FUNDAMENTALS

OF SURVEYING
CE 120 - 02
 Errors
– It is the difference between the true values and the
measured value of a quantity.

– It is a deviation of an observation or calculation from the

true value and is often beyond the control of the one
performing the operation.

– Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from

sources which cannot be avoided.
 Mistakes
– Mistakes are the inaccuracies in
measurements which occur because some
aspect of a surveying operation is performed by
the surveyor with carelessness, inattention,
poor judgement and improper execution.

– A large mistake is referred to as blunder.

 Common Mistakes in Surveying
o Improperly leveling the o Setting up the instrument or
surveying instrument. target over the wrong
control point.
 Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors – this type of error is one which will always have the same
sign and magnitude if field conditions remain constant and unchanged.
– It is also called as cumulative error.
– This error conform to mathematical and physical laws.
2. Accidental Errors – these errors are purely accidental in character.
– The occurrence of such error matters of chances as they are likely to be
positive or negative and may tend in part to compensate or average out
according to laws of probability.
– It is caused by factors beyond the control of the surveyor and are present in
all surveying measurements.

Examples:
o Failure of the tapeman to exert the
correct amount of pull on the ends o Reading of an angle with a
of a tape during measurements. transit.
 Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Errors – these errors are due to imperfections in the instruments
used, either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments
between the different parts prior to their use.

Examples:
o Measuring with a steel tape of o Using a leveling rod with painted
incorrect length. graduations not perfectly spaced.
2. Natural Errors – these errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of
nature such as changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind,
refraction, gravity and curvature of the earth.
– Natural errors are beyond the control of man.

Examples:

o The effect of temperature o Error in the readings of magnetic

variation on the length of a needle due to variations in
steel tape. magnetic declination.
3. Personal Errors – these errors arise principally from limitations of the senses
of sight, touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be
erroneous or inaccurate.
– Some personal errors are constant, and some are compensating while others
may be erratic.

Examples:

o Errors in determining a reading o Making an erroneous estimate of

on a rod which is out of plumb the required pull to be applied on
during sighting. a steel tape during measurement.
 Accuracy and Precision
– are two terms which are constantly used in surveying; however, their correct
meanings are often misunderstood. While accuracy may be synonymous with
precision, the two should not be used interchangeably.

– The surveyor should always attempt to obtain measurements which are not
only accurate but also precise.

Accuracy – indicates how close a given measurement it to the absolute or true

value of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related
measurements and their expectations.

Precisions – refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any
physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another
of a set of repeated measurements of a quantity.
 Accuracy and Precision
Not accurate but precise Not accurate not precise

Accurate but not precise Accurate and Precise

 Theory of Probability
Probability – is defined as the number of times something will probably occur
over the range of possible occurrences.
– Different theories of probability are not only applicable to games of chance,
but they are also used in scientific and engineering measurements such as in
surveying.
– The theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of results only in
so far as they are affected by accidental errors.

o Small errors occur more often o Large errors happen infrequently

than large ones that they are and are therefore less probable.
more probable.
o The mean of an infinite number
o Positive and negative errors of of observations is the most
the same size happen with equal probable value.
frequency, that is, they are equal
probable.
 Most Probable Value
o The most probable value (MPV) of a group of repeated measurements made
under similar conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average.

o There is only one correct value that should be considered, and it is

determined by using the following equation.

o Where MPV or X is the most probable value of the quantity measured,

Summation of X is the sum of the individual measurements and n is the
total number of observations made.
 Residual
– Sometimes referred to as “deviation”.
– The difference between any measured value
of a quantity and its most probable value.

V = X - X̄
V = residual in any measurement
X = measurement made of particular quantity
X̄ = most probable value of quantity measured
Residual and Errors are theoretically identical.
Residual – can be calculated.
Errors – cannot be calculated.

Probable Error – is a quantity which, when added to and

subtracted from the most probable value.
– defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance
that the true value of the measured quantity lies the limits thus
set.
– it is also the type of error that would be found in the middle
place of the arrangement.
– its value is calculated with the use of the following formula
which are derived from the method of least squares.
The sign or direction of the probable error is not known and
therefore no correction can be made.
Relative Error
– sometimes called “relative precision”.
– It is expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of the error
in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity in
the denominator.

Weighted Observation
– is not always possible to obtain measurement of equal
reliability under similar conditions.
Interrelationship Errors
Two commonly applied principles:
Summation of Errors
Product of Errors
To provide student a better
understanding of the
propagation of errors.
Summation of Errors

Product of Errors
1. Probable Error
The following values were determined in a series of tape
measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40,
and 1000.46 meters. Determine the following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the
mean
c) Final expression for the most probable length
d) Relative precision of the measurement
2. Weighted Measurements
Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19,
284.22, and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 2, 3, and 4,
respectively. Determine the weighted mean.
3. Weighted Measurements
It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle which
has been measured at different times by different observers with
equal core. The values observed were as follows: 74” 30’ 45” (in two
measurements), 74” 39’ 27” (in four measurements), and 74” 39’ 35” (in
six measurements).
4. Weighted Measurements
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four
different routes. The observed elevations of the point with probable
errors are given below. Determine the most probable value of the
elevation of the point.
5. Weighted Measurements
The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different
occasions and the probable errors of each mean value was computed
with the following results:
6. Summation of Errors
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given by the
following measurements and corresponding probable errors: a=162.54
± 0.03 m, b=234.26 ± 0.05 m, and c=195.70 ± 0.04 m.
7. Product of Errors
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain
estimated probable errors as follows: W=253.36 ± 0.06 m and L=624.15 ±
0.08 m. Determine the area of the lot and the probable errors in the
resulting calculation.