A.F.T.E.S. WORKING GROUP N° 3 BLASTING Recommandations on the investigation of seismic effects of blasting Draft propared by H. Behui, Chairman, in consultation with the members of the Vibrations sib-group : MM." “CHAPOT PICARD ROZIERE ‘SCHWENZFEIER ‘OBJECT OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS ‘1, — MEASUREMENT OF VIBRATION 1.1. — General information about vibratio 1.2, — Measurement of vibratlon 1.3. — Locations of measuring points 2. CRITERIA FOR SAFE BLASTING 2.4. — Choice of crtteria 2.2. — Recommended values 3. — INFLUENCE OF THE GROUND BETWEEN THE BLASTING POINT AND THE FOUNDATIONS 4, — INFLUENCE OF BLASTING PLAN PARAMETERS 4.1. — Influence of explosive charge 42. —Influence of blasting charge confinement 42.5. — "Crater ralior” 4.2.2, — "Normal reliet™ 423. —"Cuts” 424, — Smooth blasting and prespliting — Efficiency and adjuetement of the blasting charge Influence of repetitive effect of blasts Determination of blasting parameters = Contined charge tast '— Test of a typical blasting design ‘Compliance with blasting parameters : control FOREWORD This text is an update of tho recommendations given in the July 1982 special issue of Tunnels et Ouvrages souterrains. t seemed to the members of the working group that this text could be a useful guide, since it reflects the essen- tials of current knowiedge in the field. On the other hand, It cannot be regarded as the last word on the problem of the effect of shocks on structures. The part dealing with the measurement and monitoring of the effect of vibrations on siructures was included in a uide published in issue n* 115 (January-February 1993) ‘of Tunnel et Ouvrages souterrains. OBJECT OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS Following any blast, a fraction of the energy imparted to ‘the ground is propagated in the form of vibrations, both in fluids (air, water) and in solids. This transient vibration stresses structures and induces various types ot vibration in them, When the forces generated by these vibrations locally exceed the strength of the structures, damage oc- ‘curs. The recommendations that follow concern the preli- minary study of blasting plans and the monitoring of ef- fects produced by blasts on constructions. The term “constructions* is here to be interpreted broadly : buil- dings, engineering structures, installations, and other equipment. However, these recommendations make no claim to be adequate in all cases. In the case of special Installations or of a construction having unusual charac teristics (great height, long span, unusual building pro- 08s, etc), a special study will be required. Vibrations transmitted by air (airborne wave) have no si- ‘nificant effect on constructions, except on thin shells (and more particularly windows). What follows concerns ‘only vibrations transmitted by the ground. 1, — MEASUREMENT OF VIBRATION — General information about vibration When a vibration passes, a point M oscillates around its rest position Mo. Setting : MoM = U (1), we define the displacement of point M ver- sus time t, Similarly, wa define iin / dt = 7 (0, the particle velocity at point M ; and D(t) / dt = T(y, the particle acceleration at point M. Knowiedge of one of these three vectors J (0), T(t), Ft defines the motion of point M. ‘Assuming a harmenie movement having the form Vin =Vosin ot the displacement and acceleration are given by the cias- sical relation Ty =Vosocos at Fy = 0 Voces at‘The longth of vector Vo represents the velocity amplitude ‘of the movement, while the lengths of vectors Vo / w and ‘© Vo represent the displacement and acceleration ampll- tudes of the movement, respectively. Remark : the coarse application of those relations of in- tegration and differentiation, valid for harmonic move- ments, to transient vibrations may lead to large errors in the amplitude calculations. 1.2, — Measurement of vibration Vibration is generally measured by geophones (particle velocity transducers). It can also be measured by accale- ration sensors and converted to particle velocity by sui- table signal processing - analog or numerical integration. The devices are directional and so measure the vector ‘component in thair axes. The most widely used sensors today consist of geo- phones having a natural frequency of 4.5 Hz and a sub- stantially linear response between roughly 6 and 400 Hz. They require correction at lower frequencies, since thelr response is etl not negligible towards 3 Hz. When such frequencies occur, it is recommended that ‘geophones having a lower natural frequency (1 or 2 Hz) be used, For the higher frequencios, a limit towards 150 to 200 Hz is generally sufficient when the measuring point is on a construction more than a few tens of matres fram the blast point At very short distances (less than 10 m) or when propa- 4gation between the blast and the measuring point is di- rect (e.g. demolition blast in masonry or blast in the foun- ation rock of a construction), it is recommended that a wider pass band, which may extend up to 500 Hz, be used. It is essential to match the pass band of the measuring ‘systam to the phenomenon to be measured. 1.3, — Locations of measuring points Most recommended maximum values refer to measure- ments made at the basement. For this reason, at least ‘one three-dimensional sensor will always be placed at the basement of the construction in question. ‘One or more three-dimensional sensors may be distribu- ted in tho upper floors (in particular, at the top) in the case of a tall construction. Inthe case of a special structure, the locations of measu- Ting points should roflect its possibilities of deformation and be adapted to each case. Generally, care will be taken to place the sensors on rigid parts securely fixed to the structure and unlikely to intro- duce disturbing vibrations (floor, partion, isolated beam, ‘balcony). Zones that seem to be poorly fixed to the struc ture, or even doubtful (stair steps, roof, slab, etc.) will be avoided. The sensors will preferably be sealed. More genaraily, it will be recalled that the contidence that can be placed in the measurements will depend to a large extent on the care with which thay are made. — CRITERIA FOR A SAFE BLASTING 2.1. — Choice of criteria ‘The criteria for a safe blasting used is the maximum par- ticle velocity cbserved in the course of a blast (maximum peak value). It would also be possible to use the resul- tant speed, Le, the magnitude of vector V (1) such that [VOP=[Ve F+W Fel V2 OF of which the maximum value will taken, bearing in mind thatthe proposed maximum values most often rofer to the maximum vertical velocity or the maximum in some irection. ‘Some measuring instruments deliver this value directly, but itis still necessary to make sure that it isin fact the maximum value of this magnitude and not the value ob- tained by combining the maxima obtained separately in each of the three directions. The “alse” resultant velocity calculated by this last procass has no physical reality and Is too pessimistic 2.2. — Recommended values ‘There are stil in France no maximum values correspon- ding to a safoty threshold that are accepted by all ex- Pers. It is possible, however, on the basis of the body of ‘experience built up, to propose values, the choice of which is guided by the following considerations — The proposed limits must be appropriate to the oxecu- tion of all types of work, in particular in an urban environ- ment where the constructions concemed by a series of blasts are numerous and varied and change constantly ‘as the work progresses ; they are often inhabited. — The monitoring process must be simple and not re- quire excessive equipement ; in particular, measuring points can be applied simultaneously to only a limited ‘number of constructions, — The varioty of constructions concerned and their ‘constant changing make it difficult to judge their quality and the natura of the foundation soils. For ail these reasons, it seems best not to apply limits that too strictly depend on the quality of the constructions land of the ground through which the vibrations pass. Using only the maximum velocity of vibration measured in the three directions, the following ranges may be dis- tinguished : 1yv 30 mmis : lis recommended that the vaiue of 30 mvs not be ex- ‘ceeded in work in inhabited areas, Higher limits (50 to 70 mm/s) : ‘These can be applied only to precise objectives, other than ordinary buildings, that have been specially studied (the study may in fact show that a lower limit should be applied ), and must be used in conjunction with careful ‘monitoring of the vibrations (special care is required in deciding the locations of the sensors). Al of these maximum values apply only in the frequency band specific to each type of work, construction, or struc- ture, which the designated laboratory should specity at ‘the time of the preliminary studies. ‘9, — INFLUENCE OF THE GROUND BETWEEN ‘THE BLASTING POINT AND THE FOUNDATIONS The ground between the blasting zone and the founda- tions of the construction is a low-pass filter with respect ‘to vibrations : high frequencies ara damped more rapidly than low. This is why, in general, the frequency associa ted with the maximum velocity measured decreases with increasing distanco from the biasting point. The fre- ‘quency of the vibrations also depends on the nature of the soil : high frequencies aro better transmitted by a ‘compact rock, having a high seismic velocity, than by @ loose soil ‘The maximum measured velocity Is damped in the soil, ‘approximately following, for a given charge, a law having the form : V=K (2) whero: Ya! D: distance to blast | instantansous charge K rsite factor : exponent between 1.5 and 2 Experience has shown that, applied to a given site, such an equation yields satisfactory predictions, after Constants k and @ have been determined by recording a tew blasts. 't should be noted that because of the multiplicity of fac- tars affecting the Intensity of the transmitted vibrations, ‘such relations as can be established have only a staisti- ‘cal character. For this reason, even the influence of the type of ground crossed is difficult to determine, because the disparsion of the measurements resulting from the. ‘order parameters often masks its effects. As is offen the ase in tock mechanics, the structure of the rock mass and its degree of cracking are more important factors than the petrographic nature of the rock The great variety of possible sites makes problematical the determination of a general propagation law problema- tical. An attempt could be made only for the purpose of estimating a probable maximum, with reference to other experimental results. It is best, when possible, to make measurements and use them to adjust the formula to each particular case. 4. — INFLUENCE OF BLAST DESIGN The biast parameters are among the factors determining the seismic energy radiated into the ground and thus the ‘amplitude of the received vibration. The chemical energy ‘of one kilogram of explosive (of the order of 4.10° Joules, ‘or about 1 kWh) is in large part dissipated as heat, and the total mechanical energy is only a few tenths of the whole. The seismic onergy is itsoff a fraction of the total mechanical energy, a fraction that varies according to certain parameters of the blast design. This fraction will be, for example — very small for a charge simply placed on the ground ; — maximum tor a charge that is too far from the free sur- face and performs no breaking work. 4.1. — Influence of explosive charge Blasting in builtup areas is generally done using delay- action detonators te stagger the shots of a round. These are of two types : mitisecond delay, with an interval of 25 to 40 milliseconds over a maximum periad of about 0,5 to 0,8 sec, and half second delays and a maximum duration of 6 seconds. — The use of haif second delays detonators generally ‘completely decouples the vibrations following the succes- sive shots of a round. — With micredelay detonators, this decoupling is not al+ ways achieved. There may be interference between suc: ‘cessive shots. But this is limited to the vibration tails indu- ‘02d by previous shots, already heavily damped, and inter- forence between successive charges is always limited. Since some years, NONEL (non electric safety detona- tors) have been used in underground work ; they provide 4 range of detonation delays equivalent to that of electri- ‘cal detonators (the lengths of the detonation tubes are Used to set specific delays). The more recent technique of sequential blasting is cat- ching on, with the use of sequential blasting machines with ten circuits that can be programmed in steps ranging from 1 to 999 ms. With a judicious combination of dato- ration interval (delay between lines) and haif second mil- lisecond delays detonators, itis possible to design practi- cally continuous detonation schemas that can detonate all of the shot-holes of a blasting plan individually. But safety and otfectiveness rules must be observed, and 40skilled personnel trained in this technique assigned bath to the design of the sequential blasting plans and to their execution. ‘As far as vibration is concerned, care will be taken that certain detonations are not simultaneous and that the mi- ‘imum detonation interval leaves time for the damping of vibrations. In consequence, the shock factor used in working out the blasting plans should retlect only the instantaneous ‘charge, i.e. the charge per delay number (ordinary, mi ‘crodelay, oF sequential), which willbe designated by Q in the text. Various experiments tend to show that, in the determination of the maximum velocity, this charge an- ears with an exponont that lies between 0,6 and 1, de- pending on the author. it seams that this exponent de- pends on the degree of confinement, with lower values for shots under the mast open conditions. Mean values of the order of 0,7 to 0,8 seam to be acceptable in most ‘cases. And it is values of this order that are implicitly a ‘sumed in equations of the type vekK( Dye va for common values of « (between 1,5 and 2). 4.2. — Influence of blasting charge confinement For a given charge, the seismic energy released is di- rectly related to the distance from the charge to the nea- Test free surlace of free face. If this distance is greater than the optimal depth, no breaking work Is done and seismic energy is maximum, ‘This is the case with chambering, in which the seismic energy may be all of the mechanical energy released. The vibration amplitude therefore depends not only on the charge but also, most important of all, on the geoma- tty of the blasting plan. 4.2.1. — "Crater relief" (a single free tace perpendicular to the drilling direction) This technique, which was used for “column bottom" cuts, consisted of successively firing closely-spaced holes at increasing depth. It should not be used, 4.22. — "Normal relief” (two tree surfaces, one perpen- dicular to the driling direction, the other parallel to it) Reliot towards the latter face is favoured. It may pra-exist for the first shot of a round (step blasting, etc.), or be created by the breaking of the previous round (delayed shots), or be created by the extraction of a cut (blasting in shaft or tunnel). To reduce the seismic energy relea- sed, the charges should be as close as possibie to this plane, which in practice means using a closely spaced drilling mesh. In the case of blasting very close to ‘constructions, this may be made very small (0,30 x 0,30 'm, for example). The length of the pulls will itself be redu- cced as a function of the admissible charges Q for an ac- ceptable seismic level and the charge per m3 necessary tor proper breaking. These are essential factors that must be determined by blasting tests at a built-up site. 4.2.3, — *Cuts" (extraction from a single relief plane - applies to shafts, tunnels, etc) The pratical attact of cuts, done manually or mechani- cally, is to restora a shot to the normal relief case just described. Among blasting cuts, two basic families ay distinguishod : = Oblique cuts (pyramid, fan, etc) Experience has shown that they can be designed (spa- cing, orientation and depth of holes, staging of delays, ‘tc.) 50 as not to release more seismic energy than the other shots of the round, even at a very short distanc They are generally used in the trickiest cases. — Parallol cuts (burn cut, etc) involve blasting under conditions close to crater relief and most often used in the largest sections given developments in driling equip- ‘ment, which all has systems to maintain the parallelism of the driling arms. They are irreplaceable in the com- ‘mon case of digging tunnels having small sections (out- falls, mini-tunnels, etc.), where it is impossible to dri oblique holes. At vary short distances (less than 10 m), they can be adapted so as not to exceed an acceptable ration jovel, subject to the following conditions : strict itation of length of pull (generally less than 1,50 m), closely spaced holes (approx. 0,30m x 0,30 m), staging by delays of all detonations, adequate volume of empty holes (one or several holes). 4.2.4. — Smooth blasting and prespliting In terms of seismic energy, this behaves roughly lke a chambering shot, which may, through the induced shocks, lead to the effect diametrically opposed to the ‘one sought. Moreover, it cannot be assumed that the crack created is an effective bartier to propagation of vi- brations beyond the biasting zone. It is in consequenco ‘not racommended in the case of blasting at a very short distance from constructions. It may however be used at short and moderate distances if very strict precautions are taken (quite apart from a tricky implementation that leaves no room for negligence, especially in the paral lism of the holes) : closely spaced holes (0,30 m in some cases, emply holes), staging of delays of detonations (a single hole per delay in some cases), limiting of charges to what is strictly necessary. However, in all cases, preference will be given to the execution of smooth biasting by holes regularly spaced along the whole perimeter of the tunnel at a spacing of not more than 0,50 m, fired not just after the cut but at the end of the blasting cycle, preserving a minimum ring 30 a8 not to affect the extrados perimeter line, with seve- ‘al holes fred at once to ensure goad crack propagation from one hole to another. In general, when smooth blas- ting is properly performed, it does not cause more vibra tions (for a given charge). 4.3. — Effleloncy and adjustment of the blasting charge From the standpoint ofthe efficiency of a unit charge, its istance to a rolit surlace places a key role, as stated above, But some other parameters are also important — The type of explosive ; experiance seams to show that, with a given firing geometry, tho explosive that clears the best devalops the lowest level of seismic energy. Attention is called to the acoustic affects of the deton: ting fuse in the open air, underground as well as at the surface. — The officioncy of stemming ; to be ofective, it must extend over a sufficient length and be done with a sui- table material (plastic clay, fine sand), compacted by tamping stick. — Accurate coupling of the explosive to the edge of the hole ; the drilling diameter must be matched to the aiameter of the explosive cartridges used ; the use of prefabricated charges can also be an effective solution to stemming and coupling problems. Mention may be made, in this regard, of the value of water pressure blasting, a rather heavy-setup technique but which provides an effective solution to the problems raised by the two preceding points. The use of prefabri- cated charges aiso allows the effective solution of certain stemming and coupling problems, 4.4, — Influence of repetitive effect of blasts For occasional shots (and shots at short and very short distances from constructions are most atten occasional), ‘repeating a shot seems to pose no special problems. On the other hand, large shots, repeated often for exten- ded periods, such as occur in quarry blasting, cause fa- tigue of structures, and damage may appear in the long un, We havo seen that, in bad ground, there may be liquetac- tion, differential settlement, etc, leading to damage to a work. In such cases, therefore, the admissible vibration velocity thresholds must be considerably reduced so as to avoid any damage. 4.5. — Determination of blasting parameters Praliminary blasting tests at a built-up site, with vibration measurements on the constructions concerned, serve to determine the main parameters of the blasting plans (maximum instantaneous charge, holes spacing and row, length of round, types of cuts, etc). Two main types of test may be performed. 4.5.1. — Confined charge test This consists of firing successively larger confined charges in one or more holes located at the point closest to the constructions concerned until the accepted vibra- tion level is approached (cf. chapter 2). The blasting plans are then prepared using the maximum charge de- termined by this test. It is thon generally prudent to test a complete blasting design as a check. This method is in Principle absolutely reliable and allows the use of any blasting plan. However, it greatly limits the quantities of explosive used and may lead to excessively restrictive arrangements. It wil be used when the necessary safety conditions exclude wrong shemes. It will also be used ‘where there is a risk of damage because of the repetitive effect of the blasting. 4.5.2, — Test of a typical blasting design Today, in many cases, blasting design rather close to those that can be expected to engender a level of vibra- tions below the thresholds fixed (cf. section 2) can be welidefined on the basis of experience. ‘The fotiowing testing procedure is then commonly used the contractor submits a tast blasting design to the angi- ‘eer and the client, which the latter approves after exa: ‘mination, if necessary with the help of a specialized labo- ratory and following corractions.. ‘This blasting design (or a fraction of it if the different shots of the round are similar) is tested, possibiy broken down into partial rounds, and the vibrations induced on the constructions concerned are measured and fully analyzed. Following the analysis, the parameters of the blasting de- ‘sign are corrected if necessary, in the restrictive way if the admissible vibration thresholds have been exceeded, in the economical way if they have not been reached. ‘A further test is performed if acjustments are necessary, ‘and so on until the optimal conditions are reached. The adjustments may concem any parameter of the blasting design (instantaneous charge, driling patterns, holes spacing, type of cut, type of explosive, etc.), but expe- rience should make it possible in most cases to adjust ‘only one or two of them. This procedure allows blasting under the most difficult concitions in built-up areas, on ‘condition of suitable safety factors, 4.6. — Compliance with blasting parameters : control Experience shows that as the job is done, negligence by the operating personnel and field contingencies may cause the blasting parameters to vary, sometimes consi- erably. Without mentioning outright poor work, fortuna- tely rare, we may cite + — Driling defects - larger hole distance ; holes drilled converging too much, which may lead to the simulta- neous explosion of two charges detonated with different dalays (especially at cuts) ; diiling of civergent holes, leading to clearance problems (especially with holes drilled near wails and the holes farthest from the cut); —A change of detonation sequence — A change of type of explosive : — A change of the quantiles of explosive in some holes ; — Detective stemming ; — A larger diiling diameter (to allow the use of mora po- werful equipment, for example), making the holos too large for the cartridges, etc. All of these random changes or errors increase the seis- ‘mic energy released and may caused the admissible vi- bration levels to bo exceeded. The use of precharging tubes can greatly assist compliance with the charging of the various holes of a biasting plan, especially in a large section. It should also be noted in this connection, even though this does not concern blasting plan parameters, that va~ riations of site conditions (penetration into a more com- ppact bed having a higher selsmic velocity and so trans- rmitting vibrations better, for example) may likewise cause the threshold to be exceeded, This can be allowed for in the setting of the thresholds (cf. section 2) by adopting a margin of safety that will be larger if the conditions are trickier and survaillance of the sito will be looser. But this is inadequate, and it is desirable to monitor the intensity of vibrations for the whale duration of a miningwork. ‘Two levels may be considered : — Permanent monitoring threshold detectors) for use by the staff, with instantanoous knowledge of the velocities measured and adjustment of the blasting plan if neces- saty ; this monitoring can be readily performed by the staff (contractor or engineer) ; — Intermittent checking with recording of the vibrations, especially if the proposed limits are excoeded ; a spocia- lized laboratory must be called in for this type of check. For more information about monitoring, refer to the "Guide pour los mesures et lo contréle des effets de vibration sur les constructions” published in issue 115 January-February 1993 of “Tunnels et Quvrages ‘Souterrains".