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ESTIMATION OF NATURAL
GROUND WATER RECHARGE
a
C. P. Kumar M.ISH
a
National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, 247 667,
U.P.

To cite this article: C. P. Kumar M.ISH (1997) ESTIMATION OF NATURAL GROUND

WATER RECHARGE, ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 3:1, 61-74, DOI:
10.1080/09715010.1997.10514603

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09715010.1997.10514603

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 VOL.,3 (I) (61)

THE INDIAN SOCIETY FOR HYDRAULICS

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

ESTIMATION OF NATURAL GROUND WATER RECHARGE

C. P. Kumar, M.ISH
Scientist C,
National Institute of Hydrology
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Roorkee- 247 667 (U.P.)

ABSTRACT

Quantification of the rate of natural ground water recharge is a pre-requisite for efficient
ground water resource management. It is particularly important in regions with large demands
for ground water supplies, where such resources are the key to economic development. How-
ever, the rate of aquifer recharge is one of the most difficult factors to measure in the evalua-
tion of ground water resources. Estimation of recharge, by whatever method, are normally
subject to large uncertainties and errors. In this paper, various methods of estimating natural
ground water recharge are outlined and critically reviewed with regard to their limitations and
associated uncertainties.

KEY WORDS : Rainfall, Infiltration, Soil water, Recharge, Ground water.

INTRODUCTION

The amount of water that may be extracted from an aquifer without causing depletion is
primarily d~pendent upon the ground water recharge. Thus, a quantitative evaluation of spatial
and temporal distribution of ground water recharge is a pre-requisite for operating ground
water resources system in an optimal manner.

Rainfall is the principal source for replenishment of moisture in the soil water system and
recharge to ground water. Moisture movement in the unsaturated zone is controlled by suction
pressure, moisture content and hydraulic conductivity relationships. The amount of moisture
that will eventually reach the water table is defined as natural ground water recharge. The
amount of this recharge depends upon the rate and duration of rainfall, the subsequent condi-
tions at the upper boundary, the antecedent soil moisture conditions, the water table depth and
the soil type.

The methods available for estimation of ground water recharge directly from precipitation
could conceptually be divided into inflow, aquifer response and outflow methods according to
how the studies are conducted. Applying inflow methods, it is. presumed that the water move-
ment in the unsaturated zone is vertical and the results are not directly applicable to an area
but could be considered as point values. Lysimeter measurements, tracers, soil moisture bud-

Note : Written discussion of this paper will be open until 31" July, 1997.

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 VOL.,3 (I) (62)

get models and one-dimensional soil water flow models are examples of inflow methods. The
aquifer response in water quantity or chemical composition may be used for estimation of the
ground water recharge, e.g. transformation of ground water level changes to amounts of water
by using the specific yield concept, determination of the recharge necessary to maintain the
ground water levels (inverse modelling) or comparison of chloride deposition and concentra-
tion in ground water. In outflow methods ground water recharge and ground water discharge
are put equal. Determination of the ground water portion in stream di~charge, measurements
of spring discharge and continuous withdrawal from wells are possible methods. The outflow
methods give integrated ground water recharge for an area. A correct determination of this
area is crucial.
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RECHARGE ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

Estimating the rate of aquifer replenishment is probably the most difficult of all measures
in the evaluation of ground water resources. Estimates are normally and almost inevitably
subject to large errors. No single comprehensive estimation technique can yet be identified
from the spectrum of those available, which gives reliable results. Recharge estimation can be
based on a wide variety of models which are designed to represent the actual physical pro-
cesses. There is a great deal of literature available on conceptual and distributed models such
as Kenhiley Watershed Model, Institute of Hydraulic Research Model, SHE Model a and
large variety of analytical and numerical models such as Horton's equation, Philip's equation,
and Green and Ampt equations for infiltration a~d moisture movement through soils. The
following specific methods, commonly in use for estimation of natural ground water recharge,
have been reviewed in this paper:

Ci) Soil water balance method;

(ii) Zero flux plane method;
(iii) One-dimensional soil water flow model;
(iv) Inverse modelling technique;
(v) Ground water level fluctuation method;
(vi) Hybrid water fluctuation method;
(vii) Ground water balance method; and
(viii) Isotope and solute profile techniques.

Soil Water Balance Method

Water balance models were developed in the 1940s by Thornthwaite (1948) and revised
by Thornthwaite and Mather (1955). The method is essentially a book-keeping procedure
which estimates the balance between the inflow and outflow of water. In a standard soil water
balance calculation, the volume of water required to saturate the soil is expressed as an equivalent
depth of water and is called the soil water deficit. The soil water balance can be represented
by:

(1)

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 VOL.,3 (I) (63)

where,

Ri = recharge;
p = precipitation;
Ea actual evapotranspiration;
llW = change in soil water storage; and
Ro = run-off.

One condition that is enforced, is that if the soil water deficit is greater than a critical value
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(called the root constant), evapotranspiration will occur at a rate less than the potential rate.
The magnitude of the root constant depends on the vegetation, the stage of plant growth and
the nature of the soil. Various techniques for estimating E•• usually based on Penman-type
equations, can be used.

The data requirement of the soil water balance method is large. When applying this method
to estimate the recharge for a catchment area, the calculation should be repeated for areas with
different precipitation, evapotranspiration, crop type and soil type. The soil water balance
method is of limited practical value, because Ea is not directly measurable. Moreover, storage
of a moisture in the unsaturated zone and the rates of infiltration along the various possible
routes to the aquifer form important and uncertain factors. Another aspect that deserves atten-
tion is the depth of the root zone which may vary in semi-arid regions between 1 and 30
meters. Results from this model are of very limited value without calibration and validation,
because of the substantial uncertainty in input data (precipitation and potential evapotranspi-
ration). The model parameters do not have a direct physical representation which can be mea-
sured in the field.

Zero Flux Plane Method

The zero flux plane method relies on the location of a plane of zero hydraulic gradient in
the soil profile. Recharge over a time interval is obtained by summation of the changes in
water contents below this plane. The position of the zero flux plane is usually determined by
installation of tensiometers. The flux q, defined as the volume of water per unit time passing
through the unit area at any depth, is given by Darcy's law:

q =- K(8)-
aH
az (2)

where,

K(8) = unsaturated hydraulic conductivity;

H total water potential= h(e)- z;
h matric potential (negative);
z = depth beneath the surface (positive); and
8 = water content.

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 VOL.,3 (I) (64)

Thus, knowin~ the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and the potential gradient, the flux
may be dctennined. Water potentials may be measured, using tensiometers or the neutron
scattering technique. The hydraulic conductivity estimation presents more problems. Firstly,
K may vary by a factor of 103 or so over the nonnal water content range of a typical soil and
secondly, there are large variations ofK from place to place, even in apparently homogeneous
soils and over disran(•es of a few meters at the same depth.

There is, however, an alternative to this approach which avoids the need to know values of
K. From the one-dimensional vertical fonn of the water balance equation
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aa aq
-=- (3)
at az
one obtains by integration from depth z to depth z + dz

z+jE

qz = 'lz+ciE + J ': m
z
(4)

by ~ "uming negligible lateral soil moissure flow. Here' is the vertical oo~ of ·k
Darcian water flux. At the zero flux plane dcf1fh, say z0 , the potential gradient is zero and the
flux is also zero. If z0 does not change with time, the accumulated flux, F(z'), between times
t 1 and~ is

z'

J
l

F(z') = q(z)dt = f[e(t 1) - 9(t 2 )] dz (5)

t, z.

where,

z'=z+dzandz0 =z.

Unfortunately, the above method fails to work during periods of high infiltration, when the
hydraulic gradient becomes positive downwards throughout the profile

One-Dimensional SoU Water Flow Model

For recharge to occur, water has to move through the unsaturated zone until it reaches the
water table. Flow ns within this zone are far more complex than the flow mechanisms
in a saturated aquu~.:r.

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 VOL.,3 (I) (65)

The equation of a moisture retention curve is a non-linea;- relation of the water content. In
more physical terms, it is said to show a hysteresis effect. Since the moisture retention curve
can only be determined experimentally, its true behaviour in practice is only known at a finite
number of points. Two methods, to obtain values at non-experimental points, can be used. The
first and most obvious method is to use interpolation, but this method can only be successful in
those cases where the experimental points are closely spaced. The second approach is to fit an
empirical equation to the experimental points. The equations mostly used today are the Brooks
and Corey function (Brooks and Corey 1964) and the Van Genuchten (1980) function. The
Van Genuchten equation .deserves special attention. In this equation, the moisture retention
curve is expressed as :
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(6)

where , n and m are characteristic constants, which have to be determined for every soil type.
Van Genuchten suggested that one should use the value m = I - lin. The Van Genuchten
equation expresses the moisture retention curve not in terms of the water content, but ratheTiin
terms of the reduced water content, defined by the equation :

(7)

where,

8 5 = the saturated water content; and

er the residual water content.

The three parameters, namely, (i) the water content, (ii) the matric potential (fluid pres-
sure), and (iii) the hydraulic conductivity, are interrelated. These relationships are very sensi-
tive. For example, a change in the water content of a few percent, often corresponds to a
change in the hydraulic conductivity of two or more orders of magnitude. The one-dimen-
sional equation for vertical flow in the unsaturated zone can be expressed as (Richards 1931)

(8)

where,

e = volumetric water content;

K = hydraulic conductivity[= K(S) or K(h)]; and
h = matric potential.

Both 8 and K are functions of the unknown potential h. The solutions ofEq. (8) are more
sensitive to h(8) variations than K(8) variations. No evidence in the literature exists that the

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 VOL3 (I) (66)

K( e) rciationship exhibits a significant hysteresis. Therefore, it is safe to assume that K is a

unique function of 9,

Following Richards (t93l), Darcy's law for unsaturated flow can be expressed as

dH
q=-K(8J- (9)
oz
where H""' h(e)- z and K(9) is related to the relative permeability as given by Van Genuchten
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1980.

(10)

where,

Ks =saturated hydraulic conductivity.

Equation (8) can be solved by either a finite difference or a finite element model. The
computational aspects of finite difference and finite element models are well developed, but
resean.:h is required to define appropriate space and time scales in relation to the magnitude
and heterogeneity of the system under study, and the data available for calibration.

Inverse Modelling Technique

The inverse modelling technique is a two-dimensional finite element (or finite difference)
ground water model of the saturated zone. Current methods of calibrating ground water flow
models arc either indirect or direct. The indirect approach is essentially a trial and error proce-
dure that seeks to improve an existing estimate approach of the parameters in an iterative
n'anner, until the model response is sufficiently close to that of the real system. The direct
approach is different in that it treats the model parameters as dependent variables in a formal
inverse boundary value problem.

One of the main difficulties in dealing with the inverse problem stems from the inherent
non-uniqueness of its solution. Many of the data entered into the inverse modelling technique
represent imprecise measurements and processed information that give a distorted picture of
the system's true state.

The calculation of recharge to an aquifer by the inverse modelling technique must be re-
garded with caution, if the trueS values (storage coefficient) of the aquifer are not known. If,
howe r. theca'.. s values san be regarded as being very close to the real values, this
technique can be u1 much use in describing the behaviour of the aquifer to the recharge phe-
nomena in general.

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 VOL.,3 (I) (67)

Ground Water Level Fluctuation Method

This is an indirect method of deducing the recharge from the fluctuation of the water table.
Provided that there is a distinct rainy season with the remainder of the year being relatively
dry, the rise in the water table during the rainy season is used to estimate the recharge. The
basic assumption is that the rise in the water table during the rainy season is primarily due to
the rainfall recharge. It is recognized that other factors such as pumping or irrigation during
the rainy season do have an influence. If the rise in water table is L1 s, the rainfall recharge, R;
is estimated as
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(II)

where S is the specific yield, T is the abstraction during the rainy season divided by the study
y p
area, and R, is the return flow due to any irrigation which occurs during the rainy season.

Though at first sight this method is attractive, there are a number of factors which mean
that it can lead to unreliable results. Equation ( 11) neglects the subsurface inflow and subsur-
face outflow and the control volume of water balance is assumed as a box opened at the top.
The other fundamental inadequacies is the implicit assumption that every inflow or outflow is
uniformly distributed over the area. This may be approximately true for the rainfall and even
for the return flow from irrigation but it is rarely true for the abstraction from the aquifer.
When pumping is reduced or ceases during the rainy season, a redistribution of ground water
heads occurs so that part of the observed increase in water level may be due to normal well
recovery. The estimation of recharge using Eq. (II) is also critic ally dependent on the value of
the specific yield. Since the water table fluctuation occurs in the partially saturated zone, it is
difficult to determine the appropriate value of the specific yield.

Hybrid Water Fluctuation Method

Sophocleous ( 1991) proposed a hybrid water fluctuation approach to recharge estimation.

By associating water table rises with specific precipitation events and by combining the re-
charge estimates from the soil water balance analysis with the consequent water table rises.
one can obtain reliable effective storativity values for each recharge study site, especially after
averaging several such values. The site-calibrated effective storativity value can then be used
to translate each major water table rise tied to a specific storm period into a corresponding
amount of ground water recharge. The method is generally reliable for estimating natural
ground water recharge in relatively flat areas with a shallow water table (< 10m). The proce-
dure is as follows.

Combine storm-based soil water balance analysis with corresponding water table rises. To
do this, first establish recharge monitoring sites throughout the area of interest. Essential
equipments needed for each site include a recording raingauge, a water table recorder, a neu-
tron probe access tube as close to the water table as possible (minimum depth 2.7 m, i.e. below
the root zone), an observation well screened deeper within the aquifer, and a weather station

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 VOL.,3 (I) (68)

recording at least air temperature, relative humidity and solar radiation. This weather station,
when centrally located, can serve a number of recharge monitoring sites. Using a minimum of
weekly moisture profile readings during the recharge season, apply the soil water balance for
each recharge producing storm period and note the resulting water table rise. Divide the soil
water balance derived recharge estimate by the corresponding water table rise to obtain an
estimate of effective storativity or fillable porosity of the region near the water table. Obtain
several such estimates and average them. This average is, in effect, the site-calibrated effec-
tive storativity value, which can be used to translate each water table rise, tied to a specific
storm period, into a corresponding amount of ground water recharge.
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Estimation errors in the hybrid water fluctuation method are reduced by running a 'storm
period' based soil water balance throughout the year in combination with the associated water
level rise. This combined methodology results in better and more reliable results than either of
the two well established recharge estimation approaches used singly.

Ground Water Balance Method

Inputs and outputs for conventional hydrological models are generally water volumes per
unit time, such as recharge, discharge and surface inflows and outflows. The fundamental idea
common to a variety of situations, is that the hydrological balance equation or some other
equation empirically derived, is usually employed, for example :

I- o = ~w (12)
~t

where,

= inflow (m3/day) during time~ t;

0 ::::outflow (m 3/day) during~ t; and
W = change in water volume (m3).
In the same manner, considering the various inflow and outflow components, the ground
water balance equation for a time period ~tis given as :

(13)

where,

RI = recharge from rainfall;

Rc = recharge from canal seepage;
Rr = recharge from field irrigation;
RI = recharge from tanks;
s I = influent seepage from rivers;

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 VOL.,3 (I) (69)

Ig = inflow from other basins;

Et = evapotranspiration;
Tp = draft from ground water;
se = effluent seepage to rivers;
0g = outflow to other basins; and
flW = change in ground water storage.

Equation ( 13) is the general ground water balance equation for an unconfined aquifer. The
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boundaries of an area usually studied, do not represent stream lines, i.e. they are not perpen-
dicular to the equipotential lines. Hence, the lateral inflow and outflow (I g and 0 g ) of ground
water crossing the area's boundaries must be accounted for in the balance equation. One of the
factors influencing the change in water table is the effective porosity, ne , of the zone in which
the water table fluctuations occur. It has been recognized that ne, changes as the depth of the
water table changes, especially for water tables less than 3 meters deep. Furthermore, it should
be noted that if the water table drops, part of the water is retained by the soil particles; if it
rises, air can be trapped in the interstices that are filling with water. Hence ne for rising water
is, in general, less than for a falling water table.

The above equation considers only one aquifer system and thus does not account for the
interflows between the aquifers in a multi aquifer system. However, if sufficient data related
to water table and piezometric head fluctuations and conductivity of intervening layers are
available, the additional terms for these interflows can be included in the governing
equation.

All elements of the water balance equation are computed using independent methods wher-
ever possible. Computations of water balance elements always involve errors, due to short-
comings in the techniques used. The water balance equation therefore usually does not bal-
ance, even if all its components are computed by independent methods. The discrepancy of
water balance is given as a residual term of the water balance equation and includes the errors
in the determination of the components and the values of components which are not taken into
account. If it is not possible to obtain the value of a balance component by computation, the
component may be evaluated as a residual term in the water balance equation.

The water balance may be computed for any time interval. The complexity of the compu-
tation of the water balance tends to increase with increase in area. This is due to a related
increase in the technical difficulty of accurately computing the numerous important water
balance components. To apply Eq. (13) correctly, it is essential that both the area and the
period for which the balance is assessed, be carefully chosen. In the ground water balance
method for estimation of natural ground water recharge, all components of the water balance
equation other than the rainfall recharge, are estimated using the relevant hydrological and
meteorological information. The rainfall recharge is calculated by substituting these estimates
in the water balance equation. A pre-requisite for successful application of this technique is
very extensive and accurate hydrological and meteorological data. The water balance ap-

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 VOL.,3 (I) (70)

proach is valid for the areas where the year can be divided into monsoon and non-monsoon
periods with the bulk of rainfall occurring in former. Water balance study for monsoon and
non-monsoon periods is carried out separately. The former yields an estimate of recharge
coefficient and the later determines the degree of accuracy with which the components of
water balance equation have been estimated.

Isotope and Solute Profile Techniques

Isotopes 3H, 2 H, 180 and 14C are commonly used in recharge studies, of which the first
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three most accurately simulate the movement of water, because they form a part of the water
molecule. Many studies on recharge estimation using natural tritium, are listed in the litera-
ture. Although a proven tool for qualitative recharge estimation, environmental tritium has
several disadvantages, e.g. (i) tritium is not conservative and is lost from the system by evapo-
transpiration; (ii) contamination during sampling and processing is a factor which is enhanced
in remote areas and at low total moisture levels; (iii) analysis is highly specialized and costly;
(iv) quantitative studies are difficult to achieve, since it is difficult to determine a tritium mass
balance.

An environmental tracer suitable for determining the movement of water must be highly
soluble, conservative and not substantially taken up by vegetation. The chloride iop satisfies
most of these criteria and is therefore considered a suitable tracer, particularly in coastal areas
where arge quantities of aeolian chloride are precipitated.

If the assumption of chloride as a conservative ion is accepted, the ground water recharge
is given by:

D
Ri = - (mm/ year) (14)
c
where,

D = wet and dry chloride deposition (mg/m 2 /year); and

C = concentration in ground water.
The method is convenient, fast and cheap. The drawback of the technique is the uncer-
tainty in the determination of the wet and dry deposition. The principal source of chloride in
ground water, if there are no evaporite sources, is from the atmosphere. In this case, the re-
charge can be expressed as :

. f Cl of rainfall
R i = ram a11 x - - - - - - - - (15)
Cl of groundwater

The chloride method must be treated with caution, as accession of chloride near the soil
surface may violate the assumption of a steady state chloride flux density throughout the un-

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 VOL.,3(1) (71)

saturated zone, because of evapotranspiration. Furthennore, recharge under conditions of ex-

tremely high rainfall with a long recurrence period, is likely to influence the chloride concen-
tration of ground water to a high degree, resulting in an overestimate of the mean annual
recharge.

NATURAL GROUND WATER RECHARGE ESTIMATION IN INDIA

Rainfall is the most important source of ground water recharge in the country. The most
commonly used methods for estimation of natural ground water recharge in India include
empirical methods, ground water level fluctuation method, and the ground water balance method.
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Based on the studies undertaken by different scientists and organisations regarding correlation
of ground water level fluctuation and rainfall, some empirical relationships have been de-
rived for computation of natural recharge to ground water from rainfall. Some of these empiri-
cal relationships for different hydrogeological situations in India are presented below.

(i) Chaturvedi Fonnula (Chaturvedi 1973):

Based on the water level fluctuations and rainfall amounts in Ganga- Yamuna doab,
Chaturvedi 1973, derived an empirical relationship to arrive at the recharge as a function of
annual precipitation (when rainfall exceeds 40 em).

R = 2.0 (P-15) 0.4 (16)

where,

R =net recharge due to precipitation during the year, in inches;

P =annual precipitation, in inches.

This fonnula was later modified by further work at the U.P. Irrigation Research Institute,
Roorkee and the modified fonn of the fonnula is

R = 1.35 (P-14)05 ( 17)

The Chaturvedi formula has been widely used for preliminary estimations of ground water
recharge due to rainfall. It may be noted that there is a lower limit of the rainfall below which
the recharge due to rainfall is zero. The percentage of rainfall recharged commences from
zero at P = 14 inches, increases upto 18% at P = 28 inches, and again decreases. The lower
limit of rainfall in the fonnula may account for the soil moisture deficit, the interception losses
and potential evaporation. These factors being site specific. one generalized fonnula may not
be applicable to all the alluvial areas.

Tritium tracer studies on ground water recharge in the alluvial deposits of Indo-Gangetic
plains of western U.P., Punjab, Haryana and alluvium in Gujarat state have indicated varia-
tions with respect to Chaturvedi fonnula.

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 VOL.,3 (I) (72)

(ii) Amritsar Formula (Sehgal 1973) :

Using regression analysis for certain doabs in Punjab, Sehgal developed a formula in
1973 for Irrigation and Power Research Institute, Punjab. The formula was found to; hold
good for areas where rainfall was between 60 and 70 em.

R = 2.5 (P-16)0 ·5 (18)

where, Rand P both are measured in inches.

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(iii) Relationship of Krishna Rao (Krishna Rao 1970) :

Krishna Rao gave the following empirical relationship in 1970 to determine the ground
water recharge in limited climatological homogeneous areas :

R = K (P- X) (19)

The following relation is stated to hold good for different parts of Karnataka :

R 0.20 (P- 400) for areas with annual normal rainfall (P)
between 400 and 600 mm
R = 0.25 (P - 400) for areas with P between 600 and 1000 mm
R = 0.35 (P- 600) for areas with P above 2000 mm

where, R and Pare expressed in millimeters.

The relationships indicated above, which were tentatively proposed for specific
hydrogeological conditions, have to be examined and established or suitably altered for appli-
cation to other areas.

Based on the water balance studies carried out by Sutcliffe et al. (1981) for the Betwa
basin, India where the annual monsoon season of water surplus contrasts with a longer period
of deficit, it was shown that estimates of soil moisture recharge and ground water recharge
may be obtained in these circumstances by comparing seasonal net rainfall with runoff on two
assumptions namely soil moisture recharge is constant from year to year, and ground water
recharge is proportional to runoff. Measured runoff can be plotted on y-axis against seasonal
net rainfall on x-axis. The soil moisture recharge is the intercept on the horizontal axis, or the
net rainfall required before any runoff occurs; the ground water recharge is the divergence
between the 45° line and the net rainfall /runoff points. This approach is most directly appli-
cable to a basin whose land use is reasonably homogeneous because the root depth and thus
the soil moisture recharge and actual evaporation should be uniform.

A Ground Water Estimation Committee ( 1984) was constituted by Government of India in

1982 to recommend methodologies for estimation of the ground water resource potential in

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 VOL.,3 (I) (73)

India. It was recommended by the committee that the ground water recharge should be
estimated based on ground water level fluctuation method. However, in areas, where ground
water level monitoring is not being done regularly, or where adequate data about ground
water level fluctuation is not available, adhoc norms of rainfall infiltration may be adopted.

With a view to review the Ground Water Resources Estimation Methodology and to look
into all the related issues, a Committee on Ground Water Estimation was again constituted in
November 1995. The draft report of the Committee (1996) was released in October 1996.
This Committee has proposed several improvements in the existing methodology based on
ground water level fluctuation approach. Salient features of their recommendations are given
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below.

(a) It is proposed that watershed may be used as the unit for ground water resource assess-
ment in hard rock areas, which occupies around 2/3rd part of the country. The assess-
ment made for watershed as unit may be transferred to administrative unit such as block,
for planning development programmes. For alluvial areas, the present practice of assess-
ment based on block-wise basis is retained. The possibility of adopting doab as the unit
of assessment in alluvial areas needs further detailed studies.

(b) It is proposed that the total geographical area of the unit for resource assessment is to be
divided into subareas such as hilly regions, saline ground water areas, canal command
areas and non-command areas, and separate resource assessment may be made for these
subareas. Variations in geomorphological and hydrogeological characteristics may be
considered within the unit.

(c) The focus of ground water recharge assessment may be for unconfined aquifers. In spe-
cific alluvial areas where resource from deep confined aquifer is important, such re-
source may have to be estimated by specific detailed investigation, taking care to avoid
duplication of resource estimation from the upper unconfined aquifers.

(d) It is proposed that for hard rock areas, the specific yield value may be estimated by
applying the water level fluctuation method for the dry season data, and then using this
specific yield value in the water level fluctuation method for the monsoon season to get
recharge. For alluvial areas, specific yield values may be estimated from analysis of
pumping tests. However, norms for specific yield values in different hydrogeological
regions may still be necessary for use in situations where the above methods arc not
feasible due to inadequacy of data.

(e) The problem of accounting for ground water inflow outflow and base flow from a region
is difficult to solve. If watershed is used as a unit for resource assessment in hard rock
areas, the ground water inflow/outflow may become negligible. The base flow can be
estimated if one stream gauging station is located at the exit of the watershed.

(f) Norms for return flow from ground water and surface water irrigation are revised taking
into account the source of water (ground water/surface water), type of crop (paddy/non-

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 VOL.,3 (I) (74)

paddy) and depth of ground water level. The Committee has also revised the norms of
recharge assessment based on rainfall infiltration factor.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

When estimating natural ground water recharge, it is essential to proceed from a good
conceptualization of different recharge mechanisms and their importance in the study area.
The choice of methods should, besides this conceptualization, be guided by the objectives of
the study, available data and possibilities to get supplementary data. Of course economy also
must be considered. Since all available methods are affected with substantial uncertainty, it is
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desirable to apply more than one method based on independent input data.

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