top graph, the output will
look something like that on the bottom
graph. This is not the sinusoidal AC most
AC appliances need.
 Quiz
Why is it important for the input voltage of a transformer to be
AC?

Only time-varying current can produce a uniform magnetic field

around the primary coil.
Only a time-varying current can produce a changing magnetic
flux in the secondary coil.
 Quiz
What effect do transformers use to transform voltages from one
value to another?

magnetic damping
capacitive reactance
magnetic induction
eddy currents
 Quiz
How does the output voltage of a transformer change if the input
voltage is doubled at the same time that the number of output
coils is multipled by 4?

It is decreased by a factor of 1/2.

It is decreased by a factor of 1/8.
It is increased by a factor of 2.
It is increased by a factor of 8.
Electrical Safety: Systems and Devices
 Inductance
• Induction is the process in which an emf is induced by changing
magnetic flux.

Inductance is the property of an

electrical conductor by which a
change in current flowing through it
induces an electromotive force in
both the conductor itself (self
inductance) and in any nearby
conductors by mutual inductance.

These coils can induce emfs in one another like an inefficient transformer. Their mutual
inductance M indicates the effectiveness of the coupling between them. Here a change in
current in coil 1 is seen to induce an emf in coil 2. (Note that " E2 induced" represents the
induced emf in coil 2.)
 Inductance
In many cases where the geometry of the
devices is fixed, flux is changed by varying
current.

M - mutual inductance between the two

devices
The minus sign is an expression of Lenz’s law
(induced emf opposes the change in current).
The larger the mutual inductance M , the more
effective the coupling. Units for M: Henry (H)
 Inductance

L – self inductance of the device

A device that exhibits significant self-inductance is

called an inductor.

Inductor symbol:

The larger the self-inductance L of a device, the greater its

opposition to any change in current through it.
Inductance of a solenoid
 Energy stored in an Inductor
We know from Lenz’s law that inductances oppose changes in current. There is an
alternative way to look at this opposition that is based on energy.

Energy is stored in a magnetic field. It takes time to build up energy, and it also takes time
to deplete energy; hence, there is an opposition to rapid change.

In an inductor, the magnetic field is directly proportional to current and to the inductance
of the device.
 RL Circuits
• The current through an inductor L cannot be turned on or off
instantaneously. The change in current changes flux, inducing an emf
opposing the change (Lenz’s law).

Large L greater opposition more time

Small R large current greater opposition more time
 Inductive Reactance

Inductive
Reactance

Units: Ohm

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an inductor, the voltage leads the current by one-
fourth of a cycle, or by a 90º phase angle.
Current lags behind voltage, since inductors oppose change in current. Changing current
induces a back emf V = −L(ΔI / Δt). This is considered to be an effective resistance of the
inductor to AC.
Large L greater opposition
Large f greater change in current greater opposition
 Capacitive Reactance

Capacitive
Reactance

Units: Ohm

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor, the voltage follows the current by one-
fourth of a cycle, or by a 90º phase angle.
The capacitor is affecting the current, having the ability to stop it altogether when fully
charged.
Larger C more charge more current less resistance
 Resistors in an AC Circuit

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a resistor, the voltage is exactly in phase with the
current—they have a 0º phase angle.
There is no frequency dependence to the behavior of plain resistance in a circuit.
 RLC Series AC Circuits
Inductors, capacitors, and resistors all impede current.

The combined effect of resistance R , inductive

reactance XL , and capacitive reactance XC is
defined to be impedance, an AC analogue to
resistance in a DC circuit. Current, voltage, and
impedance in an RLC circuit are related by an
AC version of Ohm’s law
 RLC Series AC Circuits

• This graph shows the relationships of the voltages in an RLC circuit to the current. The
voltages across the circuit elements add to equal the voltage of the source, which is seen to
be out of phase with the current.
RLC Series AC Circuits

Z - impedance
 Example 23.12 Calculating Impedance and Current
An RLC series circuit has a 40.0 Ω resistor, a 3.00 mH inductor, and a 5.00 μF capacitor.
(a) Find the circuit’s impedance at 60.0 Hz and 10.0 kHz.
(b) If the voltage source has Vrms = 120 V , what is Irms at each frequency?

where and

XC dominates at lower frequency

XL dominates at higher frequency

 Resonance in RLC Series AC Circuits

Dominates at high frequency Dominates at low freq.

At some intermediate frequency, f0

f0 - resonant
frequency

At f0 , the effects of the inductor and capacitor cancel, so that Z = R , and Irms is a maximum.
 Example 23.13 Calculating Resonant Frequency and Current

For the same RLC series circuit having a 40.0 Ω resistor, a 3.00 mH inductor, and a 5.00 μF
capacitor:
(a) Find the resonant frequency.
(b) Calculate Irms at resonance if Vrms is 120 V.
 Power in RLC Series AC Circuits

• If current varies with frequency in an RLC circuit, then the power delivered to it
also varies with frequency.

where

Power factor
At the resonance frequency

Voltage and current are in phase, as expected for resistors. The power is maximum.

At other frequencies, the average power is less than at resonance.

 Quiz
Which are correct statements about an RL circuit?
I. The opposition of the inductor starts at zero and quickly
increases.
II. The current increases exponentially.
III. The characteristic time constant depends on the resistance
but not on the inductance.

II. and III. only

I. and II. only
I. only
II. only
 Quiz
What change could you make to an RL circuit if you want the
current in the circuit to increase faster without changing the
resistance?

Increase the inductance.

Decrease the inductance.
 Quiz
At high frequencies, which component of an RLC circuit has the
greatest effect on the impedance?

resistor
inductor
capacitor
 Quiz
At low frequencies, which component of an RLC circuit has the
greatest effect on the impedance?

resistor
inductor
capacitor
 Summary

Motional