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Chapter

Material Testing
Intended Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Differentiate the types of material testing.
2. Briefly describe the process involved in each type of test.
3. Conduct an experiment in material testing.

This chapter presents the different types of material testing. Materials testing such as tension test,
compression test, coefficient of linear expansion, beam deflection and shear/torsion test as well as its
uses and application will be discussed in this chapter. The equipment and processes involved in
conducting the test will also be discussed. Material testing are used to measure the mechanical
properties of materials when applied to a force or temperature. The data thus obtained in this test can
be used in specifying the suitability of materials for various applications.

Definition

Materials testing is a respected and established technique which is used to ascertain both
the physical and mechanical properties of raw materials and components. It can be used to
examine almost anything from human hair to steel, ceramics or composite materials.

Reasons of Conducting Material Testing

• Ensure quality
• Test properties
• Prevent failure in use
• Make informed choices in using materials

Types of Material Testing

3.1 Tensile testing

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science test in
which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. Tensile tests are used to
determine the mechanical behavior of materials under static, axial tensile, or stretch loading. It
uses an extensometer to apply measured force to an test specimen. The amount of extension
can be measured and graphed. Variables such as strain, stress, elasticity, tensile strength,

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ductility and shear strength can be gauged. The test specimens can be round or flat. They can
be performed on any specimen of known cross-sectional area and gage length to which a uniform
tensile load can be applied. The results from the test are commonly used to select a material for
an application, for quality control, and to predict how a material will react under other types of
forces. ASTM standards for common tensile tests may be found in sections E8 (metals), D638
(plastics), D2343 (fibers), D897 (adhesives), D987 (paper), and D412 (rubber).

Testing machine

The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is the universal testing machine.
This type of machine has two crossheads; one is adjusted for the length of the specimen and the
other is driven to apply tension to the test specimen. There are two types: hydraulic powered and
electromagnetically powered machines. Figure 1. shows the sample equipment used in tensile
testing while in figure 2. Shows the sample specimen used in his test.

Figure 1. Universal Testing Machine

Source: AMS Labo.n.d.

Figure 2. Sample Specimen

Source: Hill Engineering

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PROCESS:

The test process involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine and applying
tension to it until it fractures. During the application of tension, the elongation of the gauge section
is recorded against the applied force. The data is manipulated so that it is not specific to the
geometry of the test sample. The elongation measurement is used to calculate the engineering
strain,

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cE4Mw9GsdHY

3.2 Compression Testing

Compression testing is the opposite of tensile testing. A compressive load tends to

squeeze or compact the specimen. The choice of a compression test over other types of testing
largely depends on the type of loading the material will see during application or service. Metals
and many plastics, for example, are more efficient at resisting tensile loads. Therefore, they are
more commonly tested using tensile loading, depending on the application, of course. Materials,
such as concrete, brick, and some ceramic products, are more often used in applications for their
compressive loading properties and are, therefore, tested in compression.

Compression Testing Process

During a typical compression test, data are collected regarding the applied load, resultant
deformation or deflection, and condition of the specimen. For brittle materials, the compressive
strength is relatively easy to obtain, showing marked failure. However, for ductile materials, the
compressive strength is generally based on an arbitrary deformation value. Ductile materials do
not exhibit the sudden fractures that brittle materials present. They tend to buckle and "barrel out".
Prior to this and any test, the dimensions of the specimen should be measured with
adequate precision using proper instruments. Once these measurements have been taken and
recorded, the specimen should be loaded into the testing machine. In compression testing, and
testing in general, care should be taken to ensure that the axis of the specimen is centered and
aligned with the axis of loading. Loading rates should be steady and continuous. Rates vary, but
a general figure is 0.005 inches per minute strain rate. Loading rates typically range from 500-
1000 lb/min
As in most tests of mechanical properties, the loading rate can adversely affect the results
if you get carried away. Loading continues at this rate up to approximately one-half of the
anticipated strength and, then, should be reduced to allow for more frequent data collection. In
this way, subtle changes can be observed in the specimen's behavior. As in all of these tests,
please observe proper safety procedures. Obtain and properly wear personal protective
equipment. Some of these materials exhibit violent fractures with explosive results. Figure 3
shows the sample illustration of performing compression test while in Figure 4 shows the effect
of compressive load in the specimen.

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Figure 3. Sample photograph of Performing the Compression Test

Source: Luda Machinery Instrument Co., Ltd. (2016)

Figure 4. Illustration showing the effect to specimen after applying compressive load
Source: tec-science.com

Components of Compression Testing Machine

There are four parts of a compression testing machine. Each of these parts
has their distinct functions and features. Figure 5 shows the sample equipment used
in compression test.

• Main machine part: cross beam, rod, cylinder, frame, and the bottom plate
• Hydraulic part: oil tank, hydraulic filter, motor, oil back valve set, oil delivery
valve set, etc
• Controller part: controller, inner printer, sensor, etc.
• Computer series(optional): software, computer, and printer

Figure 5. Compression Testing Machine

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Source: Luda Machinery Instrument Co., Ltd. (2016)

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eseHUi4dxZY&t=4s

3.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Linear Thermal Expansion is used to determine the rate at which a material expands as a
function of temperature. This test can be used for design purposes and to determine if failure by
thermal stress may occur. Understanding the relative expansion/contraction characteristics of two
materials in contact can be important for application success.

Equipment

Figure 6. Shows the sample of the equipment used in measuring the coefficient of thermal
expansion.

Figure 6. Schematic of TMA 2940

Source: chem.ncut.edu.tw

Test Procedure:

In a Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA) specimen is placed in the holder at room

temperature. The height is measured by the probe. The furnace is raised and the temperature is
brought to 20 degrees below the lowest temperature of interest. The specimen is heated at a
specified rate, often ten degrees a minute, over the desired temperature range. A graph is
produced. Alternatively, a dilatometer can be used. The specimen is placed in the Dilatometer at
room temperature, and the height gauge is positioned and zeroed. The apparatus is placed in a
temperature bath and the movement of the sample is measured from -30° C +30° C.

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Specimen size:

For the TMA, the test specimen should be between 2 and 10 mm. in length and shall not
exceed 10 mm in lateral dimension. The specimen must be flat on both ends. For the
dilatometer, the test sample should be approximately 12.7mm (0.5") wide x 75mm (3") long.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Idbp1YJf4kk

3.4 Beam Deflection

Bend testing, sometimes called flexure testing or transverse beam testing, measures the
behavior of materials subjected to simple beam loading. It is the most common test for brittle
materials. It is commonly performed on relatively flexible materials such as polymers, wood, and
composites. At its most basic level a bend test is performed by placing a specimen on two support
anvils, which is bent through applied force on 1 or 2 loading anvils. The force is applied with either
a single upper anvil at the midpoint, which is a 3-point bend test, or two upper anvils equidistant
from the center, a 4-point bend test. The stress at fracture in bending is known as the modulus
of rupture, flexural strength, or transverse rupture strength.

COMMON ASTM AND ISO FLEXURE TEST STANDARDS

• ASTM D790 - Standard Test Methods for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and
Reinforced Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials
• ISO 178 - Plastics-Determination of Flexural Properties
• ASTM A370 - Tensile Testing and Bend Testing Steel Reinforced Bar

Type of Flexure Test

Three Point Bend Test

In a 3-point test, the area of uniform stress is quite small and concentrated under the
center loading point.

Four Point Bend Test

In a 4-point test, the area of uniform stress exists between the inner span loading points
(typically half the length of the outer span).

Depending on the type of material being tested, there are many different flex fixtures that
may be appropriate. Figure 7 schematic of 3-point and 4-point bend test.

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Figure 7. Schematic of 3 point (left) and 4 point (right) bending test

Source: Instron

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=veVwA3-Vpmg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFfmvlRXJdI

3.5 Shear/Torsion Test

Shear testing involves an applied force or load that acts in a direction parallel to the plane
in which the load is applied. Shear loads act differently than, say, tensile or compressive loads
that act normal or perpendicular to the axis of loading. Direct shear and torsional shear are
important forces used to determine shear properties. Direct or torsional loading depends on the
forces a material is expected to be subjected to during service.

Shear Test

A shear test is designed to apply stress to a test sample so that it experiences a sliding
failure along a plane that is parallel to the forces applied. Generally, shear forces cause one
surface of a material to move in one direction and the other surface to move in the opposite
direction so that the material is stressed in a sliding motion. Shear tests differ from tension and
compression tests in that the forces applied are parallel to the two contact surface, whereas, in
tension and compression they are perpendicular to the contact surfaces.

Process:

Before testing, the specimen is accurately measured using proper instruments and the
gage length is marked. The troptometer or a suitable replacement is attached to the specimen
and zeroed out. Proper precautions should be taken to center the specimen in the machine or
fixture. The grippers are tightened to insure against slippage, yet not so tight as to cause
deformations which would affect test results. In general, shear testing involves either direct or
torsional loading. In direct shear tests, the specimen is placed in the shear test fixture and a load
is applied. This can be seen in the figure below. For plate specimens, a punch and die combination
may be used. Plastics, generally, are square specimens with holes in either end to facilitate
gripping. The applied load and resultant deformation are recorded and a suitable graph can be
plotted.

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Figure 8. Lap Shear Test

Source: Instron

Torsion Test

Torsion testing is a type of mechanical testing that evaluates the properties of materials
or devices while under stress from angular displacement. Torsion testing can be split into two
distinct categories: testing raw materials like metal wires or plastic tubing to determine properties
such as shear strength and modulus, or functional testing of finished products subjected to
torsion, such as screws, pharmaceutical bottles, and sheathed cables. Figure 9 shows the sample
equipment used in torsion test and figure 10 shows the sample specimen.

Figure 9. Torsion Test Equipment

Source: Our Engineering Lab. 2020

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Figure 10. Sample Specimen

Source: Our Engineering Lab. 2020

TYPES OF TORSION TESTS

Torsion tests can be performed by applying only a rotational motion or by applying both
axial (tension or compression) and torsional forces. Types of torsion testing vary from product to
product but can usually be classified as failure, proof, or product operation testing.

• Torsion Only: Applying only torsional loads to the test specimen.

• Axial-Torsion: Applying both axial (tension or compression) and torsional forces to the test
specimen.
• Failure Testing: Twisting the product, component, or specimen until failure. Failure can be
classified as either a physical break or a kink/defect in the specimen.
• Proof Testing: Applying a torsional load and holding this torque load for a fixed amount of
time.
• Operational Testing: Testing complete assemblies or products such as bottle caps,
switches, dial pens, or steering columns to verify that the product performs as expected
under torsion loads.

Procedure

1. Measure the diameter of test specimen using vernier calipers

2. Measure the gauge length of the specimen.
3. Hold the specimen in between the plates with a dog holder.
4. Adjust the circular min scale with zero of the vernier scale and also ensure that torque
reading show the value in digital indicator.
5. Apply an increasing torque to the specimen in suitable increments by using automatic
control.
6. Continue the test and record the corresponding readings of torque and angle of twist, until
fracture occurs.
7. Plot a graph of torque vs angle of twist and determine the Modulus of Rigidity.

Video: torsion test: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=94Bu1DiHOoM

Shear test : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Shb2nSIQPIA

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CHAPTER TEST

Directions: Answer the following question comprehensively. Write your answer on the space
provided.

Questions

1. Identify material testing methods and briefly describe each one of them.

2. Why do we need to conduct material testing? Cite reasons relative to materials science and
engineering.

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3. Describe the processes involved in performing the material testing.

4. A cylindrical specimen of stainless steel having a diameter of 12.8 mm (0.505 in.) and a gauge length
of 50.800 mm (2.000 in.) is pulled in tension. Use the load–elongation characteristics shown in the
following table:

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(a) Plot the data as engineering stress versus engineering strain.

(b) Compute the modulus of elasticity.
(c) Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002.
(d) Determine the tensile strength of this alloy.
e) What is the approximate ductility, in percent elongation?
(f) Compute the modulus of resilience.

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REFERENCES

1. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 9th Edition, William D. Callister, Jr.
Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah with special contributions by
David G. Rethwisch The University of Iowa.

2. 3Unit I Material Testing viewed 13 August 2020

http://www.dicis.ugto.mx/profesores/balvantin/ documentos/Ciencia%20de%20
Materiales%20para%20Ingenieria%20Mecanica/Unit%20I%20-%20Materials%20testing.pdf

3. Lloyd Instruments Ltd.2020. An Introduction to Material Testing - Why is it Important?. AZoM,

viewed 14 August 2020, https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=16732.

4. AMS Labo.n.d. WEW-1000D Computer Display Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine

http://www.amslabo.com/fichier/WEW-D/WEW-1000D.pdf

5. Luda Machinery Instrument Co., Ltd. 2016. Compression testing Machine. Viewed 17 August
2020, http://www.ludatest.com/compression-testing-machine.

6. Inston. n.d. What is Bending Test? Viewed 17 August 2020, https://www.instron.us/our-

company/library/test-types/flexure-test#:~:text=Bend%20testing%2C%20sometimes%20called
%20flexure,polymers%2C%20wood%2C%20and%20composites.

7. Inston. n.d. What is Torsion Testing? Viewed 17 August 2020 https://www.instron.us/our-

company/library/test-types/torsion-
test#:~:text=Torsion%20testing%20is%20a%20type,under%20stress%20from%20angular%20d
isplacement.
8. Our Engineering Lab. 2020. Conduct Torsion test to find out Modulus of rigidity. Viewed 17
August 2020 http://ourelabs.blogspot.com/2017/01/conduct-torsion-test-to-find-out.html

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