619 HVDC Connection of Offshore Wind Power Plants (2015)

619
HVDC CONNECTION OF OFFSHORE WIND

POWER PLANTS
Working Group
B4.55
May 2015
HVDC CONNECTION OF OFFSHORE WIND POWER PLANTS

WG Members:
H. Elahi, Convenor (US), G. Drobnjak (DE), Secretary
Main Authors:
S. Bolik (UK), G. Ebner (DE), H. Elahi (US), O. Gomis Bellmunt (ES), J.
Hjerrild (DK),
J. Horne (UK), J. Kilter (EE), J. Rimez (BE), S. Temtem (IE), M. Visiers
Guixot (ES)
Contributing WG Members:
E. Bergin (IE), K. Imaie (JP), R. Iravani (CA), C. Karawita (CA), A. Khan
(UK),
M. Poller (DE), N. Reddy (UK), A. Saha (SA), P. Samuelsson (SE), K.
Weyrich (DE),
X. Wu (CN), L. Zeni (DK)

ISBN : 978-2-85873-321-7
Copyright © 2015
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SPECIAL TERMS ............................................................... I
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... III
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background .........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Technical Brochure (TB) Scope ..........................................................................................2
2 VSC-HVDC CONFIGURATIONS................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................4
2.2 Background .........................................................................................................................4
2.3 General VSC-HVDC Design Considerations ......................................................................5
2.4 VSC HVDC Configurations .................................................................................................8
2.4.1 Point-to-Point Connection ...........................................................................................8
2.4.2 Multi-Infeed Connection ..............................................................................................8
2.4.3 Emerging Configurations - Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC ..............................................9
2.4.4 Future Configurations - VSC-HVDC Grid .................................................................10
2.5 Basic Offshore WPP Configuration ...................................................................................11
2.6 Basic Configuration of Point-to-Point VSC HVDC for Offshore WPP ...............................13
2.7 Balance of the Plant ..........................................................................................................13
2.8 References ........................................................................................................................14
3 HVDC CONNECETD OFFSHORE WPPS: WTG SELECTION AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
LAYOUTS .................................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................15
3.2 Unique Aspects of WTGs for Offshore Applications .........................................................15
3.2.1 Factors affecting availability of Offshore WTGs .......................................................16
3.2.2 Offshore WTG Design Targets .................................................................................16
3.3 WTG Technologies ...........................................................................................................17
3.3.1 Type 3: Doubly-fed Induction Generator ..................................................................17
3.3.2 Type 4 Full Scale Converter Connections ................................................................17
3.3.3 Foundations of Offshore WTG’s ...............................................................................18
3.3.4 Future Trends in Offshore WTG Technology ...........................................................20
3.4 Connection Between VSC HVDC Converter Station and WPP Collector Substations .....20
3.5 WPP Collector Station Transformers ................................................................................22
3.6 Design of the WPP Internal Cable Collector Network .......................................................23
3.6.1 Cable Technology .....................................................................................................23
3.6.2 Substation Placement ...............................................................................................23
3.6.3 Cable Routing and Cable Sizing ...............................................................................24
3.6.4 Emergency Stand-by Power .....................................................................................26
3.7 Design of the WPP HVDC Export Cable Connection .......................................................26
3.8 Bibliography .....................................................................................................................27
4 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HVDC AND OFFSHORE WIND POWER PLANT........ 29
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................29
4.2 System Under Analysis .....................................................................................................29
4.3 Control and Protection Functions Required ......................................................................30
4.3.1 Functions required ....................................................................................................30
4.3.2 Considered Situations...............................................................................................31

4.4 Control and Protection Integration ....................................................................................38
4.4.1 Control Integration ....................................................................................................38
4.4.2 Protections Integration ..............................................................................................40
4.5 Other issues ......................................................................................................................41
4.5.1 Resonance and Harmonics ......................................................................................41
4.5.2 Start Up-Shut Down Sequence ................................................................................43
4.5.3 Controller Instability and Miscoordination .................................................................43
5 INTERCONNECTION REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................... 45
5.1 Interface Connection Points ..............................................................................................46
5.2 Plant Capacity ...................................................................................................................46
5.3 Offshore Transmission Ownership ....................................................................................47
5.3.1 Great Britain..............................................................................................................47
5.3.2 Germany ...................................................................................................................49
5.4 Voltage and Reactive Power .............................................................................................50
5.5 Active Power and Frequency Control ...............................................................................51
5.6 Protection and Fault Ride Through ...................................................................................52
5.7 Power Quality ....................................................................................................................54
5.8 Signal/Communication/Control Points ..............................................................................55
5.9 Model and Data Provision .................................................................................................55
5.10 Commissioning, Compliance Testing and Operational Sequence ....................................56
5.11 Grid Codes Examples .......................................................................................................57
5.11.1 Germany – TenneT TSO GmbH [6]..........................................................................58
5.11.2 Great Britain - National Grid Electricity Transmission plc. (National Grid) [7] ..........58
5.11.3 European Network Transmission System Operator for Electricity: ENTSO-e,
Network Code ...........................................................................................................58
5.11.4 Offshore Requirements Summary and Recommendation ........................................59
5.12 References ........................................................................................................................61
6 STUDY REQUIREMENTS, DATA, MODELING, AND RECOMMENDED SIMULATIONS........ 63
6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................63
6.2 Steady State Calculations .................................................................................................63
6.2.1 Steady State Power Flow .........................................................................................63
6.2.2 Short Circuit Calculation ...........................................................................................64
6.3 Quasi Steady-state Load Flow Models (Long Term Stability) ...........................................66
6.4 Short-term Stability (Dynamic RMS and/or EMT Modelling) .............................................67
6.4.1 Simulation during voltage dip after fault inception ....................................................68
6.4.2 Simulation of power recovery and system stability after the disturbance .................69
6.4.3 Simulation of stability during changes in normal operation ......................................70
6.5 Time and Frequency Domain Modelling Above Fundamental Frequencies .....................71
6.5.1 Insulation Coordination Study ...................................................................................71
6.5.2 High Frequency Time Domain Modelling .................................................................71
6.5.3 Frequency Domain Modelling ...................................................................................72
6.6 Harmonic Analysis, Flicker and Sub-synchronous Interactions ........................................73
6.7 Study to be made at each stage of the project .................................................................74
6.7.1 Developing Stage (Feasibility Study) ........................................................................74
6.7.2 Concept Design Stage ..............................................................................................74
6.7.3 Design Stage (Basic and Detailed)...........................................................................74

6.7.4 Documentation Stage ...............................................................................................75
6.8 References ........................................................................................................................75
7 OVERVIEW OF PLANNED/DECIDED OR BUILT HVDC CONNECTED WPP PROJECTS ..... 76
7.1 Offshore Applications ........................................................................................................76
7.2 BorWin1.............................................................................................................................77
7.3 DolWin1 .............................................................................................................................78
7.4 BorWin2.............................................................................................................................79
7.5 HelWin1 .............................................................................................................................79
7.6 SylWin1 .............................................................................................................................80
7.7 DolWin2 .............................................................................................................................81
7.8 HelWin2 .............................................................................................................................82
7.9 DolWin3 ..........................................................................................................................84
7.10 BorWin3.............................................................................................................................85
8 GUIDELINES, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS .................................................. 86
8.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................86
8.2 Design Guidelines and Tradeoffs ......................................................................................86
8.2.1 Reliability and Availability .........................................................................................86
8.2.2 Overload Capability ..................................................................................................86
8.2.3 Control of Real Power...............................................................................................87
8.2.4 Grid Codes................................................................................................................87
8.2.5 Expandability ............................................................................................................87
8.2.6 Conventional vs. Specialized WTG Designs ............................................................88
8.2.7 Off-Shore Grid Protection .........................................................................................88
8.2.8 Auxiliary Power and Start-Up ...................................................................................88
8.2.9 Control Interaction ....................................................................................................89
8.2.10 Study Requirements, Data, Modelling, and Simulation Studies ...............................89
8.2.11 Need for Standards...................................................................................................89
8.2.12 Recommendations for High Level Control Strategy .................................................90
8.3 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................90
8.4 Outlook ..............................................................................................................................91
8.5 Reference ..........................................................................................................................92
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SPECIAL TERMS

The table below lists the abbreviations used throughout this brochure.
Abbreviation Full Text
AC Alternating Current
AGC Automatic Generation Control
AIS Air Insulated Substation
AVC Automatic Voltage Control
BOP Balance of Plant
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CMS Condition Monitoring Systems
DC Direct Current
DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change
DFIG Doubly-Fed Induction Generator
EMF ElectroMagnetic Field
EMT ElectroMagnetic Transient
ENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System Operators
for Electricity
EU European Union
FRT Fault-Ride-Through
FSC Full Scale Converter
GC Grid Codes
GCP Grid Connection Point
GIS Gas-Insulated Switchgear
HVAC High Voltage AC
HVDC High Voltage DC
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
IP Intellectual Property
LCOE Levelised Cost of Energy
LCC Line Commutated Converter
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MI Mass Impregnated
MMC Modular Multilevel Converter
MVAC Medium Voltage AC
NGET National Grid Electricity Transmission
O&M Operation and Maintenance
Ofgem Office of Gas and Electricity Markets
OFTO Offshore Transmission Operator
OPEX Operating Expenditures
POI Point of Interconnection
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
R&D Research and Development
RMS Root Mean Square
SPWM Sinusoidal PWM
STATCOM STATic COMpensator
SVC Static Var Compensator
TB Technical Brochure
VSC Voltage Sourced Converter
WG Working Group
WIPOS Wind Power Offshore Substation
WPP Wind Power Plant
WTG WTG Generator
XLPE Crossed-Linked Polyethylene
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The first wave of HVDC connected offshore wind power plants (WPPs) has been commissioned and
many more are planned in the North Sea, along with other sites around the world. VSC-based HVDC
has become the preferred solution for large offshore WPPs, with cable distances typically above 100
km (including both offshore cable and on shore cable to the converter terminal) to the AC grid
connection point.1 This is largely due to several technology advantages offered by VSCs, when
compared to other HVAC or HVDC options, resulting in a more economically attractive transmission
solution.
In addition, a number of HVDC submarine cable connections for power exchange between countries
are being planned and the possibility of connecting WPPs to these interconnections, and to future
HVDC grids, are being seriously considered. The issues associated with expanding a WPP and HVDC
connections with equipment from multiple vendors are subjects which need to be developed further,
but are outside the scope of this brochure.
Compliance with Grid Codes (GCs), which define the performance during normal and abnormal
operating conditions, is another subject area in need of further development. Existing GCs are
however written for AC connected WPPs, and for an offshore WPP these conditions typically apply
only at the AC grid connection point. This raises the possibility of optimizing the overall WPP and the
HVDC converter, with potential economic and maintenance benefits. However, if the HVDC connection
and the WPP are provided by different vendors, such optimization cannot be done properly unless
concerns about IP rights and operation benefits are clearly laid out and understood by all stakeholders
involved.
Guidelines and recommendation for point to point and multi terminal HVDC connection of offshore
WPPs are therefore highly needed and of mutual interest for the HVDC and WTG industries in order to
be able to provide the best possible solutions for all stakeholders.
1
It must be noted that the choice of HVAC vs HVDC transmission requires detailed cost‐benefit analysis
based on individual projects’ needs, based on factors like water depth, sea bed profile, distance from shore,
ac substation connection, and other routing challenges.
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Driven by EU’s 20% renewable energy target by 2020, the first wave of VSC HVDC connected
offshore wind power plants (WPPs) have been commissioned around the world, but with a notable
high concentration to be found in the North Sea. These early WPP projects have been located 130-
200 km from the point of common coupling (PCC), including both offshore and on shore cables to the
converter terminal, thereby making HVDC the most appropriate technology to use for power
transmission to mainland grids, recognizing the limitations in AC submarine transmission at such
distances. In addition, VSC HVDC technology offers several unique advantages suitable for such
environmentally harsh and difficult sitings, with yet greater energy yield potentials. A partial list
includes:
 Ability to continuously transfer any power level (zero to maximum rating) in both directions,
thereby facilitating WPP start up, and operation at low wind speeds
 Ease of integration with WTG Generators (WTGs) in islanded grids with very low fault current
levels (i.e., no need for synchronous condensers, as would be the case with LCC HVDC
applications)
 Normally, no need for harmonic filters and additional reactive power resources1
 Improved performance during onshore AC disturbances - Because the VSC converters are self-
commuted, commutation failures will not occur in case of ac grid disturbances
 Blackstart capability - ability to supply the auxiliary power needs of the offshore WPP when
WTGs are not operating (e.g., due to low wind, or excessively high wind, conditions)
 Feasibility of building compact, partially or fully tested and assembled, converter stations
resulting in lower costs and risks for the off-shore platform
 Ability to use XLPE cables since the operating voltage polarity is unchanged and independent
of the direction of the power flow (XLPE cables are not capable of withstanding the voltage
reversal which happens with LCC HVDC applications). It should also be mentioned that MI
cables are still a viable alternative, particularly at higher DC voltages.
 Allow implementation of future multi-terminal expansion
The first VSC HVDC connected off-shore WPP project (BorWin1, 400MW, +/- 150 kV, 125km off the
coast of Germany) was commissioned in 2009. Even though a number of similar projects have been
commissioned, or are under various stages of design and construction, it is generally recognized that
this method of transferring energy harvested from offshore WPPs is in its early stages of maturity.
Compared to a large population of WPPs connected to AC grids, VSC HVDC transmission completely
changes the electrical environment, presenting new challenges and opportunities for operation during
1
However, AC filters may be required for converters using PWM‐switching strategies. In order to
compensate AC cables, under no/light load conditions, additional shunt reactors at the offshore converter
stations may be required.
Page 1
normal and abnormal conditions. Similarly, most HVDC links have been developed as point-to-point
connections between AC transmission systems. From the electrical point of view, offshore WPPs
constitute weak islanded grids.
At present, the industry is developing standards and commonly accepted grid codes, while gaining
deeper understanding of the integrated WPPs and VSC HVDC systems. Furthermore, there is also
growing knowledge of, and experience with, the design and operation of such projects. So, even
though current projects have to develop their own design and operational philosophies, with deeper
experience, and longer reported operational history, future optimally designed projects are expected.
It should be noted that there exists a number of prior, and on-going, CIGRE WGs tasked with further
understanding and developments of related subject areas; including: “Feasibility of HVDC Grids “(WG
B4.52 TB), “Special Considerations for AC Collector Systems and Substations associated with HVDC
connected Wind Power Plants” (WG B3.36), and “Guidelines for Preparation of Connection
Agreements or Codes for HVDC Grids” (WG B4.56). Finally, WG B4-62 was recently formed to
examine issues with connection of WPPs to weak AC networks, and the use of FACTS devices, and
WTG controls, to facilitate their integration in AC networks.
It is against this background that the WG B4-55 was tasked to identify the key technical challenges
unique to VSC HVDC connection of offshore WPPs and to develop guidelines and recommendations
for more technically robust, and economically attractive, system designs.
1.2 Technical Brochure (TB) Scope

This TB is focused on exploring unique aspects of planning, design, and operation of VSC HVDC
connected offshore WPPs. Both steady state and dynamic performance characteristics are examined,
along with discussions on impacts on overall system optimization and potential economic and
maintenance benefits. The TB is comprised of 8 Chapters, with a brief overview of the upcoming
Chapters described below.
Chapter 2 begins with an overview of currently deployed VSC HVDC technologies by leading
manufacturers, and trends towards future control and design architectures. Discussions include unique
aspects of control and protection philosophies, as offshore WPP isolated grids present special
challenges in comparison to those connected to AC grids. Strategies to respond to AC and DC
disturbances are described, as well as preferred methods of protection, communication, and
equipment application. This Chapter also provides an overview of the HVDC VSC building blocks that
will be used throughout this TB. Various schemes and conceptual layouts are presented to describe
current and future HVDC system configurations. Brief discussions on off-shore platform configurations
and balance of plant sub-systems are also included. For a more detailed description of the special
requirements that need to be considered during the design of an offshore AC collector station
connected to an HVDC link, in comparison to a substation that is connected directly to the onshore site
by means of AC export cables, readers are recommended to refer to the TB developed by CIGRE WG
B3-36 “Special Considerations for AC Collector Systems and Substations associated with HVDC
connected Wind Power Plants”.
Chapter 3 focuses on topics related to selection, design, construction, and operation of WTGs and
WPPs, unique to VSC HVDC connected offshore projects. Special requirements for such applications,
including reliability & availability, higher environmental stress due to harsh sea conditions, operation &
maintenance (O&M) costs, foundations, and cables requirements are also discussed. Discussion on
potential emerging technologies and future R&D needs for more cost effective offshore WPP projects
Page 2
are presented. Readers are referred to the TB developed by the CIGRE WG B3-36 for more in-depth
discussion on this topic. The latter part of this chapter is dedicated to description of various WPP
conceptual layouts and designs - from individual WTGs up to the offshore HVDC converter. The main
topics discussed are: HVAC Cables, possible WPP cluster arrangements, key elements of WPP
collector grids, main interfaces between WPPs and VSC HVDC converter terminal, control and
protection requirements, offshore AC platform needs, and WPP balance of plant description.
Functional requirements for VSC HVDC connected WPPs are discussed in Chapter 4. This is an
important aspect as different manufacturers are likely to supply the WPP and HVDC converter
equipment. Discussions include key control coordination topics, including: active and reactive power
management, offshore grid frequency, start and stop sequences, fault ride-through capabilities, main
AC grid support, coordination between VSC HVDC and WPP, operation under communication failure,
and offshore auxiliary power needs under low wind conditions. Control coordination under normal and
fault conditions are described and colour coded figures are used to illustrate various scenarios.
Chapter 5 discusses topics related to the interconnection requirements. These are evolving topics as
transmission operators in each country are gaining experience with the first wave of VSC HVDC
connected WPPs and interface connection points are drawn based on different ownership models.
This chapter begins by describing models adopted by Great Britain and Germany. The remainder of
this chapter is devoted to various grid code requirements mandated by the transmission operator to
ensure safe and secure operation of VSC HVDC connected WPP under normal and abnormal
conditions. Key topics covered include: voltage and reactive power, active power and frequency
control, protection and fault ride-through, power quality, communication and information exchange,
model and data provision, and commissioning, compliance testing and operational sequence. This
chapter concludes with specific examples of grid codes adopted in Germany (TenneT), Great Britain
(NGET), and the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-e).
Chapter 6 describes the various studies required during the design and planning stages to ensure an
optimal design of a VSC HVDC connected offshore WPP, in compliance with control and equipment
specifications, grid codes, and the full range of potential operation conditions. For each study, the
objectives, methodology, data and modelling needs, and the use of study outcomes are described.
Main characteristics of the commissioned, planned, or under construction VSC HVDC connected
offshore WPP projects are presented in Chapter 7. For each project, publicly available information
regarding ratings, WPP cluster design, platform design, HVAC and HVDC cable lengths and types,
and other relevant information are presented in a common format.
The final Chapter in this TB summarises the unique design challenges of integrating offshore WPPs
using VSC-HVDC transmission, including sub-system technology details and design options. From
this, there are a number of overarching functional objectives and design principles which can be
identified. Also, there are a number of areas where there are multiple design approaches. The
appropriateness of each approach depends on a host of technical, commercial and environmental
requirements applicable to individual projects. Chapter 8 summarises these design principles in the
form of general guidelines, recommendations and conclusions.
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2 VSC-HVDC CONFIGURATIONS
2.1 Introduction
The primary objectives of this chapter are to:
1. introduce the voltage-sourced converter (VSC) high-voltage DC transmission (VSC-HVDC)

system, with emphasis on the VSC-HVDC link configuration (not the VSC-HVDC grid) for
integrating of the off-shore wind power plant (WPP) in the onshore AC power grid, and
2. describe the main building blocks of the VSC-HVDC link in the context of offshore WPP
integration in the onshore AC system
This chapter provides a background of the subject in the next section, then presents the overall
configuration of the VSC-HVDC link for connecting the off-shore WPP to the host on-shore AC system,
and finally describes the main components of the VSC-HVDC link. This chapter also identifies a set of
requirements, assumptions and criteria that are used in the following chapters of this brochure.
2.2 Background
During the last several years there has been a significant increase in the number of offshore WPPs.
The primary reasons include: lack of suitable onshore locations for additional WPP developments, and
offshore WPP potential to generate significantly higher level of energy – when compared with an
onshore WPP project of the same rating. To transfer the offshore WPP energy to the onshore AC grid,
the VSC-HVDC link provides technical features and economic advantages when the distance between
the offshore WPP and the onshore AC grid extends beyond 100 km, typically. It must be noted that the
choice of HVAC vs HVDC transmission requires further cost-benefit analysis based on individual
projects’ needs.
The ongoing developments in the HVDC technologies, in general, and specifically in the VSC-HVDC
technology, indicate a growing trend in further construction and utilization of point-to-point VSC-HVDC
connection and multi-terminal VSC-HVDC grids. Although the classical LCC HVDC systems currently
offer advantages for specific applications (e.g., bulk power transfer over very long distances) the VSC-
HVDC systems are necessary for integrating long distance offshore WPPs into the onshore AC grids
due to the lack of synchronous generation offshore. The basics of the VSC-HVDC technology,
protection, and control have been widely discussed in the technical literature [1, 2] and therefore are
not discussed in this TB. However, when necessary, the relevant specific characteristics and features
are briefly described and highlighted.
The VSC HVDC system was first implemented as a test installation in 1997, with growing installed
base over the past decade. Currently, there has been an increasing trend in the development of
semiconductor technologies, resulting in further consideration of VSC HVDC technology for
transmission projects around the globe. By the end of 2014, advancements in semiconductor devices
have seen ratings up to 900 MW @ +/-320 kV for WPP connection.
Some of the main advantages of the VSC HVDC technology, compared to the LCC HVDC technology,
are:
 scalability
 self-commutating capability in systems with no synchronous generators (e.g., offshore WPPs)
 capability to use XLPE cables, as the VSC-HVDC does not require the DC voltage polarity
reversal either for power flow direction change nor during AC fault conditions
Page 4
One of the considerations regarding the VSC HVDC technology, compared to the LCC HVDC
technology, is the potentially higher converter station losses. The latest developments in the
semiconductor switches as well as developments in the VSC configuration, which can operate at lower
switching frequency without compromising the waveform quality, indicate that the VSC HVDC
converter station losses can be reduced to the levels comparable to that of the LCC HVDC converter
station.
The first VSC-HVDC technology was based on the two-level and the three-level VSC configurations
and the classical PWM switching strategies, e.g., the sinusoidal PWM (SPWM). The VSC HVDC
technology for future installations, including for offshore WPP applications, consider the multilevel VSC
configuration, e.g., the modular multilevel converter (MMC) configuration, and accordingly different
switching strategies. The development of the multilevel VSC for HVDC applications promises:
i decrease in the losses
ii potential for increasing the voltage level and thereby also the power level
iii reduction in the size or even elimination of the AC- and DC-side filter and
iv higher degree of reliability and availability
The developments in the VSC technology for HVDC applications are accompanied by developments of
the extruded DC cable technology. The extruded DC cable technology for commercial use is currently
available for DC voltages of up to 320 kV. For future developments 525 kV extruded HVDC cable
system has been tested [3]. Higher voltage ratings are possible based on the use of the mass-
impregnated cable technology [4]. References [2-5] provide further details on various VSC HVDC
technologies, applications, control and protection strategies, merits and limitations, and for future
onshore and offshore WPP applications.
The first offshore WPP VSC-HVDC connection to the onshore AC system (i.e., the BorWin1 WPP 400
MW, +/- 150 kV), was commissioned in 2009. The subsequent offshore WPP connections to the
onshore AC system, through VSC HVDC links, have been delivered from 2014 onwards. The power
and voltage ratings of the following installations are in the range of 500 to 900-MW and +/-250-kV up to
+/-320-kV, respectively. More detailed overview and information for the installed and planned VSC-
HVDC, for offshore WPP applications, are available in Chapter 7 of this TB.
2.3 General VSC-HVDC Design Considerations

The actual design of the offshore VSC HVDC for the WPP applications should consider several basic
factors, including but not limited to: availability, reliability, fault-ride-through capability and
requirements, range of voltage variations (voltage band), reactive power requirements, transient
overvoltages, cable voltage rating, converter and the overall system losses, maintenance requirements
and accessibility.
As compared to a completely onshore VSC HVDC link, the VSC HVDC link which connects an
offshore WPP to the onshore AC system may have special requirements. For example:
 A braking chopper in the onshore converter station
 Multiple/parallel transformers in both converter stations. Each transformer is typically rated to

transmit more than 50% of the WPP power (sometimes up to 100% in case of another
transformer outage), and requires a more sophisticated mechanical design to withstand
particularly the harsh offshore environmental conditions. It must be noted that selection of the
transformer also requires cost-benefit analysis
Other main considerations include outage time and reliability. For example, accessibility of the offshore
VSC HVDC platform and maintenance (e.g., repair and replacement of components and apparatus)
are major considerations and influence the level of redundancy of the:
Page 5
 auxiliary subsystems and components

 redundant transformers
 system for cooling and
 auxiliary diesel-generator unit(s)
Adoption of the VSC HVDC grid configuration for the offshore WPPs or integration of an existing VSC
HVDC converter station of an offshore WPP in the future VSC HVDC grid, also necessitates
consideration for additional power rating under various contingency scenarios and operational
conditions.
The control and protection of the offshore WPP through a VSC HVDC link is more sophisticated, when
compared to a land based point-to-point VSC HVDC link, where the conventional approach is to
control the DC power flow and the HVDC voltage each by one of the VSC HVDC converter stations.
The control of VSC HVDC converters that connect an offshore WPP to the onshore AC system must
be designed to start the operation of the offshore converter station and energize cables and
transformers. This can be accomplished only by the VSC technology and not the LCC technology.
During normal steady-state power transfer from the offshore WPP to onshore, the function of the
offshore VSC HVDC converter station is also different than that of its counterpart land-based VSC
HVDC converter station. The offshore VSC HVDC station must be capable of accepting and delivering
the power generated by the WPP and transfer it to the onshore station and enforce the power balance
and protect integrity of the operation of the WTGs units within the offshore WPP. The offshore VSC
HVDC station, under this mode of operation, operates as a "power slack bus", and the onshore VSC
HVDC station controls the DC voltage of the DC link and voltage or reactive power on its AC side. The
onshore VSC HVDC station can also operate in a STATCOM style mode.
During some operational scenarios (e.g., faults on the AC side of the onshore VSC HVDC station) the
power balance between the WPP and the AC system is transiently violated and the generated power
by the WPP cannot be fully injected in the AC side. In such a situation, the excessive power at the
WPP side (with respect to the power that is injected into the onshore AC-side) results in the voltage
rise of the DC link. The DC link voltage must be kept within a pre-specified bound to comply with the
protection requirements and to prevent HVDC shut down. Thus the balance of power needs to be
provided to maintain the DC voltage to limit variations of the DC link voltage. One approach to achieve
this objective is to utilize a DC chopper at the DC-side of the onshore VSC HVDC converter station to
drain the excessive power from the DC link and dissipate it in a properly designed resistor. This
provides ride-through capability to the VSC HVDC system during the close AC system faults and
maintains the WPP operation uninterrupted. However, since cost consideration imposes a practical
limit on the amount of power that can be dissipated by the operation of the chopper system, the VSC
HVDC must be tripped, if the limit is reached. The DC chopper, used in several schemes, is able to
absorb a limited amount of energy from the DC system and limits the voltage in the DC cable system
by preventing cable overcharge to the trip level, or prolongs the DC cable charging time interval, to
enable the other countermeasures to address the problem.
Overall, the DC chopper must provide:
 robustness, reliability, and ease of maintenance
 independent control based on local voltage measurement
 coordinated control with the converter station controller (if applicable)
 low or no degree of dependency on communication systems
 compliance with the local grid codes
In addition, higher level controls are also required by the VSC HVDC for offshore WPP connection.
These include:
Page 6
 Control of the WPP Output Power. Please refer to the Functional Requirement in Chapter 4 of
this report
 Automatic WPP Output Power Control: The power generated by the WTGs can be controlled by
assigning a control function to the offshore VSC HVDC converter to control the WPP power
output, based on frequency control of the WPP AC collector system [6]
Excess power in the onshore AC system results in the AC system frequency increase. In such a case,
it is desirable to actively control and reduce the injected power of the WPP into the AC system. This
can be accomplished by communicating the main AC network frequency deviations to the offshore
VSC HVDC converter station to vary the offshore frequency, or direct the WPP governor to vary their
active power generation. This mode of the combined WPP VSC HVDC operation is analogous to that
of a classical power plant operation under AGC control [7]. The control functions of a WPP-VSC HVDC
are defined based on the connection agreement and the adopted grid codes document.
To guarantee reliable and appropriate control functions of the VSC HVDC in compliance with the
requirements of the offshore WPP and the onshore AC system, there is a need for a bi-directional
communication system between the VSC HVDC stations. For the VSC HVDC integration of offshore
WPP a two-level communication system (e.g., fast and slow) are suggested in Figure 2.1. The high
speed communication could be used for control actions and the low-speed communication could serve
the needs for monitoring functions. The slow communication provides transmission of measured rms
values, device status for interlocking, start-up/shut-down/reconfiguration commands, alarms, and
detailed status of equipment parameters for monitoring or maintenance. The fast communication for
control and protection functions covers the delivery of actual DC voltage, actual active power limits, DC
current limits, converter status (blocked, unblocked), converter protective block actuation, and
converter emergency switch off related actuations.
Figure 2.1: Communication System of an offshore WPP integrated in an AC system through a VSC-HVDC link
Since the existing trends indicate that the point-to-point VSC HVDC system for offshore WPPs will be
extended to the VSC HVDC grid configuration, it may be desirable to design the point-to-point VSC
HVDC system to accommodate the future requirements in the grid context (e.g., provisions for
additional space to allow new pieces of equipment and connection of new DC cables to the offshore
VSC HVDC platform provided this additional space does not substantially increase the cost of the
platform1). However, the main changes in the evolution of the point-to-point VSC HVDC to the VSC
HVDC grid will be related to the control strategies and algorithms. Availability of cost competitive
HVDC circuit breakers, and DC/DC converters, along with potentially new technologies for fast and
effective DC power flow control and DC fault detection, will also impact future HVDC grid
developments.
1
Currently air insulated switchgear (320 kV) requires significant additional space/footprint and thus could
result in higher costs. DC GIS available for 320 kV, and under development for 500 kV, could provide
attractive solutions.
Page 7
2.4 VSC HVDC Configurations

This section discusses the point-to-point and the multi-infeed configurations for connecting WPPs to
the host AC power system and also briefly addresses emerging configurations.
2.4.1 Point-to-Point Connection

In the point-to-point connection, as shown in Figure 2.2, the offshore WPP is connected to the onshore
AC system through two VSC HVDC converter stations and the submarine cable. The DC chopper at
the onshore station provides the fault ride-through capability. Other options to maintain the DC voltage
within the desired limits, during the AC system faults, also exist [8].
Figure 2.2: Point-to-point VSC- HVDC connection between an offshore WPP and an onshore AC
System
2.4.2 Multi-Infeed Connection
In Figure 2.3, two independent VSC HVDC links (each a point-to-point configuration) connect one
offshore WPP to two different buses of the onshore AC system through VSC HVDC converter stations.
The potential reasons for adopting this configuration include:
 Upgrading and increasing the power rating of the WPP beyond the nominal capacity of single
existing VSC HVDC system
 Staged development of the DC connection by different developers
 Increasing the reliability of the connection and maintaining power flow from the WPP to the AC
system even if one VSC HVDC is out of service due to planned or forced outage events
When this configuration is chosen, full redundancy of the offshore and onshore converters is required.
For further discussion on this topic, please refer to Reference [9].
Page 8
AC Grid Converter Converter

Onshore Offshore
Onshore Transformers Transformers Offshore Wind
Converter Converter
= Farm(s)
~ ~
=
Grid Connection
Point 1
~
AC Grid Converter Onshore
=
Onshore Transformers Converter
=
~
Grid Connection
Point 2
Figure 2.3: Multi-Infeed VSC- HVDC connection between an offshore WPP and an onshore AC
System
2.4.3 Emerging Configurations - Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC

In this configuration, shown in Figure 2.4, multiple VSC HVDC stations are connected to the main DC
trunk. In this configuration, multiple independent AC systems can exist and one or more of these AC
systems can be offshore and/or onshore WPPs. The AC systems do not need to be synchronized. This
configuration enables:
 Transfer of active power among the (onshore) AC systems
 Collect and redistribute the output power for each WPP
The WPP can participate in the frequency control (primary regulation) of the AC systems [10]. The
drawback of the multi-terminal VSC HVDC (without DC circuit breaker or Full Bridge Converter) is that
a DC side fault requires a complete shut down and restart of all converters and the DC system, as the
fault can only be cleared by opening the AC side circuit breakers of all the VSC HVDC converters.
When considering this configuration, the following must be noted:
 Offshore DC switching stations (especially if air insulated) add potential project cost and require
considerable maintenance due to harsh offshore conditions.
 High equipment ratings, to accommodate high wind/power flow conditions, may result in
additional cost burden for the DC system.
 Without economical and reliabale DC breakers, or other fast fault clearing measures, the
stability of the connected AC systems may constrain or not allow such configuration.
Page 9
Figure 2.4: Multi-terminal “Back-Bone” VSC-HVDC connection
2.4.4 Future Configurations - VSC-HVDC Grid

The VSC HVDC grid configuration, shown in Figure 2.5, is based on a meshed DC line configuration
with an N-1 contingency requirement (i.e., subject to the loss of one converter station or a DC line, the
rest of the system should maintain operation). Since the VSC HVDC converter stations directly control
the power flow between the corresponding AC and DC sides, the power flow in the DC network
imposes severe challenges and requires elaborate communication among the VSC HVDC converters,
regulation algorithms, flow dispatch and/or additional components to impose the desired DC grid
power flow.
Page 10
Offshore Wind
Farm(s)
AC Grid Converter Onshore Offshore Converter
Onshore Transformers Converter Converter Transformers
=
~ ~
=
=
=
Converter Converter
~
~
Transformers
Transformers
Converter
Converter
Offshore Wind
Farm(s)
AC Grid
Figure 2.5: VSC-HVDC Grid Configuration
The technical brochures form CIGRE Working Groups B4.57 (Guide for development of models for
HVDC converters in a HVDC grid), B4.58 (Devices for load control and methodologies for direct
voltage control in meshed HVDC grid), and B4/B5.59 (Control and protection of HVDC grids) provides
further details on the subject.
2.5 Basic Offshore WPP Configuration

Two basic configurations, i.e., the radially connected configuration and ring connected configuration,
for the offshore WPP are shown in Figure 2.6. These two WPP connection configurations are adopted
in the subsequent chapters of this document.
The radially connected configuration (WPP1), through the common offshore AC substation, is
connected to the main onshore AC grid by a point-to-point VSC HVDC system. The ring connected
configuration (WPP2) also provides connections to the off-shore AC substation, in parallel with the
radially connected configuration. More information on various aspects of WPP offshore platforms is
available in References [10] and [11].
Page 11
Figure 2.6: Basic Offshore Platform Configuration
Page 12
2.6 Basic Configuration of Point-to-Point VSC HVDC for Offshore

WPP
Based on the schematic diagram of Figure 2.6, Figure 2.7 shows the basic configuration and the main
components of the point-to-point VSC-HVDC connection for the offshore WPP.
Figure 2.7: A Schematic Diagram of a VSC-HVDC Link for an Offshore WPP
2.7 Balance of the Plant

The following list provides the balance of plant of the onshore and offshore substations. Further details
of the various components are available in [10]. Chapter 4 of this document also provides a more
extensive explanation regarding the balance of plant corresponding to the offshore AC collector grid.
1. AC switchyard
2. Power transformer
3. AC phase reactor (unless comprised into the power transformer)
4. AC shunt damping reactor (if applicable)
5. AC cable on shore
6. Pre-insertion resistor and its by-pass switch (this system is needed to properly energise
the DC network starting from 1 converter)
7. Neutral DC point reactor
8. AC/DC converter
9. Valve room with IGBT modules
10. Control room
11. Pump room
12. Storage room
Page 13
13. Cooling installation

14. Water treatment installation
15. DC switchyard
16. DC cable and end terminal
17. DC chopper
18. Auxiliary power supply for plant start-up
19. Communication systems
20. Diesel engine for auxiliary power
21. AC Array Cables
2.8 References
[1] CIGRE Technical Brochure No 269, VSC Transmission. CIGRE WG B4.37, 2005.
[2] CIGRE Technical Brochure No 492, Voltage Source Converter (VSC) HVDC for Power
Transmission – Economic Aspects and Comparison with other AC and DC
Technologies. CIGRE Working Group B4.46, 2012.
[3] Gustafsson, A., Saltzer, M., Farkas, A., Ghorbani, H., Quist, T., Jeroense, M. The new
525 kV extruded HVDC cable system. ABB Grid Systems, Technical Paper Aug 2014.
[4] Mahimkar, N., Persson, G., Westerlind, C. HVDC Technology for Large Scale Offshore
Wind Connections. Proc. of Smartelec 2013, Vadodara, India, April, 2013, 5 pp.
[5] Callavik, E. M., Lundberg, P., Bahrman, M. P., Rosenqvist, R. P. HVDC technologies for
the future onshore and offshore grid. Proc. of CIGRE Symposium “Grid of the future”,
Kansas City, USA, October, 2012, 6 pp.
[6] Y. Phulpin, "Communication-Free Inertia and Frequency Control of Wind Gen Erators
connected by an HVDC-Link", IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, 27(2), May
2012, pp. 1136-1137.
[7] T. Haileselassie, "Control, Dynamics and operation of Multi-terminal VSC-HVDC

Transmission Systems", Ph.D. Thesis, NTNU Trondheim, Norway, 2012.
[8] R. Sharma, "Electrical Structure of Future Off-Shore Wind Power Plants with a High-
Voltage Direct Current Power Transmission", Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of
Denmark, Lyngby, 2011.
[9] V. F. Lescale, P. Holmberg, R. Ottersten, Y. J. Hafner, Parallelling offshore wind farm

HVDC ties on offshore side. CIGRE Session 2012, paper C1-107. Paris, 2012, 10 pp.
[10] Offshore Grid Development Plan 2013, first draft. German TSOs. 2013.
http://www.netzentwicklungsplan.de/content/offshore-netzentwicklungsplan-2013-erster-
entwurf
[11] CIGRE WG B3-36 interim draft report, "Special considerations for AC collector systems
and substations associated with HVDC connected wind power plants".
Page 14
3 HVDC CONNECETD OFFSHORE WPPS: WTG SELECTION AND

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN LAYOUTS
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter topics related to selection, design, construction, and operation of WTGs with a focus on
issues specifically related to offshore are discussed. The view is then widened to give an overview of
conceptual design aspects of the entire HVAC offshore electrical systems for HVDC connected WPP,
including:
1. Connection between VSC HVDC converter station and the WPP collector substations
2. Selection of the WPP transformers
3. Design of the WPP internal collector system
4. WPP operational aspects
Note that many of the general design aspects discussed here, such as transformer selection or the
design of the internal collector system, also apply to WPPs having an AC connection to shore.
3.2 Unique Aspects of WTGs for Offshore Applications

Not all existing WTGs are suitable for offshore applications. There are certain aspects affecting
offshore WTGs, aggregated into a WPP, that establish particular requirements for the wind turbine
design, including:
- Higher wind speeds and waves resulting in higher mechanical stress on all components
- Aggressive marine environmental conditions resulting in increased corrosion risk, compared to

onshore applications.
- Foundations (including the transition piece and substructure [see 3.3]) and submarine cables
increase the cost of the balance of plant (BOP) in an offshore WPP. Furthermore, the
breakdown of CAPEX for a typical offshore wind power plant is highly dependent on specific
project details that can either be of natural cause (i.e. water depth, soil conditions etc.) or
developer specific decisions (i.e. type of foundation, philosophy of WPP architecture, etc.).
- Weather conditions, distance to shore, and logistics needed for repair and maintenance
contribute to a potential increase in operation and maintenance costs and the down time of the
offshore WTGs compared to onshore WTG. Therefore, careful trade-off balance between
corrective and preventive maintenance costs must be exercised to achieve the desired
reliability and availability.
In order to reduce costs during the early design stages, attention must be paid to remote maintenance
technologies (e.g. automation of components, redundancy built into important systems to avoid
downtime, remote diagnostic tools and Condition Monitoring Systems (CMS)). The reduced
environmental concerns in regards to hub height, visual impact and sound levels, enable offshore wind
turbines to be designed bigger than the onshore variants and achieve a higher energy yield per
individual WTG.
Though generalisation should be made carefully, recent projects have shown that there is a significant
difference between onshore and offshore WPP costs.
Page 15
3.2.1 Factors affecting availability of Offshore WTGs

Availability is the time that a wind turbine is either generating energy, or is available to generate
energy, as a percentage of the total available time over a set period. When a wind turbine is
unavailable it is generally a consequence of the failure of the turbine combined with the total repair
time. The repair time depends on such factors as: wind turbine maintainability, external restrictions like
weather windows (wave height, wind speed), distance to shore and logistics to allow maintenance
operation, and the availability of both replacement components and the vessels needed to perform the
repair. The cost and availability of the (specialised) repair vessels or other access means (e.g.
helicopters) together with the weather window probability will have a significant influence on the repair
waiting time. Total repair time is the sum of the waiting time due to bad weather conditions, the
logistics delays, the travel time to the offshore site, and the actual repair time.
The failure rate of the WTG and its components determines the frequency of any corrective
maintenance programmes, however this will have a direct impact on the maintenance cost and
availability. As project ratings and distance from shore increases, owners and operators will have to
examine appropriate O&M strategies to achieve desired objectives. Significantly larger projects and
further distances to the nearest onshore harbour (e.g., greater than 100km) can lead to the
requirement to have offshore based fleets of service technicians. This requires either fixed
accommodation structures (much like in the oil and gas industry) or mobile “Flotel” type vessels to
service both the crew needs as well as the facilities required for storage of spare parts, components,
and maintenance equipment.
3.2.2 Offshore WTG Design Targets

One of the primary objectives of onshore and offshore WPPs is to achieve the lowest price of the
energy generated per kWh over its lifetime. In other words, the levelised cost of energy (LCOE) =
(Annualized cost of CAPEX+OPEX) / (average annual energy production) should be as low as
possible. Lower LCOE for the WPP can be achieved a number of ways. One possibility is to increase
the WTG rating, along with development of aerodynamically more sophisticated and larger rotor
blades, together with internal WTG system optimization. These actions contribute to the potential
reduction of LCOE, despite the increased investment costs associated with other components such as
foundations and submarine cables. In a WPP using a smaller number of higher rated WTGs to achieve
the same total capacity (i.e. 6MW vs 3.6MW turbines) the WTG CAPEX is increased. However, for the
WPP the overall costs may potentially be reduced due to the fixed installation and maintenance costs
for each turbine (see additional details in section 3.3.3). An increase in CAPEX may also be required
to ensure a reduction in the lifetime OPEX costs due to the need for additional protection against the
aggressive marine environment compared to onshore WTGs and to ensure that maintenance and
whole life costs are reduced. Further reduction to the OPEX cost may be achieved by minimising the
WTGs maintenance cost without affecting the down time. Considering the high cost for corrective and
preventive maintenance at sea, it is necessary to reduce the frequency of such works. To reduce
costs, most offshore WTG’s are typically designed with a 12 month maintenance cycle. An important
balance is required between reducing scheduled maintenance while ensure proper protection against
unscheduled maintenance (i.e. component failures).
In summary, the best way to achieve high energy production from any given turbine, may be to
increase turbine size and availability, whilst maintaining a low OPEX cost due the reduction in
components´ failure rates and reduced mean time to repair.
Page 16
3.3 WTG Technologies

There are several WTG technologies currently in operation around the globe. This section focuses on
the commonly recognized WTG electrical classifications. In various international standards wind
turbine technologies are grouped into four types depending on their grid connection technology.
Type 1: Squirrel-cage induction generator

Type 2: Wound rotor induction generator with variable rotor resistance
Type 3: Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG)
Type 4: Full Scale Converter (FSC) WTG
Since nearly all recent offshore WPP projects are predominantly utilising Type 3 and Type 4 WTG
designs, a more detailed description of each technology is presented below.
3.3.1 Type 3: Doubly-fed Induction Generator

A typical Type 3 WTG with a DFIG configuration is shown in Figure 3.1. The DFIG system consists of
an asynchronous / induction generator, in which the rotor winding is connected to a four quadrant
converter through slip-rings, and the stator is directly connected to the grid. For the direct connection
of the DFIG system to the grid, a high speed generator with a gearbox is required. In order to fulfil grid
code requirements and protect the WTG during faults, the most common solution today is a DC
chopper on the converter dc link and a rotor-side crowbar on the rotor terminals of the generator.
Some DFIG systems utilise a chopper at the stator side. The fault ride through (FRT) and grid codes
capabilities vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and are dependent on the sizing of the DC
chopper, the converter, and the controls philosophy. Note however, that crowbar action may not be
permitted where rapid reactive current injection is required by certain grid codes, and manufacturers
may offer alternative options for FRT compliance.
Two-winding transformers, three-winding transformers and two-winding autotransformers are used to

connect a DFIG system to the required connected voltage level.
Figure 3.1: DFIG Configuration
3.3.2 Type 4 Full Scale Converter Connections

Compared to the Type 3 DFIG WTG, the Type 4 turbine is electrically decoupled from the grid through
its FSC as shown in Figure 3.2. Most common in type 4 WTGs, is a four-quadrant FSC connected
between the generator and the grid. This power electronics device decouples the generator from the
grid and therefore decreases mechanical stress on the drivetrain. A variance of WTG arrangements,
mechanically and electrically are found within this group.
Page 17
Depending on the chosen gearbox and generator type, the size and rotational speed of the generator
changes. Common applications are:
Low-speed (e.g., 4rpm to 20 rpm) multi-pole generators synchronous generator without gearbox,
called direct drive (DD).
Fast speed generators (e.g., 600rpm to 1800rpm) and medium speed generators (e.g., 400rpm to
600rp), which can be equipped with synchronous generator (external excited or permanent magnet) or
asynchronous generator. The medium speed generator WTG does not require a gearbox with a high
speed stage, which decrease the gearbox failure rate.
Low-speed direct drive WTGs need a physically larger design than fast and medium speed ones. As
the generator rotational speed decreases, and the number of poles increases, the diameter or the
length of the generator increases in order to gain the surface area required for electromagnetic
coupling. This means more material is needed, resulting in a heavier and more costly generator but
with decreased number of components. Optimum design must consider the trade-offs between
gearbox and generator alternatives, with considerations on total weight, increased number of
components, maintainability, and replacements in case of failures.
Figure 3.2: Type 4 FSC Configuration
3.3.3 Foundations of Offshore WTG’s

Foundations are a unique aspect for offshore WTGs. Over the past several years different
technologies for various applications have emerged. Early offshore wind turbines were restricted to
monopile type foundations which were cost effective due to the low mechanical loads and shallow
water depths. As WTGs become bigger and deployed in deeper waters, structures such as jackets
(based on the standard structure for offshore oil and gas platforms), and large concrete gravity based
structures may become necessary. Table 2.1 contains a brief overview of the available technologies.
Specific numbers given are based on water depths and other aspects concurrent with present
practices and are subject to change with new developments. For example, until recently, monopiles
were restricted to approximately 20m water depths. However, advancements in design, simulation
methods, and manufacturing have made it feasible to deploy such foundations to applications with
depths in excess of 35m (depending on soil conditions). The proposed Hub heights in this table relate
to hub heights easy to be realised with specific technology (e.g., a jacket itself is very stiff and in turn
the tower can be long and soft, in contrast to a monopile which is soft, so it is advantageous to shorten
the tower.
Floating foundations are the next evolution in wind turbine foundation technology. They are currently
only deployed in small scale pilot prototype situations, however in the future this technology is likely to
reach larger scale commercial deployment, opening up otherwise restricted ocean locations (i.e., water
depths over 60 meters- surrounding regions such as Norway, northern Scotland, and Japan).
Page 18
Monopile Gravity Jacket Tripod Floating
Model
Water Depth Up to 30m Up to 40-50m Up to 60m Up to 50m Up to several

hundred
[Approximately] meters
Proposed hub Low Low to medium Larger hub Larger hub

height height possible height possible
Allowable wave Mild to Medium Severe Severe Mild to Medium

conditions medium
Soil Conditions Good soil Good soil Adaptable to Adaptable to N/A

conditions conditions most soil most soil
required required, conditions conditions
especially in
upper layers
Components Steel cylinders Concrete Multiple Multiple Depending on

Foundations sections of sections of concept.
structural tubes large diameter
welded welded
together tubulars
Examples Horns Rev, Lillgrund, Thorrnton Borkum West, Prototype,

Gwynt y Môr, Nysted1, Bank 2+3, Global Tech currently not
(Commissioned) London Array, Thornton Nordsee Ost, considered for
many more Bank1, commercial
projects
Table 3.1: Foundation Types
Page 19
3.3.4 Future Trends in Offshore WTG Technology

The WTG technology discussions presented so far in this Chapter are based on information available
on a relatively small installed base of offshore WPPs. However, most of these offshore WPPs are
connected through HVAC transmission, rather than HVDC systems.
Designing wind turbines specifically for HVDC technology may influence the trend of the available
technologies to produce systems that are both technically and financially optimised. Utilising the HVDC
technology to fulfil grid code requirements may lead to a reduction of required WTG capabilities,
including: FRT, large reactive power range, or large frequency range. In theory, this may facilitate the
use of other existing technologies such as Type 2 WTG or WTGs with dynamic gear boxes and the
further development of simpler, robust and more economic WTG technologies solely to be connected
to HVDC systems leading to improved WTG reliability and availability.
For example due to the inherent frequency independency of the VSC technology, a symbiosis of
WTGs and HVDC transmission systems gives opportunities to optimise offshore WPP frequencies
while onshore network requirements are still supported. This may be achieved through increase of the
offshore base frequency, or a narrower or wider frequency band dependant on the optimisation in
operation of all offshore components. Another example for a positive impact of a symbioses between
HVDC link and the offshore wind power plant is the reduction in voltage control / reactive power
requirements. The most crucial benefit would be finding an agreement on how the reactive power is
shared between the offshore HVDC converter station and the WTGs. Turbines can be designed to
almost solely produce active power while the offshore converter station would takes care of the
reactive power management. It is worth noting that the economic benefits from the symbiosis of the
WTGs and HVDC transmission systems can only be realized if the regulatory authorities (TSO) allow
such operation through new regulatory requirements, and the offshore HVAC network is small enough
to be operated in such a manner.
Symbioses of HVDC technology and WTGs will further support the development of offshore DC grids
(see Cigré group DC grids B4-52 - HVDC Grid Feasibility Study). Currently, there are several
development activities underway to overcome the challenges associated with availability of DC/DC
converters, DC circuit breakers and DC wind turbines. There are currently no commercially available
large scale DC WTGs.
3.4 Connection Between VSC HVDC Converter Station and WPP

Collector Substations
A possible design for a 900MW VSC HVDC offshore link connecting two offshore wind farms is
depicted in Figure 3.3. HVDC transmission links can either be used for connecting one large WPP or,
as shown in Figure 3.3, for connecting two or more offshore WPPs to the onshore transmission
system. The HVDC offshore platform and the platforms of the individual WPP substations to date have
usually been separated, even in instances where the HVDC offshore platform is close to the WPP.
This is primarily because of weight and size constraints and/or different ownerships (e.g., in Germany).
However, with larger HVDC platforms it may be beneficial from a capital expenditure point of view to
combine the HVDC platform with at least one of the collector substations. In addition to savings on
foundation / structure and cable connections, the single platform could also benefit from combined
services such as accommodation blocks, safety systems, backup power supplies, etc., provided that
the ownership boundaries and operational practices can be clearly defined.
Page 20
Figure 3.3: Example HVDC Offshore Design according to [1]
Voltage levels of the offshore HVAC-system between the HVDC platform and the WPP collector
substation(s) are defined by the available cables. To date these normally range from 132kV, up to
220kV. These cables are of identical technology to those used for HVAC connection of WPPs,
although the cable lengths will typically be shorter.
Cables with cross sections of up to 1200mm2 are common, although higher values are possible.
Please see the relevant brochures from CIGRE study committees B3 and B4 for more information.
J-tubes encase the cable as it transitions from sub-seabed to the platform / turbine. Their name comes
from the shape which not only provides protection, but controls the bending radius of the cable. An
example of a J-tube on the side of a WTG transition piece can be seen in Picture 3-1 below. Note that
this example shows the equipment pre-installation with the end of the j-tubes prepared for transport. It
is important to consider the influence of J-tubes on cable rating offshore as this additional physical
protection causes increased heating effects, and corresponding reduction of cable ratings. Please see
the TB by CIGRE WG B3.26.
The length of the connection between the HVDC offshore platform and the WPP AC-platforms range
between 5 to 40km for German projects. Because of the relatively short length (compared to AC-
connected offshore WPPs) shunt reactors for compensating cable charging currents are usually not
necessary, but may be required due to country specific regulations. However, for larger or multiple
independent projects covering significantly more seabed, particularly those with multiple collector
stations connected via long HVAC cables, there may be a driver for HVAC cable charging current
compensation offshore. This could be addressed by either the VSC-HVDC system, the WTGs
Page 21
themselves, or dedicated fixed shunt reactors. The choice of which would depend on capital
expenditure vs. any impact on losses over the lifetime of the project.
Picture 3-1: Transition piece showing j-tubes (prepared for transport to site)
3.5 WPP Collector Station Transformers

The WPP collector station transformer connects the high voltage AC network to the medium voltage of
the WPP internal collector network. It can either be of the two-winding, three-winding or
autotransformer type. Three-winding transformer arrangements, as shown in common for large WPPs
due to the high currents at the collector network side and the available ratings for switchgear at the
collector network voltages.
WPP collector station transformers represent the heaviest components on the offshore platforms.
Hence, their rating is mainly limited by weight, size and the available crane capacity (in case a
replacement would be required). It may be beneficial to consider using 60Hz equipment in the offshore
Page 22
network due to a slight reduction in size and weight compared to 50Hz equipment. However this would
only be plausible if the equipment can be sourced in reasonable timescales having been type tested /
certified for use offshore.
So far, transformers with ratings up to 240MVA1 have been installed on offshore platforms. Higher
rating transformers of 320 MVA are in planning stage.
3.6 Design of the WPP Internal Cable Collector Network

3.6.1 Cable Technology
The most common voltage levels of cable collector systems for offshore WPPs in Europe are in the
range of 30kV to 33kV. Currently, in the UK, 66kV is receiving heavy focus as one of the next big
developments in order to reduce the cost of offshore WPPs [2]
The choice of the nominal voltage for WPP internal collector network always represents a trade-off
between capital cost and losses over the lifetime of the project. The higher the voltage levels, the more
WTGs can be connected to one feeder at acceptable losses but at the same time, investment costs
will increase considerably for voltage levels above 33kV. With higher voltage levels the collector arrays
can spread over a greater distance without unacceptable voltage profiles. This is an important factor
for very large WPPs where there is a strong desire to reduce the number of collector platforms, and
thereby capital investment requirements.
Medium voltage submarine cables are available from various manufacturers who offer either copper or
aluminium conductors. The maximum standard cross section for medium voltage cables is typically
800mm2. Larger cross sections of up to 1200mm2 may be available but at increased cost and weight,
however, these may make installation more difficult. Typically the cross section of cable used is
smaller at the end of the string, compared to the start (near the platform) as there is less current to
carry. This can save substantial capital expenditure.
3.6.2 Substation Placement

WPP offshore substations can be placed inside or outside the WPP array. There are several factors
influencing the positioning of the offshore substation. These factors include:
 Condition of the seabed

 Water depth
 Optimisation of HV and MV cable lengths
 Helicopter / ship access may need to be considered in some instances
 TSO requirements
Typical positions of the offshore substation are shown in Figure 3.4.
1
One example being West of Duddon Sands WPP in the UK which is owned by DONG Energy and Scottish
Power Renewables
Page 23
Figure 3.4: Typical positions of WPP collector substations
3.6.3 Cable Routing and Cable Sizing

The topology of the WPP internal cable network is usually a purely radial configuration consisting of
several strings running onto the offshore collector substation (see Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5: Typical radial wind farm collector grid
For improving reliability, or ensuring the supply of auxiliary devices for WTGs, the radial structure
according to Figure 3.5 can be extended into a ring structure as seen in Figure 3.6 structures are
always operated radially, with an open point in each ring.
Page 24
Figure 3.6: Wind farm collector grid with ring structure
Provided the cable cross sections are chosen to be large enough, it may be possible to transmit some,
or all, of the available power around the ring if a cable fault were to occur. However, in most cases, the
WPP collector systems offshore are not designed for full redundancy, even if they are equipped with a
ring structure. Although, just being able to have electricity supplied to WTGs that are connected to a
string, which are temporarily out of service (e.g., due to a cable failures) can be of great advantage.
However, fault isolation and system re-configuration may require time consuming manual action
(opening / closing of disconnectors) in a number of turbines unless each has additional switchgear
installed at significant cost and footprint. In any case, the capital cost of additional cable and
switchgear (if desired), plus installation of both, would have to be compared against the likelihood of a
collector network cable failure at various string locations and the cost saving of avoiding auxiliary
stand-by power (e.g., diesel generators) in each WTG, together with any additional power export which
could be achieved.
Other topologies, like star topologies, are also possible but are less common. One reason is the fact
that the area of seabed at one side of the platform must remain free of cables to allow jack-up vessel
access. However it should be noted that although other geographical topologies are possible, there is
little or no difference electrically (e.g., string length and number of turbines per string etc.), and
therefore they are not discussed further in this brochure.
Cable cross sections have to be chosen under the consideration of the following constraints:
Page 25
 Thermal capacity (including any overload capability)

 Short circuit rating
 Voltage profile
Amongst all cable cross sections, which comply with these constraints, the optimal cable cross section
is defined by the minimum net present value (NPV) calculated under the consideration of:
 Cable capital costs

 Installation costs
 Operation and maintenance
 Cost of losses over the project lifetime
Annual energy losses and revenue are calculated based on the probability distribution of annual wind
speeds (defined by a Weibull-characteristic), the WTG power curve, WTG unavailability, grid
curtailment / constraint and several load flow calculations of the WPP collector network.
For calculating NPV, the WPP anticipated project life (typically 20 to 25 years) and the discount rate
have to be defined for the project in addition to all technical data and cost information.
3.6.4 Emergency Stand-by Power

The emergency power box as shown in Figure 3.5 or 3.6 highlights the need for a source of generation
in the event that the HVDC link is not connected during installation, or not operational during
commissioning or outage. To date, this power has normally been provided by a diesel generator,
although other forms of generation may be more appropriate in future (e.g. fuel cell or perhaps the
wind turbines themselves). The purpose of this generation is to provide supplies to the platform
auxiliary equipment (control systems, communications, life support, navigation lights, etc.). There is
also significant benefit if this generation can be sized to energise and provide supplies to the collector
array and the wind turbines so that critical auxiliary systems (e.g., control systems, communications,
life support, navigation lights, air conditioning & turbine bearing rotation) can be supplied without the
need for individual temporary stand-by diesel generation in each turbine. Note, however, that there
may be significant reactive power gain from the collector array which needs to be compensated either
by the generator, or by shunt reactors. Additionally, energisation of the collector array may cause
undesired transient effects which the generator would need to be capable of withstanding.
3.7 Design of the WPP HVDC Export Cable Connection

Given the distances involved, attention must be paid to the HVDC submarine connecting the off-shore
substation to the transmission system on-shore. The following non-exhaustive list gives the main
items, which should be considered during the design and installation of the HVDC submarine cable:
 Ratings: power, voltage level, length, weight
 Characteristics: cable type/technology (e.g. single or two core), communication cable

requirements (integrated/separated), armouring (single/double wired)
 Operation mode: temperature monitoring, redundancy, expected availability
 HVDC system: monopolar/bipolar with or without earth return
 Manufacturing: quality control, shipping, jointing
Page 26
 Laying: sea /sea-bed survey (bathymetry, side scan sonar, bottom profiling, thermal resistivity,
vibrocore sampling, magnetometer, sand waves, obstacles ( including other cables, pipelines,
water depth, water speed, ...), unloading, trenching, post-lay bury, cables to be laid separately
or bundled together for bipolar cables, magnetic compass effect, weather conditions during
laying, mechanical protection (e.g. stone dumping, concrete mattresses), platform terminations
(e.g. J-tubes), shore interfaces, marine traffic during installation.
 Repair: availability of proven repair joints, mobilisation, permitted outage
 Legal: permits, legislation, regulations, bulletins, policy statements, safety procedures and
rules, technical guidance notes, specifications, codes of practice, handbooks, transmission
procedures, corrosion by or on other installations, fishing, trawling, effects, archaeology,
defence, naval and recreational requirements etc.
 Experience from similar installations and experience of the cable technology being used at the
voltage level proposed
 On–shore: Of course, a substantial length of cable may also be required on-shore to connect to
the nearest substation. Many of the above requirements need to be also considered for the
onshore section of the connection.
Each of the above needs to be considered in detail so that the connection is designed and installed
properly and the potential risks are minimised.
It is recommended that close attention is paid to the Recommendations on HVDC cables as issued by
Study Committee B1. References [3] to [13] are considered to be relevant.
In addition, it is necessary to take into account the current works of Study Committee B1, which can be
found in references [14] to [19].
3.8 Bibliography
[1] Offshore Netzentwicklungsplan 2013, Erster Entwurf der Übertragungsnetzbetreiber
03.03.2013 Offshore
[2] The Carbon Trust – Offshore wind accelerator programme, available at

http://www.carbontrust.com/our-clients/o/offshore-wind-accelerator
[3] TB 496 Recommendations for Testing DC Extruded Cable Systems for Power at a
Rated Voltage up to 500kV
[4] TB 398 3rd party Damage in Underground and Submarine Cables
[5] TB 379 Update of Service Experience with Underground and Submarine Cables
[6] TB 219 Overvoltages on HVDC Cables- Final Report
[7] Electra 214 Addendum to "Recommendations for tests of power transmission DC cables up
to 800 kV" (Electra 189-2000)
[8] Electra 206 Testing DC extruded cable systems for Power Transmission up to 250 kV
Page 27
[9] Electra 189 Recommendations for testing of long submarine cables with extruded insulation
for voltage from 30 (36) to 150 (170) kV. Revision 990811+ editorial
amendments 000113
[10] Electra 171 Recommendations for mechanical tests on submarine cables.
[11] Electra 89 Transient pressure variations in submarine cables of the self-contained oil filled
type
[12] Electra 72 Recommendations for tests of power transmission DC cables for a rated voltage
up to 600 kV.
[13] Electra 32 Recommendations for tests on DC cables for a rated voltage up to 550 kV
[14] WG B1.38 After laying tests on AC and DC cable systems with new technologies
[15] WG B1.39 On shore generation cable connections
[16] WG B1.40 Off shore generation cable connections.
[17] TF B1.41 Issues regarding soil thermal characteristics
[18] TF B1.42 Further recommendations on HVDC cables
[19] WG B1.43 Recommendations for mechanical testing of submarine cables
Page 28
4 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HVDC AND OFFSHORE WIND

POWER PLANT
4.1 Introduction
The functional requirements for the coordination and integration of WPP and VSC-HVDC control and
protection are a fundamental issue for VSC-HVDC offshore wind power plants. An appropriate
integration will often deal with different manufacturer technologies, and therefore it is extremely
important to clearly specify how this integration can be conducted in a given installation. The present
chapter introduces some guidelines for integrating the control and protection schemes of WPP and
VSC-HVDC.
The analysis of the control and protection integration of the VSC-HVDC converter and the wind power
plant (WPP) requires a clear definition of the configurations considered as well as the requirements
which will be demanded to the overall system in certain scenarios.
The present chapter considers point to point VSC-HVDC connections integrated with wind power
plants based both on DFIG and FSC. The considered scenarios include normal and fault operation. As
far as the requirements are concerned, they include start-up, shut-down and normal operation, the
active power curtailment, the fault ride through capability and the onshore grid support. The onshore
grid support will be mainly implemented in the grid side VSC-HVDC converter but it will require actions
from the WPP.
The required control and protection strategies are discussed looking both at the obtained system
performance and the required communication systems.
4.2 System Under Analysis

The system under study was presented in the previous chapter, as Figure 3.6. The analyzed system
considers a VSC-HVDC converter which is installed in a platform and connected to two transformers
located in each of two platforms where they collect the power from several strings of wind turbines.
Each transformer collects the corresponding available power in normal operation; however the
transformers will be typically overrated to allow operating the WPP at partial load (greater than 50 %)
in certain circumstances with only one transformer.
The wind turbines will be based on either DFIG or FSC. A configuration mixing both concepts can be
also considered, since it can also be found in large wind power plants.
Reactive power compensation equipment may be considered depending on the configuration.

Reactive power can also be provided by the VSC-HVDC converter and the wind turbines. DC
choppers are considered in the VSC-HVDC and fault ride-through (FRT) capability in all wind turbines.
Page 29
4.3 Control and Protection Functions Required

4.3.1 Functions required
The control and protection integration of the WPP and the VSC-HVDC will be required to provide the
following functions:
 Offshore grid functions:
o The offshore grid frequency must be controlled at the desired value. This task is
performed by the offshore VSC-HVDC rectifier which imposes the offshore grid
frequency.
o Reactive power management. The WPP dispatches reactive power or voltage

references to the wind turbines. The offshore grid voltage must be maintained in
appropriate levels in all the wind turbines and at the offshore VSC-HVDC converter.
o Short-circuit current provision in case of offshore faults.
o Fault ride-through capability for offshore faults.
o Fault protection.
 Main grid functions. VSC-HVDC connections are expected to provide support to the grid where
they are connected:
o Voltage support is completely decoupled from the wind power plant.
o Frequency support requires coordinating the onshore VSC-HVDC inverter (which will be
responsible only for measuring the grid frequency and transmitting it offshore), the
offshore VSC-HVDC rectifier and the WPP. The offshore wind plant will be required to
reduce or increase power for onshore grid frequency support.
o Virtual (synthetic) inertia may be required. It would require coordinating the onshore
VSC-HVDC inverter (which will be responsible only for measuring the grid frequency and
transmitting it offshore), the offshore VSC-HVDC rectifier and the WPP in a similar
manner to that required for frequency support.
o Power oscillation damping may be required. It can be based on the onshore VSC-HVDC
inverter injection of active or reactive current. If reactive power is to be injected, the
onshore VSC-HVDC inverter can manage it within its current limits, without affecting the
offshore VSC-HVDC rectifier and the WPP. Active power injection can be more effective
in some grids but it would require coordinating the onshore VSC-HVDC inverter (which
will be responsible only for measuring the grid frequency and transmitting it offshore),
offshore VSC-HVDC rectifier and the WPP.
o For the last three issues (frequency response, virtual inertia and power oscillation
damping), an alternative, which can be considered in some applications, is the usage of
a chopper resistor (or energy storage device) in the VSC-HVDC onshore converter. The
resistor would dissipate (or store in case of energy storage) power in steady-state
ensuring a power reserve that could be used when needed.
o Fault ride-through capability for main grid faults.
Page 30
o Fault protection.
 Overall system functions:
o Active power management. Active power will be managed by wind turbine generators in
order to extract the maximum possible power for low wind conditions, extract the
nominal power in high wind conditions and reduce power when needed or required by
the grid operator.
o An appropriate start or stop sequence must be applied considering issues such as the
transformers inrush current and the possible voltage transients. Auxiliary power and
communication system are needed for the start-up and shut/down sequences.
o Control coordination between WPP control and VSC-HVDC control. Cooperation

between WTG supplier and VSC-HVDC supplier (potentially via an independent
consultant – or developer’s engineers – due to IP and confidentiality concerns) is
needed to ensure sufficient coordination.
o Operation under communication failure.
o Provision of auxiliary power to the WPP when there is no available generation (no wind
or excessively high wind).
4.3.2 Considered Situations

To illustrate the different situations, the following colour code is used:
 Green is used for systems operating in normal conditions

 Yellow is used for systems operated in restricted conditions
 Red is used for systems which are faulted or are the problem origin
In order to be able to specify the control and protection functions required, the following situations are
considered:
Page 31
 Normal operation: The wind power plant is operated without any electrical restriction. In this
case all the generated power should flow through the WPP grid and is injected in the VSC-
HVDC cable. This situation is shown in Figure 4.1., where the green lines show the power flow.
P
Substation
P
Converter Station
P
P
Emergency
Power
AC Grid
Offshore Onshore
P P Onshore
Converter Converter
P
~ =
= ~
P
Transformer Platform 1
Figure 4.1: Normal Operation
 Restricted operation: Due to planned or unplanned outages, part of the electrical system might
not be available. For example, one of the two transformers on the platform might be
unavailable. Coordinated control will be required to limit the generated wind power. As it is
shown in Figure 4.2, operation at reduced power generation is possible.
Figure 4.2: Restricted operation
Page 32
 Main onshore AC grid fault: A fault (voltage sag) in the main AC grid reduces drastically the AC
voltage in the onshore VSC-HVDC inverter and therefore reduces the power extraction
capability. These faults can be addressed providing fault ride-through capability by an
appropriate use of a DC chopper in the grid-side VSC converter as shown in Figure 4.3.
P
Substation
P
Converter Station
P
P
Emergency
Power
Offshore Onshore
P AC Grid
Converter Converter Fault Onshore
P
~ =
= ~
P
HVDC chopper
actuation
P
P
Figure 4.3: Main AC grid fault
Page 33
 DC fault: A fault in the VSC-HVDC cable or one of the VSC-HVDC converters will imply the
whole system disconnection. It has to be ensured that the disconnection is performed safely.
 WPP grid fault: For faults in the WPP grid, part or all the WPP will be disconnected, the fault
has to be located and isolated rapidly. The disconnected part will depend mainly on the number
of circuit breakers available in the WPP grid and the available redundancy. Since the WPP grid
is an only power electronics grid, the short circuit current will be provided by the several VSC
converters. In must be ensured that the relay protections operate appropriately. This approach
is sketched in Figure 4.4.
P
Substation
P
Converter Station
P
P
Emergency
Power
Offshore Onshore AC Grid

P Converter Converter P Onshore
P
~ =
= ~
P
Fault Transformer Platform 1
Figure 4.4: WPP grid fault
Page 34
 Fault in the WPP export cable: For faults in the WPP export cable, the fault will be isolated and
this may lead to the need for power reduction in the wind turbines. Since the WPP grid is an
only power electronics grid, the short circuit current will be provided by the several VSC
converters. In must be ensured that the relay protections operate appropriately. This approach
is shown in Figure 4.5.
P
Substation
Converter Station
Fault
Emergency
Power
Wind turbine
power reduction P Converter Converter P Onshore
P
~ =
= ~
Figure 4.5: Fault in WPP export cable
Page 35
 Wind turbine internal fault: Internal faults in the WT will imply the individual WT disconnection.
 Reduced power operation. The grid operator may send power references to the WPP in order
to reduce power, mainly due to congestion management issues. In this case a direct
communication will be sent from the grid operator to the WPP which will dispatch reduced
power references to the wind turbines, as shown in Figure 4.6.
Power
Power reduction reduction GRID
WPP CONTROL
P
OPERATOR
Substation
P
Converter Station
P
P
P
Emergency
Power

P
~ =
= ~
P
Figure 4.6: Reduced power operation
Page 36
 Frequency response. In the case of frequency variations, the active power from the WPP may
have to be changed according to the grid code requirements. In this case there are two
possibilities:
o A direct communication is sent from the grid operator control centre to the WPP
(containing the onshore grid frequency or the required WPP active power). The WPP
control dispatches power references to the wind turbines. This approach is shown in
Figure 4.7.
Onshore
frequency /
WPP required
Power reduction active power GRID
WPP CONTROL
P
OPERATOR
Substation
P
Converter Station
P
P
P
Emergency
Power

P
~ =
= ~
P
Figure 4.7: Frequency response using WPP control
Page 37
o A direct communication is sent from the onshore VSC-HVDC inverter to the offshore
VSC-HVDC rectifier which changes the offshore grid frequency to mimic the onshore
grid frequency. The wind turbines react accordingly modifying the active power injected.
This approach is shown in Figure 4.8. The grid operator will send commands to switch
the operation mode between frequency sensitive or not sensitive.
P Transformer Platform 1
Substation
P
Converter Station
P
P
Onshore
frequency /
P WPP required
active power
Emergency
Power

P
~ =
= ~
P
Frequency Change
Figure 4.8: Frequency response using VSC-HVDC converters
4.4 Control and Protection Integration

The available controllable variables are the active and reactive power of all the individual wind turbines
and frequency and voltage of the VSC-HVDC. The control scheme will have to both ensure the active
and reactive power balance, injecting all the wind power generated to the HVDC cable, while
maintaining an appropriate voltage in the different buses and controlling the WPP frequency.
4.4.1 Control Integration

Like any large WPP, offshore VSC HVDC connected WPPs are equipped with a master controller, as
shown in Figure 4.9, which allows regulation of active and reactive power at the (offshore) WPP
connection point. The controller receives active and reactive power measurements at the WPP
connection point and sends active and reactive power set-point to the local controllers of the individual
wind turbine generators. In the case that the local wind turbine generator controllers are using voltage
instead of reactive power set-points, voltage set-points will be issued.
The coordination between the different systems will depend significantly on the delays between the
commands sent and responses obtained. These delays depends on the communication delays, the
controllers execution times and the time response of the commanded devices (for example the wind
turbines).
Because of the (normally) relative short cable connections between the off-shore HVDC converter
station and the wind power plant substations, feed-back voltage control at the wind power plant
connection points is typically not required. It is rather recommended to control reactive power flows in
Page 38
order to ensure that active power losses in both the high (between the HVDC platform and collector
substation) and medium voltage (collector network) grids are minimised.
Please note that although this is the minimum required for wind farm operation from a technical point
of view, there may be other reasons why it is necessary to monitor voltage and frequency offshore. For
example if the transmission system operator requires some contribution to voltage control, or if
frequency response is provided by varying the offshore grid frequency rather than sending a signal
direct to the wind farm controller.
The overall (secondary) control structure of the high voltage system is the following:
 HVDC converter: Controls voltage magnitude and defines the offshore HVAC system frequency
at the HVDC AC terminals.
 WPP deliver active power and regulate reactive power at the WTG connection points for
minimizing losses.
Additionally, there are faster inner control loops in the HVDC-converters and the wind generators, e.g.
for current limitation etc. but the overall control concept will typically follow the above described
principles.
A control integration scheme including communication requirements is shown in Figure 4.9. It can be
noted that the integration can be performed different combinations of the proposed communication
schemes.
G
Pitch HVDC
P*
Q* V, f
WIND
Q* function of V
TURBINE P* function of f V*
CONTROL V, f
f*
COM1 V* / Q* VSC‐HVDC

P* OFFSHORE
Offshore V, f CONTROL
WPP
CONTROL
COM3
COM4
COM2
Onshore V, f Onshore V, f VSC‐HVDC

GRID
OPERATOR ONSHORE
CONTROL
Figure 4.9: Control Integration
The considered communications systems can include:
Page 39
 COM1: Communications between the WPP control system and the individual wind turbines, to
allow power dispatching.
 COM2: Communications between the grid operator and the WPP control system, to allow
power reductions for congestion management. This can be implemented in different time
frames.
 COM3: Communications between the onshore VSC-HVDC converter and the offshore VSC-
HVDC converter to allow active power regulation for frequency support.
 COM4: Communications between the grid operator and the onshore VSC-HVDC converter.
Electrical magnitudes as frequency can be used to modulate the information needed for the
coordination allowing devising a system without fast communications between VSC-HVDC and wind
turbines (COM3 would use this approach). Whenever the active power reference of the wind turbines
is to be modified it can be performed by means of communications from the central WPP controller
(COM2 and then COM1) or from the offshore VSC-HVDC converter by modifying appropriately the
offshore grid frequency (or just mirroring the onshore grid frequency on the offshore grid, COM3). Wind
turbine controls can be equivalent as for an onshore or HVAC connected wind turbine.
4.4.2 Protections Integration

The design of the protection scheme for the offshore WPP will take into account the low short-circuit
current of the offshore grid, related to power electronics nature of such a grid. Protections will be
designed and adjusted to avoid any damage to the equipment.
For HVAC transmission cables, circuit breakers are usually foreseen at both sides. Depending on the
length of the cable, they will be protected by cable differential protection and/or distance protection
relays.
The wind power plant transformers will be equipped with transformer differential protection relays.
The protection system of the cable collector network is based on overcurrent relays acting on circuit
breakers, which are installed at the MV-side of the wind power plant substation. Each of these string
protection relays will trip a complete string.
Sometimes, it can be found in literature that overcurrent protection will not work in conjunction with
HVDC rectifiers because the HVDC converters cannot deliver any currents above rated current.
However, it has to be considered that in the case of a fault on an MV-feeder, the complete current of
the HVDC converter will be redirected into the faulted feeder (as shown in Figure 4.10) and therefore,
the feeder current will increase by a factor, which is (about) equal to the number of feeders in parallel.
Because this number is usually in the range of 5 or 6, there will be sufficient selectivity margin for
overcurrent protection relays.
Additionally, when using wind turbine generators that are equipped with reactive current support, the
wind turbine generators connected to adjacent strings will also contribute to the total short circuit
current, assuming of course that they are in operation.
However, it has to be emphasized that a string-protection concept based on overcurrent relays

requires HVDC-converters which reliably deliver a current during faults in the wind power plant
collector network and, in particular, do not block in the case of low voltages in the off-shore grid.
Hence, it is essential that future grid codes for HVDC make it a mandatory requirement that off-shore
Page 40
HVDC converters can deliver a reactive current up to rated current in the case of low voltages, as it is
also required for wind turbine generators.
More information on protection aspects can be found in Chapter 6.
Figure 4.10: HVDC contribution to a short circuit on a feeder
4.5 Other issues

4.5.1 Resonance and Harmonics
Depending on the length of the off-shore HVAC cables and the parameters of the HVDC-transformers
and coupling inductance, parallel resonance in the frequency range of 100Hz to 1000Hz can occur. An
example impedance plot showing the resonance points can be seen in Figure 4.11. Such a resonance
can have the following consequence:
 Slowly decaying or even increasing over-voltages during the sudden energisation of a wind
power plant transformer (parallel resonance)
 High harmonic voltages because of harmonic current injections from the wind power plant
(parallel resonance)
 High harmonic voltages because of high amplification factors for harmonic voltages emissions
of the off-shore HVDC converter (parallel resonance).
Page 41
Figure 4.11: Network impedance at the off-shore connection point of a HVDC connected wind
power plant showing the impact of different cable lengths and transformer inductances
Offshore, if a resonance issue occurs, the wind farm will most likely trip due to the excessively high
voltages. For mitigating such problems, there are the following potential solutions:
 Soft energisation of the off-shore wind farms by ramping up the off-shore voltage with all
transformers connected
 Installation of high-pass or C-type filters on the off-shore platform
 Built-in filter function in the HVDC controllers for providing sufficient damping
Soft energisation is certainly the easiest way of avoiding inrush currents from the power transformers,
and therefore it avoids the harmonic distortions caused by the inrush currents in the offshore network.
However, it would require that all wind farm grid transformers connected to the same HVDC link would
always have to be energised simultaneously, which represents a considerable operational restriction.
With the help of high-pass or C-type filters, cable resonance problems can usually very well be
mitigated. However, these filters require lots of space and weight and therefore, any solution without
the necessity of additional filters would be preferable.
Hence, the implementation of an active damping function in the offshore HVDC-converter and/or
WTGs would certainly represent the most elegant option. However, such functionality is certainly not
standard at this stage and would require significant testing and tuning.
In the case of relatively short cable connections between the off-shore station and the wind power
plant substation resonance frequencies will be in a very high range making transformer energisation
resonance problems very unlikely.
Generally, as this section shows, resonance problems should be analysed already in relatively early
design stages as additional components may be required off-shore in the case that issues are
detected.
Page 42
4.5.2 Start Up-Shut Down Sequence

An example sequence for the VSC-HVDC system for offshore application is shown in Figure 4.12
(from Siemens North Sea projects).
If emergency stand-by power (e.g. from diesel generation) is being provided to the offshore platform
and/or turbines, this may have to be stopped to make the offshore island ‘dead’ unless the HVDC
manufacturer can synchronise at an appropriate point. Note, however, that if there are multiple
platforms then each may be operating as separate islands.
The onshore converter is firstly coupled to the main AC system. The next step is to allow the coupling
with the offshore converter DC system. Finally, the offshore AC system can be energized.
AC Sequence status: DC Sequence status:

EARTHED EARTHED
AC Sequence status: DC Sequence status:

STANDBY STOPPED
AC Sequence status: AC Sequence status: DC Sequence status:

ENERGIZED AC ENERGIZED DC STANDBY
AC Sequence status: DC Sequence status: DC Sequence status:

COUPLED COUPLED DECOUPLED
Onshore: Offshore:
DC Standby DC Standby Coupled DC Coupled DC Standby DC Standby Coupled DC Coupled

AC Energized AC AC Coupled AC Coupled AC Standby AC Energized DC AC Energized DC
Time
Figure 4.12: Start up/shut down sequence for the VSC-HVDC system for offshore application.
Courtesy of Siemens.
For the offshore wind power plant, once the VSC-HVDC rectifier is energizing the AC system, the
offshore substation can be energized sequentially. Once all the substations are energized, the wind
turbines can be sequentially connected.
For the system shut-down, the first step will be the wind turbines disconnection, followed by the
offshore substation disconnection. Once the offshore substation is de-energized, the offshore VSC-
HVDC can be stopped and finally the onshore VSC-HVDC can be shut down.
4.5.3 Controller Instability and Miscoordination

Controller instability may occur in cases, in which the impedance seen by the converters (HVDC or
wind turbines) has series resonance points in a frequency range in which the HVDC controller is
acting. In this case, very low impedances can lead to a high sensitivity of currents against voltage
changes and hence to controller instability. These issues can be analysed using frequency domain and
Page 43
time domain methods and the parameters of the HVDC controllers can be tuned for avoiding such
instability.
The fact that both wind turbine converters and HVDC converters are power electronics based systems,
requires appropriate control coordination for all the range of operation conditions.
Controller instability and miscoordination is further discussed in Cigré brochure B3.36.
Page 44
5 INTERCONNECTION REQUIREMENTS
The objective of the interconnection requirement is to ensure that the basic technical rules and
capability for connection to the Grid are defined clearly by specifying technical capability, design and
requirement criteria to achieve safe and secure operation of the power system.
In general terms, interconnection requirements are to provide transparent, non-discriminatory and fair
access to the transmission or distribution network. The need for an increased cooperation and
coordination among WTG and HVDC suppliers to design an optimum connection and to meet Network
operators’ requirements, with potential economic, operational and maintenance benefit is also an
overall objective.
All requirements discussed in the following sections are applicable at the point of connection, which
could apply at the offshore AC collector station or the onshore station, or both; this is illustrated in
Error! Reference source not found..
PPMs terminal AC Collector Station HVDC Offshore Platform Terminal AC Onshore Connection Point
Converter Station
To WTGs
Export
Cable
Substation Offshore Wind Farm 1
Substation Offshore Wind Farm 2 Converter Onshore AC Grid

String 1 Offshore
Transformer(s) Converter Converter Onshore
=
String 2
~ ~
=
Emergency
Power
Capacity:
-Minimum and Maximum;
- InstalledPlants;
- Permissable;
- Financial
OFFSHORE
ONSHORE
Wind Power Park Modules VSC HVDC
OWNERSHIP
Figure 5.1: Interface points located in Offshore and Onshore connected through an HVDC system
This chapter deals solely with offshore connections at sea and associated requirements. Note that this
may vary for WPPs installed on islanded synchronous systems connected through HVDC to a remote
mainland, or parallel connection with a mix of HVAC and HVDC.As far as the onshore station is
Page 45
concerned, it is expected that a full range of requirements will apply similarly to requirement for
generators or HVDC interconnector connecting two synchronous zones. Grid codes were originally
developed with synchronous generators in mind and for onshore application. Since WPPs and HVDC
do not have the same characteristics as synchronous generators, this chapter highlights exceptions or
additional requirements for equipment located offshore compared to requirement for DC or AC
connected onshore WPP. The focus is on the offshore WPP station and the remote end VSC HVDC
converter station.
5.1 Interface Connection Points

Clarity on the point of connection is necessary in order to design and supply compliant equipment. For
offshore WPP connected through HVDC, multiple points of connection could be depicted as:
 The Onshore connection point.

o Primary or secondary side of grid entry transformer;
o Remote-end circuit connected to the HVDC station.
 The Offshore connection point.

o AC Collector Station;
o Offshore converter station, the interface point can be either on the primary or secondary
side of the converter transformer depending on the regulatory authorities.
Figure 5.1 shows the different grid entry points connected with an HVDC system, this typically
includes:
 A WPP Module;
 An AC power station collector and apparatus located offshore to connect distributed WTGs;
 An offshore converter station;
 An HVDC link (i.e., submarine cable);
 An onshore inverter converter station;
 AC connection to the local system operator.
5.2 Plant Capacity

An important consideration is the minimum and maximum capacity that the new plant is feeding into
the AC transmission system. The size and name plate rating of each fundamental constituent part of
the VSC HVDC, AC collector and WPP Station including overload capability, if any. This forms an
important information that the TSOs require to design the terms and conditions of connection and
register the plant with licence to produce power.
This includes the technical data relating to the physical plant installed at the onshore and offshore site
including generator type (or WTG type), plant auxiliaries, converter stations and DC, AC collector
networks and AC cables. The connection agreement shall define the limit, on the amount of power that
a new user can exchange with the network on a sustained basis; this would form the contracted value.
It is worth noting that in the case of a VSC HVDC connection, it is anticipated that the offshore WPP
may be installed in multiple phases. WPP capacity would increase at different stages of the project
execution.
The different terms of capacities, seeing from the AC onshore connection points are illustrated in
Page 46
The maximum and minimum capacities are contractual terms that are the limit on the amount of power
that a generator or an HVDC site can exchange with the network. It can only change if a modification
to the connection agreement occurs. It is usually reviewed between the plant owner and the TSO after
compliance grid testing. These values are fixed although they depend on ambient conditions or
through the degradation/retrofitting of plant, correction curves are normally submitted as additional
information to take into account ambient condition. Minimum capacity is defined as the level of output
that a WPP or HVDC can sustain without compromising other requirements defined in the Grid code
such as frequency response, reactive power and voltage control.
Administrators of the connection agreements are notified if the power producers desire to change the
minimum or maximum capacity.
Technical data relating to the installed physical plant at a given site includes name plate rating of each
fundamental constituent part.
5.3 Offshore Transmission Ownership

In Europe, significant developments have taken place in terms of offshore transmission policies and
key drivers in the development of the European Internal Energy Market. In September 2007, the
European Commission made a series of proposals to further open up the gas and electricity markets
with the introduction of European Energy Packages. In July 2009 the Third Package for the internal EU
gas and electricity market was adopted by the European Parliament and the Council. One of the areas
covered by the Third Package is unbundling, which involves the separation of electricity generation
and/or supply from transmission activities. Three models were proposed as in full ownership
unbundling, Independent System Operator Model and Independent Transmission Operator model. In
broad terms, this means that an electricity transmission owner could no longer exercise control of an
electricity generation or supply company, and vice versa. Two countries in Europe have specifically
adopted different ownership model for offshore electricity transmission infrastructure, these are
discussed in the following paragraph. Ownership has implications on the requirement between the
WPP owner and the transmission company.
5.3.1 Great Britain

The British Government, the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem) and the Department of
Energy & Climate Change (DECC) introduced a new regulatory regime for offshore electricity
transmission to facilitate the connection of significant amounts of renewable offshore generation to the
onshore electricity network. These transmission assets are to be owned, operated, maintained by
regulated transmission companies through licensing, and known as Offshore Transmission Operators
(OFTOs). Each offshore WPP will have an associated OFTO. It is a requirement of EU Third Energy
Package that generators cannot be OFTOs (“unbundling”). For each wind farm the owner of the OFTO
is to be selected competitively. Ofgem screens bidders for financial, management, operational and
technical capability. Bidders that satisfy screening criteria will then submit the 20-year tariff they will
need to receive in order to undertake the OFTO role. This tariff is fixed and not subject to regulatory
reviews. For each WPP (or phase of a larger development) Ofgem will award one OFTO licence. The
relationship between the Transmission System Owners and National Grid as the National Electricity
Transmission System Operator (NETSO) is defined in the System Operator-Transmission Owner Code
(STC).
Generators have a choice of constructing the transmission assets themselves (“generator build”) or to
opt for an Offshore Transmission Owner (OFTO) to do so (“OFTO build”). If they construct the assets
Page 47
themselves, then the WPP-HVDC must transfer the assets to an OFTO post-construction and
installation.
Figure 5.2 illustrates the ownership regime for the Great Britain market. Important interface points and
the requirements that apply are briefly described.
Offshore Grid
Entry Point
Offshore
Offshore Power Park Module A
Transmission System
Substation Offshore Power Park Converter Station
Modul A [OFTO]
To WTGs
Export
Cable
Interface Point 1
Substation Offshore Power Park AC Grid

String 1 Modul B
Converter Offshore Onshore
=
String 2
~ ~
=
Offshore Power Park Module B
Emergency
Onshore
Power
Transmission
OFFSHORE System [NGET]
ONSHORE Ownership of
NGET
Ownership of Ownership of
Generator OFTO
Figure 5.2: Ownership Interface points in Great Britain
 Offshore Grid Entry Point

This is the point where the offshore power park module connects to the offshore transmission system.
This is an ownership boundary.
 Offshore Transmission System (OFTO)

This can be built by the WPP or the OFTO but must be owned and operated by the OFTO post
construction. It can either be an AC or DC transmission system.
 Interface Point
This is the point at which the offshore transmission system connects to the onshore transmission
system and this is an ownership and control boundary. It is at this point that all the onshore grid code
requirements apply.
Page 48
It must not be forgotten that ownership boundaries are determined by the relevant transmission
licensees and/or distribution licensees. National Electricity Transmission System Security and Quality
of Supply Standard (SQSS) defines the interface point depending on ownership of the first onshore
substation. HV busbars, if the first onshore substation is owned by the offshore transmission owner or
LV busbar if the onshore substation is owned by the onshore transmission owner, this is shown in
5.3.2 Germany
In December 2006, a German law was put in place to facilitate the planning process for infrastructure
projects and supports the delivery of significant volumes of offshore generation in the North and Baltic
seas (see paragraph 17 section 2.a of Energy Industry Act). The German model requires the
transmission system operator (TSO) to plan, specify, construct and operate the offshore cables from
the grid connection system to the grid connection point (GCP), which is the cable sealing end of the
export cable. Note that the reactors are property of the TSO, but installed on the platform of the
developer.
Consequently, GCP represents the ownership boundary between the connectee’s facility and that of
the TSO as seen in Figure 5.3. It is worth noting that the law is silent about the converter stations;
however the definition of the Grid connection system includes the provision for partial DC transmission
or a direct AC connection.
Page 49
POC [Grid
Connection
Point]
WPP 1 HVDC Transmission

Ownership of WPP Connectee X Grid Connection System System [TSO]
Substation Offshore Wind Farm 1 Converter Station
To WTGs
Export
Cable
PCC [Grid Coupling Point]
Substation Offshore Wind Farm 2 Converter Offshore Onshore AC Grid

String 1
=
String 2
~ ~
=
Emergency
Power
OFFSHORE
ONSHORE
WPP 2
Ownership of Connectee Y
Ownership of Ownership of
Connectees TSO
Figure 5.3: Ownership Interface points in Germany
5.4 Voltage and Reactive Power

Reactive power regulation and voltage management in the electrical network is vital in order to ensure
adequate active power transmission. Reactive power regulation is more localized than active power
regulation, with a number of different measures available such as voltage regulators and reactive
power compensation devices. The requirements for reactive power control, as defined by the TSO, are
typically either a power factor range or a reactive power output dependent on active power generation.
Usually, it is a requirement that the standard operating voltage range should be specified by the
relevant system operator. The requirements for reactive power and voltage control may depend on
where the WPP is connected to the network. When the connection point is located at a weak network
point, then more stringent requirements could be implemented.
WPPs connected to the transmission network via VSC HVDC connection could offer a large range of
reactive power control options. The reactive power capability of a VSC HVDC is independently
controlled at both sides of the DC link; the impact on one side does not propagate on the AC network
connected at the remote end. This could make reactive power and voltage control requirements for
offshore and onshore independent and different. For Grid Code reactive power requirements, the VSC
Page 50
HVDC connected WPP has the capability to quickly control the reactive power interaction with the
transmission system. Fast control within its wide operational range is feasible. The DC link and the
filter switching are utilized to control the net reactive power exchange and converter HV bus voltage.
Similarly at the offshore converter station, the same inherent capabilities are available, thus when
applied at the off-shore connection point this may reduce, or eliminate the reactive power requirements
on the WPP. This is however subject to national laws or network codes, as it is a common requirement
for generators to provide lagging and leading power factor range.
The minimum requirement for the offshore interconnection is to sufficiently compensate the total
charging of the WPP collector medium-voltage AC (MVAC) cable network and the HVAC cable
between the AC collector network and the VSC HVDC offshore converter platform. The charging of AC
cables should not cause the offshore voltage network to be outside the allowable voltage range. The
choice of circuit breakers and cables, type and number, are directly impacted by permissible voltage
and reactive power exchange.
WPP and HVDC Converter are connected through a cable system at the substation offshore.
Therefore, a careful design of reactive compensation of the cable system has to be developed
considering factors such as the best location for reactive compensation, and if it needs to be controlled
or not. For instance, a 200 km 3-core 33kV WPP collector MVAC undersea cable systems and a 1 GW
WPP (200 WTGs), shunt compensation requirement could be around 20 MVar1 at no load. AC power
from the 200 WTGs will run to an AC platform from which HVAC submarine cables will deliver the
power to an HVDC offshore Converter. Assuming a distance of 2 km between the two platforms and
six parallel 150 kV three-core HVAC submarine cables to deliver 1 GW power. The shunt
compensation requirement in either ends could be around 10 MVar2 at no load.
This requirement could be either placed on the VSC HVDC offshore converter, the AC collector
platform or at the WTG level. The compensating device could be controllable and coordinated with the
connection of the WTG. The operation of the compensation installation may have relaxed measures
for the limitation of harmonic voltages and other EMF requirement. This requirement is less onerous
than the reactive power requirement for the onshore VSC HVDC inverter. The cost implication of such
requirement may be important, in particular, the implication on WTG design, weight, space and
number of bays requirement on the offshore platforms must be carefully evaluated. Imposing the same
requirement, as AC onshore reactive power before they are justified, could make the connection
uneconomical and prevent integration of renewable energy.
5.5 Active Power and Frequency Control

Real time changes in generation, consumption, or following contingencies will trigger active power
imbalances, which require appropriate control measures to restore the equilibrium point. For WPPs,
the requirements are stated in different network codes, national laws and are listed by network
operators. The purpose of the requirements related to active power control is to ensure stable system
frequency, and to prevent overloads in transmission lines.
The most relevant requirements are related to the active power control, power ramp rate control,
primary and secondary reserves, production set point changes, and start-up and shut-down of units,
etc. For example, in the Eirgrid Grid code, the active power set point, as a percentage of available
1
3 core XLPE-insulated cables with PE sheath and armour cross section 400 mm2, nominal phase capacitance 0.276 uF/km.
23 core XLPE-insulated cables with lead sheath and armour cross section 1000 mm2, nominal phase capacitance 0.23 uF/km.
Page 51
power, could be changeable from 15-100%, with a ramp rate from 1-100% of rated WTG capacity per
minute.
The required offshore frequency control during onshore over-frequencies can be achieved by active
power control of the WTGs (i.e., converter and pitch control of the turbine blades), or through shutting
down a portion of the WPP. To provide onshore frequency control during under-frequency events, a
possible approach is to intentionally operate the WPP at reduced power level to provide reserve and
assist the system frequency according to a governor droop and automatic generation control (AGC) by
adjusting the WPP active power set point.
As the number of WPP is increasing, it could be beneficial to consider their control capabilities when
planning and developing requirements and system services. In that case, the power plant controller
should be developed to enable an external control input signal to change the plant output power as
needed. Moreover, the automatic frequency control and power oscillation damping control functions
may also be implemented depending on the system and its control characteristics.
Active power control and frequency response are also requirements that are mandatory for VSC
HVDC connected WPP. Frequency response using a DC connected WPP may require a
telecommunications link between the onshore AC network and the offshore WPP. Examples of active
power control and frequency response control and concept are given in chapter 4 section 4.3.2.
5.6 Protection and Fault Ride Through

Fault Ride Through requirements were initially developed as a mechanism for improving system
stability. It was a standard developed in grid codes worldwide describing the minimum functional
capabilities of generators during voltage disturbances. In the past, WTGs would disconnect from the
grid during low voltage excursions, however, with larger system penetration of wind generation and
without a specified requirement, this would lead to adverse loss of a large portion of generation. As a
result, a requirement to stay connected when the voltage at the point of connection dropped to a
prescribed low voltage was developed.
Island of Ireland
3 phase fault at Tarbert
220 kV substation Scotland
3 phase fault at Walpole
400 kV substation
Fault Location 0 % Volts
0 ‐ 15 % Volts
15 ‐ 30 % Volts
30 ‐ 40 % Volts
40 ‐ 50 % Volts
50 ‐ 60 % Volts
60 ‐ 70 % Volts
70 ‐ 80 % Volts
80 ‐ 90 % Volts
France
Page 52
Figure 5.4: Widespread voltage dips from a fault at a single location in Ireland and Great Britain. 3
Figure 5.4, above, shows the impact on network voltage under fault conditions at particular locations
in Ireland (see left figure) and Great Britain (on the right side). The colour code indicates areas in
which the voltage has fallen between 0% and 90% below nominal nominal voltage due to the fault.
These maps show how widespread the voltage dip can be from a fault at a single location. The low
voltage area could have been made wider by taking minimum generation conditions in the area and
more onerous outages. This would have worsened the impact of transmission fault.
The widespread voltage dips on the maps show the importance of not associating geographical
distance with electrical distance, thus it can be expected that any items of plant, generation or load,
within the coloured areas could be disconnected if these items do not have the necessary capabilities
to withstand the expected voltage drop for a certain duration. This is of a great concern to transmission
system operators. If windfarms or other generation units are unable to withstand voltage drops for a
limited time, they will disconnect from the system. This may cause a cascading voltage and frequency
instability, resulting in the need for load shedding or other actions. Fault Ride Through requirements for
WTG were then added to Grid codes from as early as 2000.
During these low voltage disturbances, individual generators are subjected to additional stresses which
often results in this requirement being the most difficult in terms of compliance. These stresses may be
such that internal protections are activated to prevent stresses that may damage the WTG.
The above is the case for an AC connected WPP, where a nearby fault on the AC grid will penetrate to
the point of connection of the WPP. For turbine technologies with an electrical coupling between the
stator and the grid (e.g., DFIG), this propagation will impose additional mechanical stresses on the
WTG. For the case of a VSC HVDC connected WPP or type four WTG, the mechanical stresses will
be reduced somewhat as the WTG is isolated from the main grid by its internal DC link. In addition,
there are benefits in relation to the DC converter contributing reactive power to the transmission
system during fault conditions.
Responses to system disturbances from WPP connected through VSC HVDC are mainly determined
by control function and the characteristic of the power electronic converter. HVDC converters have
unique characteristics and provide different signature plot of fault current than conventional
synchronous generators. For islanded synchronous systems, such as in Ireland and UK, active current
is given priority during voltage dips whereas for larger system, reactive current is prioritized to maintain
local voltage reducing the propagation of the voltage dip and enhancing transient stability. With HVDC
converters, control flexibility is available to provide either contribution. Typically, interconnection
studies could determine the appropriate post disturbance recovery performance with the system.
A large AC voltage dip at the grid connection point of the DC link will result in a significant reduction in
the active power delivered to the onshore AC system. This will result in a transient DC overvoltage and
excess energy at the DC side of the DC link, which can be dissipated by a DC chopper in order to
reduce the stresses on the WTG and sustain a constant power output from the WTGs. During the fault,
the DC chopper is activated. Once the DC chopper is activated, it will limit the DC voltage, thus
allowing the WTG to continue generation until the fault is cleared and full active power transmission is
3
"Diagram reproduced with the kind permission of EirGrid and National Grid - Copyright National Grid 2013. This diagram may not be reproduced in
any material form (including photocopying and restoring in any medium or electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally) without
the written permission of EirGrid or National Grid except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patent Acts 1988"
Page 53
re-established to the grid. Some manufacturers choose to install the DC chopper near, or at, the
onshore converter station in accordance with space requirements.
In relation to an offshore fault ride through capability, many requirements acknowledge that for a
voltage disturbance on the onshore transmission system, an offshore generator connected via a DC
link may not see the same, or indeed a smaller voltage deviation at the offshore point of connection, as
the same generator connected via an AC link. However, there is still validity in imposing a fault ride
through standard. This is largely due to the fact that the HVDC will play a key role in the offshore grid
voltages. All electrical transients’ rises or dips are to be considered during such events. Another aspect
is for faults occurring on the offshore MV or HV cables, it is expected that some of the offshore system
can be recovered. VSC HVDC and WPP Fault Ride Through requirements should be based on the
load reduction seen by the WPP, as a result of the DC link being unable to transfer full power to the
onshore system during onshore fault conditions, and based on the offshore system voltage recovery,
for offshore AC faults FRT requirements could apply at WTG terminal, WPP connection point, or
interface connection point as defined in section 6.1.
5.7 Power Quality

Power quality issues can pose difficult challenges for system operators as the effect can be
widespread and cumulative. These include phenomena such as interference with telecommunication,
flicker, power electronic converter inducing harmonics or connections with HVAC underground cable
shifting the natural resonant frequency of the power system to the lower end and amplifying
backgrounds harmonics. Interconnection requirements to address power quality concerns are
therefore needed. The harmonic performance should be assessed before connection between the
converter station, the collector network and the WPP. For most network operators, VSC-HVDC linked
with WPP modules is deemed as a complex connection and more detailed studies are required, see
chapter 6 for further information on studies including impedance frequency scan, harmonic load flow
and EMT analysis to be undertaken for such complex interconnection studies.
Protection systems based on power quality measurement could be required on project specific
demand in some countries. Power quality can continuously be monitored and when limits are
exceeded, the owner and network operator are informed to take countermeasures. In general, grid
operators and developers’ requirements refer to existing standards and guidelines when requesting
power quality assessments as part of the due diligence to obtain a grid connection. Most referred
standards and guidelines are given in section 5.12.
References [1] and [2] were written for general purposes and are not specific for WPPs, whereas [3] is
specific for WTGs. All have in common assessment methods to estimate distortion levels. These
methods are generally recognized as being conservative by experienced grid operators since it is
expected that the new plant is in compliance for all system condition and future proofed for all future
network possibilities, encompassing all possible equivalent R and X values and background
harmonics.
Waveform distortions caused by WTGs are fairly low. According to field experience, it is very unusual
to find cases of WPPs presenting harmonics problems due to harmonic current injection. The dominant
harmonic issues are typically due to resonance conditions where amplification of background
harmonics (either in the grid background or during energization events) can occur due to the export
and/or array cable networks (The distortion energy created by the WTGs are quite low but the
cumulative effect and their interaction with the electrical network is to be assessed on a case by case
basis.
Page 54
The collector system and the WTG transformers absorb an important portion of the WTG generated
distortion. Not considering these key elements in assessment studies results in very pessimistic
distortion estimations at the Point Of Interconnection (POI). A realistic analytical distortion assessment
should include proper modelling of the WTGs and grid conditions which determine the resonance
cases. Such assessment can be used to design or verify suitable Balance of Plant (BoP) or adapt
existing designs to mitigate distortion problems.
The existing guidelines are restrictive and should be followed with caution. Example of standards can
be found in [1] to [5]
5.8 Signal/Communication/Control Points

Adequate information exchange between network operators, the HVDC link and WPP is a prerequisite
for network operators to maintain system stability and security. Network operators continuously need
to have an update on the state of the system, including operating conditions of WPP and the HVDC
link.
Users connecting to the onshore, or offshore, networks are responsible for providing signals for
monitoring the state of the plant, as well as the possibility of communicating with them in order that
operational instructions can be issued through control set-points. The signal lists are specified in terms
of type, band-width and communication links and protocol. These include both signalling requirements
such as meteorological, availability data and settings for Power set points, Ramp Rates, Frequency
Response and Voltage Control. A series of standards are developed to allow application software from
different vendors to exchange information about the configuration and status of an electrical network.
5.9 Model and Data Provision

Simulating the Power System behaviour in relation to system stability and security of supply is
necessary to assess any adverse effect on the overall system and existing users. The model is
simulated in specialised software by mathematical representation of the behaviour of the HVDC
connection and the offshore WPP. All the relevant components, data and associated parameters of the
Grid connection system shall be modelled to assess the impact and demonstrate compliance with
interconnection requirement and system stability. These simulations are performed regularly by
network operators and manufacturers. The requirements of such models depend on the phenomena to
be analysed. The models can vary from simple standard models (e.g., generic steady-state) to more
sophisticated (e.g., dynamic, electrical transient) models depending on the range of studies performed,
and the software utilised by the TSO.
The responsibility to provide validated models, associated documentation, user guide, data and
parameters is on the developers’ side, whereas the responsibility to provide information on the Grid
and methodology to assess compliance is on the system operator. The following table summarises the
typical data provision between the two parties: This is described further in Chapter 6.
Table 5.1 gives an example of data and models required before connection. The HVDC, WPP
developers exchange information with network operators. On the left side, are the data to be provided
by the network operator to the developer. On the right side, are the information prepared by the
developer for submission to the network operator.
Data and document provided by Network Studies, data and document provided by
Operators the developers or manufacturers, via the
Page 55
developers
Grid Codes, Contracts Main circuit parameters and single diagram
Network nodes and voltages Control system block diagram
Minimum and Maximum Short Circuit Static, dynamic Models and for special
Current cases (EMT)
Network equivalent seen at the POI Compliance and validation through

measurement reports. High resolution
recorder data.
Power quality measurement, frequency Harmonic reports

scans, Grid impedance envelopes
Table 5.1: Data and Models Requirement, division of responsibilities by network operators and
developers
5.10 Commissioning, Compliance Testing and Operational

Sequence
The purpose of commissioning and compliance testing is to ensure that current technical standards
and contracts are being achieved through a number of tests and set of criteria, this section outlines
current experience in relation to offshore WPP power plant. This is critical to ensure safe and secure
operation of the new plant.
For commissioning of an offshore converter station there are two important differences compared to
commissioning of a station onshore. The offshore station is placed on a platform out in the sea and
there is no AC network available offshore when starting, (i.e., it requires black start capability). The
offshore station on the platform has limited access and also has additional auxiliary systems needed
for handling the platform, such as cooling system, fire detection/suppression systems, air conditioning
system, material handling system, telecommunication system, aviation/navigation aid and living
quarter facilities. All these systems are typically fed by an Auxiliary Diesel Generator before the
offshore HVDC converter is started.
Due to the special conditions on the platform specific requirements and regulations on health, safety
and environment have to be followed. The test and commissioning of the offshore converter station
includes inspection during civil works, test equipment, pre-installation and installation verification,
subsystem tests, operational system tests and system acceptance test.
For each stage of the commissioning there are specific test procedures for each kind of
equipment/system. It is most important that as many as possible of these tests and verifications are
performed before delivering the equipment to the platform. Modularization of equipment for offshore
platform can provide advantages to the overall project.
To reach high levels of reliability, automation is commonly used in such power plants, the start-up and
shutdown sequence is an added complexity and could require a power plant control system to control
and supervise the HVDC system and the WPP. During start-up different operational concepts could be
foreseen, those using the energy provided by the HV grid across the HVDC system to start-up the
auxiliaries and those using energy from independent or local supply.
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Generally, there are not many grid code requirements specified for the start-up or shutdown of the
power plant, which could lead to different implementation.
The offshore converter station is normally energized from shore as a black start. The start-up
sequence requires a diesel generator on the platform to give power to all auxiliary systems and to
power the control and protection system of the converter until the converter is in operation, build-up of
DC voltage from the onshore station, start generation of an AC voltage in the converter before the
subsequent connection of AC cables to the AC collector network and the auxiliary power to the entire
platform. For further details, see section 4.5.2
5.11 Grid Codes Examples

Relative to synchronous conventional generation, there is still little operational experience in relation to
large penetrations of non-synchronous generators at sea connected by HVDC. As a result, there is a
recognized need to develop Grid Code requirements specific to wind generators that will allow for a
continued increase in wind generator penetration without compromising power system security.
In general, Grid Codes have been developed independently, with each jurisdiction having different
technical concerns depending on their specific system requirements. This leads to internationally
varied requirements for WPP. However, most have evolved with similarly structured requirements with
the distinction between codes being evident in the actual figures, values and definitions. These
common structures, which are specific to the technical requirements of WPPs, can often be
categorised as follows; this list is non-exhaustive but rather typical:
1. Operational Ranges for Voltage and Frequency

2. Voltage Regulation and Reactive Power Capabilities
3. Active Power Control and Frequency Response
4. Performance during and after disturbance (Fault Ride Through and Protection)
5. Grid connection capacity
6. Short Circuit Power
7. Earthing and Neutral point treatment
8. Insulation Coordination
9. Power Quality (Harmonic and Flicker)
10. Signal/Communication/Control Points
11. Continuous monitoring and compliance
12. Information and Data Provision
13. Power System Restoration
At present, most TSOs have yet to modify their respective Grid Codes in order to consider the various
possible connection types associated with offshore generation. The requirements are therefore
generally universal or cover a large connection type or location without distinguishing between offshore
or onshore.
The variation in possible configurations for the connection of offshore generation will create further
complexities for Grid Code issuers since the utilization of different technologies may necessitate a set
of different requirements. This reinforces the need to develop a common structure for which grid code
issuers will use to establish an appropriate standard for offshore grid connections.
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5.11.1 Germany – TenneT TSO GmbH [6]

Germany has developed specifically a Grid code for offshore generation, however this code doesn’t
segregate between AC connected or DC connected WPP. It is important to note that some Offshore
Grid requirements are different from WPP onshore connected.
Tennet TSO requires a different voltage level for the offshore transmission substation, compared to the
nominal values for onshore transmission systems, different reactive power requirement compared to
onshore and different frequency limit withstand capability. Note that setting a reactive power
requirement dependent on the voltage level is a specification by German transmission system
operators. The nominal offshore operating voltage is V=155kV with the requirement on the WPP to
stay connected within a voltage band of +/- 10%.
The characteristics of a generating plant during faults in the grid are also slightly different for offshore
applications. Both, the onshore and offshore grid codes require a reactive current injection to mitigate
voltage deviations. A voltage dead band of +/- 10% around the zero crossing of ∆V is defined in the
onshore grid code. This dead band serves to ensure that the generating plant is not operating in
voltage support mode in steady state, but rather operates with constant power factor or any other
reactive power characteristic.
5.11.2 Great Britain - National Grid Electricity Transmission plc. (National Grid) [7]
National Grid Code contains explicit technical conditions in relation to offshore DC converter and the
connection of offshore generation via HVDC interconnection.
Offshore WTGs connected by DC link have a choice in regards to fault ride through. The offshore WPP
can comply with a generic fault ride through requirement based on voltage dip duration characteristic
applied at LV side of the offshore platform (33 kV). Alternatively, comply with the existing onshore
requirements that are based on a close-up fault for a total fault clearance time of 140 ms. In the latter
case, the duration of zero voltage is dependent on local protection and circuit breaker operating times.
This duration and the fault clearance times are specified by Bilateral Agreement and Grid code
CC.6.3.15.
The Grid Code imposes similar frequency response requirements of onshore generators to offshore
generators. In addition, due to the decoupling effects of DC links, there is an obligation on the HVDC
connected Offshore Transmission System to make appropriate provisions to enable offshore
generators to fulfil the frequency response requirements of the onshore AC system.
In the case of offshore WPPs, the offshore transmission owner is to provide continuously some sort of
visibility of the onshore system frequency to enable WPPs to satisfy frequency response requirements.
In the case of offshore, WPP and HVDC must be capable to maintain zero transfer of reactive power at
the Offshore Grid Entry Point for all generators with an Offshore Grid Entry Point at the LV Side of the
Offshore Platform at all Active Power output levels under steady state voltage conditions, Grid code
CC.6.3.2. The offshore DC converter reactive capability is specified in a bilateral agreement between
the WPPs, the offshore transmission licensee and GB Grid operator.
5.11.3 European Network Transmission System Operator for Electricity: ENTSO-e,

Network Code
At present, ENTSO-E (European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity) is
responsible for developing a number of European Network Codes, under the third energy package,
which is divided into three categories; markets, system development and system operation. This is a
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major step in the move towards a legally binding requirement for each member state in Europe. The
purpose of developing network codes is to provide transparent access to transmission networks across
Europe; while taking full advantage of harmonising requirements. This is to facilitate targets of the
European Union on renewable energy sources and distributed generation penetration, as well as
technology innovation and market integration, while ensuring security of supply.
The network code governing the requirements for generators, known as the “Network code for
requirements for grid connection applicable to all generators” [8] in its first public version included
HVDC and DC connected offshore WPP. Following stakeholder consultation, HVDC connected
offshore WPP were removed from the scope of this code. The rationale was that the DC connected
WPP were at a too early stage of technology development and a code for HVDC systems was planned
at later date enabling the formulation of more appropriate requirements with opportunities for
optimisation and synergies with HVDC capabilities. Requirement for Generator deals solely with
synchronous and non-synchronous (WPPs) AC connected to the grid from 800 Watts up, onshore or
offshore DSO and TSO connected.
Chapter 3 of the HVDC network code [9] deals specifically with WPPs that are DC connected via an
HVDC circuit. It is clear that most of this chapter covers the offshore area since HVDC is probably
more feasible for long distance undersea connection.
Most of requirements are comparable to articles of Reference [8] in terms of functionality but can differ
on parameters or characteristic, such as voltage and frequency withstand capability ranges.
It should be noted that the European network code focuses on requirements applicable on the AC
side of the connection point and leaving meshed DC grid requirements and DC point of connection out
of its scope.
WPPs interconnected to the mainland grid through one DC connection have the choice to enter on a
bilateral agreement for reactive power capability. Additionally, there are also provisions for non-50Hz
DC connected application.
At the time of writing this technical brochure, the HVDC connection code was with the European
Commission. The European commission and parliament will make this code binding in law and each
member state is to implement the requirements at national level. Some changes could be foreseen
before the final version of this code.
5.11.4 Offshore Requirements Summary and Recommendation

At the moment, the increasing number of planned offshore connections in Europe and especially
Northern Europe has led to the development of specific offshore requirements. These requirements
often outline a number of deviations and amendments to the Grid Code in regards to the grid
connection of offshore WPP. These extra requirements may include a supplementary operating
nominal voltage, enlarged frequency operational ranges specific power factor/voltage dependency,
and different reactive power requirements during fault conditions.
The VSC connection of an offshore WPP provides a number of grid code compliance advantages
when compared with an AC connection. The decoupling between the onshore transmission system
and the WPP is the key benefit. This brings about advantages in terms of WTG fault ride through
capability and reactive power requirements at the point of connection.
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In terms of voltage fault ride through, a VSC HVDC link can operate through essentially any onshore
AC fault and quickly restore the active and reactive power values to pre-fault values. However, a
voltage dip at the connection point of the DC link will create a corresponding drop in the transmission
capability of the link. This is effectively a load rejection scenario for the WPP and such a fast reduction
in the transmitted power would trigger a significant rise in the WPP bus voltage. The common solution
to such a problem is the inclusion of a DC chopper in the DC system. The DC chopper dissipates the
surplus active power at the WPP. This leaves the WPP largely unaffected during an onshore AC
system fault reducing the possible mechanical stresses on technologies that have an electrical
coupling between the WTG stator and the offshore grid. However, there is still validity in imposing an
offshore fault ride through standard, for offshore AC faults. In this case, WTG active power restoration
is to be provided as quickly as the WTG technology allows it..
Grid codes are key documents for providing clear direction with regards to designing HVDC and WPP
in order to integrate them satisfactory in an existing network. CIGRE through WGB4.56 [10] provides
information required by anyone providing new equipment for an existing HVDC Grid in order that his
terminal will integrate satisfactorily and without any negative impact on the overall system
performance.
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5.12 References
[1] IEEE Std 519-1992, “Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electric Power Systems” April 12, 1993.
[2] IEC 61400-21 Ed. 2.0, “Measurement and assessment of power quality characteristics of grid
connected WTGs” . Ed. 2.0, August, 2008.
[3] BDEW June 2008, “Generating Plants Connected to the Medium-Voltage Network”. BDEW
Technical Guideline, June, 2008.
[4] Assessment of emission limits for the connection of distorting installations to MV, HV and EHV
power systems, IEC Standard 61000-3-6, Ed. 2.0, February, 2008.
[5] Engineering Recommendation G5/4, February 2001
[6] Tennet T TSO. GmbH
 “Requirements for Offshore Grid Connections in the Grid of Tennet GmbH TSO”,21 December
2012.
 “Technical Specification of procedures, interfaces and technical requirements for offshore wind
farm grid connections”, 20 October 2011.
[7] N. G. E. T. plc,
 “The Grid Code Issue 5 Revision 6,” December 2013.
 “National Electricity Transmission System Security and Quality of Supply Standard”, 2012
[8] ENTSO-E, “Network Code on Connection Requirements applicable to all Generators”, March
2013
[9] ENTSO-E “Network Code on High Voltage Direct Current Connections and DC-connected Power
Park Modules”, issued in April 2014
[10] B4-56 Guidelines for Preparation of Connection Agreements or Grid Codes for HVDC Grids
Page 61
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6 STUDY REQUIREMENTS, DATA, MODELING, AND RECOMMENDED

SIMULATIONS
6.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the spectrum of studies recommended during the planning and design phases
of the VSC HVDC connected offshore WPPs, including analyses required to fulfil the grid code
requirements.
In CIGRE TB 563 studies needed to be performed during the HVDC system lifecycle [4] are described,
however, primarily focus is on LCC HVDC systems. This TB focuses on the special application using
the VSC HVDC for connection of offshore WPPS. It is important to have validated models of the
components especially the active controlled parts such as WTG and VSC HVDC.
The focus of this chapter is to describe the purpose of each study in order to understand their impact
on the overall system design.
6.2 Steady State Calculations

In this chapter “steady state calculation” means a calculation which can be made by "simple" load flow
calculation where everything is assumed to be in steady state and constant. This means that all
controllers outputs and parameters in the WPP, offshore power grid, HVDC system and onshore
power grid have reached their final values.
The purpose of making this steady state calculation is to determine the current flows and voltage
profile accross the entire power grid as well as in the individual components, e.g., HVDC converters,
WTGs, transformers, cables and busbars, etc. This is one of first steps that is utilized to verify
fulfilment of the relevant standard, grid code and design requirement for each element and the total
system in general.
These calculations will have to be done several times during the conceptual design stage until the
detailed design and full range of feasiable operating conditions are finalised, as the choice of voltage
and current levels for each component will be based on these calculations.
Hereafter a range of studies to be made in order to show compliances with the relevant grid codes and
standards are listed.
6.2.1 Steady State Power Flow

The reason for making load flow studies is to calculate active and reactive power flow, current and
voltage distribution in the entire offshore power grid and onshore power grid until the onshore
connection point and to make sure the operating point of each device is within its steady state
operating range. Furthermore the electric losses in the power grid should be calculated based on
possible operating points.
The following boundary conditions are assumed to be known before the calculation can be made. This
is a non-exhaustive list.
1. The relevant standard, grid code and project design requirements

2. Steady state active and reactive power range and ratings of the WTGs and HVDC
3. Position and number of WTGs
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4. Offshore and onshore substation location, including HVDC converter stations

5. Voltage level and voltage limits (both AC and DC voltages)
6. Steady state control strategy
7. Additional equipment
All above points will go through an iterative process during the different stages for the project.
However, they will form a basis for the selection of the right components and elements for the VSC
HVDC connected WPP, such as operation range of the HVDC system, number of transformers,
current and voltage rating of busbars, cables, transformer, etc. Furthermore, this study shall indicate if
extra reactive power compensation devices are required to meet steady state performance
requirements. Having established the operational limitations of the individual components, it is feasible
to design the integrated system to meet all load flow related grid code requirements, standards and
meet project design criteria. In addition, it is also possible to calculate the electric losses and the
reliabilitiy and availability aspects of the project.
Data needed for power flow studies:
i. Standard load flow parameters for AC-cables, transformers etc.

ii. Voltage dependent PQ capability for the WTGs
iii.Voltage dependent PQ capability for the HVDC converter both offshore and onshore
iv. Load flow parameters for the DC cables
v. Control mode information (frequency, voltage, active and reactive power) for the HVDC
converter
vi. Control mode information (frequency, voltage, active and reactive power) for the WTGs
Study Objective:
a. To achieve reactive power management and identify needs for additional reactive power
compensation, according to the requirements
b. To determine loading and voltage profile of the offshore and onshore grids for entire operating
range of voltage and power generated
c. To ensure grid code compliance
d. To calculate electric losses
6.2.2 Short Circuit Calculation

In addition to the steady state load flow described above short circuit calculations must also be
considered in order to assure right short circuit withstand levels, design the protection scheme etc.
Short circuit calculations are more difficult to perform than the load flow calculation, particularly for the
offshore power grid, since the HVDC system and in general all converters are able to control to a
certain extent the short circuit contribution during faults.
The short circuit current contribution for converter technologies (both DFIG and FSC WTGs) is not
sufficiently represented in any standard dealing with short circuit calculation such as IEC, VDE, ANSI
standards, etc. These standards are normally based on synchronous generator technology and the
calculation of the ac component of the short-circuit current at fixed time instants. For example defining
the peak short circuit current (Ip), initial symmetrical short circuit current (RMS) (Ik”), transient
symmetrical short circuit current (RMS) (Ik'). Usually, the rest of the network is considered linear, (e.g.,
the short circuit impedance of a transformer is constant and independent of the voltage drop during the
fault). These models can be used for the protection design, determining the peak short circuit current
and the thermal rating.
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The HVDC system and WTGs with converters are able to control the short circuit current during faults.
This means that the short circuit current contribution during the fault from the HVDC system can be
best defined by the converter manufacturer. In general, the main limitations of the HVDC system
current contributions (i.e. the converter) are the overvoltage and overcurrent limitations of the
converter IGBTs and the speed response of the associated control loops. However, the zero
sequence contribution for the converter transformer is governed by the transformer connection and its
impedance(s), and not by the IGBTs.
An example of short circuit contribution from a converter can be provision of additional reactive current
proportional to the voltage drop as shown below in figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Example of short circuit contribution from a converter
As shown in Figure 6.1 above, the short circuit contribution from the converter is strongly dependent
on the voltage level during the fault. The total reactive current from the converter is the sum of pre fault
reactive current and additional reactive current during the fault. This means that the converter model
should have capability to demonstrate this feature in simulations.
Short circuit calculation at the DC side of the converters would be difficult without very detailed
information of the converters. These calculations are normally made by the converter manufactures.
Data needed for balanced and unbalanced ac fault studies:
i. Time and voltage dependent short circuit contribution from the HVDC at the AC sides of the
converters
ii. Time and voltage dependent short circuit contribution for the WTG
iii. Time and voltage dependent short circuit contribution for the other power electronic equipment
if relevant
iv. Standard short circuit data for the other elements of the offshore power grid
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v. Standard short circuit data for the grid connection point onshore
Study objective:
Short circuit studies must include the onshore power grid along with the special short circuit in feed
behaviour of the HVDC converter and WTGs converter.
The studies can include short circuit calculations needed to design the protection of the offshore and
onshore power systems, and to determine the needed rating of each element in the power system e.g.
switchgear, busbar etc.
6.3 Quasi Steady-state Load Flow Models (Long Term Stability)

In this TB, the quasi steady-state load flow calculations are defined as a series of load flows which are
used to investigate the slow (time constant longer than 100ms to more than hours) response of the
power grid over time. The basic idea is to consider the dynamics of some elements and disregard the
dynamics of the remaining power system (i.e., solve load flows with respect to the time constants in
the power system). The simulated time for the long term stability can be from minutes to years. The
quasi steady-state load flow method is well-known [1],[2].
A range of quasi steady-state studies are made by the manufacturers of the HVDC system, however
some of the studies also need to be made by the wind farm developer where the detailed offshore
power grid is included.
The advantage of this method is that only standard load flow data and some general knowhow of
power system are needed to investigate the dynamic performance of the power grid. Furthermore long
time series (e.g. daily or yearly variation in the power grid) can be investigated fast.
The disadvantages are of course that the time step in the quasi steady state load flow has to be longer
than 100msec as load flow data are used and have to be validated. Furthermore all the time constants
(controller and control loops) with a longer time constant than the time step in the simulation must be
taken into account.
Controllers in the power system with a shorter time constant than the quasi steady state simulated time
step are in general modelled as steady state as in the load flow calculation. One example is modelling
of the AVC controller; in this case the HVDC voltage controller will normally be the fastest which
means that the voltage control of the HVDC will have the steady state value equal to the set point of
the HVDC.
For controller with longer response time than the time step of the quasi steady state simulation, each
controller must be investigated in order to evaluate its influence on the results before the simulations
are performed. An example can be modelling the wind speed variation in a WPP. In this case the
active power and thereby also the voltage profile will change during wind variations. In this case the
response of the AVC has to be investigated before a simulation is performed. The time step in the
quasi steady-state simulation is e.g. 30sec and the total time simulated is one hour (120 data point). In
this case the latency of the tap-changer’s AVC (dead time of the controller may be 1-2 minutes) must
be taken into consideration and included in the simulation in order to get correct variations of e.g. the
voltage profile in the power grid due to wind variations.
Data needed for quasi steady state studies requirement:

Load flow data as described in Section 6.2.1, functional description and time constants of the controls
to be investigated. One example can be investigation the AVC of a transformer and the voltage
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variations in the power grid. The data needed is the step size of the tap changer of the transformer,
and dead time and dead band of the AVC controller.
Study objectives:
Investigating the response and variations due to slow controllers and wind variations in the WPP.
However it is important to emphasize that this method is only valid for slow variations.
Furthermore long term voltage stability can be investigated by using this method.
6.4 Short-term Stability (Dynamic RMS and/or EMT Modelling)

As described in Section 6.2.2 VSCs (like VSC HVDC and WTG converters) are able to control the
current in each phase during transient events. This makes it important to make a range of simulations
of dynamic/transient events, (e.g., fault and recovery after fault). Furthermore, all simulations have to
show that the entire power system from the WTGs to the connection point onshore fulfils the grid code
requirement. The total simulated time for this short-term stability is normally less than a few minutes.
Determining if RMS simulation and/or Electro-Magnetic transient (EMT) should be used for the
simulation is highly dependent on which level of detail and bandwidth need to be modelled.
Normally, the time step in an RMS simulation is longer than 1ms. The bandwidth for the dynamic
models used in the RMS simulation must of course correspond to the time step chosen for the
simulation. Some RMS simulation software offers the capability of having dynamic devices such as
HVDC at a smaller time step and network solution at normal time step (two time step models). This
enables including faster dynamics within the device. Furthermore some RMS programs are able to
model positive, negative and zero sequence systems whereas others only model the positive
sequence system. In addition to this, the RMS simulation is able to simulate a large number of busbars
at acceptable computation times.
EMT simulation normally uses appropriate time steps given the phenomena to be studied from ms to
µs. This means that the model needs to be much more detailed and have a higher bandwidth than
RMS models.
For each specific project it has to be determined if RMS or EMT must be used for each of the three
types of studies described below.
For the simulation in general, both the offshore and part of the onshore power grid have to be
modelled. In general, it is most interesting to investigate the offshore power grid. However, in many
cases the response of the onshore power grid has an influence on the voltage and current in the
HVDC system and in the offshore power grid. The model for the onshore and offshore power grids and
the HVDC system has to be evaluated to see if it is suitable for simulation.
The simulation must be used to determine:
1. The short-circuit current in feed during a fault

2. Power grid recovery and stability after the fault and disturbance (including loss of production)
3. Power grid response due to normal change in the operation time frame
These simulations may be modelled using different models (RMS or EMT) and using different time
steps, as dictated by the phenomena being investigated. This is further described below.
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The reason for having three parts of the fault simulations is that there may be different requirements
for the accuracy of the simulation result and time step in each simulation. During the fault, the peak
value and oscillation (typically a frequency higher than approximately 10Hz) of the fault current and
voltage are important. However, on the other hand, the slower oscillation (typically slower than 10Hz)
of the current, voltage, active and reactive power recovery is important after fault or disturbance during
power grid recovery. This means that the model for simulation of the fault current during the fault
needs to have a higher bandwidth than the model for simulating the recovery after faults or
disturbances. In addition, the time needed to simulate the fault may only be a few seconds, where the
simulation to recover after a fault or a disturbance can take up to a couple of minutes. However, it may
be possible to use the same same model for all three simulations.
Before carrying out the simulation, it must be confirmed whether the models are only valid for positive
sequence and/or also for negative and zero sequence simulation. For three- phase short-circuit
simulations, only the positive sequence system is needed. However, for all asymmetric faults, the
negative and zero sequence systems are also needed.
In case the simulation tool is only able to simulate the positive sequence system data, the data have to
be modified enabling the program to simulate asymmetric faults. However, in the rest of this section, it
is assumed that the simulation tools are able to simulate positive, negative and zero sequence system
data and models.
Additional information on model requirements and time step for each of the three simulations is
described in Sections 6.4.1, 6.4.2 and 6.4.3.
6.4.1 Simulation during voltage dip after fault inception

The intention of simulating the fault current and voltage during the fault is to determine the shape of
the fault current and voltage. As described above, the short circuit current contribution from the HVDC
converter and the WTGs (assuming the WTGs have a converter) during a fault can be controlled. This
means that the shape of the current in the offshore power grid may be different than that seen in
onshore power grid with mainly synchronous generators.
In order to model the current and voltage with the required accuracy the time step has to be lower than
10ms, and even in the μs range. This requirement determines the required bandwidth of the model.
As the short circuit current in the offshore power grid is mainly controlled by the converters (in the
HVDC and WTGs), the voltage dip at each AC terminal of each converter is very important as shown
in Figure 6.1. The non-linear current vs voltage characteristics in Figure 6.1, shows that each converter
may contribute with different steady-state short circuit current. This fact may lead to short circuit
current having the same level as the normal operation current. In this case, the short circuit current
during fault can be difficult to detect by using normal overcurrent relays as known from onshore power
grid, where the fault current is normally higher than the normal operation current.
Having simulated the fault currents and voltages, it is then possible to validate the protection scheme
and make sure that the protective devices are properly coordinated.
It is also necessary to simulate onshore faults in order to verify the size of the chopper of the HVDC
system (or other means to have the fault ride through capability of the HVDC system for an onshore
fault). The onshore fault simulation can also be used to investigate the oscillation/fluctuation in the
HVDC link and in the offshore power grid during and after the onshore fault.
Data needed for simulation of fault:
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All models shall be able to model the positive, negative and zero sequences
i. Suitable models of the WTGs and HVDC converters (including the DC link) corresponding to
the time step/bandwidth needed for the simulation.
ii. Suitable models of other relevant elements in the offshore power grid which contain power
electronics like SVCs or STATCOMs.
iii. Models suitable for the simulation of passive elements in the offshore power grid like cables
and transformer (standard load flow data can be used in many cases)
iv. Data required to adequately model the onshore grid connection points suitable for the
simulation
Study objective:
Investigating the short circuit current during all types of faults, at all relevant locations in the power
grid.
6.4.2 Simulation of power recovery and system stability after the disturbance
During the fault, the main focus in the simulation is the fault current and voltage, however, when the
fault has been cleared or after other disturbances (including disconnection of one or more WTG with
full production and disconnection of main offshore transformers), the main purpose of the simulation is
to investigate the power grid recovery and stability. The main focus must be on the voltage
magnitudes, the offshore frequency, and the active and reactive power recovery as the power grid
returns to normal operation. The simulation time step may be longer for this simulation compared with
the time step used in Section 6.4.1 above.
In the offshore power grid, the voltage and frequency will normally be controlled by the HVDC and the
controller has a fast response. However, the converter in the WTG may also have a fast
voltage/reactive power controller controlling the voltage/reactive power at the AC terminal at each
WTG. In addition the WPP may have an overall voltage/reactive power controller controlling the
reactive power and/or the voltage from the WPP. In addition to this, other reactive power
compensation (e.g., SVC) may also contribute to the voltage control.
These controllers have to be coordinated to give a stable voltage at the offshore power grid.
Furthermore, all the converters have reactive power limitations which also may have an impact on the
voltage to recover in the offshore power grid. However, the voltage control in the offshore power grid is
in general a "local" offshore power grid issue and the onshore power grid is of very little importance if
any.
By simulating the active power and frequency recovery in the offshore power grid the oscillation may
have a lower frequency than the recovery of the voltage, as the WTG may have been in fault ride
through mode during the fault. This means that the active power generated by the WTG cannot be
exported to the electrical system and will partly be stored in the form of kinetic energy in the rotor
(shaft) and partly spilled by WTG blade pitch control. . In order to restore the active power generated
for the WTG, the blades of the WTGs have to be turned into the wind again and the rotor speed has to
be controlled back to normal operating range.
Another way to remove the active power generated by the WTG during fault is to use a chopper in the
WTG which can absorb the active power during FRT. This means that the generator in the WTG is
unaffected by the fault. Hereby the active power recovery will be different compared to the option
described above.
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In addition to this, there may be some requirements in the grid code for the rate of change in active
power during the recovering after a fault. This requirement will typically differ from grid code to grid
code.
Furthermore when modelling the active power recovery, the response of the onshore grid may have an
influence on the offshore recovery as there may be some limitation and requirement during the
recovery.
As the voltage, current, active power and reactive power recovery after fault or disturbance is not
modelled separately, the model of the offshore power grid, the HVDC system and the onshore power
grid must be included, however, for the onshore model, the main focus must be on the active power
recovery and response.
Data needed for simulation power system recovery after fault or disturbance:
Same data as described in Section 6.4.1
Study objectives:
Investigating the system power grid recovery and stability after fault and disturbance in the offshore
and onshore power grid.
6.4.3 Simulation of stability during changes in normal operation

The simulation of change during normal operation [5] is similar to the simulation described for
simulating the recovery after a fault or disturbance. However, in this case the main focus is the stability
of the offshore power grid including the response of the HVDC system due to small changes in the
system which will occur during normal operation. Such a change could be starting up one turbine or
change of a set point from one operation point to another operation point within the normal operation
range, network switching etc.
Another issue during normal operation is how HVDC and WPP can contribute to the overall onshore
system stability and damping of power system oscillation.
Since there is possibility of having control interactions between HVDC and WTG, the bandwidth of
traditional stability models designed for slow electromechanical oscillations would not be good enough.
The main limitation of these models is the negligence of the ac network dynamics (i.e. admittance
matrix method). In this case, a stability model with ac network dynamics modelled using dynamic
phasors can be used to improve the accuracy.
Data needed for these studies:

Same data as described in 6.4.1, however in case the HVDC and the WPP shall contribute to the
onshore power grid stability a more extended model of the onshore grid is needed. The reason is that
all relevant onshore generators, loads, lines etc. have to be include in the simulation.
Study objectives:
Investigating offshore grid stability and how the HVDC and the WPP can contribute to the onshore and
offshore stability. Furthermore this method can be used to design power system oscillation damping
controllers.
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6.5 Time and Frequency Domain Modelling Above Fundamental

Frequencies
In general, high frequency modelling shall be done in the time or frequency domain. In this TB the high
frequency is defined as including frequency over the fundamental value (50 or 60 Hz). The time
domain simulation shall be performed with an EMT program. The frequency domain model is further
described later in this section.
The bandwidth for the models of all elements and components in the power grid used in the high
frequency modelling must of course correspond to the time step/frequency range chosen for the
simulation, not only the controllers in the HVDC converter, but also for the model of cables, breakers,
surge arrestors and transformers, etc.
For high frequency simulation, as for quasi steady-state load flow and RMS simulation, all equipment,
components and controllers in the power system until the onshore connection point have to be
investigated in order to evaluate if each element has an influence on the simulation. As an example the
dead time for an AVC of a transformer is much longer than the normal time simulated in an EMT
simulation. However, on the other hand, in EMT simulation high frequency models of all the
components (e.g. cables and transformers) in the power grid is needed.
By using EMT, it is possible to simulate much faster transient events than with RMS simulation. This
could be the insulation coordination study and other transient studies such as high frequency stability
study in the time domain or switching transient study, etc.
6.5.1 Insulation Coordination Study

EMT simulations can be used for an insulation coordination study which should be done in every
project. However, if the offshore power grid connects WTGs to the onshore power grid by means of an
HVDC system, the two power grids, offshore and onshore, are to some degree decoupled. This means
that the study for the entire system can be divided into three parts, offshore power grid, HVDC system
and the onshore power grid.
Taking the three parts into consideration, the insulation coordination studies are well known and
described in a large range of standards, TBs, and technical papers.
6.5.2 High Frequency Time Domain Modelling

A range of transient studies can be foreseen when designing a HVDC system, however, the vast
majority of these studies will be made by the manufacturer of the HVDC equipment. This study can be
used in modelling the switching events involving IGBT modules within the VSC converter. Many of
them will only be relevant for the internal design of the converters or their components.
Some studies must be made by the developer of the offshore WPPs including the connection to the
onshore power grid using a HVDC system. One of the most important studies is the high frequency
stability study in the time domain. The instability in the power grid can be caused by the controllers in
each converter interacting with other converter controllers and amplifying oscillations in the power grid.
Looking at the offshore power grid, there is almost no natural power damping (active load), only WTGs
generating power into the offshore power grid and the HVDC which exports the generated active
power to the onshore power grid. This means that the active power is fed from a VSC converter in
each WTG to a VSC converter at the HVDC system offshore. The resistance in the cable and
transformer in the offshore power grid may cause a small damping but from an electric point of view,
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the active power losses in the offshore power grid are small. This means that the power system
stability needs to be investigated carefully both for frequencies below and above the fundamental in
order to avoid unstable controller interactions.
In general, the converter in the WTGs and the HVDC can generate a wider range of frequencies , this
may cause a frequency higher (or actually also lower) than the fundamental frequency. This means
that any frequency can be generated and amplified in case one of the controllers in the converter is not
coordinated correctly with the rest of the controllers and amplifies a given resonance. Another issue
with the controller is that they may be affected by limits which will change the controller response. This
amplification may cause an unstable power grid leading to e.g. the voltage increasing rapidly.
By using an EMT simulation it may be possible to investigate whether the offshore power grid is stable
for frequencies higher than the fundamental. It is important that the model of the converters, in the
WTG , the HVDC and other power electronic equipment, includes all relevant controller, sampling and
dead time, time constants, transfer functions, limiters, etc. in all relevant control modes.
It must be possible to evaluate the stability of the offshore power grid for frequencies up to 2.5kHz, but
in special cases higher frequencies may have to be investigated.
The advantage of using this method to investigate the high frequency stability is that all the limitations,
dead and sampling times are included and their influence on stability is investigated in the time
domain.
The disadvantage of using a time domain simulation for investigation of stability is that the simulation
only has one operating condition. There are large number of different active power generating levels
for the WPP, or different voltages within the normal operation range, which means that in theory there
is an infinite number of operation conditions which must be investigated.
In order to limit the number of EMT simulations, a representative number of operation conditions have
to be selected. One way to select the critical cases is to make a stability study in the frequency
domain.
Data needed to high frequency modelling in the time domain:

All models shall include the frequency dependent characteristics in the frequency range investigated in
each simulation
i. The models of the WTGs and HVDC converter (including the DC link), include all relevant
controllers for the frequency range of interest
ii. The models of other relevant elements in the offshore power grid which contain power
electronics like SVCs or STATCOMs must include all relevant controllers for the frequency
range of interest.
iii. The models suitable for the simulation of passive elements in the offshore power grid like
cables and transformers.
iv. The models of the onshore grid connection points suitable for the frequency range of interest.
Study objectives:
Investigating stability of the power grid, at all relevant locations in the power grid including controller
interaction instability.
6.5.3 Frequency Domain Modelling

An alternative to the time domain model can be to make a frequency domain model. However this is
not a standard model but a proposed option is describe below.
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The high frequency stability in this brochure is defined as a stability study of the offshore and onshore
power grid for frequencies higher than the fundamental (50 or 60 Hz). In this section the stability issue
will be addressed from a frequency domain perspective.
By using frequency domain models it is possible to use standard control stability approach (e.g.,
Nyquist stability criterion) to investigate the power system stability in a large range of frequencies.
The controller of the converter has to be modelled as a transfer function in the frequency domain. The
transfer function may be different in different operation modes such as exporting or importing active
power to the AC power grid, or controlling reactive power or voltage. However, the number of models
will be very limited, as the number of modes for normal operation is assumed to be less than five.
Having the transfer function of the converter including controller, it is possible to model the power grid
both offshore and onshore. It must be investigated if the offshore and onshore power grid can be
modelled separately which will reduce the complexity of the models.
The advantage of using this method is that each frequency can be simulated separately and not
dependending on the actual operation mode (as long as the converter controller has the same
characteristics in different modes). This means that all operation conditions can be analyzed without
having to run a simulation for each operation point.
The disadvantage of the frequency domain stability analysis is that limiter and non-linear response of
the controller is normally not included.
As described above, it is possible to investigate a large range of operation points by using the
frequency domain stability method. By using this method, it is possible to determine which operation
points should be further investigated by using the time domain stability method described previously.
Data needed to high frequency modelling in the frequency domain:

The required models are the same as described in Section 6.5.2, however, make sure that the models
are validated for frequency domain simulation instead of time domain simulation.
Study objectives:
Investigating stability of the power grid, at all relevant locations in the power grid including controller
interaction instability.
6.6 Harmonic Analysis, Flicker and Sub-synchronous Interactions

The harmonic emission study is well-known from onshore power grid analysis and is described in a
range of standard and brochures. The typical method is based on the current source model, where the
harmonic emission from an element is given as a constant current of each harmonic, independent of
the voltage and impedance at the terminal of the element. However, based on measurement of the
harmonic emission from WTGs with VSC converter, it has been shown that the constant current model
does not represent the harmonic emission well [3].
A better model is a Thevenin or Norton equivalent, where the VSC converter is modelled as a source
and an impedance, at various harmonics. For the model, both the source and the impedance have to
be frequency dependent including both amplitude and angle. Other power quality issues are dealt in a
similar way to onshore wind farm connection.
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The flicker studies are well-known and described in range of standards and brochures. It is assumed
that the standard methods can be used for power system from the WTG all the way to the onshore grid
connection point.
Sub-synchronous interaction may be an issue for the offshore grid as well as for the onshore
connection point for the HVDC, however the studies needed are well know from onshore power grid.
The HVDC converter impedance depends on passive components and the control to some extent.
6.7 Study to be made at each stage of the project

The level of detail in a WPP project is dependent on which stage the project is currently developed to.
In the following section general suggestions of which studies and level of details are proposed.
For each stage, a number of design iterations may be needed, in order to reach a level of details to
allow to proceed to the next stage of the project.
6.7.1 Developing Stage (Feasibility Study)

In this stage, the overall opportunities and feasibility of the project are investigated. At this phase, no
specific electrical or mechanical values are finalised, but only a range of possible power and design
ratings are determined.
As the power, numbers and locations of WTG and substation is not fixed at this phase the detail level
of studies is limited. In general only simplified load flow and short circuit calculation can be made and
the result can only be given as range of power, current etc.
Dynamic behaviour of the power system can only be described in general terms.
6.7.2 Concept Design Stage

After the developing stage the project goes into to the concept design stage, where the concept of the
project has to be decided. In this stage the range of power (in MW installed) of the wind farm is
narrowed to a small range. This gives the number of WTGs, the rating of the HVDC and in general the
rating of all elements in the power system can be roughly determined.
In this stage more detailed load flow studies can be made, including determination of the concept for
voltage/reactive power control of the power system, both offshore and onshore. These load flow
studies require information of the active and reactive power performance of the WTG and HVDC and
on a generic level available data for the other element in the power system.
Short circuit calculations can be made in order to determine the rough short circuits current which will
give the data for rating elements like the switchgear, busbars etc.
Preliminary system stability studies investigating grid faults, fault recovery and load change can be
made from a conceptual perspective where functional requirements can be described.
In some cases it may also be possible to give a first estimate of the harmonic emission level in the
offshore and onshore power grid at this stage of the project.
6.7.3 Design Stage (Basic and Detailed)

At this stage of the project the number and location of the WTGs are fixed. This gives that the rating of
the HVDC and all the other element of the power system can be determined. The design may be in
two steps, basic design or front end engineering design (FEED) prior to procurement and detailed
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design prior to construction/execution. Normally the key elements of the power system, like the WTG
and the HVDC, are defined in this stage. Other elements of the system such as cables and
transformers will be fixed after contract and will be available for the detailed design.
Hereby the range of power, voltage and current are within a band which makes is possible to
determine the rating of each element both from a load flow and a short circuit perspective.
Furthermore, it is also possible at this stage to determine the dynamic behaviour of the power system
and design additional filters for controlling harmonics and/or extra elements for voltage/reactive power
control, if deemed necessary.
Detailed EMT studies may be performed so as to define/verify insulation coordination, voltage

fluctuations and controller interactions.
Also in this stage all studies required by the grid codes need to be done.
6.7.4 Documentation Stage

In this stage all "as-built" data are received from the manufactures and the final simulation for the final
documentation can be made at this stage. Basically all data available which make is possible to
perform all studies described in this section.
6.8 References
[1] B.H.Bakken, ao, "Stepwise power flow- A new tool to analyse capacity shortage and reserve
requirements" 15th PSCC 2005, Liege, Belgium.
[2] J. Hjerrild ao. "Quasi steady-state time simulations- a powerful tool for evaluation of grid
connection in relation to offshore wind farms", Paper 18, Sixth International Workshop on
Large-scale Integration of Wind Power and Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind Farms,
Delft, the Netherlands, 2006
[3] L.H. Kocewiak, "Harmonics in Large offshore wind farms", PhD. Thesis, Aalborg University,
Denmark, 2012, ISBN 978-87-92846-04-4
[4] CIGRÉ TB 563, "Modelling and Simulation Studies to be performed during the lifecycle of
HVDC Systems", WG B4.38, December 2013.
[5] P. Kundur. "Power system Stability and Control“, McGraw-Hill, 1994.
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7 OVERVIEW OF PLANNED/DECIDED OR BUILT HVDC CONNECTED

WPP PROJECTS
7.1 Offshore Applications
HVDC connected offshore wind farms are often located more than 150 km away from the PCC of the
onshore AC grid. From the electrical point of view, these offshore WPPs constitute as weak isolated
grids.
Connection of offshore WPP via VSC-HVDC to the onshore grid helps overcome some challenges:
For civil engineering: Some major electrical equipment has to be installed under difficult environmental
conditions.
For offshore platform: As much of the module as possible is assembled and pre-tested in a shipyard.
Different possibilities exist for the type of platform chosen; Jacket-top structure, gravity based
structure, self floating/self lifting and float over. Different structures have different advantages and
disadvantages such as the weather window needed for installation, the need for lifting equipment,
material and installation costs.
For weight and size restrictions: The equipment has to be shrunk down to a minimum, using SF6
insulated devices, whenever possible. Attention is paid to the particular protection of the equipment
against the harsh environmental conditions.
Despite of compactness: The module is unique due to its accessibility. Even large pieces of
equipment, such as converter transformers can be changed easily.
The VSC-HVDC represents the ideal power transmission system for such interconnections. It offers
some unique advantages over the conventional HVDC: the design is very compact and synchronous
condensers for voltage support are not necessary.
In this chapter only already built or commercially signed projects are discribed. Neverthless there are a
lot of projects all over the world which are in a planning or design stage. Since many projects are
frequently added to or removed from the planning stage, such projects have been omitted from this
brochure. Additional information about projects under development and in the planning stage may be
found at the homepage of “4C Offshore Limited” (www.4coffshore.com).
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7.2 BorWin1
BorWin1 is the first HVDC project to connect offshore wind. It
connects the first remote offshore wind farm cluster to the
German grid by a 400 MW HVDC Light® transmission system.
The wind farm cluster is planned to consist of 80 WTGs of 5

MW each, located about 130 km from the coast in the North
Sea. The generators feeds power into a 36 kV AC cable
system which is transformed to 154 kV for the HVDC Light®
offshore station. The offshore platform contains all electrical
equipment for the converter station. The receiving onshore
station is located at Diele, 75 km from the coast, where the
power is injected into the German 380 kV grid.
The manufacturer has been responsible for system

engineering including design, supply and installation of the
offshore converter, sea and land cable systems and the
onshore converter. The DC cables were laid underwater and underground, thus minimizing
environmental impact.
Customer transpower offshore gmbh, Germany

Commissioning year 2012
Power rating 400 MW
AC voltage 154 kV offshore
380 kVonshore
DC voltage ± 150 kV
HVDC cable 2x125 km submarine cable
2x75 km underground cable
Connected wind farm BARD Offshore 1 - 2x1 km
Equipment offshore HVDC Light® converter
three-phase transformers
converter reactors
AC cable compensation reactors
Equipment onshore HVDC Light® converter
Three-phase transformers
Converter reactors
Insertion resistor
Type of plant Jacket top offshore platform with HVDCLight®
Onshore substation with HVDCLight®
Location onshore Substation Diele, Germany
Location offshore BorWin alpha 125 km offshore – NW of island Norderney
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7.3 DolWin1
DolWin1 is an 800 MW HVDC Light® transmission link that
which connects offshore wind farms located in the cluster
DolWin1 in the North Sea to the German grid.
The wind farms are connected with AC cables to the HVDC

converter station based on an offshore platform situated in
the North Sea and further through 75 km of DC sea cable and
90 km of land cable to the HVDC onshore station at the grid
connection point at Dörpen/West.
The transmission system has a total capacity of 800 MW at

±320 kV. The HVDC Light system that will be used offers
neutral electromagnetic fields, oil-free cables and compact
converter stations, and is ideal for connecting remote wind
farms to mainland networks without distance limitations or
constraints on the grid. The system features the latest
generation of power semiconductors and converter technology. The increased performance ensures a
higher availability and lower losses of the entire system.
The manufacturer is responsible for system engineering including design, supply and installation of the
offshore converter (including the platform), sea and land cable systems and the onshore converter
station. The land cables are laid underground.
Customer TenneT
Power rating 800 MW
380 kV onshore
Connected wind farm Meg Offshore 1 - 2x13 km
Borkum West II - 2x7.5 km
Borkum Riffgrund I 2x11.4 km
Equipment offshore HVDCLight® CTL converter
converter reactors
Equipment onshore HVDC Light® CTL converter
Converter reactors
Insertion resistor
Type of plant Jacket top offshore platform with HVDCLight®
Location onshore Substation Dörpen, Germany
Location offshore DolWin alpha 75 km offshore – NW of island Norderney
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7.4 BorWin2
For the BorWin2 project, a voltage-sourced converter (VSC)
system is supplied – using HVDC PLUS technology – with a
rating of 800 MW. The wind farms Veja Mate and Global Tech
1 are designed to generate 800 MW and will be connected
through an HVDC PLUS link to shore. The converters are
installed on an offshore platform, where the voltage level
isstepped up from 155 to 300 kV AC and then converted to
DC at the same voltage level. The platform accommodates all
the requisite electrical equipment for the HVDC converter
station, two transformers, four AC cable compensation
reactors and high-voltage gas-insulated switchgears (GIS).
The wind power offshore substation (WIPOS) is designed as a
floating, self-lifting platform. Energy is transmitted via subsea
and land cable to Diele close to Papenburg, where an onshore
converter station reconverts the DC back to AC and feed it
into the 400 kV AC network. The entire transmission link started operation in 2015.

Power rating 800 MW
400 kV onshore
Connected wind farm Veja Mate – 2x10 km
GlobalTech 1 – 2x30 km
Equipment offshore HVDC PLUS – MMC converter
converter reactors
AC cable compenstation reactors
Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS)
emergency diesel generator
Equipment onshore HVDC PLUS – MMC converter
converter reactors
Insertion resistor
Starpoint reactor
Air-insulated switchgear (AIS)
Type of plant WIPOS offshore platform (floating & self-lifting) with HVDC PLUS
Onshore substation with HVDC PLUS
Location onshore Substation Diele, Germany
Location offshore 96 km offshore – NNW of the island Borkum, Germany
7.5 HelWin1
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For the project HelWin1, the manufacturer supplied a voltage-

sourced converter (VSC) system with a rating of 576 MW
using HVDC PLUS technology. The wind farms NordseeOst
and Meerwind are designed to generate 576 MW and will be
connected through a HVDC PLUS link to shore. The
converter is installed on an offshore platform, where the
voltage level is stepped up from 155 to 250 kV and then
converted to DC at the same voltage level. The platform
accommodates all the requisite electrical high-voltage AC and
DC equipment for the converter station. Similar to the
Borwin2 project, the wind power offshore substation (WIPOS)
is also designed as a float over, self-lifting platform. Energy
will be transmitted via subsea and land cable to Büttel,
northwest of Hamburg, Germany, where an onshore
converter station reconverts the DC back to AC and transmit
it into the grid. The entire transmission link and grid connection started operation in 2015.

Power rating 576 MW
400 kV onshore
2x45.5 km underground cable
Connected wind farm Nordsee Ost – 2x4.2 km
option Meerwind phase 1 – 2x7.6 km, phase 2 – 2x max. 20 km
converter reactors
converter reactors
Insertion resistor
Starpoint reactor
Type of plant WIPOS offshore platform (float over & self-lifting) with HVDC PLUS
Location onshore Substation Büttel (NW of Hamburg), Germany
Location offshore 85 km offshore – NW of the island Helgoland, Germany
7.6 SylWin1
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For the SylWin1 project the manufacturer will supply a

voltage-sourced converter (VSC) offshore system with a
rating of 864 MW. An HVDC PLUS link will connect the Dan
Tysk wind farm to the German shore. The converter will be
installed on an offshore platform, where the voltage level will
be stepped up and converted to ±320kV DC. The platform will
accommodate all electrical equipment required for the HVDC
converter station: two transformers, four AC cable
compensation reactors, and high-voltage gas-insulated
switchgear (GIS). Similar to the BorWin2 and HelWin1
projects, the wind power offshore substation (WIPOS) will be
designed as a float over, self-lifting platform. The energy will
be transmitted via subsea and land cable to Büttel, where an
onshore converter station will reconvert the DC to AC and feed it into the 380 kV AC grid. The
transmission link is scheduled to start operation in 2015.
Customer TenneT, Germany

Power rating 864 MW
400 kV onshore
Connected wind farm Dan Tysk– 2x9.7 km
Butendiek – 2x40 km
Sandbank 24 – 2x35 km
converter reactors
converter reactors
Insertion resistor
Starpoint reactor
Type of plant WIPOS offshore platform (float over & self-lifting) with HVDC PLUS
7.7 DolWin2
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The DolWin2 HVDC Light® transmission link will connect

900MW offshore wind farms located in the cluster DolWin in
the North Sea to the German grid.
The wind farms will be connected with AC cables to the

HVDC converter station based on an offshore platform
situated in the North Sea and further through 45 km of DC
sea cable and 90 km of land cable to the HVDC onshore
station at the grid connection point at Dörpen-West.

±320 kV, which today is one of the world's largest offshore
HVDC system. The HVDC Light system that will be used
offers numerous environmental benefits, such as electrical losses of less than 1 percent per converter
station, neutral electromagnetic fields, and compact converter stations. It is ideal for connecting remote
wind farms to mainland networks without distance limitations or constraints on the grid.
The manufacturer is responsible for system engineering including design, supply and installation of the
offshore converter (including the platform), sea and land cable systems and the onshore converter
station. The land cables will be laid underground, thus minimizing environmental impact.

Power rating 900 MW
380 kV onshore
Connected wind farm Gode Wind I – 8.65 km
Gode Wind II – 12.15 km
Innogy Nordsee – 6.67 km
Equipment offshore HVDCLight® CTL converter
converter reactors
Equipment onshore HVDC Light® CTL converter
Converter reactors
Insertion resistor
Type of plant Gravity based structure offshore platform with HVDCLight®
Location onshore Substation Dörpen, Germany
Location offshore DolWin beta 45 km offshore – N of island Norderney
7.8 HelWin2
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HelWin 2, the link between the North Sea offshore windfarm

Amrumbank West and the onshore grid, will be realised with
an HVDC PLUS transmission system. The customer is
TenneT TSO GmbH of Bayreuth, Germany.
The grid connection, designed as a high-voltage direct-

current transmission link, has a rating of 690 megawatts
(MW) and is scheduled to be operational by 2015.
Amrumbank West will be built in the North Sea, about 55
kilometers from the mainland, 35 kilometers north of
Helgoland, and 37 kilometers west of the North Frisian island
of Amrum. The wind farm will have a power capacity between
300 and 400 MW. Together with the Meerwind and North Sea
East offshore windfarms, Amrumbank West is part of the
North Sea cluster HelWin. The transmission link is scheduled to start operation in 2015.

Power rating 690 MW
400 kV onshore
Connected wind farm Amrumbank – 3x8 km
Hochsee Testfeld Helgoland – 2x4 km
Kaskasi – 2x3.5 km
converter reactors
converter reactors
Insertion resistor
Starpoint reactor
Type of plant WIPOS offshore platform (classic topside cacket) with HVDC PLUS
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7.9 DolWin3
The DolWin3 MaxSine® HVDC link will connect 900MW
offshore wind farm cluster (known as DolWin) in the North
Sea to the German grid.
The energy generated in offshore will be transmitted to the

mainland via 84.5km submarine cable. From the coast, the
power will then be transported further via 76.6km land cable
to the converter station in Dörpen-West. (By the time this
brochure is published the cable lengths are not finalized).

±320 kV, and is scheduled to be operational by 2017.
Customer TenneT Offshore GmbH, Germany

Power rating 900 MW
400 kV onshore
HVDC cable 2x84.5 km submarine cable
2x76.5 km land cable
Connected wind farm Options:
OWP Borkum Riffgrund West 1
OWP Borkum Riffgrund West 2
OWP Borkum West 2
Equipment offshore MaxSine® Converter
Three-phase transformers x 2
Valve reactors
DC smoothing reactors
Equipment onshore MaxSine® Converter
Valve reactors
DC smoothing reactors
DBS (Dynamic Breaking System)
Type of plant Offshore platform with MaxSine® converter
Onshore substation with MaxSine® converter
Location onshore Substation Dörpen West, Germany
Location offshore German North Sea, Cluster DolWin
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7.10 BorWin3
For the BorWin3 project, a voltage-sourced converter (VSC)
system will be supplied – using HVDC PLUS technology –
with a rating of 900 MW. Two or three wind farms are
designed to generate 900 MW and will be connected through
an HVDC PLUS link to shore. The converter will be installed
on an offshore platform, where the voltage level will be
stepped up and converted to ±320 kV DC. The platform will
accommodate all the requisite electrical equipment for the
HVDC converter station, transformers, AC cable
compensation reactors and high-voltage gas-insulated
switchgears (GIS). The wind power offshore substation will be
designed as a high float over platform. Energy will be
transmitted via subsea and land cable to Emden, where an
onshore converter station will reconvert the DC back to AC
and feed it into the 400 kV AC network. The entire
transmission link is expected to begin operation in 2019.
Customer TenneT Offshore GmbH, Germany

Power rating 900 MW
400 kV onshore
Connected wind farm EnBW Hohe See
Albatros
converter reactors
converter reactors
Insertion resistor
Starpoint reactor
Type of plant Offshore platform (high float over concept) with HVDC PLUS
Location onshore Substation Emden, Germany
Location offshore App. 100 km offshore – NNW of the island Borkum, Germany
Page 85
8 GUIDELINES, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS

8.1 Introduction
This Technical Brochure (TB) has described the unique design challenges of integrating offshore
WPPs using VSC-HVDC transmission links, including sub-system technology details and design
options. From this, there are a number of overarching functional objectives, and design principles,
have been identified. There are also a number of areas for which there are multiple design
approaches. The appropriateness of each approach depends on a host of technical, commercial and
environmental requirements applicable to individual projects. This Chapter is intended to summarise
these design principles in the form of general Guidelines, Recommendations, and Conclusions
8.2 Design Guidelines and Tradeoffs

8.2.1 Reliability and Availability
In general, wind power generation is not usually relied upon to provide substantial grid power resource
capacity. Thus, the criteria used to assess and design for plant reliability and availability are driven
primarily by economic considerations rather than continuity of supply. This drives the design toward
favouring availability as the primary objective, over reliability. Specifically, high reliability (i.e., high
90s%) for WTGs and their components combined with shorter repair times, during harsh sea
conditions, are the main priorities. Offshore WPPs may have a greater grid capacity contribution, and
may add an element of reliability impact on the design for reliability and availability. For each
application, the reliability and availability considerations must be determined specifically, and factored
into the design. This might, in some situations, drive the design toward topologies allowing some
degree of redundancy. It should be noted that the offshore systems follows the same redundancy
concepts as all HVDC schemes (i.e., the measurements, protection and control systems are duplicated
and therefore redundant as much as possible to meet customer specifications)
The power rating of the converters are designed based on customers’ specifications.
Design choices regarding the HVDC cable connections and the WPP array cables must also included
in these discussions, since they operate in a hostile environment and are typically difficult to install and
repair. A fault on a HVDC cable may lead to an extended outage due to the potentially long mobilising
time in assembling the right repair cable and joints and suitable jointing staff. In addition the required
marine vessels must be mobilised, the weather window must be suitable and any necessary permits
obtained.
8.2.2 Overload Capability

In typical VSC HVDC schemes, the converter station overload capability is limited by the heat transfer
characteristics of the IGBT devices. Unlike a thyristor in an HVDC LCC converter, the individual bipolar
transistors are made up of smaller electronic chips. Many of these chips are then connected in parallel
in plastic encapsulations, which are typically cooled on one side. Thus, the IGBT modules could
overheat quickly, when overloaded.
Any potential overload capability is therefore driven by the specified design being required to operate
continuously at maximum (AC + DC) current at maximum ambient temperature. If the actual ambient
temperature is lower than the design maximum, then there will be some capability to work at higher
current levels without exceeding the maximum allowable temperature on the IGBTs. However, this TB
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strongly suggests that manufacturers’ advise should be sought regarding specific converter station
overload capabilities during operation under lower ambient temperature conditions. Manufacturers’
inputs shall also be required to help develop algorithms that can take into account the device history in
order to capture potential short time overload capability, without risk. Similiarly, HVDC cables, power
transformers, and DC reactors can be loaded higher than nameplate ratings, subject to pre-defined
cooling conditions.
8.2.3 Control of Real Power

To maximize energy capture, and to control the mechanical stress on WTGs, one must determine the
flow of real power under all conditions.
WTGs can operate with a command for maximum power that comes from a central location, which is
widely applied in existing onshore WPPs to achieve a curtailment function. The maximum power
setting is taken within each WTG as a reference, but the functions that manage mechanical stresses
must be allowed to make small modulations around this reference.
WTGs can also adjust power output based upon voltage and frequency sensed on the ac collector
system. These enable riding through grid faults, and also the governor and/or virtual inertia functions
now provided with modern large WTGs.
This characteristic of WTGs means that the VSC HVDC control system cannot include a power
regulator mode.
In addition, interconnection requirements related to control of real power include active power control,
power ramp rate control, primary and secondary reserves, production set point changes, and unit start-
up and shut-down, Modern WTG technologies can respond rapidly (i.e., 10-20% of rating per second)
to ramp-up and ramp-down commands.
8.2.4 Grid Codes

As transmission operators in each country are gaining experience with the first group of commissioned
VSC HVDC connected offshore projects, new grid code requirements have been launched in Great
Britain, Germany, and by ENTSO-e.
The VSC HVDC connected offshore WPPs provide a number of grid code compliance advantages,
when compared to with AC connected onshore WPPs. The primary advantage is the de-coupling
between the onshore AC transmission system and the offshore WPP system. This brings forward
advantages with regard to WTG fault ride through capability and reactive power requirements at the
point of connection.
With regard to low voltage fault ride through, a VSC HVDC link can sustain through AC faults and
quickly restore active and reactive power values to pre-fault levels. However, a voltage dip at the
onshore inverter will cause reduction in VSC HVDC link capability to transport power, with subsequent
rise in offshore grid voltage. The industry accepted solution is the addition of a DC chopper as part of
the overall VSC HVDC system. The DC chopper will absorb energy out of the HVDC system, during
the fault, allowing quick resumption of power evacuation after fault clearing.
8.2.5 Expandability
There has been much discussion of integrating HVDC-connected offshore WPPs into an HVDC
transmission network, or DC grids, supporting wind energy access to multiple markets. It may be
desirable to allow for this possibility in the design of the VSC-HVDC system. In particular, control
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systems would need expandability to accommodate new functions. The potential for future HVDC grid
interconnection also may play a role in the selection of the nominal DC voltage. For more discussion
on HVDC grids, interested readers are suggested to review related TBs by: WG B4-52 “HVDC Grid
Feasibility Study”, WG B4-56 “Grid codes for HVDC grids”, WG B4-58 “Load Flow Control in Meshed
DC Grids”, WG B4-59 “Control and protection of HVDC grids”, and WG B4-60 “ Designing HVDC grids
for optimal reliability and availability performance”.
8.2.6 Conventional vs. Specialized WTG Designs

The overall system design can be such that conventional WTG technology, as would be used for an
AC connected offshore WPP or an onshore plant, can be used. This facilitates the benefits of
production scale, and facilitates a more competitive market for the WTG supply for the offshore WPP
project. WTGs designed for AC interconnection must be sufficiently robust to withstand the mechanical
loads imposed by grid faults. It is a common approach in existing VSC-HVDC systems to utilize a DC
chopper that isolates WTGs from onshore grid disturbances. This removes one source of mechanical
loading on the WTGs, and might allow the WTG to be designed lighter and thus more economically
attractive. However, offshore system disturbances, although expected to be less frequent than onshore
system disturbances, will also impose stress on the WTGs. It is yet to be proven if removal of the
onshore disturbance factor, at the additional expense of the added HVDC chopper, results in economic
advantage when the fact is also considered that a WTG so designed would be specific to VSC-HVDC
interconnected applications.
It would be worth exploring if the system design can be such that conventional WTG technology, as
would be used for an AC connected onshore plant, can be used for an offshore wind plant. There are
several benefits from this approach, among them are the following:
• Cost minimisation associated with a more competitive market for the WTG supply for the WPP,
where the extensive experience of conventional turbines can be directly applied.
• Attaining high reliability based on experience with an extensive fleet of operating WTGs.
• Realising efficient maintenance based on proven practices applied in operating turbines.
• Inherent ability to ride through grid faults.
8.2.7 Off-Shore Grid Protection

The available shortcircuit current in the offshore grid is typically low. Therefore, protection systems for
the offshore grid must be properly designed and coordinated to reliably detect all possible fault
conditions. Depending on the short circuit current level, conventional protection schemes should be
able to be utilized, particularly if the specifications for the offshore VSC-HVDC converter require a
certain minimum shortcircuit capability. Otherwise, non-conventional (for WPP collector system)
protection schemes may be needed. Many of these schemes are reliant on communications, and the
implications of the reliability of the communications media on the reliability of the protection system
must be addressed.
8.2.8 Auxiliary Power and Start-Up

During low wind conditions when the WTGs are not operating, there is a need for auxiliary power in the
offshore grid. With an AC connected offshore WPP, this is a trivial issue. With VSC-HVDC
transmission connection, power flow can also be reversed but specific consideration must be given to
this operating regime. During the start-up, the offshore system must be sufficiently robust to handle
switching transients such as AC collector cable and transformer energisation and inrush impacts. For
more discussion on this topic, interested readers are suggested to review CIGRE TB “Special
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Considerations for AC Collector Systems and Substations associated with HVDC connected Wind
Power Plants” (WG B3.36).
8.2.9 Control Interaction

An offshore WPP, using modern variable-speed WTG technology (doubly fed or full conversion), and
interconnected to the onshore AC grid via VSC-HVDC transmission is a uniquely all electronic grid
without any synchronous generation. Both the WTGs and the VSC HVDC rectifier have high-
bandwidth controls, which are tightly coupled to each other. This could present the potential for
unintended consequences such as undesirable control interactions, and even controls instability. The
engineering challenge could be further complicated by the commercial reality that, in most cases, the
WTGs and the VSC HVDC system are likely to be provided by different vendors. Details of the control
characteristics are typically considered to be intellectual property, and both the WTG and the VSC
HVDC vendors have traditionally been unwilling to disclose such details.
Since there is not sufficient experience in operation of HVDC connected offshore WPPs, it is an
industry accepted practice to rely on VSC HVDC and DC chopper for managing the grid disturbance.
The overall operation and control should be designed to minimize the potential for adverse interactions
between the HVDC system and the WTGs. Some new concepts have been presented in the literature
[1] whereby the rectifier could act like a synchronous machine, absorbing power from the WTGs
without restriction. The rectifier could potentially also act to mimic inverter ac voltage so that during on-
shore grid faults the voltage on the WPP collector system will drop in sympathy, thereby triggering the
low-voltage ride through capability that is now a standard requirement in large AC connected WPPs.
The rectifier also sets frequency on the offshore wind collector system to trigger governor functions
within the individual WTGs to achieve a means of managing real power without full reliance on
communication.
8.2.10 Study Requirements, Data, Modelling, and Simulation Studies

A wide bandwidth of study requirements have been discussed in Chapter 7, examining system
performance under various potential scenarios, including: steady-state, quasi-steady-state, fault
conditions, and variety of slow and fast dynamic events.
In order to correctly conduct such studies, there is a need to address the issue of detailed model
availability and data interchange. Even when data are fully available, great diligence is required in the
analysis, design, and simulation of these systems. When interaction issues arise, either in the design
analysis stage, or in operation, the means need to be established by which the various parties can
work together to resolve the issues.
Readers are also recommended to use guidelines published by CIGRE WG B4-57 “Guide for the
development of models for HVDC converters in HVDC grids”.
8.2.11 Need for Standards

As VSC HVDC technology is gaining global acceptance as the appropriate technology for transmitting
energy from offshore WPPs, there will be a stronger need to develop a standard control and protection
structure to permit full participation by all stakeholders to achieve economic, well-coordinated, and
reliable integrated systems.
An ever increasing population of wind generation systems has evolved to operate with AC networks
operated at medium voltage. The AC grid is assumed reasonably strong relative to the WPP, and able
to absorb the power fluctuations inherent to wind generation. WTGs are expected to ride through low
Page 89
voltage conditions on the ac system and promptly resume operation, while open-circuit conditions on
the grid will cause WTGs to stop. These aspects result in the lowest overall system cost when
integrating power from a large number of WTGs. It is therefore prudent to carefully evaluate a scheme
whereby these basic characteristics are retained.
8.2.12 Recommendations for High Level Control Strategy

It is recommended that the offshore WTGs must have sole control of the active power. The VSC
HVDC system must transmit the power immediately and without restriction when the grids are within
their specified operating ranges. Any need to modify wind generation (e.g., curtailment) must be
communicated to the WTGs, whereupon they will modify their output.
Existing HVDC systems that interconnect AC grids are operated in a power control mode. This must
be different with a wind generation application to allow power to flow as needed by the wind
generators. The consequence is that in normal operation the rectifier must present a voltage source to
the off-shore WPP, while the inverter must regulate dc voltage.
High-bandwidth control loops are typically involved in both HVDC and WTGs, exposing risks for
unintended adverse consequences such as control instability and excess component stress. Large
disturbances, such as faults, require the control systems of both systems to shift from the normal
strategy of capturing wind energy to one focused on protecting the respective hardware from
excessive duty, while retaining ability to rapidly resume operation following fault clearing.
The inverter terminal of the VSC HVDC system must be designed to manage all types of fault events
on the receiving end, provided the DC voltage is maintained within bound by action of the rectifier and
the DC chopper. There is no reason for a fundamental difference in the inverter requirements when
receiving power from wind compared to other interconnection applications.
It is also recommended to inherently minimize risk of adverse control interactions between WTG’s and
VSC HVDC converter. This is essential for resolving the realities of different vendor, operational, and
regulatory entities involved in the overall system.
Start-up and normal operation should be designed with minimum telecommunication requirements.
This will enhances reliability while minimizing overall cost.
Auxiliary power must also be provided to WTGs for start-up and low-wind conditions.
8.3 Conclusions
The first wave of VSC HVDC connected offshore wind power plants (WPPs) have been launched in
the North Sea, along with other sites around the world. These early WPP projects have been located
130-200 km from the point of common coupling (PCC), thereby making HVDC as the most appropriate
technology to use for power transmission to mainland grids, due to limitations for AC submarine
transmission at such distances. In addition, VSC HVDC technology offers several unique advantages
suitable for such environmentally harsh and difficult applications. A partial list includes:
- Ability to continuously transfer any power level (zero to maximum rating) in both directions,
thereby facilitating WPP start up, and operation at low wind speeds
- Ease of integration with WTG Generators (WTGs) in islanded grids with very low fault current
levels (i.e., no need for synchronous condensers, as would be the case with LCC HVDC
applications)
Page 90
- Because the VSC converters are self-commuted, commutation failures will not occur in case of
ac grid disturbances
- Ability to supply the auxiliary power needs of the off-shore WPP when WTGs are not operating
(e.g., due to low wind conditions)
- Feasibility of building compact, partially or fully tested and assembled, converter stations
resulting in lower costs and risks for the off-shore platform
- Ability to use XLPE cables not capable of withstanding voltage reversals, since operating direct
voltage polarity is unchanged and independent of the direction of the power flow. Great care
must be exercised in the design, manufacture, testing, installation and repair of these cables, as
the WPP availability may substantially depend on these cables
This TB has focused on exploring unique aspects of planning, design, and operation of VSC HVDC
connected offshore WPPs. Both steady state and dynamic performance characteristics are examined,
along with discussions on impacts on overall system optimization and potential economic and
maintenance benefits.
Going forward, it is expected that VSC HVDC connected offshore WPP projects will continue to attract
developers’ interests due to combination of environmental (siting selections and approvals), economic
(greater energy yield), and technical (see above list) advantages. There are now even potential
projects where the offshore WPPS are actually being planned on land, instead of an offshore sea
platform (e.g., UK – Ireland Greenwire Project), where guidelines in this TB are equally as applicable.
Finally, Members of the WG B4-55 have identified the following research and development areas to
ensure further progress for future VSC HVDC connected off-shore WPP projects:
- Development of a full set of Standards for offshore and islanded VSC HVDC connected
systems
- Collecting and reporting reliability and availability data, similar to what has been done in WG
B4-04, for operating offshore VSC HVDC connected WPPs
- More active coordination between TSOs and manufacturers
- New publications aimed at sharing reference designs, operating and maintenance experience,
and other technical information necessary to further enhance maturity of this rather young
industry.
- Ensuring industry best practices are followed with respect to the design and installation of the
High Voltage AC collector cables between the WTGs, and also with respect to the HVDC
cables between the WPP and the onshore AC substation.
8.4 Outlook
Despite of their many advantages, current VSC converter technologies suffer from their large size,
resulting in higher costs for offshore platforms. In order to signififcantly reduce costs, two major cost
factors can be addressed:
1. Air insulation should be avoided. Air insulation requires a large platform and complex HVAC
equipment.
2. The converter modules and their controls should be simplified, so that both CapEx and OpEx
can be reduced.
To achive both targets, manufacturers are currently developing new solutions.
Page 91
One of the boldest moves to reduce size and complexity is to use diode rectifiers instead of a VSC. A
diode recitifier is a completely passive piece of equipment and the diodes can be encapsulated in
insulation liquids. This will reduce the converter dimensions substancially and makes it robust in view
of harsh environmental impacts.
Figure 8.1: Grid connection approach with series connected diode rectifiers
Figure 8.1. shows a simplified single line diagram of a grid connection approach using diode rectifiers
in series connection [2]. This modular concept allows smaller plattforms, with increased flexibility.
One draw back of using diode rectifiers is that they are not able to control and maintain the offshore
AC grid. But this task can be achieved by the WTGs. State of the art offshore WTGs are typically using
full converters to convert generator frequency to grid frequency. The control algorithms of these
powerfull converters can be adopted to provide the necessary additional features without increasing
WTGs costs.
8.5 Reference
[1] Larsen, E., Drobnjak, G., Elahi, H., Proc. Of Symposium on Transmission Networks for
Offshore Wind Power Plants, Aarhus, Denmark, 25-26 October 2011
[2] Peter Menke, “Major breakthrough in DC grid access for large scale offshore wind farms”,
Proc. Of EWEA Offshore conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 11-12 March 2015
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619

HVDC CONNECTION OF OFFSHORE WIND

H. Elahi, Convenor (US), G. Drobnjak (DE), Secretary

S. Bolik (UK), G. Ebner (DE), H. Elahi (US), O. Gomis Bellmunt (ES), J.

J. Horne (UK), J. Kilter (EE), J. Rimez (BE), S. Temtem (IE), M. Visiers

E. Bergin (IE), K. Imaie (JP), R. Iravani (CA), C. Karawita (CA), A. Khan

M. Poller (DE), N. Reddy (UK), A. Saha (SA), P. Samuelsson (SE), K.

X. Wu (CN), L. Zeni (DK)

4.3.2 Considered Situations...............................................................................................31

6.7.3 Design Stage (Basic and Detailed)...........................................................................74

GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SPECIAL TERMS

Abbreviation Full Text

 Allow implementation of future multi-terminal expansion

1.2 Technical Brochure (TB) Scope

1. introduce the voltage-sourced converter (VSC) high-voltage DC transmission (VSC-HVDC)

2.3 General VSC-HVDC Design Considerations

 Multiple/parallel transformers in both converter stations. Each transformer is typically rated to

 auxiliary subsystems and components

2.4 VSC HVDC Configurations

2.4.1 Point-to-Point Connection

2.4.2 Multi-Infeed Connection

 Staged development of the DC connection by different developers

AC Grid Converter Converter

2.4.3 Emerging Configurations - Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC

 Transfer of active power among the (onshore) AC systems

 Collect and redistribute the output power for each WPP

When considering this configuration, the following must be noted:

Figure 2.4: Multi-terminal “Back-Bone” VSC-HVDC connection

2.4.4 Future Configurations - VSC-HVDC Grid

Figure 2.5: VSC-HVDC Grid Configuration

2.5 Basic Offshore WPP Configuration

Figure 2.6: Basic Offshore Platform Configuration

2.6 Basic Configuration of Point-to-Point VSC HVDC for Offshore

Figure 2.7: A Schematic Diagram of a VSC-HVDC Link for an Offshore WPP

2.7 Balance of the Plant

13. Cooling installation

[7] T. Haileselassie, "Control, Dynamics and operation of Multi-terminal VSC-HVDC

[9] V. F. Lescale, P. Holmberg, R. Ottersten, Y. J. Hafner, Parallelling offshore wind farm

3 HVDC CONNECETD OFFSHORE WPPS: WTG SELECTION AND

3.2 Unique Aspects of WTGs for Offshore Applications

- Aggressive marine environmental conditions resulting in increased corrosion risk, compared to

3.2.1 Factors affecting availability of Offshore WTGs

3.2.2 Offshore WTG Design Targets

3.3 WTG Technologies

Type 1: Squirrel-cage induction generator

3.3.1 Type 3: Doubly-fed Induction Generator

Two-winding transformers, three-winding transformers and two-winding autotransformers are used to

Figure 3.1: DFIG Configuration

3.3.2 Type 4 Full Scale Converter Connections

Figure 3.2: Type 4 FSC Configuration

3.3.3 Foundations of Offshore WTG’s

Monopile Gravity Jacket Tripod Floating

Water Depth Up to 30m Up to 40-50m Up to 60m Up to 50m Up to several

Proposed hub Low Low to medium Larger hub Larger hub

Allowable wave Mild to Medium Severe Severe Mild to Medium

Soil Conditions Good soil Good soil Adaptable to Adaptable to N/A

Components Steel cylinders Concrete Multiple Multiple Depending on

Examples Horns Rev, Lillgrund, Thorrnton Borkum West, Prototype,