610 Offshore Generation Cable Connections (2015)

610
OFFSHORE GENERATION CABLE

CONNECTIONS
Working Group
B1.40
February 2015
OFFSHORE
GENERATION CABLE
CONNECTIONS
WG B1.40
Members
C. JENSEN, Convenor (DK), T. KVARTS, Secretary (DK),
P. CAVALEIRO (PT), L. R.S. CASALS / E. GUIX (ES), G. DELL’ANNA (IT), W. FRELIN (FR),
H. HEO (KR), F. LESUR (FR), B. MAMPAEY (BE), S. MEIJER (NL), E. OLSEN (NO),
P. O’ROURKE (IE), H. ORTON (CA), R. WILSON (GB), T. WORZYK (SE), R. D. ZHANG (DE)
Corresponding members
X. FENG (CN), O. MATSUNAGA (JP)
Copyright © 2015
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ISBN : 978-2-85873-311-8
Offshore Generation Cable Connections
Offshore Generation Cable

Connections
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................... 9
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 13
1.1 Terms of reference........................................................................................ 13
1.2 Introduction to technical brochure ................................................................. 14
1.3 Contents of technical brochure ..................................................................... 14
2 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................ 16
3 INITIAL STUDIES, SURVEYS AND PERMISSIONS ........................................ 23
3.1 Desktop studies ............................................................................................ 23
3.1.1 Hydrographic charts ................................................................................. 23
3.1.2 Shipping analysis ..................................................................................... 24
3.1.3 Maritime spatial planning .......................................................................... 24
3.1.4 Seabed behaviour .................................................................................... 24
3.1.5 Environmental issues ............................................................................... 26
3.1.6 Landfall, restrictions.................................................................................. 27
3.1.7 Assessment of desktop study ................................................................... 27
3.2 Pre-investigations ......................................................................................... 27
3.2.1 Geophysical surveys ................................................................................ 28
3.2.2 Geotechnical surveys ............................................................................... 35
3.2.3 Environmental studies .............................................................................. 36
3.2.4 Geological survey of the landfall ............................................................... 37
3.2.5 Assessment of pre-investigations ............................................................. 37
3.3 Stakeholders and the public .......................................................................... 38
3.3.1 Fisheries ................................................................................................... 38
3.3.2 Shipping traffic.......................................................................................... 39
3.3.3 Utilities and Developers with assets in relevant areas .............................. 39
3.3.4 Public ....................................................................................................... 39
3.3.5 Government and Other Agencies ............................................................. 40
3.3.6 Assessment of input from stakeholders and the public ............................. 40
3.4 General installation methods......................................................................... 41
3.4.1 Installation process ................................................................................... 42
3.4.2 Environmental impact of cable installation and cable in service ............... 43
3.4.3 Time restrictions ....................................................................................... 43
3.5 Consenting (Permissions) process ............................................................... 43
3.5.1 Possible cable routes ............................................................................... 43
3.5.2 Overview of permits needed ..................................................................... 43
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3.5.3 Legal requirements and conditions ........................................................... 44

3.5.4 Process for obtaining permissions ............................................................ 44
4 SYSTEM DESIGN ............................................................................................. 45
4.1 Topology ....................................................................................................... 45
4.1.1 Type of connections to shore ................................................................... 45
4.1.2 Grid code requirements ............................................................................ 49
4.2 Array cables .................................................................................................. 49
4.2.1 Cable sections .......................................................................................... 50
4.2.2 Losses in array cables .............................................................................. 50
4.2.3 Rated current MV switchgear ................................................................... 50
4.2.4 Rated current for MV transformer windings .............................................. 51
4.2.5 Voltage levels for array cabling................................................................. 51
4.2.6 Configuration of the array cabling ............................................................. 51
4.2.7 Overview regarding the array cabling ....................................................... 53
4.3 Export cables ................................................................................................ 54
4.3.1 AC or DC Connection to shore ................................................................. 54
4.3.2 AC solutions ............................................................................................. 55
4.3.3 DC solutions ............................................................................................. 58
4.4 Reactive compensation in AC Systems ........................................................ 58
4.4.1 Reactive power contribution by turbines ................................................... 59
4.4.2 Reactive power contribution by shunt reactors ......................................... 59
4.5 Losses .......................................................................................................... 60
4.5.1 AC versus DC........................................................................................... 61
4.5.2 Capitalisation of losses ............................................................................. 61
4.6 Economic analysis ........................................................................................ 62
4.7 Wind farm output .......................................................................................... 63
4.7.1 Output of wind turbines............................................................................. 63
4.7.2 Load profile............................................................................................... 64
4.8 Availability – Reliability .................................................................................. 65
4.9 System studies and simulations .................................................................... 66
4.9.1 Dynamic behaviour when switching reactive compensation ..................... 67
5 CABLE DESIGN ............................................................................................... 68
5.1 Generic cable design .................................................................................... 68
5.1.1 Array cables ............................................................................................. 68
5.1.2 HVAC Export cables ................................................................................. 68
5.1.3 HVDC Export cables................................................................................. 69
5.1.4 Cable illustrations ..................................................................................... 69
5.2 Conductor design .......................................................................................... 70
5.2.1 Electrical conductivity ............................................................................... 70
5.2.2 Mechanical strength and flexibility ............................................................ 70
5.2.3 Corrosion resistance................................................................................. 70
5.2.4 Weight issues ........................................................................................... 70
5.2.5 Economic issues such as availability, initial cost and operating cost ........ 71
5.2.6 Conductor’s shape ................................................................................... 71
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5.2.7 Water penetration/propagation ................................................................. 71

5.3 Insulation system .......................................................................................... 72
5.3.1 Semiconducting screens .......................................................................... 72
5.3.2 Insulation .................................................................................................. 72
5.4 Metallic screen, sheath and water barrier ..................................................... 74
5.4.1 Metallic Screen ......................................................................................... 74
5.4.2 Metallic sheath ......................................................................................... 75
5.4.3 Radial and longitudinal water-tightness .................................................... 76
5.5 Armour .......................................................................................................... 77
5.5.1 Tensional strength .................................................................................... 78
5.5.2 Torsion ..................................................................................................... 79
5.5.3 Protection ................................................................................................. 80
5.5.4 Armour losses .......................................................................................... 80
5.5.5 Corrosion .................................................................................................. 80
5.6 Outer serving ................................................................................................ 81
5.7 Optical fibres ................................................................................................. 81
5.7.1 Data transmission ..................................................................................... 81
5.7.2 Temperature measurement ...................................................................... 81
5.7.3 Fault localisation ....................................................................................... 82
5.7.4 Design of FO systems .............................................................................. 82
5.8 Accessories .................................................................................................. 83
5.8.1 Joints ........................................................................................................ 83
5.8.2 Cable terminations ................................................................................... 84
5.8.3 Subsea connectors ................................................................................... 84
5.8.4 Offshore cable accessories ...................................................................... 85
5.9 Rating ........................................................................................................... 86
5.9.1 Analytical and empirical methods ............................................................. 86
5.9.2 Numerical methods .................................................................................. 86
5.9.3 Methods to maintain cable rating at critical locations ................................ 87
5.9.4 Increase the cable rating .......................................................................... 87
6 CABLE INSTALLATION ................................................................................... 88
6.1 General ......................................................................................................... 88
6.2 Planning ........................................................................................................ 89
6.2.1 Planning of the complete work and coordination with other parties .......... 89
6.2.2 Organisation, Procedures, Work Instructions, Documentation.................. 89
6.2.3 Weather and Environmental Conditions ................................................... 91
6.2.4 Route Engineering .................................................................................... 91
6.2.5 Burial Assessment Study .......................................................................... 91
6.2.6 Other issues ............................................................................................. 92
6.3 Installation Engineering ................................................................................. 92
6.3.1 Cable engineering .................................................................................... 92
6.3.2 Route preparation ..................................................................................... 93
6.3.3 Cable and pipeline crossing ..................................................................... 94
6.3.4 Cable landing (cable pulling in HDD, transition joint etc.) ......................... 96
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6.3.5 HDD (Horizontal Directional Drilling) ........................................................ 98

6.3.6 Submarine cable protection ...................................................................... 99
6.3.7 Scour phenomena and protection ........................................................... 104
6.3.8 Cable laying/burial parameter control and monitoring ............................. 104
6.3.9 Guarding exposed cable (between laying and protection) ...................... 105
6.3.10 Planned offshore joints ......................................................................... 105
6.3.11 Pull-in operation at offshore platform / wind turbines ............................ 106
6.3.12 Storage ................................................................................................ 108
6.4 Operational Management ........................................................................... 108
6.5 Cable Laying Vessels and Equipment......................................................... 109
6.5.1 Cable Barges.......................................................................................... 109
6.5.2 Cable Ships ............................................................................................ 110
6.6 Operational Reporting ................................................................................. 113
6.6.1 Progress reports ..................................................................................... 113
6.6.2 As-laid documentation ............................................................................ 114
7 TESTING......................................................................................................... 115
7.1 Different test types ...................................................................................... 115
7.2 Comments to the tests ................................................................................ 116
7.2.1 Routine tests / Factory Acceptance test (FAT) ....................................... 116
7.2.2 Handover test ......................................................................................... 117
7.2.3 Sample tests........................................................................................... 117
7.2.4 Type tests ............................................................................................... 117
7.2.5 Prequalification test (PQ) - AC above 30 (36) kV and Extruded DC ....... 118
7.2.6 Extension of qualification (EQ) AC above 30 (36) kV ............................. 119
7.2.7 Mechanical type test ............................................................................... 119
7.2.8 Development tests .................................................................................. 119
7.2.9 After installation test AC ......................................................................... 120
7.2.10 After installation test DC cables............................................................ 121
7.2.11 Measurements (AC and DC) ................................................................ 121
7.2.12 Integrated Fibre Optical cables ............................................................ 121
7.3 Standards and recommendations ............................................................... 122
7.3.1 AC .......................................................................................................... 122
7.3.2 DC .......................................................................................................... 123
7.3.3 Integrated Fibre Optical cables ............................................................... 124
8 SERVICE, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR ..................................................... 125
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 125
8.2 Time based maintenance activities ............................................................. 126
8.2.1 External conditions controlling the maintenance activities ...................... 126
8.2.2 Cable route survey ................................................................................. 126
8.2.3 Transition joint pit inspection .................................................................. 126
8.2.4 Shore erosion ......................................................................................... 126
8.2.5 Land cable route inspection .................................................................... 126
8.2.6 Scour protection around cable entry for platform .................................... 127
8.2.7 Inspection on platform ............................................................................ 127
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8.2.8 Inspection on complementary hardware ................................................. 127

8.2.9 Inspection of Spare parts........................................................................ 127
8.2.10 Measurements ..................................................................................... 127
8.3 Condition based maintenance activities ...................................................... 128
8.4 Corrective maintenance .............................................................................. 128
8.5 Monitoring of submarine cable systems ...................................................... 128
8.5.1 Distributed Temperature Sensing ........................................................... 129
8.5.2 Vibration monitoring and acoustic monitoring with optical fibres ............. 129
8.5.3 Shipping activities around submarine cable route .................................. 129
8.6 Spare parts management ........................................................................... 129
8.7 Service contracts ........................................................................................ 130
8.8 Repair after cable failure ............................................................................. 130
8.8.1 Fault localisation ..................................................................................... 130
8.8.2 Route determination and cable identification .......................................... 133
8.8.3 Final localisation ..................................................................................... 133
8.8.4 Mobilisation for cable repair .................................................................... 133
8.8.5 Repair of submarine cables .................................................................... 134
8.9 Decommissioning........................................................................................ 134
9 DYNAMIC CABLES FOR OTHER TYPES OF GENERATION ....................... 136
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 136
9.2 Dynamic cables .......................................................................................... 136
9.2.1 Mechanical constraints ........................................................................... 136
9.2.2 Structural behaviour analysis ................................................................. 139
9.2.3 Dynamic cable design ............................................................................ 139
9.3 Complementary Hardware .......................................................................... 141
9.3.1 Bend stiffener ......................................................................................... 141
9.3.2 Buoyancy modules ................................................................................. 143
9.3.3 Helical strakes ........................................................................................ 143
9.3.4 Top side hang-off ................................................................................... 143
9.3.5 Protection sleeves for the touch-down point ........................................... 143
9.3.6 Transition point dynamic/static ............................................................... 144
9.4 Maintenance of dynamic cables .................................................................. 145
9.5 Test of dynamic cables ............................................................................... 145
10 GUIDANCE TO TENDERS ........................................................................... 146
10.1 Information used for geophysical surveys ................................................. 146
10.2 Information used for geotechnical surveys ................................................ 146
10.3 Information used for cable dimensioning .................................................. 146
10.4 Information used for cable installation....................................................... 147
10.5 Information used for mechanical protection of submarine cable ............... 148
11 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. 149
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................... 150
12.1 Reference list............................................................................................ 150
12.2 Further reading ......................................................................................... 153
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13 APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 156

Appendix A - Selection of cable routes ................................................................ 156
A.1 Steps to examine during route selection...................................................... 156
A.2 Example of Cable Route Selection .............................................................. 157
Appendix B - Examples of sea charts .................................................................. 160
B.1 Bathymetry .................................................................................................. 160
B.2 Enviromental ............................................................................................... 160
B.3 Military boundaries ...................................................................................... 161
B.4 Mooring areas/shipping lanes ..................................................................... 161
B.5 Pipe wells and pipes.................................................................................... 162
B.6 Example – Rhyl Flats wind park .................................................................. 162
Appendix C - Geophysical surveys ...................................................................... 163
C.1 Side scan sonar .......................................................................................... 163
C.2 Sub bottom profile ....................................................................................... 163
Appendix D - Examples of grid connection solutions ........................................... 165
D.1 Case study, London Array wind farm, AC export cable solution .................. 165
D.2 Case study, German offshore wind farms ................................................... 166
D.3 Reference list of wind farms in operation .................................................... 168
D.4 Load profiles from wind farms ..................................................................... 169
D.5 Dimensioning based on wind production data or wind predictions .............. 171
Appendix E - Cable Installation ............................................................................ 178
E.1 Burial tools, overview .................................................................................. 178
Appendix F - Fault localisation ............................................................................. 179
F.1 Diagnostic methods for fault localisation on submarine cables .................... 179
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years the number and size of installed offshore wind farms have increased rapidly and more and
larger farms are being planned. Other types of offshore generation are expected to come in the near
future, such as tidal and wave energy generation. Submarine cables are and will be an essential part of
this development where they are used as array cables between the generators, as export cables to
connect the offshore generation farms with the onshore transmission grid and even as part of
interconnections between different synchronous systems, countries or price areas.
Because of this expansion of the industry with many new developers, operators and decision makers,
Cigré Study Committee B1 (SC B1) recognised the importance to participate in broadening the
understanding and knowledge of the special challenges related to offshore cable projects. The Technical
Brochure (TB) is a guide for both experienced professionals, who have worked with submarine cables
(design and/or installation) for years, and for engineers with no or limited knowledge in this area. In
addition, people working with consenting issues, authorities, consultants, investors, insurance companies
and other stakeholders will benefit from the overview in this TB regarding challenges and possibilities in
offshore cable projects.
FIGURE 0-1 OFFSHORE WIND FARM
2. SCOPE
The scope of work presented in this technical brochure includes the following main items:
• Initial studies and consenting process
• Choice of HVAC or HVDC technology
• Submarine cable characteristics and cable rating
• Cable installation
• Cable service and maintenance
• Export cables and array cables
• Dynamic cables for floating generation or platforms
Above listed topics regarding submarine cables are treated, so the document is a comprehensive guide to
cables for offshore generation and submarine cables generally. Many subjects are covered at a general
level, and if the reader wants to go into detail, there are frequent references to other TBs.
Interconnections between different countries, synchronous systems or price areas and eventually future
offshore grid solutions can be treated as HVAC or HVDC export cables.
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3. DESCRIPTION OF THE TECHNICAL BROCHURE

The technical brochure is covering the main issues to be considered in the planning, consenting,
purchasing, installation and maintenance process of submarine cable systems.
Chapter 1 is a short introduction to the TB and how it can be used.
Chapter 2 contains definitions of abbreviations and terms, which are used in the TB or in the literature
about submarine cables and offshore work.
Chapter 3 describes the initial studies and surveys which should be performed in an offshore cable
project. These are often necessary when planning the cable routes and preparing the consenting
process. Compared with onshore activities the offshore work is much more complicated. The basis in the
discussion with authorities, with cable manufacturers and installation companies is the charts and
offshore surveys of the possible cable routes.
Authorities often require that the sea bed conditions are studied and documented in order to assess the
environmental impact. The environmental impact should be studied related to installation work. Often,
better knowledge results in “better conditions” attached to the permission. That is why surveys are
important in the first stage.
Prior to installation of submarine cables it is very important that there is a thorough knowledge of the
seabed conditions, e.g. water depth, current, sediment transport, wrecks and other assets like cables and
pipes. To protect the cables during their whole life time, they are normally buried into the seabed. The
seabed and the soil conditions can be found through geophysical and geotechnical surveys and they may
determine the burial method. The burial depth is dependent of the soil conditions and the type of threats
to the cable.
Chapter 4 covers the overall system design, where different topologies are discussed. One of the
important choices to make is the degree of redundancy. How many connections from the offshore
substation shall be made to the connection point onshore? What type of connections shall be in the array
grid? What is the right voltage level and what are the losses in the different solutions? The choice
between AC and DC connection is discussed in this chapter.
The power transmission in export cables from offshore wind farms is very fluctuating, because the
production follows the fluctuating wind speed. In order not to design the cables larger than necessary,
some guidelines are given, expressing how to translate an expected wind load into a load profile for the
submarine cable. The load profile can be used as a basis for rating calculation and used in the cable
design.
Chapter 5 discusses the submarine cable design; in particular different types of conductors, insulation
material, screen etc. The function of the different layers is explained.
Submarine cables deviate from land cables in more ways. The submarine cables are normally placed in
salt water for their entire life time. AC submarine cables are normally three-core cables, where land
cables are single-core cables. The submarine cables may be subject to relatively large mechanical forces
during cable laying and possible later repair – depending on water depth. The submarine cables must be
designed to withstand these impacts.
In this TB it is shown how MVAC, HVAC or HVDC submarine cables can be designed. A number of
examples are included and some general recommendations given. The objective is not to guide the cable
designer, but to guide the purchaser, consultant etc. and give a better understanding of what to take into
account in the design phase.
In Chapter 6 the cable installation is discussed. This chapter covers the planning process, the
engineering of the installation, the operational management and reporting and a description of cable
laying vessels and equipment.
Page 10
When assets are installed offshore, the costs are significantly higher compared to onshore installation
and the repair cost in case of failure can be very high. Therefore it is very important that all work is well
prepared and follows best practice. Procedures for the different type of work should be agreed before
starting installation or maintenance. The TB does not describe specific procedures, but it draws attention
to the actions and procedures that should be made.
FIGURE 0-2 INSTALLATION OF HVAC EXPORT CABLE
Chapter 7 is about testing of submarine cable systems. This chapter gives an understanding and an
overview of tests relevant for submarine cables and makes references to other TBs from Cigré and
international standards.
Chapter 8 covers the maintenance of submarine cable systems. Offshore installations are in a very
severe environment and it might be necessary to make surveys on a regular basis to find out, if the
submarine cable and its accessories are in a good condition and e.g. still at the required burial depth.
Terminations and other equipment above water can be checked with conventional methods, but cables
buried into the seabed need special equipment.
Chapter 9 deals with submarine cables for offshore generation other than offshore wind turbines in
shallow water. There is focus on floating generation which demands the use of dynamic cables. Floating
generation can be wind, wave or tide. Special mechanical requirements to dynamic cables are discussed
in this chapter.
Chapter 10 is a summary of information that should be provided to companies offering offshore surveys
or companies offering delivery, installation or burial of submarine cables. The chapter does not give a
complete list of all possible requirements or all necessary information, but focus on the most basic
decisions and information to be provided in connection with tender processes related to this type of
offshore work.
Chapter 11 gives a short summary of the brochure and some conclusions.
Chapter 12 is the bibliography, which contains literature covering more aspects than can be covered in
this brochure. In the different chapters of the TB there are references to the papers and reports
mentioned in the first section of the bibliography. Other papers, which are mentioned in the second
section of the bibliography, are for further reading.
Chapter 13 describes relevant examples and cases about offshore surveys and submarine cable
connections to wind farms.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
The technical brochure gives an overview of the main issues related to cable projects for connecting
offshore power generation. There is an introduction to geophysical and geotechnical surveys, which are
of great importance for such projects. System design and cable design are basic elements in offshore
generation projects. Installation and maintenance are important to understand, to reduce risks and costs
during the engineering phase. The TB has focused on offshore wind farms, but the principles can also be
applied to any submarine cable connection. Also, there is a separate chapter describing dynamic cables,
which are relevant for floating applications.
Besides the technical descriptions, many illustrations and photos have been included to make the
technical brochure easy to read and understand.
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Terms of reference
Cigré Study Committee B1 (Insulated Cables) decided in September 2011 to launch a working group
(WG B1.40) with the title “Offshore Generation Cable Connections”. The Terms of Reference for the
working group is shown below:
Background :
Today a lot of offshore wind farms have been built or are under construction - and even more farms are
already planned. Wind farms have got the main focus, but also cable connections to other types of
offshore generations will come. So at this moment there are already gathered a lot of experiences about
the cables for grid connection, and a lot of that experience could be shared in a Cigré Technical
Brochure(TB) to the common benefit of the entire industry.
For a good part of the offshore projects the companies responsible for the grid connection (TSOs, turnkey
park builders etc.) are first time buyers and do not have experience in purchasing submarine cable, let
alone submarine cables for offshore generation, and some guidance should therefore be appreciated.
Also for the manufacturers mistakes could be avoided with a common knowledge base, and the benefit of
having a well-informed customer is always evident.
There is a need for guidance for asset owners, TSOs, turnkey park builders, cable manufacturers etc.
about relevant studies and surveys to get permission from the authorities, the choices between
technological solutions, the cable design and installation methods for cable connections to offshore
generations.
Scope :
All topics shall be treated so the document can be a comprehensive guide to cables for offshore
generation and interconnection. A lot of the subject can be covered by references to other works, but
shall be mentioned, given the very different background of the readers. The TB covers the following:
1. Initial studies for permission, choice of technology, submarine cable characteristics, cable rating,
installation, service and maintenance
2. Export cables, inter array cables and interconnections
3. Medium and high voltage AC cables
4. HVDC export cables
5. Dynamic cables for floating generation or platforms shall be mentioned
The TB covers the following headings Technical and Strategic issues identified by Cigré as important:
Technical issues:
Increase of right of way capacity and use of overhead, underground and subsea infrastructure, and its
consequence on the technical performance and reliability of the network.
An increasing need for keeping Stakeholders aware of the technical and commercial consequences and
keeping them engaged during the development of the network of the future.
Strategic direction:
The electrical power system of the future
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1.2 Introduction to technical brochure

This technical brochure is written for non-experienced submarine cable users as well as experienced
users. There are sections that experienced users are so familiar with that they can be skipped in the
reading, but may find useful to review.
The brochure is written as a guide for people who are interested in cable connections to offshore wind
farms or other type of offshore generation. The internal cables between the generators (array cables) are
also discussed in the brochure.
The guide can be used as a general guide about submarine cables. The focus in the brochure is how to
handle submarine cables related to offshore wind farms, but the same principles and procedures can be
used for submarine cables for other types of generation. Submarine cables for floating platforms and
generators have their own chapter. These dynamic cables are exposed to high mechanical stresses and
have to fulfil special requirements, which are not generally applicable for “ordinary” static submarine
cables.
Interconnectors, which can be submarine cables in between different countries, between offshore
platfoms or ordinary offshore transmission lines, are not discussed as a specific issue. Interconnectors
can be made with either HVAC or HVDC cables. These cables are generally discussed as export cables
from offshore platforms.
There may be different terms covering the same subject. For example wind turbine and wind generator
are regarded as synonymous. In the same way, the term offshore platform is synonymous with OHVS
(offshore high voltage substation) and offshore substation platform.
The guide can not cover all details, however in this brochure it is possible to get a first knowledge of main
subjects relating to submarine cables – including the necessary offshore surveys and installation issues.
If more details are needed, references to other technical brochures from Cigré or other reports are
mentioned.
WG B1.39 is preparing a similar report, Onshore Generation Cable Connections, which also may be of
general interest to the reader.
WG B4.55 is preparing a report, HVDC connection of offshore wind power plants, which considers system
aspects e.g. voltages, frequencies, protection etc.
Other companies and associations have made similar reports on the same subjects. There may be
relevant information in these reports, which can be found in the bibliography (Chapter 12).
Safety and insurance issues are very important, nevertheless, these topics are not part of the scope, but
may be mentioned in this brochure. For further investigations other reports may be consulted.
1.3 Contents of technical brochure

The technical brochure covers the main issues to be studied in the planning, consenting, purchasing,
installation and maintenance process.
Chapter 1 is an introduction to the technical brochure.
Chapter 2 contains definitions of abbreviations and terms, which are used in this brochure or in the
literature about submarine cables and offshore work. Generally the abbreviations are explained or written
in full text, so it is not necessary to look in the explanation chapter so often. The list can also be used to
understand abbreviations found in other brochures, reports etc.
Chapter 3 discusses Initial Studies, Surveys and Permissions and details planning of cable routes
including the possible surveys and consenting process.
Page 14
Chapter 4 discusses the System Design, where different topologies are evaluated and the choice
between AC and DC connection is considered.
Chapter 5 discusses the Cable Design, detailing the construction of submarine cables with different types
of conductors, insulation material, screen etc. and the function of the different layers are explained.
Chapter 6 discusses the Cable Installation. This chapter covers the planning process, the engineering of
the installation, the operational management and reporting and a description of cable laying vessels and
equipment.
Chapter 7 discusses the Testing of submarine cable systems. This chapter gives an understanding and
an overview of tests relevant for submarine cables and makes references to other technical brochures
from Cigré and international standards.
Chapter 8 discusses the Maintenance of submarine cable systems. Offshore installations are in a very
severe environment and it is recommended to make surveys on a regular basis to find out, if the
submarine cable and its accessories are in a good condition.
Chapter 9 discusses Submarine cables for other types of generation other than offshore wind. There is
focus on floating platforms or generators which demand the use of dynamic cables. Floating generators
can be wind, wave or tide generators. Special mechanical requirements to dynamic cables are discussed
in this chapter.
Chapter 10 discusses, Guidance to Tenders, This is a summery of information that a cable-client should
provide to companies offering offshore surveys, delivery or installation of submarine cables. The chapter
doesn’t give a complete list of all possible requirements or all necessary information but focus on the
most basic decisions and information to be provided in connection with tender processes related to this
type of offshore work.
Chapter 11 is a Conclusion with an abstract.
Chapter 12 is the Bibliography, which contains literature covering more aspects than can be covered in
this brochure. In the different chapters of this brochure there are references to the papers and reports
mentioned in the first section of the Bibliography. Other papers, which are mentioned in the second
section of the Bibliography, are for further reading.
Chapter 13, Appendices, has relevant examples and cases about offshore surveys and submarine cable
connections to wind farms.
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2 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Subject/abbreviation Definition
3C-cable Three-core cable: 3 insulated conductors assembled into the same

(armoured) protection, leading to one cable per 3-phase circuit.
ADCP Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler. Similar to sonar, a method to record the
current strength in the water column and to measure water current
velocities.
After Installation Test Tests made to demonstrate the integrity of the cable system as installed.
AIS Air Insulated Switchgear. Switchgear in open air - often used in HV and
EHV substations on land and in DC stations.
AIS Automatic Identification System. An automatic tracking system to identify

and locate vessels (method of collision avoidance and used for achieving
historical shipping data).
Array cable A cable used to collect the power from the individual offshore turbines or
connect the turbines with an offshore HVAC substation.
AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle. A robot which travels underwater without

requiring input from an operator (like a ROV without an umbilical).
BAS Burial Assessment Study. A study of the soil conditions to determine

appropriate burial resources.
CAPEX Capital Expenditures. Funds to acquire or upgrade physical assets such as

property, industrial buildings or equipment, allocated by a company to
maintain or increase the scope of its operations.
CAR Contractors All Risk. An insurance specially designed to cover projects

involving civil engineering works, providing coverage against unforeseen
and sudden loss or damage from any cause, other than those specifically
excluded.
CBM Condition Based Maintenance. To perform preventive maintenance based

on present condition of the component. Maintenance of HVAC
underground cables and accessories is described in TB 279.
CCTV Closed-Circuit TeleVision, Use of cameras to monitor or observe remote

locations or activities from a central control room (e.g. when the
environment is not suitable for humans, typically fixed on an ROV to
observe cable installation activities).
CM Corrective Maintenance. To repair or replace broken items.
Connection Point The Connection Point is the point where the grid codes apply. This can be
at the onshore grid, at the individual turbines, or at an offshore substation.
This point is also called the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) or Point of
Connection.
CPS Cable Protection System. Mechanical protection of a submarine cable.
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CPT Cone Penetrometer Test - is a geotechnical method used to determine the

engineering properties of soil.
CSM Charge Simulation Method. Numerical method.
DCR Dynamic Cable Rating. Same as RTTR (Real Time Thermal Rating).
DDV Drop Down Video – used for visual inspection of seabed and habitats.
dGPS Differential Global Positioning System. Navigational system enhanced by

differential signals derived from remote reference stations.
DoB Depth of Burial. Vertical distance from upper surface of installed cable to
mean seabed level.
DoC Depth of Cover. Thickness of layer of natural seabed material or placed

protection materials, e.g. rock dump, above the upper surface of an
installed cable.
DoL Depth of Lay. Vertical distance from bottom of installed cable to mean
seabed level.
DP 1 and DP 2 Dynamic Positioning system. Computer-controlled system to automatically

maintain a vessel's position and heading. DP 2 has more redundancy than
DP 1.
DPR Daily Progress Report. Report issued every twenty four hours detailing
progress and significant events and proposed actions for next period.
DTS Distributed Temperature Sensing system. Based on optical fibres as a

continuous sensor and reflectometry, system giving temperature along
several km of cable route and able to identify critical hot spot locations.
DWA Double Wire Armour. Cable protection by two layers of wires to improve the
mechanical performance against special external constraints, torsion,
lateral or pulling efforts.
EHV Extra High Voltage. IEC considers a range II for insulation levels from
220 kV (Um = 245 kV).
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment. Study to predict the potential

environmental consequences of a project, providing measures to adjust
impacts to acceptable levels. Ensures that decision makers consider the
environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a
project.
EMF Electro Magnetic Field. Field generated by a circulating current, e.g. in a

power cable. Unit = Tesla (T) (usual in the µT range).
EPR Ethylene Propylene Rubber. Synthetic elastomer used as insulation

material in some submarine power cables.
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone. A sea zone (200 nautical miles from the coastal
baseline) prescribed by UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea) relative to special rights of a state over the exploration and use
of marine resources, including energy production from water and wind.
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Export cable A cable connecting an offshore substation to the grid (onshore or offshore),
to export the renewable energy. In case there is no offshore platform, the
cable(s) used for transmission of collected power from the offshore
generation park to shore, is (are) also export cable(s).
FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System. Thyristor-based

technology for power control systems, used to increase the capacity of
power lines and to improve transmission system flexibility.
Failure The termination of the ability of an item to perform a required function. After
failure, the item has a fault. "Failure" is an event, as distinguished from
"fault", which is a state.
FAT Factory Acceptance Test. Tests made by the manufacturer on the

completed cable to check that each length of cable meets the specified
requirements. These tests are often carried out in the presence of the
customer. Factory Acceptance Test usually just refers to the normal routine
test performed on final lengths of cable just before shipping, as agreed.
Fault The state of an item characterised by inability to perform a required

function, excluding the inability during preventive maintenance or other
planned actions, or due to lack of external resources. - A fault is often the
result of a failure of the item itself, but may exist without prior failure.
FDM Finite Difference Method. Numerical method to approximate the solutions

to differential equations using finite difference equations to approximate
derivatives.
FEM Finite Element Method. Numerical method to find approximate solutions to

boundary value problems for differential equations.
FO Fibre-optic. Used in cable systems to deliver information such as remote

control or measurement data (e.g. temperature monitoring).
GIS Gas Insulated Switchgear. Device in a substation used to de-energise

(disconnect) equipment, intentionally or to clear a fault, highly influencing
the performance and reliability of the electricity supply. The use of efficient
insulating gas reduces the size of equipment.
GPS Global Positioning System. Stand-alone navigational system for vessels

and used to report with accuracy the location of cable route.
Grid Code The Grid Code establishes the rules governing the operation, maintenance
and expansion of the transmission system and sets out the procedures for
governing the actions of all transmission system users.
Handover Test Test made when cable responsibility changes hands, to help determine, if
the cable has been damaged in the previous process/handling.
HDD Horizontal Directional Drilling. A trenchless method of installing ducts under

geographical features such as rivers or sea defences.
HDPE High Density Polyethylene. Plastic material often used for cable ducts, e.g.
those installed by HDD under sea defences.
HPFF High Pressure Fluid Filled (Cable). HV cable system with an insulation
system of paper impregnated with low viscosity fluid under high pressure
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HV High Voltage. The voltage range:

30 kV (Um = 36 kV) < HV < 220 kV (Um = 245 kV)
HVAC High Voltage Alternating Current, which electricity is delivered to business

activities and residents.
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current. Allows the power transmission on long
distance, with lower losses, between unsynchronized AC transmission
systems.
ICPC International Cable Protection Committee. Association of submarine cable

owners providing guidance on issues related to submarine cable planning,
installation, operation, maintenance, protection and retirement.
Inter array cable The same as “array cable”.
I-tube Tube formed as an “I” attached to a platform or foundation to facilitate,

support and protect cable entry to the platform/generator.
J-tube Tube formed as a “J” attached to a platform or foundation to facilitate,

support and protect cable entry to the platform/generator.
KP Kilometre Point. Distance along the cable route. KP 0.00 normally being at
the transition joint or offshore termination point of the cable.
kt Knot. Nautical measurement of velocity, approximately equal to 0.5 ms-¹.
LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide. Height of the sea water at the lowest possible
theoretical tide, predicted under average meteorological conditions, used to
define chart datums.
LCC Line-Commutated Converter. A HVDC system using Line Commutated

Converters. LCC is a converter that has the feature of changing voltage
polarity on the cable system when the direction of power flow is reversed.
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene. Thermoplastic material with free radical

polymerization, used for the earliest extruded cables.
LIDAR Light Detection And Ranging, normally used for laser surveying on shore,
however, can be used for metrological observations from a fixed location.
MBR Minimum Bending Radius. Bending limit to prevent any prejudicial

distortion of the cable.
MDPE Medium Density Polyethylene. Type of polyethylene whose density is

between LDPE and HDPE, used for extruded insulation.
MHT Maximum Handling Tension
MI (MIND) Mass Impregnated (Non Draining) (HVDC cables). HVDC cables with an
insulation system of paper or PPL impregnated with high viscosity oil.
Multi Terminal Multi-terminal HVDC links, connecting more than two points.
Systems
MV Medium Voltage. The voltage range: 6 ≤ MV ≤ 30 kV (Um = 36 kV).
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Offshore substation Substation designed for the purpose of transforming the voltage from the
collection voltage to a suitable transmission voltage for efficiently exporting
the power to the onshore network.
OHVS Offshore High Voltage Substation. Generally installed on a platform.
OOS Out Of Service. Removed from operation.
OPEX Operational expenses. Expenditures such as salaries or maintenance

necessary to a company to perform its normal business operations.
OTDR Optical Time Domain Reflectometry. Test device for identifying and locating
deficiencies in an optical fibre.
OWF Offshore Wind Farm. Set of turbines (traditional fixed-bottom or floating)

generating electricity from wind.
OWP Offshore Wind Park – the same as Offshore Wind Farm (OWF).
PCC Point of Common Coupling (grid connection). Same as Connection Point.
PLGR Pre Lay Grapnel Run. Method of clearing seabed surface of debris,
particularly cables and wires not detected during survey, from full length of
the cable route immediately prior to cable laying operations.
PPL Polypropylene Paper Laminate. This material has been developed for MI
cable application in order to increase the maximum transmissible power of
about 30 % with respect to the traditional paper insulated paper, due to the
maximum conductor working temperature of up to 80-85 °C.
PQ Test Prequalification test, Test made before supplying on a general commercial

basis a type of cable system, in order to demonstrate satisfactory long term
performance of the complete cable system.
RC Route Clearance. Removal of known OOS cables and hindrances to cable

laying and hazards to cable integrity prior to any laying operation.
Routine test Tests made by the manufacturer on all manufactured components (length
of cable or accessory) to check that the component meets the specified
requirements.
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle. Highly manoeuvrable tethered vehicle,

remotely controlled by a crew aboard a vessel.
RPL Route Position List – table of coordinates for significant events or features
of a cable system, e.g. start and finish points, alterations of course,
geographical limits, and other information such as water depths.
RTTR Real Time Thermal Rating. A real-time system translating measured

temperatures into the conductor temperature, and making predictions by
calculating the transient temperature change as a result of a given current.
Detailed in TB 247 as DCR (Dynamic Cable Rating).
Sample Test Tests made by the manufacturer on samples of complete cable or

components taken from a complete cable or accessory, at a specified
frequency, so as to verify that the finished product meets the specified
requirements.
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SAT Site Acceptance Test - same as After Installation Test
SCFF Self Contained Fluid Filled (Cable). HV cable system with an insulation
system of paper impregnated with low viscosity fluid
SSSI Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Conservation designation denoting a

protected area (geological conservation, nature reserves, special protected
areas etc.)
STATCOM Synchronous Static Compensators. Regulating device used on AC

transmission grid, based on power electronics VSC converter, acting as a
source or sink of reactive power, used to improve networks of poor power
factor or poor voltage regulation.
Substation platform An offshore platform, accommodating switchgear, transformers, cable

terminations for OWP inter-array and export cables.
SVC Static Var Compensator. Non rotating device providing reactive power on
AC networks.
SWA Single Wire Armour. Cable protection by one layer of wires to improve the
mechanical performance against external constraints, lateral or pulling
efforts.
TBM Time Based Maintenance. Maintenance based on specified predetermined

schedule.
TCO Total Cost of Ownership, TCO = CAPEX + OPEX.
TD Touch Down. During the installation of the cable on the seabed it is

essential to control the location and the bending radius at the cable touch
down point.
TDM Touch Down Monitoring, real time monitoring by video or other means of
cable touch down on seabed.
TDR Time Domain Reflectometry. Testing method utilizing the electrical

response to an impulse for proving the integrity of power cables, giving
possible information to characterize and to locate faults.
TSO A Transmission System Operator is an operator that transmits electrical

power from generation plants over the electrical transmission grid to
regional or local electricity distribution operators.
Type test Tests made before supplying on a general commercial basis a type of
submarine cable system, in order to demonstrate satisfactory performance
characteristics to meet the intended application.
UXO Un-Exploded Ordnance. Explosive weapons (e.g. bombs or mines) that did
not explode and still present a risk of detonation, potentially decades after
their presumed use. (Sometimes met with acronym UO).
Vessel A vehicle for sea transportation including: barge, boat, ship, life boat, rigid
inflatable boat or pontoon.
VLF Very Low Frequency. A cable testing technique to measure insulation

losses (tan δ) and to detect faults in the cable system insulation.
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VSC Voltage-Source Converters – VSC is a converter that does not change the
voltage polarity of the cable system when the direction of power flow is
reversed.
XLPE Cross Linked Polyethylene. Thermo setting insulation material used in AC

cables and in DC cables used with VSC-converters.
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3 INITIAL STUDIES, SURVEYS AND PERMISSIONS

In connection with offshore projects (wind farms or similar) a lot of studies are made before the location of
the generation site is decided. This process will not be described in this report.
Therefore, it is in the following presupposed that the position of the offshore generation site is established
and only the process of how to develop the routes for the cable connections in between the generators
and the export cable to shore is described. The solution for the overall technical solution and system
design will also be established in parallel, since different solutions may have a significant impact on the
type and number of cable connections that should be studied. The system design is covered in Chapter 4.
The initial studies, surveys and permissions are for both the array cables and the submarine export
cables. In this section the focus is on the export cable routes, but the same considerations may be made
for every submarine cable route.
This chapter describes the various surveys currently available and possible permissions that may be
required. The chapter is divided into 5 sections:
1. Desktop studies
2. Pre-investigations
3. Stakeholders and the public
4. General installation methods
5. Consenting (permissions) process
In Appendix A an example shows how a cable route can be selected based on studies and surveys,
which are described in this chapter.
The main objective of the initial work is to gather sufficient data to make an overall and informed
assessment of which cable routes are the best and to obtain so much knowledge about the technical and
environmental issues, that it is possible to inform the authorities sufficiently to get the permits for the
offshore project.
As a side effect, a lot of the gathered information from the initial surveys may be used as input for detailed
design and construction either directly or with some coordination at little extra cost. Furthermore, the
cable route survey data are important to pass on to the operational phase of the cable.
It may be possible during the initial phase to take an overall look at the possibilities, challenges, risks and
costs. Some of the options may be skipped at this early stage due to them not being feasible, this can
save money and time.
Normally an offshore project involves onshore work packages to enable transportation of energy, these
onshore packages have to be taken into account in the assessment and the consenting process, and
particularly as the onshore cable routing will heavily influence the location of the subsea cable landfall
location. This can be a critical pinch point both for the consenting process and technically.
3.1 Desktop studies

The desktop study is made very early in the project. On the basis of land maps, sea charts, reports,
descriptions, regulations, laws etc. initial assessments shall be carried out to find possible corridors for
the cable routes – including the landfall.
3.1.1 Hydrographic charts

Hydrographic charts can be requested from the local Hydro-graphical office or they may refer to a
company dedicated to the sales of charts in that national body of water. Dependant on the location in the
world, there may be received very different quality of information. Some countries register all pipes, power
cables and communication links in their water and they are recorded on the charts, in other countries,
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these assets are not registered; therefore it is prudent to request what information they currently have. If
there is a knowledge gap, then it may need to be filled later on by survey work.
See examples of charts in Appendix B.
It is important that all parties involved in an offshore project agree on which geographical coordinate
system is used.
Survey routes
Some of the most basic charts available have nominal depths of the sea floor in relation to Lowest
Astronomical Tide (LAT); the lowest level that can be expected to occur under average meteorological
conditions but under any combination of astronomical conditions, this is referenced to a local harbour or
Datum point. Using the indicative depths and contours, the end location and the possible start locations; a
series of possible route corridors may be determined.
Crossings, e.g. telecommunications, oil/gas pipes, utility pipes, power cables

There already exists a large amount of infrastructure in the ocean, namely telecommunication cables,
pipes and inter-island power cables. With each asset it is understood that if there is a need to cross an
existing asset, then a legal agreement is required. This legal agreement can take months to form as
potential hazards and mitigations are established. Normal best practice for crossings is discussed in
ICPC documentation. It should be noted that electrical (e.g. induction), mechanical and earthing (e.g.
corrosion) issues are the norm for concern.
Areas with restrictions (anchoring, mining etc.)

Areas of ocean are often restricted/consented for various activities, these can include: dredging (mining),
dumping (depositing of, unexploded ordnance (UXO), boulders/sand from mudding activities, rocks/sands
for coastal defence etc.), military training area, holding locations outside ports/harbours, archaeology,
fishing grounds, diving/leisure areas, etc. This information, if not readily available with the charts, can be
found through various sources, normally harbour masters of the local area.
3.1.2 Shipping analysis

Carrying out a shipping analysis allows for a pro-active risk assessment, allowing pre-determination of the
risks, their mitigation and the cost of mitigation per km, which impacts on the viability of possible routes.
The following should be assessed:
• Marine activity/traffic and restrictions (drag net fishing, shipping lanes, increased risk of anchor
drop)
• Number of vessels
• Anchor sizes
A risk assessment should be done for each route and used in the weighting factor for the determination of
the final route; the Automatic Identification System (AIS) can assist in this manner as an inexpensive and
simple source of historical data on shipping traffic, fishing activities, anchoring practice and other marine
activities. .
3.1.3 Maritime spatial planning

Often it is possible to find traffic routes, cable corridors, mining areas, areas with raw material
reservations etc. on charts. To ensure that plans still not showed on charts will be taken into account, it is
recommended to contact the authorities responsible for maritime spatial planning. If the authorities have
plans that cannot be seen on the charts, time may be lost, if cable routes are planned without this
knowledge.
3.1.4 Seabed behaviour

The seabed is made up of a variety of soil conditions, from clay to sand and silt to rock. The seabed is
mobile, but the degree of mobility should be defined by a series of surveys over time, preferably years.
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The degree of mobility will determine the need for the number of surveys to be completed immediately
before the start of construction and during its lifetime to account for any change in sea-bed levels or
features. Seabed mobility can lead to cables being buried deeper with possible impact on cable rating or
to free spans where cable can be damaged by anchors or by strumming. The types of sea bed movement
are discussed below:
Sediment transport
Sediment transport is caused by a number of factors, namely the soil conditions and the marine current. If
it is a known area for high current then it is recommended that a survey be commissioned to assess the
impact of installing cables.
The cause/effects of sediment transportation are:

• High / heavy storms
• Estuaries (normal erosion or due to flood conditions)
• Walking sand waves
• Scour (removal of sediment around a structure by currents or waves)
• Accretion (the process where coastal sediments return to the visible portion of the beach
following storm erosion)
• Erosion
Man-made trenches in line with the current flow, may not backfill naturally, consideration of this issue
should be taken when trenching in parallel with the current.
Changes in the depth of local seabed sediments can result from natural processes (e.g. sand wave
migration; incipient erosion/accretion) and/or anthropogenic activities (e.g. dredging) and remain a
primary concern for marine developments.
At a local scale, and over short to medium time-scales (1 – 10 years), the primary risks concern the
vertical variability of the seabed, and its response to moderate and extreme events. In simple terms
changes in seabed elevation will occur wherever there is a local imbalance between sediment supplied
and sediment removed. The risk can be either an increase or decrease in level and the degree of concern
or tolerance to such change would depend on the asset at risk. A risk of bed level variation exists if:
• the hydrodynamic conditions are sufficient to mobilise or transport the regionally available
sediment; and,
• there is a significant thickness of mobile sediment present (which might be eroded or develop
mobile bedforms); or,
• a significant volume of mobile sediment is present outside of the immediate area and a sediment
transport pathway exists to connect it to the site (which might then accumulate).
Further, in complex areas of mobile sediments (e.g. sand waves) it is necessary to consider both
horizontal and vertical changes in seabed elevation attributable to the migration of bedforms. At larger
temporal and spatial scales, the risk is associated with long-term changes in sediment supply due to
natural changes (e.g. sea level changes; increase in magnitude and frequency of storms) or to
anthropogenic impacts.
With the increasing scale of development within the seas, there is a pressing need for better tools to
manage sediment mobility and sediment transport risks associated with developments through the project
life cycle.
At present, approaches used to predict changes in seabed sediment depth are limited by the availability,
accuracy and interpretation of disparate geological, geophysical, bathymetric and metocean information.
This can make project design and site selection problematic and can add further risks and costs to
activities and assets in operational phases of project life cycles.
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Typical approaches to determine the degree of seabed mobility and sediment transport include:
• Desk study based on empirical seabed mobility and sediment transport calculations. This requires
an understanding of the local area including the hydrodynamic regime, sediment characteristics,
water depths etc.
• Bedform analysis to determine rates and magnitude of bed level change. This involves comparing
bathymetric surveys to identify bedform (such as sand wave) migration rates and behaviour of
seabed features such as large sandbanks over time. A simple analysis of bedform asymmetry
provides a good high-level indicator of the net direction of sediment transport, noting that this
requires relatively high resolution bathymetry data in order to distinguish individual bedforms.
• Two-dimensional modelling of bedload sediment transport. This requires information on the
hydrodynamic regime, seabed bathymetry and sediment characteristics. The outputs from this
modelling are typically vector plots showing transport direction and magnitude, which is presented
as sediment flux.
The sediment transport regime and seabed evolution is more complex to quantify than for example the
tidal regime as there are seldom any measured data against which models can be calibrated or to
validate desk based assessments. However an understanding of the sedimentary regime is fundamental
for submarine cable developments.
Underwater Land Slide

Where there are ‘shelf’s’ on the sea bed and a cable is laid over a shelf onto the bottom sea bed, a
seismic activity or water current erosion may cause a land slide.
The danger from the sea bed changing is the possible deep burial (accretion; where sediment has
accrued over the cable to bury it under a large sand wave or an underwater land slide) or scour/erosion
(where the sediment has been removed and exposes the cable and allows the cable to strum/oscillate).
The information determined from the study has input into the Burial Assessment Study, see Section 6.2.5
Seismic activities
If a known cause for seismic activity is within the vicinity of the possible asset, then a risk assessment
should be made to determine the risks and mitigations and subsequent costs per km. The typical
submarine cable risks associated with seismic activity are;
• Tension – as tectonic plates move apart
• Slack, strumming lines and crushing – as tectonic plates move together
• Embrittlement – due to high levels of movement or excess heat
It is not feasible to protect against land movement to an excessive degree or major events, like a
Tsunami, but there are some mitigation techniques such as laying a ‘bight’ (extra length) of cable on the
sea bed where tectonic plates slide against one another or tectonic plates move apart from one another.
3.1.5 Environmental issues

The desktop study shall in most countries include an initial study of environmental issues. Charts and
reports show specific areas with restrictions which must be avoided, will be difficult to get permission to
cross, or which will involve very severe measures to mitigate environmental impact during installation and
service.
Crossing of specific areas with habitats or mating grounds for endangered fauna or marine life should be
considered carefully since it could be difficult to get permission to cross these areas during installation or
for future repairs. In general permissions to access an area should always cover future repairs if possible.
Surveys are typically also assessed by archaeologists in regards to archaeological issues. Already known
historical findings can often be avoided, and knowledge of possible interesting historical findings can be
taken into account in the assessment of different cable routes
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There may also be some local concerns and demands that must be met and which sometimes excludes
some of the solutions.
3.1.6 Landfall, restrictions

Typical restrictions are visual impact of assets, installation methodology and impact on existing sea
defence systems or coastal erosion defences. Other restrictions may be applied due to the locality and
popularity of the land fall so a restriction may apply during holiday season.
It is suggested that the most likely restrictions are applied to the initial planning and that discussion with
the local government body can confirm which restrictions are to be applied to the individual landfall
options.
3.1.7 Assessment of desktop study

The results of the assessments can, for each possible cable route, be arranged in a table of options with
columns that identify the various permits required, restrictions and risks, see Table 3.1.
Study Permits required Restrictions Risks
Survey of cable routes
Crossings and owners
Areas with restrictions
Shipping analysis
Maritime spatial planning
Seismic activities
Sediment transport
Environmental issues
Landfall restrictions
TABLE 3-1 ASSESSMENT OF DESKTOP STUDY
3.2 Pre-investigations
When the preliminary assessment has been carried out, the more detailed surveys and studies shall be
made. These surveys are physical in nature and often involve vessels and personnel on site taking
measurements.
In the following subsections the different possible surveys are described at a detail level that should make
it possible to assess which of them are relevant in specific situations. See also Appendix C - Geophysical
surveys.
The seabed profile, water depth, soil conditions etc. are important to know in the design process but also
at a very early stage, in order to find the best cable route.
The surveys mentioned in this section are a very wide-ranging list from which it is recommended to
choose carefully only the surveys relevant for the specific project.
When looking at cable corridors (be it Export or Array), it is typical for the corridor to be consented at
500 m per cable, but this can change due to seabed conditions and negotiations; see also ICPC
Recommendation No. 9 [3.1], e.g. two export cables following the same path would have a corridor of
1000 m. This corridor width is used to allow micro-site engineering when discovering wrecks, UXOs,
boulders etc.
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The number of surveys during the lifetime of the cable system shall be determined from the seabed
mobility and the risk to the cable. The original survey can be used as a fingerprint of the initial site
conditions.
The geophysical and geotechnical surveys must be carried out by vessels that are purposely designed for
the job. The specific survey robustness to offshore conditions and requirements of 24 hr operations with
onboard data processing may lead to minimum requirements to the vessel dimensions. The equipment
itself to be used for the sensing and recording of data is compact and small and can normally be
transported in a pallet sized box.
3.2.1 Geophysical surveys

A geophysical survey is the assessment of the general land formation and geology over a large area.
Geophysical surveys are normally non-intrusive measurements of the sea bed conditions, through use of
electromagnetic and acoustic devices.
In the planning and construction phase geophysical surveys are used for providing seabed information to
support the consent processing, the EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment), the design of the cable
route and the cable burial and to document the conditions for the cable installation contractor.
The geophysical survey is together with the geotechnical survey (see Section 3.2.2) a cable route survey.
This activity is carried out in a corridor around one or multiple cable route alternatives. The width of the
corridor should be designed to allow for rerouting of the cables in areas of natural protected reefs,
archaeological findings, potential unexploded ordnances (UXO’s), wrecks and other obstructions. In
recent developments the width of corridors for cable route surveys has been 200m – 1000m.
The geophysical surveys are made from vessels sailing along the cable route with said devices that
make it possible to check different characteristics related to the seabed.
Some surveys can – where the water depth is shallow – be supplemented by airborne methods as LIDAR
(Light Detection And Ranging).
Some of the surveys can be repeated during the lifetime of the cable system and can in this perspective
be seen as a fingerprint of the initial site conditions.
The vessel makes ready and departs for the location, the equipment is lowered into the water, this is
normally in the form of a small Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) or torpedo shaped device. The vessel
travels at a set speed (typically 3 to 6 knots), normally determined by the sensor capabilities in a pattern
to collect the most data. Once collected the data is analysed and collated to form a report on the survey
data.
Each method has its own unique characteristics. Depending on the specific purpose of the survey the
following methods should be considered.
• Bathymetry survey – to determine water depths and more importantly gradients which may affect
cable burial. Bathymetry is a basic contour line of the sea bed as shown on charts or scanned.
This is a true reflection of the sea bed, not a hydrographic representation which only indicates
contours to allow safe passage.
• Side scan sonar – to identify and characterise seabed features which may influence routing. Side
scanning sonar uses either 1 or 2 sonar fish.
• Magnetometer/gradiometer – to identify ferrous targets (possible unexploded ordnance).
Magnetometer requires 1 sensor being towed. A gradiometer requires two sensors being towed
with a fixed distance between them.
• Sub bottom profile – to characterise sub-seabed (top 5m) to determine burial strategy. Sub-
bottom profilers require an acoustic source that can operate at a variety of frequencies dependant
on penetration required of the sea bed, and the sea bed material.
• ADCP (Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler) – records current strength in the water column.
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• Drop Down Video (DDV) – visual inspection of seabed and habitats.

• Grab samples – for sonar ground truthing.
Bathymetry survey
The purpose is to determine the seabed elevation and gradients of various slopes which may affect cable
burial.
The modern method for determining the bathymetric survey is sonar with a multi-beam echo-sounding
instrument. This sends an acoustic note from the hull of the vessel. The time to travel to the sea bed and
return is recorded using a ‘speed of flight’ or ‘velocity of propagation’ the water depth can be determined
using the time response of the acoustic noise.
There are a number of ways to interpret the data; the most common is the pseudo-colour image, with
contours and soundings, See Figure 3-1. Others are pseudo-colour image and processed data image.
FIGURE 3-1 PSEUDO-COLOUR IMAGE WITH CONTOURS AND SOUNDINGS
Side scan sonar

The purpose is to identify and characterise seabed features (geology, morphology and obstructions)
which may influence routing. This method uses the same technology as the sonar system, but has
sensors placed at different locations. Whilst the bathymetric measurement records the travel time to
derive a seabed elevation measurement the side scan sonar method records the intensity of the signal
reflected from the seabed, The measurements from the side scan sonar is combined to an acoustic
image of the seabed showing wrecks, geological and morphological variations of the seabed and other
objects. This method when encountering a feature on the sea bed of mass, e.g. an uncovered wreck, will
have a ‘shadow’ where the acoustic sound could not reach, see Figure 3-2. The outputs from the side
scanning sonar are shown in Figure 3-3 and Figure 3-4.
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FIGURE 3-2 SIDE SCANNING SONAR IMAGE
FIGURE 3-3 SONAR MOSSAIC - MULTIPLE LINES OF ADJACENT DATA
FIGURE 3-4 SEABED FEATURES CHART – INTERPRETED FROM ABOVE DATA
Sub bottom profile

The purpose of sub bottom profiling is to map the shallow geology of the seabed typically down to 3 to 10
m below seabed.
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Sub bottom profiling is carried out by use of high frequency seismic instruments such as a Pinger or a
Chirp. The seismic instrument emits an accosting signal that penetrates the shallow seabed and the soil
stratification can be derived from the measured response signal.
The sub bottom profile needs to be correlated with a geotechnical survey by either Cone Penetrometer
Test (CPT) or core samples. There are several methods to determine the sub-bottom profile. The images
below relate to the instrument.
Sample results are seen in Figure 3-5 and Figure 3-6. The results are used as input to the Burial
Assessment Study (see Section 6.2.5). Furthermore archaeologists and environmental studies relies on
the results of the sub bottom profiling.
FIGURE 3-5 SUB BOTTOM PROFILE IMAGE – BOOMER
FIGURE 3-6 SUB BOTTOM PROFILE IMAGE – SPARKLER
FIGURE 3-7 SUB BOTTOM PROFILE ASSESSED AS GEOLOGICAL PROFILE
The sub bottom profile (Figure 3-7) is an interpretation of the geophysical and geotechnical surveys. The
profile is important to the installation – especially the burial of the cable. It may be difficult to obtain a
reliable sub bottom profile. The layers must be in accordance with the layers found in the geotechnical
surveys (e.g. vibrocore). Even reliable sub bottom profiles must be used with care.
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Seismic refraction
The seismic refraction survey will provide information on the depth and quality of the bedrock and the
overburden. Seismic refraction is a geophysical principle which uses a seismograph and multiple
geophone spacing apart at a fixed distance in an array. The method utilizes the refraction of seismic
waves on geologic layers and rock/soil units in order to characterize the subsurface geologic conditions,
see Figure 3-8; the data can then be interpreted as seen in Figure 3-9.
FIGURE 3-8 SEISMIC REFRACTION THEORY – SHOWN ON LAND
FIGURE 3-9 SEISMIC REFRACTION INTERPRETATION SHOWING SAND (RED) AND ROCK (BLUE). 1.8 AND 3.7 IS
SEISMIC VELOCITY IN KM/S
Magnetometer / Gradiometer
The purpose is to identify ferrous targets (possible unexploded ordnance, archaeology, pipelines, volcanic
rocks and obstructions). A Magnetometer is a 1D device, only measuring magnitude of a ferrous
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response. A Gradiometer uses several devices in a fixed configuration in order to determine a 2D image
of the site.
FIGURE 3-10 MAGNETOMETER IMAGE – SHOWING A FEATURE
FIGURE 3-11 GRADIOMETER IMAGE – SHOWING A CABLE CROSSING
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP)

The purpose is to record current strength in the water column. It is important to know for the preparation
of the cable installation. This determines the degree of water movement, e.g. The Gulf Stream has very
strong current flow, while the middle of the Indian Ocean has very low current flow.
The ADCP works by transmitting sound bursts into the water. Particles carried by the water currents
scatter the sound back to the unit, which listens for these echoes. As echoes return from shallower
portions of the water column, the unit assigns different water depths to the corresponding parts of the
echo record. This allows a formation of the vertical profiles of water. Motion of water particles relative to
the unit causes the echo to change in frequency. The system measures this change, known as the
Doppler shift, as a function of depth to obtain water velocity for a number of depths throughout the water
column.
The raw data is processed and the output is typically a table of grain size and movement
rate/displacement over a time period.
Drop Down Video (DDV)

The purpose is to make a visual inspection of seabed and habitats.
The DDV works by lowering a video camera on either a tether, umbilical or an ROV and tracking the
vessel along the route of inspection. The camera records information. This method is impractical for sites
with poor visibility. This is very useful where there are sites of special scientific interest or a protected
area e.g. reef zones. See Figure 3-12 and Figure 3-13.
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FIGURE 3-12 IMAGE OF SEABED USING A DDV
FIGURE 3-13 IMAGES FROM DDV
Grab Samples
The purpose is to correlate the results from the side scan sonar with samples from the sea bed to ensure
that the measurements are interpreted correctly. Normally the investigation is carried out using a Van
Veen grapple sample. Whilst intrusive in nature it is considered non-intrusive.
This sample method is used in context as a geophysical as well as a geotechnical method to determine
the seabed characteristics. An image of a Van Veen grab can be seen in Figure 3-14.
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FIGURE 3-14 IMAGE OF VAN VEEN GRAB SAMPLER
3.2.2 Geotechnical surveys

A Geotechnical survey is a detailed assessment of geology at site specific locations along the route.
Geotechnical surveys work by physical samples being assessed to a known standard.
After the geophysical surveys are made and assessed together with desktop studies and other relevant
information, those cable routes that are still relevant for the offshore project can be studied in more detail.
The geotechnical surveys are often more expensive on a day rate basis, but the geophysical surveys are
used to provide target points/areas for the geotechnical investigations.
Geotechnical investigations are planned to support the design of the cable burial, the Burial Assessment
Study (Section 6.2.5) and to provide in-situ information about the seabed surface. The conditions can
vary along the route, and different routes can have different soil conditions. The threats from anchors and
trawling gear, local requirements etc. must be taken into account together with the soil strength to find the
optimal burial depth.
The cable design must meet the requirements for the cable rating. This is directly dependent on the
thermal conditions of the surroundings. Therefore it is important to get knowledge of the thermal
conditions of the seabed at an early stage, so this is known before the cable is designed.
The following methods should be considered.
Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT)

Cone Penetrometer Test is a method used to characterise the geotechnical engineering properties of soil.
It is a simple method to determine soil shear strength.
Gravity Core, Vibrocore or High Penetration Corer

The purpose is to provide core samples for analysis either on-board the vessel or later in a laboratory.
The significant difference between CPTs and vibrocores is that vibrocores do not record pore pressure
values. Also by means of its action of vibrating into and removing the sample from the substrate, a
vibrocore may alter (slightly) the mechanic value of the sample. While vibrocores provide essential
information such as soil composition, plasticity, shear strength and thermal resistivity it is often good
practice to cross reference the shear strength results with CPT data. On principle, the vibrocore data
should be laboratory tested and not site-tested as site testing instruments can be less accurate.
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On-board and laboratory soil analysis

Samples taken using the Gravity Core, Vibrocore or High Penetration Corer can be analysed on a
suitably equipped vessel to determine basic characteristics that the client wishes. There are normally:
• Thermal resistivity
• Shear strength
• Material composition (like a typical onshore borehole sample, aggregate, grain size, clay, rock,
organic content etc.)
Two samples may be obtained from each core location. One sample is for examination on the survey
vessel in order to help planning and monitoring the survey and its performance. The other sample is for
analysis in a laboratory.
3.2.3 Environmental studies

The scope of environmental studies are based on the desktop studies related to environmental aspects,
the known environmental restrictions in protected areas and the demands from the authorities responsible
for environmental permissions for the specific project. These demands may not be known in advance. It is
recommended to have a dialogue with the authorities, so only relevant and necessary studies will be
made.
Video of specific areas (e.g. reefs)

The Drop Down Video is specifically required and a set area is defined to be videoed and recorded. This
is then used as evidence in determining the acceptance of a route through the area, and a fingerprint to
base against. The video becomes part of evidence to argue the cable route would or would not affect the
local environment under consideration and to prove whether there are causes for environmental
protection.
Marine archaeology
The assessment of marine archaeological interest is of high importance in most countries and involves
the expertise from national and local museum, and the authority on cultural issues.
The preliminary assessment is based on the existing knowledge (desktop study). Then the geophysical
survey is essential to the assessment of the likelihood of marine archaeological interest in the proposed
cable routes. If marine archaeological interests are suspected in the area of the cable installation field
investigations are undertaken. They typically include the use of video surveys and diver inspections. It
might however be more efficient to simply alter the cable route in order to avoid marine archaeological
interest if possible.
The Benthic Habitat (Marine flora and fauna)

A comprehensive list of flora and fauna to be expected through the cable routes should be identified
during the desktop study. From this list, any species under protection may be identified. For example,
laying cables in the Asian ocean may encounter Kelp farms in farming seaweed for consumption, whilst
waters around Australia and the Pacific Islands may encounter a diverse spread of flora and fauna near
reefs.
The data and charts produced from the geophysical survey are crucial for the screening and scoping of
the environmental investigation needed with regard to benthic fauna and flora. The results of the
geophysical survey, including results of the seabed characterisation studies (sediment analysis) are used
to determine to what extent and in which areas of the proposed cable routes, the following environmental
investigations are needed:
• Using satellite imagery to identify certain structures of marine biological importance on the
seabed. This could for example be reefs, such as bubble-reef structures or areas with
macrophytes. From satellite photos it is possible to predict possible occurrence of aquatic
vegetation.
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• In areas known to contain such marine structures, it can be valuable to include the satellite
photos in the desktop study and use the information in the planning of the route, before the
geophysical survey is undertaken.
• Grab samples for the seabed for identification and statistics on benthic flora and fauna.
• Video surveys of the seabed to identify structures such as reefs.
• Diving to identify structure such as reefs and collect fauna/flora for species identification and
statistics.
Where possible species on a protection list may be present on a cable route, the Drop Down Video can
provide the evidence that the species are even present within the area of concern.
Birds and marine mammals

If the proposed cable routes cross areas designated for the protection of birds and/or marine mammals,
the environmental studies must contain a thorough assessment of the possible impacts. Also there might
be species which are highly protected no matter where they are and for these additional thorough
assessments will be required. Most often the assessments of possible impacts on birds and/or marine
mammals in relation to submarine cable installations are based on existing knowledge and field
investigation will not be required for a specific cable project.
Flora and fauna onshore

Similar to the offshore environment, certain plant life is protected on land due to the rarity of those
species. It is normal for a site investigation to occur, via foot or plane to categorise all plant life at the
landfall and the cable corridor route, determine if there are any species that are protected or not.
3.2.4 Geological survey of the landfall

Landfall conditions can vary considerably, from cliffs to sandy beaches to environmentally sensitive salt
marshes, and in each case the level of information required will differ. Consideration should be given to
whether the landfall has been used before by another party, e.g. gas lines, telecommunications etc., as
this could provide valuable information to most cost effectively plan any additional survey works.
The landfall is often seen to be constructed using a Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD). It is crucial to
the success of the HDD installation that a site investigation program is carefully adapted to the geometry
of the HDD (depth, length, location of entry and exit points) and a prior knowledge of the ground
conditions. Especially since HDD near shore areas with fluidised soils can be more challenging than
normal onshore HDDs.
Also other methods can be used to enter the landfall. Instead of drilling a pipe from the shore out into the
sea bottom it is in some situations possible to make a trench with a backhoe and bury the pipe in an
ordinary way. In other cases it is possible to pull the submarine cable in an open trench at the
beach/shore without using a pipe as protection. The surveys shall help to find the optimal method. On the
other hand, each method has also certain surveys required in order to install the cables correctly.
The investigation program might include:

• Geophysical methods
• Trial pits
• Geotechnical investigations with boreholes or CPT
3.2.5 Assessment of pre-investigations

The results of the assessments can for every possible cable route be arranged in a table. Afterwards the
score of each study can be compared between the different cable routes.
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Study/survey Assessment of results Possible solutions Risks Score
Bathymetric survey
Side scan sonar
Sub bottom profile
Magnetometer
Geophysical
ADCP
Surveys
DDV
Grab samples
CPT
Geotechnical
Gravity Core/Vibrocore
Surveys
Soil analysis
Seabed characteristics
Video
Archaeology
Environmental
Benthic habitat
Birds and marine

Surveys
mammals
Flora and fauna onshore
Geophysical methods
survey on the
Geological
Trial pits
landfall
Geotechnical
investigations
TABLE 3-2 ASSESSMENT OF PRE-INVESTIGATIONS
3.3 Stakeholders and the public

Stakeholders are everyone who may have influence on the offshore cable project. Whatever their
involvement in the project, they can make influence on frame conditions for it.
The public has no direct influence, but they can raise questions and objections so the politicians have to
react. Myths or rumours can change the conditions in an unfavourable manner. Therefore relevant
information to and dialogue with stakeholders and the public is highly recommended.
3.3.1 Fisheries
The normal area for concern is by local fishermen. Through dialogue their concerns normally can be laid
to rest. The typical concerns are listed below;
• How does the cable affect the fishery, particularly EMF (Electro Magnetic Field) concerns?
• How does fishery influence on the risks for the submarine cable?
• Limitations during construction (work areas)
• Release of the work area for fishing after construction - or not.
• What are the rules?
• Who to negotiate with?
• Bottom trawling
• Near-shore fishery (damage on nets)
• Constrictions after installation, e.g. areas which have been sanitised
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The topic is discussed in Section 6.3 of TB 398, Third Party Damage to Underground and Submarine
Cables.
Two advantages of involving the local fisheries early on is technical information not easily found regards
the site, e.g. seabed make up where fishing/crab pots have been left. The other key advantage is public
relations, where the company and project are seen in a more positive light in respect to others who do not
consult the public or fisheries. The fisheries may voice concerns regards certain methods of cable
protection, but may favour our solutions.
3.3.2 Shipping traffic

Submarine cables can cause restrictions for the shipping traffic. When permission has been given to
install a submarine cable, the consent owner has some rights; this normally means the cable is
“protected” against third parties. Before decisions about cable route are taken, the restrictions and
influence to shipping traffic have to be taken into account. Already restricted areas might be useful for a
new cable route. A dialogue with relevant parties can highlight the possibilities and challenges, so an
optimal solution can be found.
Restrictions, areas with anchoring prohibited

There are areas of the sea which are classified as restricted and with anchoring prohibited. These can be
found on discussion with the Hydrographic office or found on the appropriate sea charts. Reasons for
these restrictions may be naval training grounds, old ordnance dumps or sites of special scientific interest
(SSSI). With proper surveys and clearing, these areas may even be preferred, since they are otherwise
avoided.
Compass deviations (only DC-connections)

It is known for DC systems with separate poles or water return to affect a vessel’s magnetic compass,
though the vessels normally have to be in close proximity to the cables to be affected. The cables do not
affect gyrocompasses or GPS systems. When building/installing an asset the Hydrographics office should
be informed of the asset, its location and what it is. They can therefore update their charts so vessels are
appropriately informed. There may be a limit on the maximum compass deviation permitted in some
countries and this should be checked.
3.3.3 Utilities and Developers with assets in relevant areas

These are important stakeholders who require early engagement to negotiate transit of leased land,
crossings and proximity agreements.
The following are examples of stakeholders with assets close to the possible cable routes:
• Routing of other cables or pipelines
• Subsea assets (i.e. wellheads)
• Special conditions and restrictions, sites of special scientific interest (SSSI), designated areas,
exclusion zones etc.
• Crossing possibilities (International Cable Protection Committee Recommendation 1)
• Oil and Gas licences
• Dredging companies
In the early stage it is important to clarify the conditions for new cables close to other assets. What are
the rights and duties, what are the risks, are there minimum distances to respect, under which
circumstances can crossings be made etc.?
3.3.4 Public
Never underestimate the importance of the public opinion. This is of particular importance where the
cable installation has a direct visual impact (DC converter stations), or where there is a visual impact not
directly attributable to the cable (offshore wind farm).
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Informing the public from the very beginning is of great importance. It is recommended to give information
at an early stage – before decisions are taken, when different solutions are still possible. The public can
in some situations give valuable input. The feeling of being invited and heard is essential.
The public is often clustered in small groups, for example:

• Private landowners
• Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
• Pressure groups, particularly if the cable is connecting a contentious offshore development.
• Local recreational users, Yachting Associations etc.
It is recommended to contact all relevant people and groups and take their input into account. It is not
possible to satisfy everyone, but to be open to their input and take decisions afterwards on a well-
informed basis.
3.3.5 Government and Other Agencies

Both offshore and at the landfall certain stakeholders will need to be engaged both for information and
permissions.
• Marine Coastguard Authority
• Hydrographic Office for Notices to Mariners
• Environment Agency, particularly if the landfall requires temporary breaching of a sea defence
• Crossing owners at landfall, railways, local authority, main and local roads etc.
Before starting of offshore surveys the necessary permissions for making surveys must be obtained.
Contact with all relevant agencies is important as delays and/or fines can be incurred if all the required
permissions were not obtained.
3.3.6 Assessment of input from stakeholders and the public

The results of the assessments of input can be arranged for every possible cable route in a table.
Afterwards the score of each study can be compared between the different cable routes.
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Stakeholder Concern Input from stakeholder Possible solutions Risks Score
Cable’s impact on fishery
Fishery’s impact on cable risk
Rules
Who to negotiate with
Trawling
Fisheries
Dynamite fishing
Near-shore fishery
Areas with anchoring

Shipping
prohibited
traffic
Compass deviations
Routing of other cables or

pipelines
submarine cables , pipelines etc.
Subsea assets
Utilities and developers with
Special conditions and

restrictions, SSSI, designated
zones etc.
Crossing possibilities
Oil and gas licences
Dredging companies
Private landowners
NGOs
Pressure groups
Local recreational users,

Yachting Associations etc.
Public
Marine Coastguard Authority
Hydrographic Office for

Government and
Notices to Mariners
other agencies
Environment Agency
Crossing owners at landfall,

network rail, local authority,
Highways Agency etc.
TABLE 3-3 ASSESSMENT OF INPUT FROM STAKEHOLDERS AND THE PUBLIC
3.4 General installation methods

The installation issues are described in Chapter 6. In the consenting process (see Section 3.5) the
developer/engineering has to assess the environmental impact during the installation phase, operation
phase, possible repair phases and remedial works. To be able to assess the environmental impact from
the installation and protection of the submarine cables, it is necessary to know which generally installation
methods may be used.
If the authorities on the basis of the environmental impacts decide to make restrictions on the installation
methods they are important to be known before the tender process for the installation has started.
The sections below describe the general information that must be known in the consenting process. The
shown methods are often related to the sea bed conditions, water depth and current. The cable route and
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installation method can be linked, so the environmental impact from installation can be assessed for the
different cable routes.
The final choice of method will be made after the final route has been chosen and after the tender
process regarding installation has been carried out.
3.4.1 Installation process

There are three steps in the installation process. The order of the steps depends on the chosen method.
A. Cable laying
B. Cable pulling at both ends
C. Cable protection
A. Cable laying
The cable is laid down on the sea bottom from a cable laying vessel. The laying on the seabed is a
controlled operation with no or very little disturbance on the surroundings.
In situations with long cable lengths it is not always possible to carry the whole length of cable in the
cable laying vessel. One or more joints may be made on the cable. This is an operation that can take
some days and is very depending on the available weather windows.
B. Cable pulling at both ends

An export cable must be pulled onshore from the cable laying vessel. The submarine cable can be floated
to the shore and laid to rest on the bottom or in a pre-excavated trench. In some cases the submarine
cable is pulled some distance onshore, but in other cases it is terminated in a transition joint just onshore
to avoid a thermal bottleneck in the onshore section.
To protect the coast line and protect the cable, a horizontal directional drilling is often carried out from
behind the natural or man-made sea defence to an appropriate place in the surf zone. A pipe is pulled
through the horizontal drilling, and the cable can be pulled from the sea through the pipe.
The Offshore Substation Platform end of the cable typically has a number of J-tubes or I-tubes to aid in
the installation of the multiple submarine cables. The cables are hung off the structure at the top of the J-
tube or I-tube and the stripped cable is run to either the switchgear or direct to the transformer. The
arrangement at the generator sites can be either a J-tube, an I-tube or free hanging. Each arrangement
has its benefits and downfalls. This should be assessed by the engineering group.
The pulling of the submarine cable will have no or very little impact on the surroundings unless dragged
along the seabed.
C. Cable protection
Depending on the route and the potential for damage by third parties it may (normally) be decided to
protect the cable from mechanical damage. The preferred method is to bury the cable in the seabed, if
this is possible. Where the cable exits the seabed to enter the structure or catenary the cable is usually
protected by applying a Cable Protection System (CPS).
See also Chapter 6, Cable Installation, and TB 398, Third Party Damage to Underground and Submarine
Cables.
Burial Tools
There are several tools available to bury the cable; some of these may be excluded due to consenting
issues.
• Ploughs – The cable runs through the plough setup and a blade cuts a channel in the sea bed for
the cable to be laid in. The plough is controlled by use of winches from the installation vessel; a
depressor guides the cable into the bottom of the trench.
• Water injection blade – either a vessel mounted item or an ROV mounted item; the method is to
fluidise the sea bed or cut a channel in the sea bed using high pressure water jets.
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• Rotary excavator – either a vessel mounted item or an ROV mounted item; the method is to use a
rotary cutter with excavator to cut the channel and move the spoil.
• Plant excavator – a vessel mounted item, normally used for shallow waters due to the reach and
operability of the plant. Requires plant operator to carry out operations based solely on video
feed/GPS from the plant when under water.
• Mass flow excavators, where a large volume of water is directed to an area to excavate an area
by man-made erosion.
For a more detailed explanation see Chapter 6.
Burial Assessment Study

A Burial Assessment Study (risk assessment) should be carried out; this will aid both the owner and
installer and consenting bodies to a large degree. See also Section 6.2.5
3.4.2 Environmental impact of cable installation and cable in service

The environmental impact is dependent on the installation method and shall be taken into consideration in
the choice.
The environmental impact from the cable in service shall also be mentioned, because it often shall be
incorporated in the application to the authorities.
Examples of issues to be assessed:

• Sea bed – sediment spreading
• Marine mammal - noise
• Cable losses, increasing local temperature
• Extruded and fluid filled cables
3.4.3 Time restrictions

Depending on local situations there might be some time restrictions for installation. The installation
method must meet these restrictions.
Examples of time restrictions:

• Weather conditions
• Environmental aspects (animals and tourists)
3.5 Consenting (Permissions) process

The consenting process often has to be split up into an offshore process and an onshore process,
because there are different authorities and legislation behind. There is a cumulative effect that must be
taken into account as well.
3.5.1 Possible cable routes

Before starting the process to get the necessary permissions, the first conclusions, based on the studies
and surveys already made, must be taken. The assessment table mentioned above can be updated with
all gathered information and the most realistic routes/corridors can be selected.
3.5.2 Overview of permits needed

In order not to lose time in the process, it is recommended from the very beginning to find out which
permits are needed, which authorities issue the permits, in which order the applications must be sent and
if there are dependencies between the permissions.
It is not possible to make a list that can be used in every project or in different countries, because the
legislation, the organisations and the requirements are not similar all over.
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In international waters knowledge of international sea laws is important. There may be different
permissions and requirements for the different offshore zones (Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), 12 miles
zone).
It must be noticed if there is a central marine consent unit or if every individual authority must be
contacted.
From an environmental point of view international regulations and restrictions must also be observed. The
national requirements are of course also very important.
Examples:
• Overall permission of project
• Permission to make surveys
• Permission from authorities responsible for planning
• Permission regarding installation etc. at coasts and near-shore areas
3.5.3 Legal requirements and conditions

It is not possible to list all requirements for every region, because there are different rules in different
countries, etc., but a few examples can be mentioned.
Examples:
• Protected areas
• Reserved areas
• Time restrictions because of birds, tourist etc.
• Noise
• Traffic restrictions
• Conditions about specific routes
• Maximum corridor width
3.5.4 Process for obtaining permissions

The overall choices shall be the basis for the first dialogue with the authorities. During these dialogues
more restrictions but also new possibilities may turn up. If it is possible through dialogue to analyse
possibilities and challenges before forwarding the official application for final permission, it will save
money and time and often gives the best solution.
In that way the process is full of iterations. Based on surveys, studies, dialogue with stakeholders and the
public and finally through dialogue with the authorities the final cable routes/corridors and the overall
installation methods can be chosen for the application.
The permissions will often contain some conditions under which the project must be performed. When the
permissions have been received, the final planning and cable- and installation engineering can start. See
Section 6.2 and 6.3.
• Early dialogue
• Handling of iterations
• Applications
• Permissions
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4 SYSTEM DESIGN
Introduction
This chapter discusses the various aspects of system design which should be considered when designing
an offshore infrastructure that will be used to collect and transport generated power to an onshore
electrical infrastructure.
Detailed examination of the various components is provided which form part of the offshore network, plus
examples of existing offshore networks are presented.
The various network topologies that are given allow the reader to compare the initial Capital Expenditure
(CAPEX) with the long-term Operational Expenditure (OPEX) for a number of different solutions. The
development of an offshore network often impacts the onshore grid requiring expansion of the
transmission system to transport the additional offshore generation.
This section looks at the typical requirements, as specified by the Transmission System Operator (TSO)
when applying for a connection onto the transmission system, as well as the key parameters which form
part of the Grid Code. Critical issues which arise when designing a system such as the impact of reactive
compensation, reducing system losses and determining load profiles are all discussed.
Although the solutions are mainly based on offshore wind power generation, the philosophy is also
applicable for all other types of offshore generation. Furthermore, the issues discussed for export cables
may also be relevant for submarine cables that are generally used for offshore infrastructure energy
supplies. WG B4.55 is preparing a report, HVDC connection of offshore wind power plants, which
considers system aspects e.g. voltages, frequencies, protection etc. which also may be of interest.
4.1 Topology
4.1.1 Type of connections to shore
Depending on the location and number of offshore generation plants, different solutions to shore can be
selected.
To evaluate the most optimum solution, the following points have to be taken into account:
• Rated power of the offshore generation plant (or power supply to offshore structure)
• Distance to shore, including the onshore connection length
• CAPEX and OPEX for the different type of connections
• Redundancy which will have a financial impact
• Comparison of losses for the different solutions
• Voltage drop over the AC cables
• De-rating of cables due to thermal influence of multiple cables in parallel
• Possibilities for the landing of several cables
• Environmental impact
• Permits
The following solutions are mainly used for offshore generation (or power supplies):
• Medium Voltage (MV) solution: MV cable connecting offshore generators (array cables 1) and MV
export cables without an Offshore High Voltage Substation (OHVS) (Figure 4-2)
• HVAC solution: MV cable connecting offshore generators (array cables), offshore high voltage
substation with transformer and HVAC export cable (Figure 4-1)
1
Array cables are MV cables in this TB, but in the future they may also be HV cables
Page 45
• HVDC solution: MV cable connections offshore (array cables), offshore high voltage substation
with transformer, HVAC export cable to offshore AC/DC converter station and HVDC export cable
to shore (Figure 4-4)
• Combined HVAC and HVDC solution: HVAC connections between more offshore high voltage
substations. HVAC connections from each offshore substation to AC/DC offshore converter
station. From converter station a HVDC connection to shore (Figure 4-5)
• Offshore Grid solutions: Connections to more offshore high voltage substations and/or more
onshore grids (interconnectors).
FIGURE 4-1 SCHEDULE SHOWING ARRAY CABLES AND EXPORT CABLE
4.1.1.1 MV SOLUTION
Probably the simplest solution is a connection of the wind farm to shore via one or more export cables at
Um=36kV level (Figure 4-2). This solution is useful for smaller wind farms close to shore, typically closer
than 20 km. The MV offshore cable will be connected to a substation on land. The voltage will usually be
raised to the needed grid voltage by using a step-up transformer on land.
FIGURE 4-2 EXAMPLE OF SMALL OFFSHORE WIND FARM CONNECTION TO ONSHORE GRID USING MV CABLES
4.1.1.2 HVAC SOLUTION

For offshore connections further from shore or with higher power output the preferred solution is to use an
offshore substation (OHVS) to collect all generated power at the MV level and then use a HVAC export
cable to transport the total generated power to shore.
Page 46
Figure 4-1 shows an example of the connection of an offshore substation to shore via one single export
cable circuit. The generated power is transmitted via this cable to an onshore substation and is then
transmitted via the on shore grid. This solution is particularly useful for larger wind farms further from
shore, typically 20-70 km. In this case it is recommended to adapt the voltage level of the export cable to
the existing voltage level of the substation were the export cable will be connected. If another voltage
level is selected an extra transformer will be needed on land.
To increase the availability and reliability of the complete system, a second export cable circuit can be
installed (Figure 4-3). In this case it is also recommended to use 2 or more (depending on the total power
generated) transformers on the OHVS.
FIGURE 4-3 CONNECTION TO SHORE WITH TWO HVAC EXPORT CABLES
Instead of using two HV export cable circuits it might also be possible to use one EHV export cable circuit
(e.g. 245 kV). In this case a choice has to be made between 2 export cable circuits of lower voltage
(offering redundancy in case of a cable failure) or one export cable circuit at a higher voltage without
redundancy for a cable failure. Besides the redundancy there will be a difference in CAPEX and OPEX for
both solutions.
4.1.1.3 HVDC SOLUTION

The HVDC solution is mainly used for offshore generation sites that are far from shore (>70km). Usually
several offshore generation plants, each with their own OHVS, will be connected to one AC/DC offshore
converter station. From this offshore convertor station the generated power will be brought to shore by
means of a HVDC connection. The transmission capacity of a HVDC cable link is higher compared to a
HVAC cable link for same conductor size. The cluster or hub solution has the advantage that the required
cable length can be reduced when compared to the situation where each offshore wind farm is connected
separately. Other advantages are the reduced costs of installation, landfalls, etc. One of the main
disadvantages is the fact that failure of the main export cable can result in a significant drop in electricity
production which might disturb the system balance. Figure 4-4 shows an example of several offshore
generators, connected to an offshore substation, which is connected to shore via one export cable.
Page 47
FIGURE 4-4 EXAMPLE OF HVDC CONNECTION FROM THREE WIND FARMS
4.1.1.4 COMBINED HVAC/HVDC SOLUTION

Another solution to increase the redundancy in the offshore collector grid is to interconnect the different
platforms at the HV level (see Figure 4-5).
FIGURE 4-5 EXAMPLE OF COMBINED HVAC AND HVDC SOLUTION
4.1.1.5 OFFSHORE GRID SOLUTIONS

Often several offshore generation sites are close together. In this case it can be more prudent to look for
a combined solution to bring the offshore generated power to shore or different shores.
There are some challenges in this solution. First of all, it is very costly to build and maintain offshore
construction and installations. Secondly, if a HVDC grid is built with multi terminal converters it may be a
requirement for example that a commutation failure will not switch off more than a single line, so a HVDC
circuit breaker must be introduced. This technology is under development, but size and costs need to be
taken into account.
An alternative to a HVDC grid may be a low frequency AC grid. See Section 4.3.2.
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Several studies have been performed on offshore grid solution but no projects have to the authors’
knowledge been implemented, so no actual experience has been available to present in this TB.
4.1.2 Grid code requirements

The Grid Code is essential for the operation of a power system in a deregulated energy market. The
technical document comprising the Grid Code, establishes the rules governing the operation,
maintenance and expansion of the transmission system and sets out the procedures for governing the
actions of all transmission system users. The document ensures that all users are treated in a transparent
manner.
Generally it is an industry standard requirement within all Grid Codes that a dynamic model of the wind
turbine generators is provided to the TSO prior to connecting into the transmission system.
These dynamic models provided to the TSO must include particular data parameters specific to the Wind
Turbine Generators and any associated controls and reactive compensation equipment relevant to the
Wind Farm Power Station scheme. The requirements of these models are used to calculate how
quantities such as Active Power output, Reactive Power output, turbine speed etc. vary as parameters
such as the voltage at the Connection Point change.
Below is a list of key requirements that are assessed in line with the Grid Code prior to a connection
agreement being granted (TB 483 [4.1]):
• Fault ride through requirements
• System frequency and frequency response requirements
• Short circuit requirements
• Transmission system voltage and reactive power capability requirements
• Communication requirements
From a cable’s perspective, details of the Wind Farm Power Plant’s internal network (array cables) must
be supplied. Typically details as listed below are required:
• Total length (m)
• Voltage level (kV)
•
2
Conductor cross-section area per core (mm )
• Conductor type (Al, Cu, etc.)
• Insulation type
• Cable capacitance (μF/km)
• Charging current(A/km)
• Positive and Zero sequence resistance (R1 and R0 Ohm/km)
• Positive and Zero sequence reactance (X1 and X0 Ohm/km)
4.2 Array cables

Before starting to look at the array cabling, a detailed study has to be made to see what is the best
configuration for the wind turbines in the concession. The purpose is to maximise the profit, having the
highest possible wind-power production and the lowest capital (CAPEX) and operational (OPEX)
expenses. The wind-power production depends on the type of turbines used and their optimal position
(related to prevailing wind direction) within the concession.
Once this is examined, the different possibilities for the array cabling can be studied. During this phase
the following points have to be taken into account:
• Cable cross-sections
• Type of available terminations
• Losses
• Rated current of MV switchgear
Page 49
• Rated current for MV transformer windings

• Voltage levels for array cabling
• Configuration of the array cabling
• Earthing philosophy
4.2.1 Cable sections

When connecting wind turbines (radial, branch, closed loop) there is a physical limit with regard to the
cable cross-section and the pluggable terminations used. In general the MV terminations are limited to
cable cross-sections up to 630 mm².
The typical range of power for one string is 30 to 35 MW.
Regarding the dimensioning of the cable, smaller cross-sections could be used for connecting turbines
further out in the branch. When making the layout of the array cabling, it’s important to look at the losses
of the different solutions.
4.2.2 Losses in array cables

Losses in array cables play an important role in the choice of configuration of the array grid. Cable
conductor cross-section, cable length, conductor material, earthing method and the cable load determine
the losses which is an important part of OPEX for the whole installation.
Information regarding losses in cables can be found in Section 4.5.
4.2.3 Rated current MV switchgear

MV switchgear is usually limited to 2500 A (2014) for the busbar system of the switchgear. This means a
limit of 130 MVA at 30kV or 143 MVA at 33kV for each busbar. Taking into account a power of 30-35 MW
for each array string, the number of array strings is limited on each busbar. So for larger wind farms, the
MV switchgear must be divided in several busbar elements, which can be coupled when needed.
Figure 4-6 from TB 483 [4.1] below gives a possible arrangement of array strings, MV switchgear and a
MV/HV transformer for a larger wind farm. In this example 4 array strings are connected to one MV
busbar. Each busbar is connected to a MV winding of one of the two transformers.
In case of a transformer failure, the MV busbars can be connected in series. In this way the remaining
transformer can take over the produced energy of the entire wind farm provided that the produced energy
is not higher than the rated power of this transformer (and each of the secondary windings).
The generator towers are normally connected through tertiary windings of the transformers at the
platform.
Page 50
FIGURE 4-6 POSSIBLE ARRANGEMENT OF ARRAY STRINGS, MV SWITCHGEAR AND MV/HV TRANSFORMER FOR
A LARGER WIND FARM
4.2.4 Rated current for MV transformer windings

Similar to the limitation of the current in the busbar systems of the medium voltage switchgear, the
medium voltage windings of the transformers are also limited to 2500 A at this point in time (2014).
4.2.5 Voltage levels for array cabling

Most of the offshore wind farms use wind turbines with rated power of 2 to 10 MW. These wind turbines
will be connected to each other at MV level. The most commonly applied rated voltage level is 36 kV
(Um). Nevertheless voltage levels vary, depending on the country and their standardized MV levels.
From Section 4.2.1 above, it was stated that the most common voltage class is Um = 36 kV so the
maximum power per string is in the range of 30 to 35 MW. When using wind turbines with power up to 10
MW, the number of wind turbines on a string would be limited to a maximum of 3 to 4 units. This means
that the number of array cables connected to the offshore substation would increase as well as the
numbers of MV switchgear cubicles at 36 kV (Um) on the platforms. This would have a huge impact on the
platform design. Along with the development of higher power wind turbines, there is also a need for a
higher voltage level to connect these wind turbines.
Manufacturers are developing specific offshore equipment for voltage levels up to 66 kV or 72 kV (Um).
However, the main challenges are to keep the size and weight of the switchgear and transformers
acceptable for use on the substation platforms.
4.2.6 Configuration of the array cabling
4.2.6.1 RADIAL CONNECTION

A radial connection of wind turbines is the connection of several wind turbines in series. This is also
known as a string. Figure 4-7 gives an example of the radial connection of several wind turbines.
Page 51
FIGURE 4-7 RADIAL CONNECTION
4.2.6.2 BRANCHED CONNECTION

When using a branched connection, the wind turbines are connected as a branch to each other. See
Figure 4-8.
FIGURE 4-8 BRANCHED CONNECTION
Page 52
4.2.6.3 RADIAL BRANCHED CONNECTION

When optimizing the array cabling of a wind farm, sometimes a mixed solution of radial with branched
connection is used (Figure 4-9). This arrangement depends mainly on the layout of the wind turbines in
the windfarm.
FIGURE 4-9 RADIAL BRANCHED CONNECTION
4.2.6.4 CLOSED LOOP

When using a closed loop connection, the array cables between the wind turbines form a loop with the
MV switchgear (Figure 4-10). In addition a switch or circuit breaker can be integrated into the loop.
FIGURE 4-10 CLOSED LOOP
4.2.7 Overview regarding the array cabling

When considering the array cabling layout there are some decisions to make and some steps to follow,
based on required availability and cost of non-delivery.
Decisions to make:
• Is redundancy in array cabling wanted?
• Voltage level of the array cabling (depends on possibilities given by wind-turbine manufacturer)
• Offshore High Voltage Substation (OHVS) or not? (may depend on the distance to shore)
• Are the losses of the array cables important or not?
Each decision has an impact on the investment costs. To make these decisions a high level CAPEX
(Capital Expenses) and OPEX (Operational Expenses) is required for the planned lifetime including
decommissioning.
Page 53
Steps to follow:
• Identification of other cables or pipes within the concession
• Positioning of the wind turbines within the concession and type of turbines
• Number of turbines on one string
• Position of the OHVS within the concession
• Array cable length optimisation – determination of the strings
• Cable dimensioning and optimisation within each string
• Number of crossings to make with other cables or conduits
• Cable route for the export cable
• Limitations to the installation possibilities
• Accessibility of towers and OHVS by vessels
For the above steps, several solutions are possible and should be compared with each other.
4.3 Export cables

4.3.1 AC or DC Connection to shore
Connecting offshore wind parks to an onshore transmission system can be achieved by either AC or DC
systems. Construction of larger and more remote wind parks increases the need for a comparative study
where the investment costs must be assessed for AC and DC solutions respectively. DC could be a
viable alternative in the cases where it is difficult to obtain a stable operation using an AC solution, or
when the distance to shore becomes significant.
For HVAC cable systems typical power connections for single core 3-phase cable systems (land based)
are:
• 500 – 1000 MVA at 400 kV (Um = 420 kV)
• 300 – 500 MVA at 230 kV (Um = 245 kV)
• 200 – 300 MVA at 150 kV (Um = 170 kV)
• 150 – 200 MVA at 132 kV (Um = 145 kV)
When using three-core AC submarine cables, there are practical limitations during the production process
(cable diameter and weight). These limitations will also put restrictions on the power transport capabilities
for three-core submarine cables when compared to land based cable systems. Typical ranges of
transmission capacity for three-core submarine cable systems for different voltage levels are:
• 300 – 600 MVA at 400 kV (Um = 420 kV)
• 200 – 350 MVA at 230 kV (Um = 245 kV)
• 150 – 250 MVA at 150 kV (Um = 170 kV)
• 100 – 200 MVA at 132 kV (Um = 145 kV)
The above values are only indicative, since there are a lot of parameters which are influencing the exact
transmission capacity of the cable system such as: ground temperature, thermal resistivity of the
surrounding ground, depth of laying and other heat sources in the vicinity (local hotspots).
Figure 4-11 gives a typical relation between transmission capacity (active power) and length of the cable
system for HVAC and HVDC systems at different voltage levels. The calculations are based on cables
with a cross-section of 1200 mm² copper, a current of 950 A, a frequency of 50 Hz, a power factor (cosφ)
of 1 and a load factor of 1.
Due to the capacitive charging current in HVAC cable systems (A/km), the transmission capacity (active
power) of the cable systems decreases as function of the length. This capacitive charging current is
voltage dependent, the higher the voltage of the HVAC system, the faster the transmission capacity will
decrease as function of the length.
Page 54
The charging current is also frequency dependent, this means that for a 60 Hz system compared to 50 Hz
system, the charging current of the cable will be higher by approximately 20% and consequently the cable
circuit length will be 20% shorter to reach zero active power .
FIGURE 4-11: TRANSMISSION CAPACITY VERSUS LENGTH OF THE CABLE SYSTEM FOR NON COMPENSATED
SYSTEMS, 50 HZ (MADE BY WG B1.40)
Higher transmission capacities are possible for each voltage level as shown above. The main purpose is
to show the impact of the voltage level for HVAC and HVDC on the transmission capacity of active power.
It’s possible to increase the transmission capacity (active power) over longer lengths for HVAC systems
when installing reactive compensation. More details are given in Section 4.4.
4.3.2 AC solutions
The most common connection to land or the nearest transmission grid (either onshore or offshore, e.g. an
offshore HVDC substation) is by means of one or several 3-phase AC power cables. These cable
connections are called export cables. See also Figure 4-1 and Figure 4-12.
Appendix D.1 Case study, London Array wind farm, AC export cable solution shows an example with AC
export cables from London Array wind farm.
In most cases the AC export solution consists of a combined cable system with submarine cable(s) from
the offshore substation to the shore, and then continues via transition joints through underground cables
to the AC grid onshore substation. See Figure 4-12
Page 55
GIS
Switchgear
3.
6.
2.
Sea Defence Wall
Onshore
Transition Joint
4.
5.
6.
HDD drilling pipe
1.
1. Export Cable, submarine cable including one or several fibre optical elements
2. Hang-off, armour termination
3. Cable sealing end against GIS switchgear
4. Transition Joint to underground cables
5. Underground cables
6. Fibre optical splice box
FIGURE 4-12: TYPICAL LAY-OUT OF MAIN COMPONENTS FOR THE HVAC EXPORT CABLE SYSTEM
The HVAC export cables are mainly 3-core submarine cables with extruded insulation. The 3-core
construction makes it easy to integrate fibre optical elements in the interstices between the power
phases, both for telecommunication and temperature monitoring of the cable. The export interconnection
might consist of one or several 3-core cables of the same type and design. For further details about the
export cable design, refer to Chapter 5, and for information about installation, see Chapter 6.
From the onshore transition joint to the onshore substation the last part of the export cable is typically a
land based underground cable. There are no definite rules for the selection of the underground cables,
but aluminium conductors seem to be favoured over copper conductors that do appear in some
installations. Regardless of the cable type it must be dimensioned to match the capacity of the submarine
export cable with respect to voltage and current rating. Underground cables are beyond the scope of this
technical brochure.
See also TB 556 [4.2], Power System Technical Performance Issues Related to the Application of Long
HVAC Cables, for other system issues that should be considered.
4.3.2.1 LOWER FREQUENCY TRANSMISION (E.G. 16.7 HZ)

An alternative that must not be overlooked is to operate the wind park at a frequency lower than the
power frequency of the connecting grid which is normally 50 or 60 Hz, see Figure 4-14. Desktop studies
have concluded that this is a feasible operational mode. The main advantage is that the charging currents
of the HVAC cables, which are frequency dependant, will be significantly reduced and consequently
occupying much less cable transmission capacity than would otherwise be the situation at 50 or 60 Hz.
With a proper reactive compensation scheme it is possible to reach a 300 – 400 km route length of export
2
cable in a 220 kV HVAC system assuming 500 - 600 MW per cable at a low frequency of 16 /3 Hz.
The low frequency configuration is achievable with modern wind turbine technology featuring either a full
converter generator, an induction generator (IG) or a double fed induction generator (DFIG) which can be
2
operated independently of the grid frequency. A frequency of 16 /3 Hz (which has been slightly altered to
16.7 Hz due to harmonic issues) has been deployed and proven in electrified railway systems in many
countries for over 100 years.
Cable systems for lower frequency transmission would have same components as systems at 50-60 Hz.
Page 56
FIGURE 4-13: LAY-OUT OF LOW FREQUENCY AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (PROF. ISTVÁN ERLICH, UNIVERSITY OF
DUISBURG-ESSEN)
When comparing the investment costs, the low frequency transmission system costs will be slightly higher
than a 50-60 Hz HVAC system. This is due to the need for an onshore converter, plus the low frequency
transformers and shunt reactors must be built with more windings and/or larger iron core to accommodate
the necessary magnetic flux at lower frequencies. Still the cost will be much less than a HVDC system,
mainly because an offshore converter platform is not needed.
600 220 [kV] AC
500
Transmission Capacity [MW]
400 Transmission Capacity 50 Hz

(Compensation both ends (50/50 %)
300
Transmission Capacity 16.7 Hz

200
(Compensation both ends (50/50 %)
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Lenght [km]
FIGURE 4-14 : COMPARISON OF 50 AND 16.7 HZ 220 KV HVAC CABLE (3-CORE 1200 CU) (MADE BY WG B1.40)
As can be seen from Figure 4-15 there is a significant improvement in transmission capacity for a 220 kV
2
(3x1200 mm Cu) HVAC cable when operated at 16.7 vs. 50 Hz.
Slightly better figures can be achieved for even lower frequencies, but larger transformers will be
required.
Low frequency AC transmission systems might be applicable for medium to long distances. For very long
distances (> 500 km) HVDC will be the only solution.
Page 57
4.3.3 DC solutions
HVDC links are mainly used for the transmission of large amounts of power over a long distance with low
losses. Today’s HVDC cable systems with VSC converters are rated up to ±320kV, 1100 MW, and can
serve any OWP transmission demand. HVDC cable suppliers are developing extruded HVDC cables for
voltage levels higher than 320 kV and extruded HVDC cables up to 525 kV are now available. If the
offshore generation cluster is very powerful or very remote from shore an HVDC transmission can be
considered. It is well known that the station costs for HVDC are comparatively higher than for HVAC while
the cable cost per kilometre for HVDC are lower than for HVAC. In spite of this known relationship it is not
possible to establish a general break-even distance for the economic decision between HVDC and
HVAC. The comparison between technologies is very much different for land-based systems than for
offshore systems.
The erection of offshore HVDC converters is costly. Like all offshore operations it is affected by risks that
can be managed but which contribute to the overall CAPEX. Also the OPEX of HVDC offshore converters
must be taken into account because service and maintenance of offshore systems is inherently costly.
On the other hand the cabling for HVDC is simpler and less expensive than for HVAC. For the same
transmitted power an HVAC cable system employs larger cross-sections and more individual cables than
a HVDC system. While a pair of bundled HVDC cables can be laid and trenched in a single run, the
equivalent group of HVAC cables must be laid in consecutive runs since no vessel can accommodate the
necessary amount of HVAC cable in the same journey. As a consequence each HVAC cable must be
trenched separately, adding to the CAPEX of HVAC.
The loss evaluation in long systems is in favour of the HVDC solution, especially when taking into account
the high electricity generation costs offshore.
System length and unit prices of the components are the most important factors when deciding between
HVDC and HVAC. There are no catalogue prices for the components or the installation.
For more detailed information regarding HVDC systems, see TB 492 [4.3].
See also Appendix D.2 Case study, German offshore wind farms.
4.4 Reactive compensation in AC Systems

The purpose of reactive power compensation in AC systems is to increase the transmission capacity of
the cables, reduce the losses and to ensure a stable system voltage (see Figure 4-15). The grid codes of
TSO’s generally prescribe the system voltage stability requirements. The impact of reactive power is
typically expressed as a voltage versus power factor graph.
Figure 4-15 shows two examples of the requirements of voltage levels to be reached for different power
factors. The outline (red line) must be guaranteed by the energy supplier. This is a part of the TSO grid
codes.
Page 58
FIGURE 4-15: POWER FACTOR REQUIREMENTS OF TWO DIFFERENT TRANSMISSION SYSTEM OPERATORS FOR
GENERATING UNITS CONNECTED TO THE HIGH VOLTAGE 380 KV GRID (M. WILCH [4.4])
The reactive power compensation can be divided into:
• Compensation by the turbines

• Compensation by additional shunt-reactors (on-shore and/or off-shore)
4.4.1 Reactive power contribution by turbines

The dynamic performance of the wind power plant is dependent on how the individual wind turbines are
contributing in the voltage control as well as the voltage fluctuation throughout the wind power plant
during transients. The dynamic performance is influencing how the reactive power compensation of the
wind power plant is designed and rated.
Through the control actions of an overall park controller, wind turbines can make use of their reactive
power capabilities. In general, two different control modes are used, namely reactive power control and
voltage control (TB 483 [4.1]). The phase angles of the synchronous machines can be adjusted by the
varying machine excitation. In this way the reactive power can be either leading or lagging, that is
capacitive or inductive.
Array cables connect wind turbine generators and offshore substations with each other. Typically they are
600-1000 meter long with currently a maximum rated voltage of 33 kV (Um = 36 kV). This results in a
reactive power consumption of 40-100 kvar.
Variable speed turbines have the possibility to operate with a power factor between 0.9 capacitive and 0.9
inductive. In other words, it can supply as well as consume reactive power. Generally this is sufficient to
compensate for the array cables.
Induction machines with fixed speed turbines consume reactive power which has to be supplied from the
grid or by imbedded compensation in the wind turbines. In that case, Static Var Compensators (SVC) can
be used to provide the required reactive power.
4.4.2 Reactive power contribution by shunt reactors

The length and transport capability of the power cable can be influenced by means of reactive
compensation located at either the onshore substation, at the offshore substation, or at both ends and for
very long lengths in the middle. The most optimal way of operating a cable connection would be to strive
for an equal flow of charging currents to each end of the cable.
The need and rating of the compensation equipment depends on the system configuration, wind power
plant power capacity, distance to shore (length of the cable between the onshore and offshore
Page 59
substation), voltage and power rates, type of wind turbines, transformer impedance and other electric
devices such as harmonic filters.
Using compensation equipment the current distribution is improved, enabling an equal current at both the
generation and load. Further improvement are possible by locating additional reactors on platform’s along
the cable route; however this is an expensive solution (i.e. offshore platform costs) and normally not used
for cables at sea. However there is the opportunity to compensate the cable, if needed, just when the
cable come onshore..
The following devices can be used to compensate reactive power (FACTS) (TB 483 [4.1]):
• Mechanically switched shunt reactors (MSR)
• Variable shunt reactors with tap-changers
• Thyristor based Static Var Compensators (SVC)
• VSC based SVCs or Synchronous Static Compensators (STATCOM)
The costs for the compensation device are voltage dependent. Compensation devices at higher voltages
are more expensive than compensation at lower voltages and occupy more space.
An example is given in Figure 4-16 below for a 1200 mm² copper 220 kV HVAC three-core submarine
cable system.
FIGURE 4-16: INFLUENCE OF COMPENSATION ON A THREE-CORE SUBMARINE CABLE SYSTEM OF 220KVAC (MADE
BY WG B1.40)
For the middle curve the reactive compensation is installed at both ends of the cable system, whereas for
the upper curve, there is also reactive compensation installed in the middle of the cable system. The latter
system is more complex, especially for offshore cable systems as this means that an intermediate
platform is needed, which increases the CAPEX significantly.
4.5 Losses
The evaluation of losses (load losses and voltage dependent no-load losses) from the different grid
components during the operation is very important for the economic analysis to choose the optimal cable
system design.
Page 60
4.5.1 AC versus DC
The losses of a typical AC cable include current-dependent losses and voltage-dependent losses.
Current-dependent losses include conductor losses, sheath losses and armour losses. The voltage-
dependent losses are dielectric losses within the insulation.
In comparison, the losses of DC cables are mainly the current dependent conductor losses. There are
also harmonics (originating from the converters) in the cables which give (small) additional losses.
Furthermore the losses from the other grid components that should be taken into account for both the AC-
and DC-transmission solutions include:
• Losses from the transformer, switchgear and auxiliary systems for both AC and DC-solutions
• Converter losses for the DC-solutions
• Compensation losses from the shunt reactors for the AC-solutions.
4.5.2 Capitalisation of losses

For the capitalisation of the losses (load losses and no-load losses), the net present value method is
widely used.
Because the losses are primarily current-dependent, the calculation of the cost of losses should be
divided into different load levels, for example from full load to zero load. Furthermore the erection of an
offshore generation plant is normally in time-phases and the integrated power into the grid will be
increased in steps during the first years of operation. For the calculation of the losses those features
should be considered.
The calculation of losses is based on the expected transmission power (in-feed wind power) taking into
account the wind statistics. An example for the calculation of cable losses:
P transmission power
Pn rated transmission power
′ cable losses per unit length

P`loss
′ cable losses per unit length at the rated transmission power

P`nloss
The relationship between the transmission power and cable losses is shown in Equation 4-1:
P2 P′
= loss
Pn
2
′
P`nloss
EQUATION 4-1
P 2
′ =(
Ploss ′
) ⋅ Pnloss
Pn
EQUATION 4-2
With the rated transmission power and the associated losses defined by the cable supplier, the losses of
the cable system(s) per year can be summed up by the multiplication results of Equation 4-2 (losses in
kW/km) and the density function shown in Figure 4-17 (duration in hours).
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FIGURE 4-17: EXAMPLE OF DENSITY FUNCTION OF WINDPOWER OUTPUT BASED ON THE FINO WIND SPEED DATA
20
Pi
′ = ∑ Ploss
Wloss ′ (i ) ⋅ f D ( ) ⋅ 8760
i =1 Pn
EQUATION 4-3
′
Wloss is the losses of the cable systems per length unit and per year in kWh/km
Pi
fD ( ) is the density function of wind power output based on the wind speed data in percent for one
Pn
year.
This can also be calculated using duration curves with full load and equivalent full load loss hours.
FIGURE 4-18 DURATION CURVE WITH FULL LOAD AND QUIVALENT TIME
The cost of the cable losses can be calculated considering the availability, the predefined service life of
the wind park, the predicted interest rate and unit loss cost (per kWh).
4.6 Economic analysis

For the economic analysis of the different solutions (AC, DC etc.), some factors must be taken into
account.
CAPEX Investment costs for all equipment including installation.
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OPEX All operational costs including the maintenance costs and costs for losses for the entire
design life of the system.
Goal of the economic analysis should be to optimise the lowest Total Cost of Ownership (TCO = CAPEX
+ OPEX) over the entire design life of the system. A case study of the comparison of the offshore wind
farm grid connections is attached as Appendix D.2 Case study, German offshore wind farms.
4.7 Wind farm output

The output of a wind farm must be assessed to appropriately design a cable that meets the required
specification. Typically mast or wind monitoring devices are erected on site at a variety of heights to
obtain wind data for a year. This data, together with long term meteorological data available for the area,
is then used to generate a load profile curve. Using this information, a detailed thermal cable rating
calculation that conforms to the relevant standards can be carried out to determine the appropriate cable
specifications for the wind farm.
4.7.1 Output of wind turbines

Output of wind turbines can be calculated based on type of turbine and wind data. The specifications of
the turbines shall be delivered by the turbines manufacturers and the wind data can be recorded on site
or found from historical metrological data and weather models.
Figure 4-19 shows a characteristic curve for a specific wind turbine
FIGURE 4-19: CHARACTERISTIC CURVE FOR A SPECIFIC WIND TURBINE
Table 4-1 shows some technical general figures for wind turbines in the range 3-5 MW.
Turbine size Vstart Vnorminal Voff Power Average Value
3-5 MW 3-5 m/s 12-15 m/s 25-30 m/s 35-50 %
TABLE 4-1: TECHNICAL GENERAL FIGURES FOR WIND TURBINES
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4.7.2 Load profile

The load profile from a conventional thermal power plant is simple as the output can be controlled and
planned ahead. However, power from renewable sources is not so easy to predict and control. The output
(power) from offshore wind farms totally depends on the wind speed. In the case of no wind or too high a
wind speed there will be no power output from an offshore wind farm. Wind characteristics differ a lot from
one area to the next. It is therefore very important to find reliable data for the specific sites.
In wind farms there are lots of turbines. Each turbine must be maintained. The output from the wind farm
also depends on the number of turbines in service. The reliability of the turbines, cables, transformers and
switchgear is important and may also be taken into account in the assessment of the load profile.
Recorded data from in service wind farms show that the output can vary considerably from minute to
minute. Figure 4-20 shows an example of wind farm output from the North Sea. The current is shown as 5
minutes average values in Ampere as a function of days. The shown data is for the period with the most
consistent high wind speed, of the available recorded data.
FIGURE 4-20 EXAMPLE : CURRENT (AMPERE) IN EXPORT CABLE FROM WIND FARM DURING 25 DAYS
The output fluctuates but there is no predictable cyclic tendency as known from distribution network.
It is easy to find the maximum current that the cables must be able to transmit. If an export cable is
designed for the maximum output of the wind farm as if it is a constant load, the cable will be over-
dimensioned.
The thermal time constant of the cable and the backfill material/seabed is very long. It might take days,
weeks or months before a steady state condition is reached. Because of that, the cables can be loaded
much higher than the rated current for a shorter period and it is possible to reduce the cable size in the
case of a very fluctuating load. On the other hand it is very important to make an assessment of the
possible load, so that a realistic load profile can be used in the calculation of cable rating.
The load profile must be “translated” into a more simple form, so that it is possible to use the profile in the
rating calculations. There are different ways to do so. One method is to calculate the continuous average
values of the load for a week, a month or three months. See an example of the load factor (load relative
to maximum load) in Figure 4-21.
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FIGURE 4-21: CALCULATED LOAD FACTORS BASED ON THE FINO 1 DATA, 7 DAY AVERAGE VALUE (BLUE) AND 45
DAYS (RED) AVERAGE VALUE, 100 M TURBINE HEIGHT, FROM MARCH 2004 TO MARCH 2011
In Appendix D.4 Load profiles from wind farms, there are some examples that show how to find a load
profile on the basis of recorded wind data or data from similar wind farms in the same area.
4.8 Availability – Reliability

For offshore power generation the reliability and the availability are very important as they are for land
based generation systems. The main difference for offshore installations is the intervention time which
can be much longer than for onshore installations. The main parameters are: availability of spare parts,
availability of vessels and equipment needed for the offshore intervention, weather conditions, etc. See
also Chapter 8.
Possible breakdown scenarios should be taken into account during the design phase and that proper
measures be based on a risk assessment.
Redundancy can be built-in during the design phase. However, for the export cables, due to the high cost,
there is often no redundancy. In this case it is very important that the selected cable system is a reliable
system. This means that the necessary attention must be paid to the selection and testing of the cable
system (Chapter 7), laying and protection of the cable system (Chapter 6) and after installation tests.
More details regarding testing of cable systems, cable failures and protection of submarine cable systems
can be found in following CIGRE technical brochures:
• TB 379 [4.5] Update of service experience of HV underground and submarine cable systems
• TB 398 [4.6] Third party damage to underground and submarine cables
• TB 490 [4.7] Recommendations for testing of long AC submarine cables with extruded insulation
above 30kV to 500kV
• TB 496 [4.8] Recommendations for Testing DC Extruded Cable Systems for Power Transmission
at a Rated Voltage up to 500 kV
• Electra 171 [4.9] and TB from WG B1.43: Recommendations for mechanical testing of submarine
cables
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The risk assessment should cover the planned lifetime of the system and include the following items:
• Spare parts needed
• Service Level Agreements with contractors and suppliers of major parts.
4.9 System studies and simulations

The table below summarises the non-exhaustive proposed calculations and simulation studies that should
be part of a project execution of large wind farms:
Project phase Activity Purpose
Feasibility Study Alternative designs are identified To identify the best alternatives technically and
Phase economically
Load flow and short circuit calculations for the To verify that the wind farm can be connected to
connecting (onshore) grid. the grid.
Dynamic simulations of interactions between

wind farm and connecting grid using a general
wind generator model
Design Phase Load flow and short circuit calculations for the Technical specification for the collection grid
collecting grid (current ratings required)
Investigate the requirements for reactive

compensation equipment
Dynamic simulations of interaction between wind Verification of the grid codes and coordination of
farm and connecting grid using the specific wind the TSO’s requirements
generator model
Insulation coordination using transient To be able to select a suitable insulation level

simulations according to IEC (or other relevant) standards.
To identify the maximum over-voltages for all

individual components and, if necessary identify
remedy actions (e.g. the need for surge arresters
etc.)
Protection coordination Determine the settings and verify selectivity of the

protection scheme.
Operational Phase Measurements To verify the dimensioning parameters and update

the operational parameter assumptions.
TABLE 4-2 NON-EXHAUSTIVE PROPOSED CALCULATIONS AND SIMULATION STUDIES
Other analyses that could be performed:

• Cable sizing study
Normally performed by the cable supplier(s) and is part of either the feasibility phase or design
phase..
• Harmonic study
To identify the harmonic distortion influence at the Grid Connection Point.
• Electromagnetic influence study
• Reliability study
To identify the availability of components and spare part philosophy.
• Grounding study
To identify and verify that touch voltages and the transferred potential are kept within safe values.
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4.9.1 Dynamic behaviour when switching reactive compensation

Switchable reactors can be used to compensate cable charging currents in offshore wind farms. To limit
possible over voltages during disconnection due to circuit breaker re-strikes or re-ignition, synchronized
switching and arresters can be used.
When using vacuum MV breakers, high frequency voltage oscillations in the reactor can occur during
disconnection due to circuit breaker re-strikes. The use of special RC damping circuits may be employed
to avoid current zero crossing after the first re-strike and therefore prevent high frequency voltage
oscillations and damage to the reactor. For HV export cables it is unlikely that vacuum circuit breakers will
be used, although the principles are still valid.
Circuit breakers can be tested for Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) associated with fault clearing,
however ordinary switching will cause the generation of very fast transients which if unchecked may
damage insulation and contacts. In both cases, the designer needs to be confident that the condition and
capability of the circuit breaker is not compromised for both fault clearing and ordinary switching when
operated near reactors.
It is important that the grid codes are fulfilled also in the switching situations. There may be large voltage
jumps in case of switching the reactor without simultaneous switching the cable and vice versa. If a
reactor is directly connected to the cable, it must be checked if switching causes zero-miss. In case of
zero-miss of the current, it is not possible to break the current in case of failure. The zero-miss situation
can continue for several seconds.
See also TB 556 [4.2].
4.9.1.1 LOAD REJECTION

Temporary overvoltages could occur immediately after the main circuit breaker at the onshore connection
point disconnects the wind power plant from the rest of the transmission network, so the wind farm and
export cable goes into isolated operation. See TB 483 [4.1]. Depending on the protection system of the
wind turbines, they may continue to inject active current into the isolated network, charging its
capacitance. Once the turbines disconnect, the energy stored in the long AC cable capacitance and the
shunt reactor inductance could oscillate with a low frequency, leading to high overvoltages lasting for
several seconds. In this case, overvoltage protection may be applied to absorb the energy from the
cable/reactor system.
4.9.1.2 DYNAMIC STABILITY STUDY

The main objectives of a Dynamic stability study should be:
• To simulate how reactive power output of the wind power plant module(s) reacts to positive and
negative voltage changes at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC).
• To determine whether the simulated reactive power output of the wind power plant module(s) is
Grid Code compliant with the steady-state value and dynamic response.
• To determine whether the wind power plant module(s) behave(s) stable for voltage steps beyond
the reactive power limits.
• To simulate the response of the wind power plant module(s) to symmetrical and asymmetrical
voltage sags at the point of common coupling (PCC) of various depths and duration.
• To assess whether the wind power plant module(s) are able to ride through these voltage sags
and show a stable post fault behaviour (in accordance with Grid Code Fault Ride Through
requirements).
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5 CABLE DESIGN
5.1 Generic cable design
While there are many different designs of submarine power cables, only a few generic designs are used
for the electric connection of offshore power generation. The following three generic cable types are
widely used for offshore wind power generation, however, the description of a certain design feature in
this context does not exclude cable systems with different designs.
The vast majority of today’s offshore power generation facilities consist of wind turbines on fixed
foundations. Offshore Wind Parks (OWP) with fixed foundations stand in relatively shallow waters, often
less than 40 m. This affects the armour design of array and export cables. Design issues related to
external water pressure, such as water-blocking in the conductor, are relatively easy to accomplish.
The design details of the functional layers of these generic cables are discussed in greater detail in the
sections of this chapter.
Other types of offshore power generation are discussed in Chapter 9. The special demands for dynamic
cables are discussed there.
The technical lifetime of submarine cables is normally 30-40 years, however a large variation between
different cables have been experienced. While a few submarine systems have been abandoned after less
than 20 years due to repeated outages, other systems are still in operation after 50 years.
Submarine cables for the connection of offshore power generation can be classified according to their
purpose.
5.1.1 Array cables

Array cables are used to connect individual turbines to each other. If there is an offshore transformer
station the array cables connect the turbines to it. Array cables are also called inter-array cables or in-field
cables or collector cables.
Array cables are in all known cases three-core AC cables with rated voltages of up to 36 kV. It is
generally accepted that medium-voltage submarine cables with Ur≤36 kV can do without a metallic water
barrier. The use of higher voltages has been discussed in Chapter 4 but has not been pursued yet. Array
cables have a steel wire armour for increased tensional force and mechanical protection.
Since an offshore wind park (OWP) can consist of a large number of turbines it is important that the array
layout is considered in respect to the conductor size and cable size, the cables should be easy to connect
to the turbine and install on the seabed. They are pulled into the turbine towers within elbow steel tubes
(J-tubes). Properties such as flexibility, low friction of the outer surface, reluctance to form loops and kinks
during seabed installation can be important.
5.1.2 HVAC Export cables

If there is no offshore platform with a step-up transformer the MV array cables will also have the function
of an export cable. The array cables would then transport the collected power from a group of the turbines
to an onshore reception point.
If there is an offshore transformer station the export cable transports the collected power from the
offshore transformer station to onshore, or to an offshore converter HVDC station.
Export cables are normally three-core AC cables. If there is an offshore transformer the export cables
operate at around 145 kV AC, with some systems having up to 245 kV system voltage. It is possible to
use three-core 420 kV cables, but these have not yet been used for offshore generation. No export cable
system consisting of single-core AC cables is known to the authors; this does not mean it is not feasible
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or possible. Single-core submarine cables are used in some interconnections and may also be used in
the future as export cables.
5.1.3 HVDC Export cables

HVDC cables are actually also export cables since they transport the power to shore. But since they are
fundamentally different from the HVAC export cables they constitute a group of their own. HVDC export
cables connect an offshore AC/DC converter station to a corresponding converter station on shore. They
are typically single-core cables with extruded insulation and metallic radial water barrier. A pair of these
cables makes up a circuit and is normally installed as a bundle. HVDC cables with mass-impregnated
paper or PPL insulation are also suitable for HVDC export.
5.1.4 Cable illustrations

Figure 5-1 shows examples of submarine cables classified according to their purpose.
Array cable Export cable AC HVDC export cable
Extruded insulation
Mass Impregnated paper

EPR insulation
insulation (MI)
FIGURE 5-1 EXAMPLES OF SUBMARINE CABLES
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Figure 5-2 shows a cross-section of a three-core AC submarine cable. The metallic sheath is commonly
used in HV and EHV AC cables, but not in MV AC cables.
FIGURE 5-2 EXAMPLE OF THREE-CORE AC SUBMARINE HV CABLE DESIGN, TB 490 [4.7]
5.2 Conductor design

The conductor of submarine power cables is made of copper or aluminium. Each of them has advantages
and disadvantages. The material selection is based on the following non-exhaustive consideration:
5.2.1 Electrical conductivity

This is directly related to the current carrying capability. A higher conductivity allows a better current
capability or in another way, allows a smaller conductor for a defined current capability. Copper is more
conductive than aluminium. A smaller conductor leads to a reduction of the overall cable diameter which
means that less material is needed for the other layers (insulation, screen, sheath, armour wires, etc). A
smaller cable also leads to an increase of cable length which can be loaded onto an installation vessel.
5.2.2 Mechanical strength and flexibility

A submarine cable must be designed to withstand mechanical forces during its complete life (handling,
transportation, installation, operation and reparation). This is highly dependent on cable route selection,
cable installation procedure and cable operation. Dynamic power cables, for example, need special
mechanical performance which impacts the choice between copper and aluminium. Copper conductors
have higher tensional strength performance compared to aluminium conductors.
5.2.3 Corrosion resistance

Materials resistant to the corrosion phenomena are generally preferred in the case of sea water
penetration/aggression (copper has an advantage when compared to aluminium). Nevertheless, if
corrosion develops in the conductor, then the cable length must be repaired or replaced, regardless of the
conductor material.
5.2.4 Weight issues

During laying and repair operations, cable weight contributes to the tensional force exerted on submarine
cables at the vessel wheel. A lighter cable decreases this tensional force. Weight issues must be
considered regarding the complete cable:
3 3
Pure aluminium has a lower density (2.70 kg/dm ) than pure copper (8.96 kg/dm ). For the same cross-
section, aluminium conductor is lighter than copper conductor. However, for the same current capability
most of this advantage is lost when assessing the weight of the complete cable (outer layers have more
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volume and weight). Particular for HV cables the difference in total weight between copper and aluminium
conductor is not that significant due to the larger cross-section of the aluminium conductor.
Also a cable that is directly laid on the seabed needs to be heavier to avoid cable oscillation with tides
and currents and thus possible abrasion. Increased protection can be made with extra mechanical
strength (armour), thus keeping a lighter conductor. Increasing cable weight can also be achieved by the
armour design.
5.2.5 Economic issues such as availability, initial cost and operating cost
Concerning raw material cost on the world market, copper is more expensive than aluminium. Prices
fluctuate in relation to commodity market quotes. For a constant cross-section, a conductor with a higher
conductivity reduces cable losses and thus decreases operating costs during the complete life cycle. A
suggested economical optimum can be found by using IEC 60287-3-2 [5.2].
Copper has traditionally been preferred for submarine cables, but aluminium can be used. The choice
between copper and aluminium conductors depends upon the optimum design as well as economic
considerations.
5.2.6 Conductor’s shape

Conductors of submarine power cables can be made with different shapes depending on their use (Figure
5-3):
• Solid conductors consist of one large wire. This configuration offers perfect longitudinal water
tightness, but leads to a very stiff cable and to significant thermo-mechanical stresses on
accessories. It can be used for aluminium conductors up to 2000 mm².
• Stranded conductors are made of several round wires laid in layers. Stranded conductors can be
compacted using dies (or rolls) to reduce spacing between the strands.
• Profiled wire (or keystone shaped wire) conductors are composed of keystone shaped wire
resulting in a lower spacing between strands.
• Segmental conductors (or Milliken conductors), are composed of several segment shaped
conductors assembled together to form a cylindrical core. Each sector can be electrically
separated from each other by a thin layer of light insulation (IEC 60050-461 [5.3]). Milliken
conductors are often used for land cables with conductor sizes greater than 1600 mm² for
aluminium and 1200 mm² for copper to limit the AC losses and to allow for a flexible cable.
However, for submarine cable applications there is very limited experience, since flexible joints
and water-blocking can be difficult.
IEC 60228 [5.4] specifies the cross-sectional areas for conductors of power cable. This standard covers
solid, stranded (compacted or not) and Milliken conductors. Profiled wire conductors are not covered by
IEC 60228. Other cross-sections (tailor-made conductors) are possible in accordance with customer’s
requirements for specific projects.
The conductor design may be influenced by the transmission scheme in which it has to operate (AC or
DC), as well as proximity and skin effects. AC submarine cables are made of conductors that are very
similar to those used in AC underground cable applications.
Conductor designs contribute to the water propagation rates or to the degree of water blocking of the
conductor. Solid conductors will not allow any water penetration while stranded or profiled wire
conductors can have spacing despite compaction of the layers. Mitigation action must be taken for non-
solid conductors (see Section 5.2.7).
5.2.7 Water penetration/propagation

To guarantee the longitudinal water blocking performance of the conductor, water blocking compound
and/or water swellable powders or tapes are added. See also Section 5.4.3.
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The water blocking compound is applied during stranding or laying-up of the conductor. Water swellable
powders and tapes are installed in the conductor during manufacture by adding a powder or applying a
fabric tape within the conductor. Most swellable devices are more effective with fresh water when
compared to salt water; TB 490 [5.1]. Mass impregnated cables do not need to have water blocking
compound in the conductor because of the impregnating fluid presence.
Solid Stranded
Profiled Segmental Compacted
FIGURE 5-3 : COMMON CONDUCTOR DESIGN
5.3 Insulation system

AC and DC submarine cables with an extruded insulation system consist predominantly of cross linked
polyethylene (XLPE), although ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) is often an option.. The insulation
system consists of an inner conducting screen, an insulation layer and an outer semiconducting screen.
5.3.1 Semiconducting screens

The semiconducting inner and outer screens contain carbon black as active conducting filler. The
performance of the semiconducting screen compounds and their extrusion is important for MV, HV and
EHV cables. For example, the properties are controlled by additives, the percentages of carbon added,
the carbon particle size with respect to the base polymer, the dispersion of the carbon through the base
polymer and the extrusion properties. In specific cases a volume resistivity stability test may be useful
where these properties are crucial for the final cable performance. A compatibility test with the insulation
material should also be done when new materials are used. The outer surface of the conductor screen
and the inner surface of the insulation screen have to be free of protrusion and irregularities that
compromise the electrical performance of the cable. Furthermore the semiconducting screens have to be
securely bonded to the insulation, thus assuring the consistent bond required at the important stress
interface.
5.3.2 Insulation
Cross linking of polyethylene (in particular low density polyethylene, LDPE) is an irreversible process (i.e.
no re-melting is possible) that forms three-dimensional networks producing a more thermally stable
insulation with improved mechanical properties particularly at higher operating temperatures. Cross
linking takes place right after extrusion under heat (170-230°C) in a pressurized tube.
Whilst cables with extruded insulation were generally used for electricity distribution or (MV) medium
voltage cables and for the lower transmission voltages, extruded materials have also become the
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insulation of choice for many utility EHV applications for both AC and DC transmission circuits for
underground cables.
Water-tree-retardant XLPE (WTR-XLPE) material or EPR (ethylene-propylene rubber) is sometimes used

for MV cables with wet design. EPR is mainly limited to systems with Un ≤ 150 kV for AC transmission
(due to high dielectric losses) and ≤ 50 kV for DC transmission. EPR has also better performance to
water treeing compared to XLPE.
For AC cables the recommended insulation thickness is tabulated in Standards (IEC, or National
standards, utility specifications); usually for MV cables the Standards and specifications impose a nominal
thickness while for HV cables the thickness is chosen by the cable manufacturer based on experience
and validated by type tests and where applicable prequalification tests.
The insulation thickness of DC cables is chosen by the cable manufacturer taking into account both the
capacitive electrical stress (caused by the possible transient voltage, e.g. switching and lightning impulse)
and the resistive one (caused by the DC voltage in normal operation). The latter strongly depends on the
temperature difference across the insulation, on the material used and on the manufacturing process.
The degassing time and temperature after extrusion are important parameters to be considered by the
manufacturer since the by-product content can strongly influence the insulation electrical performance.
For DC application specific materials have been developed and new materials are under development.
Once the most suitable insulation material has been defined, particular attention has to be paid to the
cleanliness both of the incoming material and of the material handling used in the plant. The required
level of cleanliness of the incoming material and the proper handling strongly depend on the rated voltage
of the cable.
Extruded submarine HVDC cables are commercially used up to ±320 kV for the time being (2014).
Extruded ±525 kV HVDC cables for underground applications are available and are expected to be
available for submarine use soon. Mass Impregnated (MI) submarine HVDC cables can be used for all
voltages, even over ±500 kV. Mass-impregnated cables cannot be used for AC voltages.
The insulation system has to be tested in accordance with the relevant standard/recommendation (cf.
Chapter 7).
Figure 5-4 shows the distribution of the electric stress inside the cable insulation for a cold isothermal
cable and a loaded cable with a thermal gradient in the insulation of DC cables. The stress distribution in
a HVDC cable’s insulation is controlled by the ohmic resistance of the insulation layers. In a cold
isothermal cable the specific resistivity of all insulation layers is almost uniform and the resulting stress
distribution is according to the blue curve in Figure 5-4. After running the cable with load a thermal
gradient will appear in the insulation leading to a lower specific resistivity of the insulation close to the
conductor, than in the cooler periphery. As a result, the electric stress distribution forms as indicated in
the red curve of Figure 5-4.
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FIGURE 5-4 ELECTRIC STRESS DISTRIBUTION INSIDE THE DC CABLE INSULATION (L. BENARD ET A. [5.5])
5.4 Metallic screen, sheath and water barrier

Submarine power cables usually have one or more metallic layers outside the insulation to provide the
following functions:
• Radial water-tightness to keep the insulation dry
• Fault current carrying capability
• Capacitive leakage current path
Depending on cable design, operating voltage and application these items have to be considered and the
cable designed appropriately.
5.4.1 Metallic Screen

The metallic screen has three purposes:
• To provide a well-defined ground potential around the cable core
• To carry fault currents
• To carry the capacitive and/or leakage current
The most commonly used metallic screen is made from spirally wound overlapping copper tapes or
helically wrapped copper wires. Sometimes copper wire screens are complemented by singular counter-
helical copper tapes. The cross-section of the screen is defined by the fault current to be carried without
exceeding the maximum permissible temperature at the end of the short circuit (IEC 60949 [5,6]). Wire
screens need to have a lay length suitable for the bending of the cable during manufacturing, storage and
installation.
The longitudinal water-tightness of the copper wire screen is provided by swelling tapes under and/or
over the copper wires. The swelling tape under the wires must be semiconductive to provide electric
contact between the wires and the semiconductive layer of the insulation.
The metallic screen can also be made as a metallic sheath (see Section 5.4.2), under the preconditions
that the sheath fulfils the three purposes of the metallic screen mentioned above.
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The metallic sheath which may act as a metallic screen and have a minimum cross-section area to allow
for the passage of short-circuit currents without exceeding the maximum permissible temperature at the
end of the short circuit (IEC 61443 [5.7]). An additional copper wire screen may be used on single-core
cables to increase the short-circuit current capability. When semi-conducting layers are used over each
core of a three-core cable a sharing of the short-circuit currents between the three parallel paths has to
be taken into account.
5.4.2 Metallic sheath

The purpose of the metallic sheath is to provide a radial water barrier. In addition, the metallic sheath may
act as a metallic screen (see Section 5.4.1).
The most commonly used metallic sheath for the dry cable design consists of an extruded lead alloy
sheath covered by an extruded anticorrosion polymeric sheath or a semiconducting tape. Other emerging
metallic sheath materials are under discussion or implementation as alternatives to lead alloy sheaths. In
present day three-core cable designs the cores have individual lead sheaths.
The metallic sheath shall exhibit a high level of mechanical performance: integrity, capability of bending
during manufacture, installation and repair as well as a certain degree of resistance to fatigue.
The chosen lead alloy for the sheath should be suitable for the specific requirements of submarine
cables. The alloy constituents have a content of less than 1%. The thickness of the metal sheath is set by
mechanical and electrical criteria.
Cable bending is normally no problem for lead sheathed cables due to the high ductility properties of lead.
Repeated bending of the submarine cable during laying/jointing at the exit of the cable laying wheel of the
vessel may in some cases impose a risk of premature fatigue failure.
Setting practical criteria for maximum permissible strain on the lead sheath by calculation is very difficult
because modelling the behaviour of the cable during load cycling and laying/jointing at sea is very
complex because of:
• Differences in the coefficients of fatigue resistance [5.8], [5.9]
• Difficult representation of the geometry of the laying/jointing configuration onboard the vessel
The latter issue can be assessed by a combination of “global analysis” which describes the motion of the
2
cable as a response to sea state, vessel movement and laying wheel , and a “local analysis” which
describes the internal behaviour of the cable constituents.
The resistance of lead alloys sheaths to fatigue has been demonstrated by decades of experience on HV
and EHV submarine static cables with laminated (=paper based) insulation and more recently on
extruded insulation land cables as well as HV extruded insulated submarine cables. The CENELEC
standard EN 50307-2002 "Lead and lead alloys - Lead and lead alloy sheaths and sleeves of electric
cables" [5.10] is a good illustration of this fact and the experience gained in the successful metallurgical
control of lead alloy morphology.
In dynamic MV cable applications with wet cable designs, EPR insulation without a radial water barrier
may be considered because its superior fatigue resistance (cf. 5.4.3).
Suitable installation techniques can substantially relief the fatigue strain on the lead sheath.
Alternative to extruded lead sheaths the metallic sheath can also be manufactured from longitudinally
applied and welded tapes of copper or aluminium. Cables with welded aluminium tapes should be
designed using some sacrificial anode in order to protect aluminium from corrosion.
2
The expression, ”laying wheel”, represents all types of over-boarding methods, such as rotating wheels, chutes, roller chutes,
vertical laying systems, etc.
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Although copper and lead have a high resistance against corrosion an extruded polymeric over-sheath is
commonly applied over the metallic sheath. Its main purpose however, is to provide mechanical
protection to the soft lead sheath.
When an insulating over-sheath is used a potential difference of several kV can arise between the
metallic sheath and armour as a response to fault currents in the cable and/or switching impulse. To
avoid dielectric breakdown of the insulating over-sheath, a semiconducting over-sheath is often used.
Alternatively, earthing connections may be inserted between metal sheath and armour at regular
distances along the cable. The earthing connections have to be designed and manufactured with respect
to important properties:
• Capability to carry any expected fault current with a certain duration
• Capability to carry capacitive current in AC cables
• Water-tightness
• Corrosion resistance
No testing standards or recommendations for the earthing connections are available except Electra 171
[5.11] which requires that the earthing connections, if existent, shall be subject to some mechanical tests.
5.4.3 Radial and longitudinal water-tightness

Submarine cables can be of either wet or dry design.
A wet design tolerates water migration into the cable insulation. In MV submarine cables at voltage levels
according to IEC 60502-2 [5.12], EPR and water-tree retardant XLPE can be used as insulation material
in wet designs, up to a maximum electrical stress set by the cable manufacturer.
For voltage levels according to IEC 60840 [5.13] / 62067 [5.14], HV and EHV submarine cables as
considered in this document, dry designs are normally used. In dry design cables water blocking or water
tightness in both the radial and longitudinal directions is crucial; while in wet design cables radial water
barrier usually does not exist.
In dry design cables the radial water barrier utilises extruded or welded metallic materials. By far the most
common design is the extruded lead sheath as described above. Radial water barriers made of welded or
glued copper or aluminium tapes are used occasionally. It is however to be noted that while extruded lead
sheath and welded copper sheath provide absolute water tightness, the glued solution cannot be
considered as an absolutely water tight solution, due to some diffusivity of the water through glued
overlap. The cable manufacturer has to consider these aspects in the overall cable design. Some
aluminium alloys are more prone to corrosion while others are very corrosion resistive. Radial water
barriers in dry design cables must be free of any defects along the full length to guarantee the water
tightness under the water pressure of the installation conditions. Lead sheaths cannot be used in dynamic
cables due to their fatigue properties.
Longitudinal water-tightness prohibits the migration of water inside the cable after mechanical damage.
Furthermore, without longitudinal water-tightness the water would penetrate continuously into the cable
insulation. An effective water-tight design helps to reduce the necessary repair cable length after
3
damage . Longitudinal water-tightness can also be useful during cable installation when the cable ends
are exposed to air humidity or water splash.
In general, longitudinal water-tightness is accomplished by the use of swelling materials (powder, tapes,
yarns, etc.) under the metallic sheath, in the metallic screen area. These materials swell considerably
when they are exposed to water and block the passage of further water ingress.
Typically water penetration would be less than 30 meters; however depending on the cable design, water
depth and time to repair the penetration length could be longer or shorter.
3
In case of short inter-turbine (array) cables the cable owner may consider replacing the entire length after damage in order to
avoid joints.
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The sealing function must work under the water pressure at installation conditions. Relevant tests on the
degree of water-tightness specified by the manufacturer are described in the test recommendations in TB
490 [5.1].
5.5 Armour
The most prominent construction element of submarine power cables is the armour. It provides the cable
with sufficient tensional strength to withstand:
• Static tensional forces from the weight of the suspended cable during installation and recovery
for repair.
• Dynamic tensional forces from the predominantly vertical movement of the vessel.
The armour also provides torsional stability which can be important during laying. Tensional and torsional
forces also appear when the cable must be recovered for potential repair.
In addition, and perhaps the most important property in shallow waters, the armour must protect the cable
against external hazards such as:
• External violence during installation
• Direct hits from anchors and falling objects up to a certain impact intensity
• Hooking by anchors and subsequent pulling by the vessel
• Rock dumping on the cable
• Entanglement with trawling fishing gear
• Chafing of cables when passing over rocks in free spans
The risk exposure of each hazard depends strongly on seabed characteristics and burial depth as well as
on the usage pattern of vessels and the local fishing fleet. The design of the armour needs to be adjusted
to reduce the risk of cable damage to a reasonable level.
Two main designs are used to protect the cable from tensional forces (static and dynamic) during laying
and external hazards:
• Single Wire Armour (SWA)
• Double Wire Armour (DWA)
DWA is available in several configurations depending on the lay direction and the lay length (see Figure
5-5):
• DWA with the same lay direction in both layers, can absorb torsions in one direction only
• DWA with different lay direction (also called counter helical DWA): the torsional forces of each
layer counterbalance (or even cancel) out each other
• DWA ”rock armour” type, where the outer layer has a short helical pitch to efficiently protect the
cable from external intrusion (see Figure 5-6)
Often, DWA is used for the ends of the cable to accommodate extra tensional strength during pull-in
through HDD, ducts etc.
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FIGURE 5-5 DIFFERENT ARMOUR DESIGN [5.15]
The design of the armour has a strong influence on cable properties like bending stiffness, tensional
stability, torque balance, and the choice of handling, transportation and installation methods.
Submarine power cable armour is generally made up with metal wires wound helically around the cable.
The vast majority of submarine power cables are equipped with one layer of hot-dip galvanized steel
wires forming the armour. But flat armour has also been used successfully, providing the necessary steel
cross-section with a small outer diameter.
FIGURE 5-6 ROCK ARMOUR DESIGN FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
The properties of steel wires for armour of submarine cables are regulated in EN-10257-2 [5.16]. For
single-core AC cables other armour materials may be considered to reduce armour losses.
5.5.1 Tensional strength

The armour design shall enable the cable to withstand static and dynamic forces during installation and
potential retrieving of the cable for repair. The forces during installation depend on the following factors:
Water depth, cable weight in water (for the calculation of static forces), expected sea state during laying,
wave response of the cable laying vessel, cable mass (for the calculation of dynamic forces), and
horizontal residual bottom tension for the determination of the catenary curve of the cable from the cable
vessel to the sea bottom.
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The armour contributes to the tensional strength of a power cable. In most cases steel of grade 34 with a
tensile strength range of 340<Rm≤540 N/mm is used. A long pitch length results in a larger tensile
2
strength compared to a short pitch length.
Single-layer armoured cables (SWA) react with elastic torsional deformation on the application of
tensional stress. In this case a considerable share of the tensional forces is transferred to the conductor,
especially in single-core cables. Conductor welds are normally weaker than the undisturbed conductor
due to the heat-annealed and softened material portion in the weld zone. So the conductor can limit the
tensional strength of the cable.
While the tensile strength of the cable is understood as the maximum tensile force that does not introduce
intolerable structural damages in the cable elements, the breaking strength is usually much higher.
Generally the tensile strength is verified by mechanical tests in accordance with the CIGRE
recommendation “Recommendations for mechanical test on submarine cables” published in Electra 171,
1997 [5.11]. (A new TB from CIGRE WG B1.43 will soon be published to replace Electra 171, the former
recommendation.) The recommendation requires the cable to withstand a tensional bending test (for
laying depth under 500 m water depth) according to the following equation:
T = 1.3 x w x d + H (0-500 m water depth)
Where T is the tensional force of the test,

w is the weight of cable in water in Newtons/metre
d is the max laying depth in metres
H = 0.2 x w x d
Where H is the maximum allowed bottom tension in Newtons (where d is defined to be minimum 200 m)
The cable must be designed to meet this condition.
A single-layer armour normally provides sufficient tensional strength for depths down to 150 m. However,
greater laying depths or difficult laying conditions (pull-in) can motivate a detailed dynamic laying analysis
with dedicated software in order to see if a double armour or different laying methods are needed.
5.5.2 Torsion
Single-layer armoured cables are normally not torsion-balanced. Under tensional forces they develop a
torque that introduces twisting of the cable. If this has not been taken into account properly for the
installation design process the cable may form loops or kinks during the installation, especially if the
bottom tension is not kept under good control.
Torsion balance can be achieved or approximated by a double-layer armour when the two layers are
oriented with opposite helical directions. Also, an anti-twist tape can provide torsion balance in a single-
layer armour. See Figure 5-7.
If the cable is to be coiled 4 during manufacturing or installation, the pitch length and orientation of the
armour layer must be designed accordingly. Most cable vessels with fixed cable tanks or coil pads are
equipped for clockwise coiling. This coiling direction requires a left-hand armour pitch direction (also
known as “S-lay”). Cables with counter-helical double wire armour can only be stored on turntables (they
cannot be coiled).
4
Coiling of a cable is the storage of the cable in a ring/coil on a fixed (non-rotating) surface.
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FIGURE 5-7 ANTI-TWIST TAPE (ELECTRIC CABLES HANDBOOK) [5.19]
5.5.3 Protection
Since direct impacts of anchors or fishing gear look very different it is difficult to deduce design rules or
testing standards. No armour can protect the cable against the heaviest anchors; however, since the
impact severity is statistically distributed it seems natural that a double layer of steel wires will protect the
cable from more impacts than a single layer. Since the bending stiffness of a wire goes with the fourth
power of the diameter, an armour with thick wires stands better against lateral forces than one with thin
wires.
An outer armour layer with very short pitch length (so called “rock-armour”) is sometimes used for cable
protection in the harsh land take or beach areas.
5.5.4 Armour losses

Alternating current creates losses in the embracing steel armour due to induced longitudinal and Eddy
currents. In three-core cables the phase currents usually are well-balanced and the associated magnetic
fields neutralise each other. It is possible to reduce the armour losses in three-core cables using steel
alloys or other materials in the armour wires. IEC 60287 [5.17] suggests calculation methods for the
armour losses in three-core-cables; however, measurements conducted by some major manufacturers
indicate that the losses are lower than those calculated according the IEC methods.
In single-core AC cables the armour losses would be high due to the reduced balance and cancellation
afforded by all three phases in one cable. The armour for single-core AC cables is often made of non-
magnetic materials such as copper, bronze, brass, or aluminium to avoid the concentration of magnetic
flux in the armour wires. Another method to reduce losses in the steel armour is to install a concentric
copper wire return conductor. The induced current in the return conductor is of opposite direction to the
conductor current and the magnetic fields are superimposed with the result that the magnetic flux in the
steel armour is reduced substantially or even nullified. If mechanical strength and stability criteria permit,
some of the steel wires may be replaced by plastic filler wires. This reduces weight, magnetic losses, and
possibly costs.
No losses occur in the armour of HVDC cables, no matter if single-core or multi-core. Since DC-current is
applied there is no induced EMF in the outer layers of the cable.
5.5.5 Corrosion
Different kinds of corrosion protection for the armour can be applied. The basic corrosion protection of
armour steel wires is achieved by hot dip galvanizing.
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Additionally the galvanized steel wires are commonly protected by flushing with hot bitumen. The outer
serving made of bitumen-soaked polypropylene strings protect the steel armour from chafing.
This strategy usually works very well for cables buried in the seabed since the content of oxygen is limited
in the seabed. In cables exposed to open sea, for example, risers or dynamic cables, the aforementioned
protective layers may be washed away and the cables are therefore sometimes equipped with an external
extruded polymeric sheath. In markets outside Europe, individual plastic coating of the armour wires is
sometimes selected.
Certain attention must be paid if the cable is subjected to electric stray current in the water, for example
caused by onshore electric facilities, electrodes or return currents from nearby HVDC submarine cables,
active cathodic protection of nearby infrastructure etc.
5.6 Outer serving

The outer protection may consist of either a plastic sheath, or more commonly of polypropylene yarn
(strings) in one or more layers covering the underlying armour. The outer serving protects the corrosion
protection layers (zinc, bitumen) of the armour from abrasion and wash-out.
The serving stabilises the armour layer mechanically, hence reducing the risk for “bird-caging” of the
wires during cable handling.
The friction coefficient of the outer serving must be taken into account for the design of the installation
procedure. A smooth plastic sheath has a lower friction coefficient than a yarn surface which can be
advantageous for cable pull-in into J-tubes. On the other hand, the rough surface of a yarn layer provides
a better grip in linear cable engines or the Capstan wheel. A yarn serving is less expensive than an
extruded serving, and less complex to manufacture.
One or more threads of yarn may be applied with a contrasting colour to make the cable visible for ROV
cameras during the installation and to visually locate the cable after installation.
5.7 Optical fibres

Most submarine cable systems for offshore power generation are equipped with fibre-optic systems. Fibre
optics (FO) can serve a number of purposes:
• Data transmission
• Temperature measurement
• Fault localization
5.7.1 Data transmission

Monitoring and control of the offshore assets can be performed from onshore control centres through
optical fibres integrated into the power cable. State-of-the-art optical networks can transmit enormous
data rates. Twelve or sixteen fibres can satisfy the needs and still provide redundancy. More than 24
fibres would increase the complexity of manufacturing, jointing, testing and installation unnecessarily. If
the wind turbine suppliers need a number of fibres to monitor their turbines connected to a string, the
number of fibres may be higher.
In-line amplifiers or repeaters are required for distances over 300 km. It is recommended to establish an
attenuation budget for the entire link including the splices.
5.7.2 Temperature measurement

Optical fibres can be used for monitoring the temperature along the cable. The Distributed Temperature
Sensing systems (DTS) display a temperature profile along the length of the connected fibre. The
measurement unit is usually placed in the offshore station and/or in a station onshore. The cable length
that can be monitored is depending on fibre type and the type of data acquisition. Two different scattering
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phenomena with different properties can be utilized for DTS: Raman scattering and Brillouin scattering.
The latter is sensitive also to mechanical stress on the fibre. Most DTS systems improve their accuracy
by averaging a large number of individual measurements which can add up to measurement times of
many minutes for each reading. Since power cables do not change their temperature quickly, this can be
accepted for the sake of better accuracy and spatial resolution.
Two different types of optical fibres can be used for DTS: Multi-mode (MM) or single-mode (SM). It has
been claimed previously that MM was good for short ranges and SM for long range. Vendor specifications
related to accuracy, resolution, etc. should be analysed carefully before ordering. Since DTS vendors
favourite different types of fibres they should be consulted before the fibre type for the actual cable project
is determined. SM and MM can be installed in the same cable to give more flexibility. It should also be
noted that the installation of submarine amplifiers or repeaters would add considerably to cost and risk of
the project.
See also Section 8.5.1.
5.7.3 Fault localisation

The location of a fibre break or squeezing damage can be found with high accuracy by Optical Time
Domain Reflectometry (OTDR). Hand-held OTDR instruments can be connected to the fibres when
necessary. Most DTS systems include OTDR modules and fibre break detectors.
5.7.4 Design of FO systems

FO-cables can be integrated into the interstices of three-core power cables. They are embedded between
the rope wormings or inside the extruded filler profiles.
The optical fibres in the FO-subcable are enclosed in a metallic tube of stainless steel or copper with
diameter between 2 and 12 mm. Water tightness of the metallic tube is essential. The longitudinal water-
tightness inside the tube is provided by a water-blocking gel.
The metallic tube is surrounded by an extruded polymeric sheath. The FO cable sheath should be made
from semi-conductive material to provide ground potential to the metallic tube. The metallic sheath should
be solidly grounded at the ends of the cable.
For longer AC cables it can be necessary to make splices in the FO-subcable.
The integrated FO cable is being used for three-core cables between the wind turbines, and for three-
core export cables.
Single-core export cables such as used for HVDC export systems can accommodate only very thin
metallic tubes between the armour wires. In most cases only a few fibres can be inside the tube, which is
enough for DTS purposes. If a larger fibre count is required a separate FO submarine cable is being
installed, often bundled with the pair of HVDC cables. The separate FO submarine cables are standard
telecom industry products.
In general, the integration of power cable and FO cable can generate problems especially when repair is
needed. When the fibres in an integrated power cable are faulty the complete cable needs to be cut for
repair of the FO cable. To avoid this situation it may be considered to separate FO and power cable if the
choice is given.
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5.8 Accessories
Cable accessories normally comprise joints and terminations. For submarine cables for offshore power
generation a range of further installation accessories can be necessary.
5.8.1 Joints
Depending on the length of installation many submarine cables for offshore generation facilities do not
need installation joints. Repair preparedness however dictates that there must be a developed concept
for jointing.
Two generic types of joints are available for most types of cables: flexible joints and rigid joints.
In a flexible joint the conductors of the two cable ends are connected by welding or brazing, or a
connector ferrule. The conductor connection is normally flush with the conductor. The insulation of both
cable ends is prepared according to manufacturer proprietary methods. The insulation system is rebuilt
layer-by-layer with well-defined interfaces to the existing cable layers. After the insulation, screening,
sheathing and armour layers are reinstated. The final joint has approximately the same diameter as the
cable and can be handled with the ordinary cable handling machinery. The flexible joint can be
manufactured in the factory to compose long shipping lengths, or on-site. However, some flexible joints
require long manufacturing times which should be taken into account when planning the installation
process.
Flexible joints are available for single-core and three-core cables and for all types of insulation materials.
The continuity of the lead sheath over factory joints is provided by the application of a lead sleeve of
larger diameter over the joint, followed by drawing the sleeve to the under layer diameter and by wipe-
soldering it to the lead sheath of the cable. The continuity of other metallic sheaths or screens should also
be reinstated over factory joints, but may result in some over dimension of the joints and change the
flexibility of the cable locally.
Rigid joints employ a prefabricated insulation sleeve. This joint is not flexible. The ensemble is completed
with water-tight barriers (metallic encasings and/or shrink tubes). The outer enclosure is usually formed
as a metallic cylinder firmly connected to the cable armour. Rigid joints are often faster to install than
flexible joints since there is no need for temperature and pressure processes.
The deployment of rigid joints from the cable laying vessel needs most often a crane facility which in turn
can invoke weather (sea state) and water depth restrictions. A supporting frame of the rigid joint during
laying is often required. See Figure 5-8.
FIGURE 5-8 SUPPORTTING FRAME USED DURING LAYING OF RIGID JOINT
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In case there is a fibre optic cable included in the submarine cable, the optic fibres will be spliced in a
separate external fibre optic splice box.
More information about submarine joints can be found in TB 490 [5.1].
5.8.2 Cable terminations

Cable terminations for offshore generation are similar to terminations for land-based power cables.
Different applications can be listed: GIS terminations where the cable is introduced into a GIS
compartment and transformer terminations where the cable goes directly into the transformer. These
terminations comprise a male contact to be engaged with a corresponding receptacle in the stationary
equipment. Oil-free “dry” plug-in terminations are available up to approx. 245 kV AC.
Air-insulated terminations require a long hollow insulator and large insulation distance to grounded parts
and are therefore used only very rarely on offshore installations since space is precious. An exception is
terminations for HVDC cables which are not connected to transformers nor GIS. They need to be air-
insulated which imposes requirements for free space as well as proper protection against pollution and
salt contamination. They should be installed in indoor environment.
The inter-array medium voltage cables inside the offshore wind turbine tower are terminated in plug-in
arrangements directly into the switchboard. “Elbow” terminations are available for connection of cables
from the floor to the cubicle front plate, and T-connectors allow for cable branching.
Given the restricted space in offshore platforms, cable terminations may need to be optimised regarding
footprint and volume occupation. The harsh environment (salt, wind, etc.) may require compliance with
special corrosion protection specifications.
FIGURE 5-9 HV GIS TERMINATIONS
5.8.3 Subsea connectors

The aim of submarine power connectors is to connect submarine cables to subsea electrical devices (e.g.
undersea turbines). They are used in electrical equipment placed under water, and differ from
terminations of submarine cables that are installed in a platform/tower above the sea level. Prior to 2014,
few subsea connectors were used to connect offshore generation. This kind of accessory could be
interesting to use, for example when connecting tidal energy converter devices or disconnecting them for
repair and/or maintenance. Subsea connectors can be classified in two groups:
• Dry mate connectors: Connection or disconnection is made on a barge. Significant devices
(vessels, barges…) are needed to remove the system from the water before disconnection.
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Maintenance, repair costs seem to be higher. Additional cable length is also needed for
connection or disconnection.
• Wet mate connectors: Connection or disconnection can be made underwater. In this case,
installation cost and maintenance cost may be lower due to less time needed for
connection/disconnection.
In 2014, dry mate connectors were available up to 132 kV and wet mate connectors were available up to
24 kV. Developments are undergoing to increase voltage level to 36 kV, which is the main output voltage
of offshore generation equipment.
5.8.4 Offshore cable accessories

The offshore industry requires some special cable accessories not known to land based underground
cables.
Hang-off
A hang-off is a structure embracing the cable and firmly secured to the cable armour where it comes up to
any platform to safely carry the weight of the hanging cable over the lifetime of the installation. It is often a
split structure that can be assembled around the cable that takes up and locks the armour wires in a
clamp or welding mode. While the hang-off carries the suspended cable it is supported by the platform.
FIGURE 5-10 SKETCH OF HANG- OFF (TB 483 [5.18])
Bend restrictors, bending stiffeners

These devices are used to constrain the bending of the cable where it exits rigid structures into a flexible
environment, for example, under a hang-off, or at the exits of a rigid sea joint.
Anchoring devices
The purpose is to secure the submarine cable from involuntary movements caused by gravitational forces
at steep landfalls or seabed movements. Similar to hang-offs, these devices anchor the shore end of the
submarine cable firmly to ground. Often a hang-off is attached to a steel structure based on a ground
concrete structure.
Buoyancies, clump weights

In deep sea dynamic applications (>300 m) the suspended cable needs to be controlled in its position and
movements. Different subsea configurations can be realised with buoyancies and clump weights.
However, their application and design are so special that they are beyond of the scope of this general
brochure.
Cable protection
In areas of increased external mechanical impact or in crossing areas the cable may need additional
mechanical protection by means of cast-iron half shells, polymeric enclosures etc. See Chapter 6.
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5.9 Rating
Several methods are available to calculate the rating of offshore generation connection cables, and to
calculate necessary cable dimensions to achieve a required rating:
• Analytical/empirical methods as formalised in IEC 60287 and IEC 60853
• Numerical methods such as Charge Simulation Method, Finite Difference Methods, and Finite
Element Methods
• Mixed methods
The analytical/empirical methods can give a fast result for standard cable installation situations. The
numerical methods can handle more complex geometric and environmental situations or arbitrary load
profiles over time.
5.9.1 Analytical and empirical methods

IEC 60287 describes how to calculate cable rating with constant load, taking into account all loss terms in
the cable (ohmic losses, dielectric losses, armour, screen and sheath losses etc.). The formulae are
based on Neher/McGrath's formulae from the 1950s and use a simplified thermal model of the cable and
its environment. With these formulae, the calculations can be performed easily for simple configurations,
even by using tables and a calculator. These formulae and the associated examples have been
introduced in detail in many power cable textbooks. However, these methods are applicable for only
certain types of cable constructions and installations. Complicated cable geometries such as three-core
cables are treated with empirical formulae which were developed decades ago and may be not applicable
to today’s cable design.
IEC 60853 describes how to calculate cable rating with cyclic load. The cyclic load is based on 24 hour
cycles. The standards presuppose either a constant or a 24 hour cyclic load, which is not the case for
offshore wind parks.
Because the analytical methods are based on simplifications they are generally unsuitable for
complicated thermal environments such as layered soil cover, pipeline crossings, grouped cables in J-
tubes etc. In addition, the analytical and empirical methods are unsuitable for the materials with non-linear
properties and usually only useful for calculations of time-independent loads.
The analytical/empirical methods have some important restrictions:

• Three-core cables are represented by empirical formulae with unknown accuracy
• Only soil formations with homogeneous properties can be analysed
• Sea-defence walls can be treated only with rough estimation
• Water-filled pipe installation cannot be treated
• Only periodic/cyclic time-depending load schemes can be modelled which is inappropriate for
offshore wind generation
5.9.2 Numerical methods

The limitations of the analytical methods can be overcome by numerical methods to a large extend. IEC
62095 (Electric cables - Calculations for current ratings - Finite element method) describes how to
calculate cable rating with the finite element method.
The Finite Element Method (FEM) runs as the Finite Difference Method (FDM) with a discretization of the
field space. FEM is an effective numerical calculation method used first in areas of mechanical
engineering and was then used in the 1960s in electrical engineering. Compared with FDM, FEM has an
advantage for complicated configurations, since FEM builds the areas/spaces with triangles instead of
square meshes. Thus, it is flexible, easily customizable and reliable. FEM is particularly suitable for the
analysis of transient processes and for materials with non-linear properties.
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State-of-the art FEM software enables the experienced user to assess the thermal rating of various parts
of the offshore cables with geometries varying in all three dimensions and arbitrary load profiles. The
latter is particularly important for the irregular load patterns of wind generation.
5.9.3 Methods to maintain cable rating at critical locations

The cable route often has portions with more or less favourable thermal conditions. It is not economic to
adopt a cable size over the entire route that guarantees the required rating even for the thermal
bottlenecks. Typical thermal bottlenecks can be:
• The landfall where the cable can be routed through sea-defence walls, through HDD (Horizontal
Directional Drilling) with pipes up to 1500 m long and 30 m deep, or through microtunnels.
• I-tubes or J-tubes on offshore platforms or wind turbines. The situation can worsen by pooling
several cables into the same tube. Cable rating calculations in tubes should include the three
heat transfer mechanisms: conduction, convection and radiation.
• Submarine soils with exceptionally high thermal resistivity, e.g. with large organic content.
Despite moisture saturation, thermal resistivities of up to 1.4 K⋅m/W have been reported.
• Vicinity to heat sources such as other power cables, heated pipelines, etc.
Since these “hot spots” constitutes only a small fraction of the cable route it would be very costly to
increase the cable size along the entire route only to meet the rating requirements at the “hot spots”.
Several methods can be considered to maintain the cable rating also on critical locations:
• Using a cable with increased conductor size only in short sections. Transition joints between
different conductor sizes are available from some manufacturers.
• Using aluminium conductor in the main cable route and copper conductor at critical points.
• Reduce armour losses by replacing some steel wires by plastic fillers, or using non-magnetic
armour material.
• Transition from submarine three-core cable to three near-shore single-core cables.
• Using back-fill or pipe-fill material with high thermal conductivity.
• External forced cooling.
5.9.4 Increase the cable rating

The cable rating in general is dictated by the balance of heat sources in the cable and heat removal to the
ambient. The following steps can be considered to increase the cable system rating:
• Reduce the losses
o Change the conductor material, type or cross-section. It should be noted that the rating
2
does not increase linearly with the conductor cross-section. A 1600 mm cable is rated
2
much less than double of a 800 mm cable.
o Change the screen design and/or armour.
• Improve heat transfer
o Change backfill material. This can be done only on certain short portions of the cable
route.
o Apply cooling systems. This can be done only on certain short portions of the cable route.
• Another cable type
o From three-core cables to single-core. They are usually placed with some distance (>5m)
providing better cooling. The disadvantage is the requirement for multiple expensive
trenching passes. It is not advisable to bundle three single-core cables in one trench
since the better cooling is abolished by the high losses of single-core cables.
• More parallel cables. This can be interesting also from redundancy aspects
• Higher voltage level to reduce current for the same power transfer
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6 CABLE INSTALLATION
6.1 General
The submarine cable installation is not an easy task. Many factors and tasks should be taken into account
before starting the real installation in the open sea. Any unforeseen neglect can lead to accidents or
financial losses. Sometimes the submarine cable installation can be more expensive than the cost of the
cable, especially in a challenging environment.
Based on the initial study, survey data, permissions and the cable design, the scope of the offshore cable
installation will be prepared and defined. The installation contractor shall propose a suitable cable laying
and burial methodology along with capable vessel(s) that can carry out the works. Bad weather conditions
and reasonable endeavour criteria for the cable laying and burial should be agreed by the client and
contractor prior to contract award. The installation windows should also be considered due to the weather
window and sometimes the permission conditions.
This chapter describes what to take into account before, during and after installation of a submarine cable
in regards to technical issues. It is for example not describing how to organize the installation team, the
detailed documents or the safety procedures to follow during the installation.
The following is a non-comprehensive list of tasks in many submarine cable projects. Not all aspects are
discussed in this TB, but the list should give an overview of important issues to take into consideration.
• Planning of the complete work and coordination with other parties, e.g. cable and platform
supplier
• Issuing a project specific Quality Management Plan
• Acquisition of Authority approval and certification for undertaking the work, e.g. operational
permits for vessels
• Final route engineering, including amendment of initial cable route alignment if necessary and
additional surveys if required
• Provision of a Burial Assessment Study
• Preparation of crossing designs for cables and pipelines in line with Crossing Agreements;
construction of crossings prior to cable laying and cable protection post-lay
• Temporary pulling facilities on offshore structures for cable pull-in
• Provision of all vessels, port facilities, tools, equipment, work and accommodation facilities as
well as work and accommodation facilities for other parties required to work on the vessels
• Required weather conditions for installation and conditions when work must stop
• Provision of trials for any vessel, spread or equipment and sea trials for cable installation, if
necessary
• Receipt and storage of submarine power cables and accessories at quayside in a port or at cable
manufacturers facility, in the event cable installer is not also the cable manufacturer
• Transportation of submarine power cable and accessories to the Site of installation
• Route Clearance of out-of-service cables and debris identified during survey
• Pre-Lay Grapnel Run (PLGR) immediately prior to cable installation
• Recovery of laid ends and jointing of cables
• Laying of the submarine cables on the seabed and burial by a method to be agreed with
contract’s parties
• Provision of real-time operational data streaming from all cable installation and survey vessels via
a data access platform
• Construction of crossings, including rock placement or other material placement for protection
• Adjustment of cable lengths, cutting of cables, sealing of cable ends and securing of cable ends
by permanent hang-offs at offshore platforms
• Landing of cables to the shore including, if necessary, installation through coastal protection
structures e.g. horizontal directionally drilled conduits
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• Installation on land up to the termination point (transition joint) with the land cables
• Testing of installed cables, eventually, with the jointed land cable
• Documentation of work execution and of permanent works
• Preparation of a plan to undertake a cable repair, should this be necessary during the Work
According to the specific requirements of each project, the work can also include any other item or
service which is considered necessary for completing the cable installation.
6.2 Planning
6.2.1 Planning of the complete work and coordination with other parties 5
Offshore work requires detailed planning to reduce costs and risks. In the planning of the offshore work all
relevant information from initial studies should be used. If necessary, additional offshore
investigations/surveys should be carried out because the survey data is fundamental to the installation
engineering and planning. See Chapter 3.
All operations should be properly planned and programmed for in each phase of the project.
The first stage of planning should be prepared as a part of the tender documents during the tender phase.
In the project execution phase, the detailed planning and engineering should be issued in the form of
procedures based on the first planning.
The planning and engineering of all marine operations should – if possible - be based on tested or proven
technology and methods to reduce risks.
It is recommended that the feasibility of extending proven technology beyond previous limits of use
should be thoroughly documented by technical reports, procedures and work instructions. If necessary in
some specific cases trials should be performed prior to the start of work.
Contingency plans and disaster recovery plans should be prepared for all marine operations.
Often more than one party will be involved in an offshore project. It is important at an early stage to
coordinate the time schedules, communications between parties and access to sites of common interest.
6.2.2 Organisation, Procedures, Work Instructions, Documentation

An organisational chart of key personnel should be issued including marine, non-marine and third party
personnel involved in marine operations, prior to the execution of an operation. Responsibilities and lines
of communication should be defined and agreed with the individuals concerned
An installation team should consist of relevant parties - typically a cable engineer and an installation
engineer working together from design, tender, procurement, manufacture, transportation, installation and
commissioning as this minimizes interfaces and handovers/lost knowledge.
The interface between the installer and other relevant parties/stakeholders should be clarified as early as
possible, e.g. to the platform supplier, cable supplier and also authorities etc.
The complete and comprehensive documentation should be supplied about working procedures and
works, including any aspect affecting or interfacing with works or activities of other contractors or third
parties.
Based on the method of statement in the tender phase, the procedure should include the following items
as minimum:
5
Other parties means for example cable and platform supplier.
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• A description of materials, tools, working methods

• Interfaces to any work or works of other parties
• Any environmental impacts and mitigation proposals
• A risk assessment comprising hazard identification and assessment and mitigation proposals
The procedures for all discrete elements and phases of the work should be defined and provide the detail
of how the installation should be accomplished.
The procedures should give due regard to engineering and weather requirements. Design criteria and
assumptions should be stated and relevant calculations provided.
The suggested procedures should cover the following activities:

• Mobilisation of vessels and cable handling equipment
• Loading and stowing of cables and accessories
• Route preparation, including Route Clearance and Pre Lay Grapnel Run operations
• Landing of cables to the beach and pulling of cables into the Beach Man Hole or pull-in through
HDD ducts, including de-burial of duct ends, removal of seals and cleaning of ducts, cable pull-in
to platforms, including temporary and permanent hang-off, sealing and routing of the cable on the
cable deck
• Installation of cables, including cable laying slack management, recording of cable marks and
logging of residual tension, monitoring and verification methods
• Cable jointing and joint deployment
• Cable protection operations, including burial (both simultaneous and post lay burial) and
mechanical protection as appropriate to the statement of work
• Diving operations, if any
• Handling of seabed hindrances not found by initial surveys, such as:
o Chemical waste, ordnance, debris or other potentially hazardous items
o Archaeological findings
• Crossing of in service cables and pipelines, including crossing designs and plans
• Vessel traffic management and shipping authority liaison
• Guard ship operations
• Monitoring and assessment of weather and environmental conditions, e.g. tides
• Personnel transfer between vessels and platforms
• Mobilisation and demobilisation of equipment to platforms
• Cable pull-in to platforms, including temporary hang-off
• Permanent hang-off, design and installation
• Post-burial survey (where required)
• Measurement techniques and equipment for any specific purpose including depth of burial
measurement
Procedures should describe the work with a sufficient degree of detail to enable assessment of the
suitability of engineering solutions, tools, equipment, measuring techniques, manpower resources,
vessels etc.
From the very beginning of a project it should be considered how to reduce and manage risks. For
example, who is responsible of the different operations and what determines the transition of
responsibility?
In case of incidents (accidents, damage etc.) it is important that all parties continue their work to reduce
the consequences and to finish the agreed work. The financial aspects of a risk can to some degree be
solved by insurance. A Contractors All Risk (C.A.R) insurance policy is generally used to ensure sufficient
level of insurance of all activities, and that all transfers of responsibilities are covered, so work do not stop
until the responsible part have been identified.
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6.2.3 Weather and Environmental Conditions

The environmental conditions can potentially affect marine operations, these should be analysed with the
aim of providing appropriate equipment for operating in the prevailing weather and environmental
conditions.
By flexible and proactive planning, any hazard or delay related to weather or other environmental
conditions should be minimized, such as tides. It is good practise and very important from the point of
settling the risk to have operating weather parameters agreed prior to signing of contract of installation.
The site specific weather forecasts should be available for the specific project area from an agreed
source for the duration of operations.
6.2.4 Route Engineering

The route information (e.g. Route Position List) and survey data and results of geotechnical site
investigations for the cable route should be available from the initial surveys.
The route information is normally based on the assessment of the site conditions and should apply as the
basis for cable laying. Obstacles in the path of the planned route can be identified and should be
considered as either a possible route deviation inside the survey corridor or an obstacle to be moved.
By reviewing, the data and all route information with respect to the geophysical and geotechnical
conditions and confirming its adequacy and appropriateness to determine appropriate resources for burial
of the cables, any perceived discrepancies, errors or omissions in the provided data should be brought to
the attention for the involved parties.
The following information should be done at least (see also Chapter 3):
• Route position list for the engineered route
• Straight line diagram showing, as a minimum, start and end points, section lengths for different
cable types, burial depths, crossings and permit boundaries, position of joints if any
• Table of pipeline and cable crossings and other utilities
• North-up and alignment sheets
• Cable and pipeline crossing designs
6.2.5 Burial Assessment Study

In the pre-investigations (see Chapter 3) several surveys and studies have been made. Burial and
protection methods have already been proposed and mentioned in the application to the authorities, and
in the permission there might be some requirements to be met.
In order to make the right choice of method and make use of the right tools, it is a good idea to make a
Burial Assessment Study (BAS) for the whole of each cable route to determine the degree of burial
required.
Based on the supplied survey data, any other survey data, existing published material or in-house data
sets, the design or known performance characteristics of the proposed burial machine should be issued.
A geological assessment should be undertaken and a geological description should be provided along the
cable route that characterises the route according to ground conditions including:
• Distribution and extent of seabed sediment types
• Geotechnical properties of seabed sediments in the context of cable burial
• Sea bed morphology and its effects on the efficacy of installation vehicles
• Moving sand dunes
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The Burial Assessment Study should consider what installation techniques and equipment are optimal for
obtaining effective burial in the ground conditions described in the geological assessment (see Section
3.2).
The Route is split into zones of alike issues, e.g. heavy shipping, fishing activities, dredging etc. Each
zone shall have a risk assessment looking at the risk of damage and mitigation. See also TB 398 [6.1].
This activity looks at the potential risks and the soil conditions to set the burial requirements per risk and
per soil type. The result of the assessment can be collected in a Risk Assessment Matrix and a Burial
Depth Matrix.
In the Risk Assessment Matrix the risk (product of probability and consequence) of external damage can
be listed for the different route zones.
In the Burial Depth Matrix the target burial depth of the cables can be listed for the different route zones.
Taken into account the level of protection found in the Risk Assessment Matrix for every zone, the burial
depth can be assessed for different soil conditions and the result listed in the Burial Depth Matrix.
In TB 398 it is shown in more details how risk assessment can be used on cable systems.
In the event of the cable not reaching sufficient burial depth to enable a good protection from the potential
risk, mitigation action may be taken which is either a further burial campaign, rock placement or lay
mattresses.
6.2.6 Other issues

To ensure a successful installation, quality control is required during the whole process. It is
recommended to implement a quality control system including employee induction, training, audit and, if
necessary, any corrective action.
Health, Safety and Environment, (HSE) policy should be available and ensure all personnel under its
control are conversant with the HSE requirements.
Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) should be undertaken for every operation in order to identify and
evaluate problems that may represent risks to personnel or equipment, or prevent efficient operation.
Where operations require under water intervention, utilization of remote operated vehicles (ROVs) should
be the principal method. If for any task the use of ROVs is not feasible or impractical and utilization of
divers is deemed essential then industrial best practice and the local governmental regulations shall be
adhered.
The depth of harbour should be confirmed as suitable for the chosen vessel. The foundations at harbour
and the crane should be suitable to carry the weight of the cable and/or equipment.
6.3 Installation Engineering

6.3.1 Cable engineering
The installation scheme is to a large extent defined by the cable parameters. The handling abilities of the
cable set the principles for how and when the cable can be installed. Therefore it is essential to obtain
correct and sufficient cable information from the manufacturer. As a minimum the installer would need:
• Maximum Handling Tension - MHT
• Minimum Bending Radius (with and w/o tension) – MBR
• Minimum Bending Radius for unarmoured cable cores
• Minimum coiling diameter (if coilable)
• Coiling direction
• Weight in air
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• Weight in water
• Maximum caterpillar force (lateral load)
• Maximum side wall pressure
Other parameters that could influence the choice of installation equipment and method would be;
• Bending stiffness
• Torsional stiffness and balance
Additional considerations that should be assessed are maximum side wall pressure (obtained by the MBR
and MHT) and roller pressure (concentrated-load) which will be determinative for how the cable routing,
distance between rollers etc. is performed on the vessel (or in other cable-ways).
It is important that the cable-way is built so that all the rollers in the bend get in contact with the cable.
a) b)
FIGURE 6-1 A) CORRECT AND B) INCORRECT ARRANGEMENT OF ROLLERS
Figure 6-1 shows a) correct and b) incorrect arrangement of cable rollers. In the latter the cable will be
exposed to concentrated point loads (red arrows) and eventually rolling/milling of cable elements; (the
lead sheath is particularly vulnerable) if the line tension is high. As a general rule this must be avoided
and is an important item to check when inspecting cable routes. Also, most cables are vulnerable to
simultaneous bending in two different geometrical planes. This is specifically critical for cables with bi-
directional armour layers and should be avoided. There should be a straight line of 4-5 x lay-length of the
armour so the wires can have chance to re-settle before a directional change in a different plane.
The temperature of the installation period (time of year) should be taken into consideration as most of the
materials and components in the cable become stiffer and more brittle as the temperature falls. Hence the
cable parameters should be re-assessed if the installation is performed at low temperatures.
It is recommended to prepare a Straight Line Diagram (SLD) which is a drawing/sketch/table highlighting

any joints, irregularities, incidents or anomalies along the cable length that require special handling during
installation.
6.3.2 Route preparation

The marine survey sets the basis for the route preparation. Normally the survey company explores a
cable corridor (agreed from either a pre-survey or sea-maps) wherein the cable should be installed. The
survey data should be analysed and the optimal detailed route decided for the cable within this corridor
taking into consideration:
• Obstacles
• Hard rock and soil
• Unexploded ordnance
• Ship wrecks
• Existing pipelines or cables
• Wildlife, e.g. protected flora/fauna
• Other assets
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See also Chapter 3.
All of the above mentioned factors contribute to the detailed route and also set the final length of the
cable(s). These factors also determine the protection methods to be used along the route such as:
• Direct buried (excavating, jetting or ploughing)
• Rock dumping
• Concrete mattresses
• Cast iron shells
• Ducts and pipes etc.
6.3.3 Cable and pipeline crossing

In most cases there will be existing cables and pipelines which need to be crossed. It is important that
these are identified and located from the marine survey. All asset owners of the existing installations
should be contacted and a “crossing agreement” should be made. See ICPC recommendation No. 3 [6.2].
Normally it is desired to have a proper galvanic separation between the existing cable/pipeline and the
installed cable. For mechanical protection from overlaying rock or mattresses it is common to install an
extra insulation layer on the cable in the crossing points. A known solution is polyurethane half shells that
are wrapped around the cable and secured by stainless straps (Figure 6-2). Thermal insulation of the
mats should also be taken into account in the rating of the cable.
FIGURE 6-2 POLYURETHANE MATS WRAPPED AROUND THE CABLE
Planning of the crossings should be made during the installation engineering, noting the water depth at
each crossing location so that positioning of the protective mats can be installed correctly taking into
consideration the vessel’s position and the catenary length.
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Sea level
catenary length
Sea bed
Existing cable or pipeline distance to crossing location
FIGURE 6-3: INSTALLATION OF COVERING AT CABLE CROSSINGS
When crossing larger object such as oil pipelines it might be necessary to build-up around the object to
avoid free-spanning of the cable. This can be done by means of sand-bags, rocks or concrete
mattresses. Also a protective layer of the same means is used on top of the cable after it is installed.
Grade in (Gi) and Grade out (Go) in Figure 6-4, Figure 6-5 and Figure 6-6 is the distance on each side of
the crossing object. Gi and Go should be considered in the engineering phase and agreed with the asset
owner. The distance x is between the crossing asset and the seabed.
FIGURE 6-4 CROSSING OF LARGE OBJECT (CABLE, PIPE ETC.) WITH NO EXTRA PROTECTION BETWEEN
OBJECTS, PRINCIPAL SKETCH
Figure 6-4 shows a crossing of a three-core submarine cable, which is placed deeper (≥x) than the similar
crossing in Figure 6-5. In Figure 6-6 the depth is even lower.
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FIGURE 6-5 CROSSING OF LARGE OBJECT WITH EXTRA PROTECTIONS BETWEEN OBJECTS, PRINCIPAL SKETCH
FIGURE 6-6 CROSSING OF SURFACE LAID OBJECT, PRINCIPAL SKETCH
Concrete mattresses are typically used for crossing to provide separation and mechanical protection.
Concrete bags are also available.
FIGURE 6-7 MATTRESSES LAID OVER EXPOSED PIPES/SUBMARINE CABLES AT SEA BOTTOM
6.3.4 Cable landing (cable pulling in HDD, transition joint etc.)

Normally this is the first end of the export cable to be installed, and this makes the pull-in easier since
there is no need to float out an excessive amount of cable and hence the exact length to be pulled in is
easier to control.
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FIGURE 6-8 FIRST CABLE END FLOATING
If the land fall is the second (last) end of the export cable this requires a lot more effort to perform
correctly. The exact length should be carefully determined and the cable cut at this length. Then the
cable, with the proper over-length, is floated out on inflatable buoyancy elements in a loop before the end
is pulled-in. The buoyancy elements are successively deflated at the landing point as the cable is being
pulled in.
FIGURE 6-9 SECOND CABLE END FLOATING
6.3.4.1 LANDING POINT PREPARATION

For the cable landing preparation, some points should be taken into account:
• Cable and pipe protection during the pull-in
• Dimensioning of winch, rollers and other pulling device considering all the parameters regarding
the pulling process
• Pulling device and their assembly
• Coordination and communication during the landing process
• Position of the joint pit considering mechanical and thermal issues
• Special permission if landing points in the environmental sensitive area
• Special thermal backfill material in a HDD pipe, especially for the deeper HDDs
• Longshore water currents should be evaluated
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6.3.4.2 CABLE PULL-IN

A device should be fitted to the cable to be able to perform the pull-in operation. For greater pulling forces
it is recommended to use a pull-in head to where the cable’s main tensional strength member (armouring)
is firmly terminated. For lighter pulling forces a simpler solution can be used, e.g. a flexible pulling grip-
sleeve/pulling grips.
Pull-in head
The pull-in head comprises a steel base plate and steel body housing with a masterlink (bull-nose) where
the pull-in winch is hooked onto. The armour wires of the cable are terminated in the base plate and the
body is screwed onto the base after sealing of the cable core ends.
FIGURE 6-10 PULL-IN HEAD
Pulling stocking (flexible pull-grip sleeve)

This is a simpler and faster-to-install pulling device consisting of a cross-laid web of steel wires, either
open or closed, with eyelets in the end to attach the pull-in winch to. The grip-sleeve provides radial
forces and increases the friction forces when pulling forces are applied from the end. The open sleeves
should be laced up with steel wire after assembly.
FIGURE 6-11: FLEXIBLE CABLE END PULLING GRIP
6.3.5 HDD (Horizontal Directional Drilling)

Horizontal Directional Drilling involves the operation of mobile drilling rigs/machines and requires some
space around it.
Principally the HDD is initiated by a smaller pilot hole, following the designed boring profile with the
controllable pilot drill crown (or bit). Then the drill string is pulled back connected to a larger diameter
reamer to increase the size of the bore .It is not uncommon that the HDD contractor needs multiple times
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of reaming operations to be able to pull in the pipe. At the final reaming the pipe is hooked onto the
reaming crown and pulled in simultaneously.
FIGURE 6-12: HDD RIG IN OPERATION
In some cases it is necessary to flush the drilling hole after the reaming operation before the pipe is pulled
in. This is done by means of a type of mud (e.g. Bentonite type mass). It is important that the HDD
contractor has a waste management plan and system to avoid any wasted material entering into the local
environment, e.g. sea.
FIGURE 6-13 PULLING SUBMARINE CABLE INTO PIPE (HDD), WHICH WILL BE BURIED AFTER PULLING
Pulling in conduits provide additional difficulties such as high pulling tensions, these high tensions can be
mitigated with the use of cable pulling engines, or lubrication.
6.3.6 Submarine cable protection

Different burial tool systems are available in the market designed to bury the submarine cable, new
developments are made regularly. The burial equipment used mainly depends on seabed characteristics.
The most common burial tools used are mechanical plough and water jetting systems. Plough systems
are connected to the host vessel (vessel or barges) and towed. Typically, the burial depth achieved is
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comprised between 1 m – 2 m, depending on the seabed, but recent new designs can reach down 3 m
(or more depending on the seabed). The burial depth is controlled by hydraulic actuators.
A jetting system fluidizes the seabed using a combination of high flow, low pressure and low flow high
pressure water jets to cut into sands, gravels and low to medium strength clays. Jetting tools can be
installed on systems close to a plough design (burial sleds or jet plough) or on ROVs (Remotely Operated
Vehicles) or affixed to the side of a vessel.
FIGURE 6-14 : BURIAL SLED [6.4]
Other burial tools are available to cut narrow trenches into hard or rocky seabed: Mechanical rock wheel
cutters and mechanical chain excavators. Both systems used replaceable rock cutting teeth. Mechanical
rock wheel cutter can reach burial depth up to 1.5 m while mechanical chain excavator can reach 4m
trench depth.
See also Appendix E.1 Burial tools, overview.
6.3.6.1 DIRECT BURIED/TRENCHING

The most used protection method for submarine cables is indisputably direct burying into the seabed. A
target depth about 1 m is mostly used depending of the ship- and fishing activity and the soil conditions in
the actual area. Normally this is sufficient for most fishing gear and lighter anchors. See also Section
6.2.5 and TB 398 [6.1]. If there is increased risk for dropping of ship’s anchor in the area a deeper burial
depth should be anticipated. Special equipment should be used in such cases, and it is recommended to
make a risk and cost assessment before deciding a burial depth more than 2-3 m at specific locations.
Also for the future repair the deeper burial will give more difficulty to recovery. Cable burial depth may
influence the cable’s current rating significantly.
The jetting method fluidises the seabed by means of water jets from a special purpose ROV using the
surrounding seawater as pumping medium. This method can only be used in soft or medium density
seabed soil. The cable is guided through the nozzle swords of the ROV and falls into the groove by its
own weight. The cable is then self-buried as the masses fall back in the groove behind the vessel. Some
jetting vessels have additional nozzles on the rear to aid the burying.
The advantage with jetting is gentleness to the cable as (in theory) there is nothing that touches the
cable. The disadvantage is that it is not always possible to bury the cable simultaneously with the cable
laying and it has to be performed as a separate operation post-laying. A non-simultaneously laying may
be preferred to reduce the installation time for the cable laying vessel. Noise and sediment spreading
(turbidity) might also be an issue and should be discussed in the environmental impact study. See
Section 3.1.5 and 3.2.3.
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FIGURE 6-15: ROV WATER JETTING TOOL
In the ploughing method, a deep groove is made in the seabed by the plough’s steel share. The cable is
guided through the internal of the ploughing device and directed into the groove as the plough moves
forward. The cable is then self-buried as the masses fall back and covers the cable behind the plough.
The advantage with ploughing is that can be performed together with the cable laying. The disadvantage
is that the cable is engaged inside the machine and the operation is less flexible. For example, to carry
out multiple passes is not possible.
FIGURE 6-16: PLOUGH GEAR AT LANDFALL
The cable is routed through the device and hence buried in the same operation.
In special cases a combination of ploughing and water jetting might be possible. If the cable route in a
section with hard soil is ploughed before cable laying, the cable can afterwards be buried using a water
jetting device, because the soil has been softened by the ploughing. A vertical injector may be used as an
alternative.
In shallow waters it may be possible to make a trench in the seabed using an excavator placed on a
barge. If the excavator is equipped with Global Positioning System (GPS), it is possible to make accurate
trenches. After cable installation the excavated soil can be put back into the trench, or other backfill
material can be dumped from a vessel.
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6.3.6.2 ROCK DUMPING

Rock dumping is normally used when;
• The hardness of the seabed is too high for ploughing or jetting and rock cutting system is not a
chosen option
• The seabed morphology is too irregular for any burial tool (i.e. boulder areas)
• When coming close to other offshore installations
• Covering after crossings of larger objects (e.g. oil pipes etc.)
• Or other cases where trenching is not feasible, practically or economically
FIGURE 6-17 ROCK DUMPING VESSEL
FIGURE 6-18 ROCK DUMPING ON SUBMARINE CABLE
6.3.6.3 CAST IRON SHELLS (CIS)

In some occasions, where neither trenching nor rock-dumping is feasible or allowed, cast iron shells can
be a solution. Often this is used in areas with special protected seafloor wildlife (e.g. posidonia sea-grass,
etc.). This can also be used close to the landfall in combination with burial.
Life time has to be assessed in relation to corrosion.
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FIGURE 6-19 INSTALLATION OF CAST IRON SHELLS
The cast-iron shells are normally installed in conjunction with the installation before the cable leaves the
vessel.
FIGURE 6-20 CAST IRON SHELLS
6.3.6.4 OTHER PROTECTION METHODS

Concrete mattresses (or mats) consist of concrete blocks linked together with non-degradable rope
(normally polypropylene rope). They are flexible to the contours of the seabed and the means they are
protecting. The mattresses are positioned over the cable or pipeline by cranes and can be installed by
relatively small vessels, compared to rock-dumping vessels. This could be a cost efficient alternative to
the latter if the scope is limited. Concrete mattresses are often used close to the substations or land-falls
where the smaller vessels can enter.
Concrete bags are a simpler version of the mats, consisting of single blocks and can be used where there
is only one cable/pipeline to be protected. The protection degree is obviously lower for the bags than for
the mats.
Concrete mats and bags can be uses on both trenched and non-buried installations. They can be used
also for cable crossings. See Section 6.3.3.
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FIGURE 6-21 CONCRETE MATTRESSES AND BAGS LAID OVER EXPOSED SUBMARINE CABLE
6.3.7 Scour phenomena and protection

Depending on the seabed characteristics, the combination of current, tidal and waves, forces can create
an environment which leads to seabed sediment being lifted and transported. This causes an erosion of
the seabed, which increases when objects are placed on the seabed, such as pipelines, platform
foundations, monopiles, protection structures, umbilicals, J-tubes and cables. See Figure 6-22
Scour phenomena can cause a submarine cable to be left unprotected or in suspension.
Solutions are available against scour erosion. The principle of anti-scour system is to create an
environment able to slow down the local water current circulation or to disable the seabed sediment
movements (for example by using bags or mattresses around J-tubes or foundations at the sea bed).
FIGURE 6-22 SCOUR PHENOMENA [6.5]
6.3.8 Cable laying/burial parameter control and monitoring

In general the cables are to be protected by burial into the seabed. The parameters of the cable laying
and burial should be controlled and monitored, e.g. the burial depth and cable position.
For the cable post burial, a discrete as-buried survey can verify the depth of the burial. Normally this
survey should be performed on the whole cable route.
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Typically control and monitoring devices used during laying and burial activities installed on either vessels
or ROVs:
• Redundant dGPS-systems
• Precision echo sounderer
• Data acquisition and display system
• High precision acoustic tracking system (USBL)
• A logging system for all survey outputs for the whole operation period
• Two acoustic scanning profilers
• Precision acoustic altimeter
• Cable tracking device
• Imaging sonar system
• CCTV and lighting systems
Normally the following data should be documented:

• Survey vehicle position/cable position in geographical and grid co-ordinates, KP and distance off
line, cable tracker parameters and any other pertinent information
• Configuration of the trench including cable burial depth (DoB) from top of cable to mean
undisturbed seabed level and depth of backfill (DoC)
• Any irregularities in the vicinity of the cable such as rocks, boulders, debris, start and end of cable
protection sleeves, changes in seabed condition, start and end of trench transitions
• Crossings with other assets
• Joints and repair positions
Specific projects may require more documentation or documentation to be presented in a special way.
If the cable has been trenched in more than one pass, the as-buried survey report should document the
results after each pass.
6.3.9 Guarding exposed cable (between laying and protection)

In case of offshore joint works or unprotected cables on the seabed before burial, a guard vessel should
normally be provided, if the laying vessel has left the area. The information about the guarding shall be
forwarded to the appropriate traffic authority or other coordination body in the area and any other
appropriate party.
6.3.10 Planned offshore joints

Due to the limitation of production, the capacity of the cable laying vessel, the planning of the cable laying
campaigns, the change of the burial tools, change of cable design and other conditions, offshore joints
are sometimes planned before the cable installation.
Depending upon the construction and handling characteristics, the offshore joints can be divided into:
• Full flexible joint
• Flexible joint with some mechanical restrictions
• Rigid joint
See also Section 5.8.1 and TB 490 [6.3].
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FIGURE 6-23: EXAMPLE OF A RIGID JOINT WITH BENDING STIFFENERS
For the offshore joints, there are also two installation types:
• Omega (with one spare loop)
• Straight (or inline)
FIGURE 6-24: EXAMPLE OF AN OMEGA LOOP AFTER THE JOINT DEPLOYMENT
During the jointing work, the guarding shall normally be applied for the site as mentioned in Section 6.3.9.
After the joint work, the joint is typically protected by mattresses and/or rock dumping, but may also be
jetted down assisted by divers.
6.3.11 Pull-in operation at offshore platform / wind turbines

The cable pulling operation at offshore platform includes normally pulling of cables onto the platform,
hang-off, running the (submarine) cables or cores within the platform, fixing cables to the platform
structure and termination of the ends for connection to the GIS.
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Owing to the congestion typical around the base of offshore platforms, due to the large number of inter -
array cables present, it should be considered making only first-end pulls at these platforms. “First-end
pull” is the pulling of the first cable end, while the rest of the cable is still on the installation vessel.
Cable operations on platforms are to comply with the safe handling recommendations of the cable
manufacturer, particularly with respect to Minimum Bending Radius (MBR), Maximum Side Wall Pressure
(SWP) and maximum tensile load. The continuous monitoring and logging the pulling tension is
recommended to ensure it is below the mechanical limits of the cable.
Points to be considered for the pull-in operation at the platform:

• Liaising with platform owner with regard to facilities and operations on platforms
• Identification of all fixing points for the cables and any fixtures or fittings required to be fitted on
the platform cable deck or topsides, e.g. pad eyes, winch foundation, cable racking etc.
• Availability of all tools and equipment necessary to undertake the installation of a cable to a
platform, including a pull-in winch, power for the winch, winch wire and any running gear such as
blocks and shackles
• Fitting a centraliser and drop zone protection to each cable pulled in
• Performing video recording of any work related to pulling of cable into a J-tube. The ROV
operators should minimise disturbances affecting visibility, e.g. by aggressive manoeuvres, as far
as reasonably practicable. A camera could be mounted on or near the bellmouth to observe the
cable’s entrance to avoid reliance on ROVs and delays caused by turbidity
• Having resources available for insertion of a new messenger wire if possible, e.g. having a set of
flexible duct rods, a rod camera system and sufficient steel wire and rigging equipment to quickly
create and install a new messenger wire
• The angle between bell mouth and sea bed and the clearance of the bell mouth should be
checked
Points to be considered for the pull-in operation at the wind turbines:

• Pull in method without tower installed, (rigging to be erected to allow pull in operations)
• Pull in method with tower installed,
• All fixing points for the cables should be clearly identified
• Length of route from hang-off to switchgear/transformer. If the length is too long, then the cable
becomes unmanageable within the foundation and a solution may be to install a joint
• Expected forces required to pull in the cable; these shall be communicated to the foundation and
tower designers to ensure the structure is secure enough.
• Mono-pile or Jacket foundation and the cable entry method, either aperture or J-tube or other like
methods
• Bellmouth angle with seabed and clearance.
• Messenger wire and Cable Protection
The first end is less complex to install as the cable is pulled in directly. The sequence of events generally
follows:
• The first end is pulled in
• The cable is initially secured at the temporary hang-off
• The vessel lays the cable away towards the next location
• The vessel lays a bight of cable either onto a quadrant or onto the sea-bed
• The cable is pulled in and the bight or quadrant is managed from the installation vessel
• The second end temporary hang-off is installed
• Start of cable burial, tension in the cable is released during the burial operation at both ends
through the temporary hang-off
• Once burial operations complete, permanent hang-offs are installed
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• Stripping, routing cleating of the array cable in the tower

• Termination/jointing
During the installation electrical and optical tests can be performed to ensure the cable has not been
damaged during the various stages as some time may have elapsed between operations.
6.3.12 Storage
There are two possibilities for the storage:
• Dry storage at turntable, drum or coil
• Wet storage on the seabed
In the event that a foundation is not present, or it is not possible to pull the cable for any reason upon
arrival at a foundation, it may be necessary for storage of the cable end on the seabed and installation at
a later date, so-called Wet Storage. For this case, there are some points to be considered:
• Waterproof sealing-end, especially for the long storage period
• The cable end(s) shall be fitted with appropriate rigging and ground rope to enable safe recovery
• Position of the cable should be within the surveyed route corridor
• Cable should be identified to the Marine coordinator to inform all parties where there is
unprotected cable and to avoid it
In case of Wet Storage outside the cable corridor it may be necessary to get permission from the relevant
authorities.
6.4 Operational Management

Normally marine operations should be conducted in accordance with the agreed Procedures and fulfil the
requirements given in the Contracts between the parties.
If, during an operation, it becomes evident that an operation cannot be performed according to the agreed
Procedure, it is recommended that a revision of the Procedure should be developed and the
consequences for the Work shall be highlighted. The requirement for a safe and effective performance of
the operation shall be maintained.
The Master of any vessel is responsible for the safety of his vessel and all persons working on or from the
vessel. Nothing shall prevent the Master from taking such action as he sees fit to ensure the safety of the
vessel, personnel or third parties or shall diminish the Master's total responsibility for his vessel, or for the
results of any action, which he may choose or be required to take.
All marine liaison should be performed, such as coordination of traffic, reporting the accordant marine
authorities, safety notifications including “Notice to Mariners” and acquisition of port and quay facilities,
pilot services and other assistance necessary to undertake or support the Work.
The employed vessels, their anchors and anchor cables shall be located at a safe distance from other
installations, cables, pipelines, lighthouses, navigation marks, etc., and due consideration shall be given
to such third party infrastructure at all times. Safe distances shall be defined prior to the marine operation,
paying due consideration to water depth, environmental conditions, nature of the operation, third party
requirements and other pertinent factors.
All marine operations close to third party installations or their surrounding safety zones should be
performed in compliance with third party requirements.
It is recommended to provide “emergency responds plans” in case of accidents. These should include
procedures for reporting incidents, but also emergency contact info for relevant authorities, e.g. civil or
naval sea rescue, local environmental authorities etc., and for all involved parties, e.g. onshore contacts
for all involved asset owners, contractors working in and around the work area as well as main vessels
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used. This could be in a common document for all contractors or as individual documents for each
contractor, but with contact lists provided by each contractor to be distributed as amendments to the
emergency response plans of the rest of the contractors. All this to ensure easy access to life saving
assistance in case of emergency.
6.5 Cable Laying Vessels and Equipment

The choice of cable laying vessel is dependent upon the cable design, the cable length, the water depth,
the area of operations and the environmental conditions and the costs involved. The choices include
cable barges and ships, the latter being the most costly. In general the vessels should have the following
items:
• Adequate storage for the cable lengths and weight in drums, coils or turntables
• Manoeuvrability to determine accuracy of laid cable on the selected route
• Tension control equipment, tension measuring instrumentation and cable deployment system
• Deck facilities for cable installation and recovery for repair
• Workshop facilities for equipment repair and cable jointing
• Control rooms for all equipment and data logging system
• Global positioning system for accurate positioning of the cable on the ocean floor
• Navigation and propulsion system to hold the vessel on station
• Seaworthiness certificates
6.5.1 Cable Barges

A barge is a flat bottom vessel, normally not self-propelled.
By far the cheapest installation method is to use cable barges, but barges may have limitations on the
cable length and weight of the cable to be installed as well as water depths greater than 50 metres.
Barges can be fitted with equipment such as cable tensioning caterpillars and storage drums, but
normally do not have turntables. Barges have the option of adding ROV’s and trenching equipment, but
storage of long cable lengths can be an issue as well as the cable design can influence the choice of
cable ship or barge. Laying with barges is slower and it should be assessed in advance, if the barge is
manoeuvrable in the actual water and under the actual weather conditions.
Barges can be fitted with global positioning systems but normally do not have the luxury of thrusters
positioned at the four corners of the vessel as do cable ships. Barges typically rely on anchoring systems
and winches to gain forward movement. Lines extend from the bow, stern and midships to hold the vessel
on station. Small tugs (anchor handling tugs) are used to move individual anchors forward one at a time
while the barge master adjusts the barge position utilising the fixed anchor lines.
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FIGURE 6-25 CABLE LAYING BARGE IN KOWLOON HARBOUR, HONG KONG
Cable barges may be more useful for wind farm array cable installations rather than cable ships where
the runs may be shorter and the cables are smaller. However, for export cables, barges may be useful for
shorter lengths in shallow waters, but for longer and larger diameter cables, cable ships may provide the
best solution.
6.5.2 Cable Ships

Cable ships are self-propelled and come complete with global positioning systems and with thrusters to
maintain position on-station that leads to accurate data logging and cable positioning. Control rooms with
precise control systems to maintain records of cable installation angles, tensions and lengths as the cable
is installed or recovered for repair. Lengths of up to 100 km can be transported on board within turn tables
that prevent cable twisting. Cable engines such as capstans, caterpillars or multiple wheel linear type
machines provide positive control over cable tensions and installation speeds. Sonar, depth sounding and
fault location equipment can be stored on board. A large workshop area is available for jointing and
storage of equipment plus crew accommodation is easily accessible for 24 hour operation. The addition of
trenching, rock cutting or water jetting machines plus a ROV compliments the cable ship package.
However, all of this comes at a cost, so advanced planning and precise project management are
mandatory to prevent cost overruns and to maintain project schedules.
A cable ship along with its ancillary equipment is shown in Figure 6-26 to Figure 6-31.
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FIGURE 6-26 CABLE SHIP ON STATION.
FIGURE 6-27 CABLE STORAGE TURNTABLE WITH GOOSENECK (PICK UP ARM)
FIGURE 6-28 STERN SHEAVE FOR CABLE GUIDANCE DURING INSTALLATION AND RECOVERY
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FIGURE 6-29 MULTIPLE WHEEL LINEAR GRIP ONBOARD CABLE BARGE TO CONTROL CABLE TENSION
FIGURE 6-30 JETTING MACHINE FOR CABLE BURIAL AND RECOVERY
FIGURE 6-31 ROV READY FOR LAUNCH
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FIGURE 6-32 JET PLOUGH IN KOWLOON HARBOUR, HONG KONG
6.6 Operational Reporting

6.6.1 Progress reports
The progress reports during all phases of the Work should be prepared and provided in which all
significant events occurring during the Work should be recorded. All reporting should be based upon
detailed recording of all appropriate data.
It is recommended to make sure that periodic reports are provided - for example the following:
Daily Progress Report/Daily log:

• For all installation activities, a daily progress report (DPR) should be prepared.
• The format and content of the DPR should conform to the requirements of the client and the
contractor and other recipients.
• DPR should be filed for potential litigation situations.
• In general the beginning, end, every significant interruption and resumption of the Work, duration
of the Work as well as the respective working positions and tasks of all vessels, actual lengths,
burial depth and positions (in geographical coordinates) of the laid or buried cable (incl. beginning
/end and of significant positions), joint and repair position, planned work for next 24 hours, are to
be reported in the DPR.
• An established template will be helpful to the staff on the vessel to perform this work.
Weekly Reporting:
• Weekly reports should be provided, aggregating daily progress reports from all activities
occurring in the period into a brief and readily reviewed summary, with a one week look-ahead.
Monthly Reporting:
• Monthly reports should be provided, aimed primarily at Management, summarising progress, any
incidents and payment milestones achieved, with a one month look ahead.
• Accident/Incident reporting.
• A written Incident Report should be made right after occurrence.
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6.6.2 As-laid documentation

The contents of the as-laid documentation should be agreed between the parties at an early stage –
already in the tender process.
Following the completion of cable installation operations, as-laid documentation should be provided. The
data collected during the Work and related surveys, including for example the as-buried and the as-built
rock berm surveys, should be processed and edited for final presentation in the as-built documentation.
The documentation should have four main elements:

• Narrative information (written reports)
• Charts: Overview north-up sheets
• Charts: Detailed and verified alignment sheets and cross-profiles based on data collected during
the Work and surveys
• Drawings, tables, video recordings and engineering reports presenting installation data and
significant events
Requirements can be different in different projects.
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7 TESTING
Testing of power cables is widely covered by international standards and recommendations (from IEC
and CIGRÉ). The intension of this chapter is therefore only to explain the terminology used, to list and
comment appropriate documents and to point out special issues concerning offshore generation cables.
It is important to have an understanding of submarine cable testing, and to specify and agree on the
specific testing program when ordering/offering the cables. Since no offshore project is alike, the
standards and recommendations to some degree are open for interpretation, and the willingness to pay
for project specific tests can vary.
It should be noticed, that reference to this technical brochure for testing of cables will not be
sufficient to accurately specify the level of testing.
7.1 Different test types

First a short introduction to the terminology of tests as summarised in TB 490 [7.2]:
• Routine tests
o Test on manufactured length
o Test on factory installed joints
o Factory acceptance test
• Handover tests (not in TB 490 or IEC)
• Sample tests
o Sample tests on cable
o Sample tests on joints and terminations
• Type tests
o Mechanical tests on complete cable system
o Electrical tests on complete cable system
o Non-electrical tests on cable components and on complete cable system
• Prequalification tests (above 30 (36) kV)
• Extension of qualification tests (above 30 (36) kV)
• Development test
• Sea trial
• Electrical tests after installation
Routine tests
Tests made by the manufacturer on all manufactured components (length of cable or accessory) to check
that the component meets the specified requirements.
Factory Acceptance Test (FAT)

Tests made by the manufacturer on the completed cable to check that each length of cable meets the
specified requirements. These tests are often carried out in the presence of the customer.
Handover test
Test made when cable responsibility changes hands, to help determine, if the cable has been damaged in
the previous process/handling.
Sample tests
Tests made by the manufacturer on samples of complete cable or components taken from a complete
cable or accessory, at a specified frequency, so as to verify that the finished product meets the specified
requirements.
Electrical after installation test

Tests made to demonstrate the integrity of the cable system as installed.
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Type tests
Tests made before supplying on a general commercial basis a type of submarine cable system, in order
to demonstrate satisfactory performance characteristics to meet the intended application.
Once successfully completed, these tests need not be repeated, unless changes are made in the cable or
accessory materials, or design or manufacturing process which might change the performance
characteristics.
Prequalification test (PQ) above 30 (36) kV

Test made before supplying on a general commercial basis a type of cable system, in order to
demonstrate satisfactory long term performance of the complete cable system. The prequalification test
need only be carried out once unless there is a substantial change in the cable system with respect to
material, manufacturing process, design and design levels.
Extension of qualification (EQ) above 30 (36) kV

Tests made before supplying on a general commercial basis a type of cable system, in order to
demonstrate satisfactory long term performance of the complete cable system, taking into account an
already pre-qualified cable system.
Development tests
Test designed and performed for new cable or accessories, in order to analyse and validate designs,
materials, components, production processes, installation conditions or long-term behaviour.
The scope and extent is at the discretion of the manufacturer and results usually are confidential.
Sea trial
An offshore test installation, carried out to demonstrate laying and handling capability or methods or
specific designs of cable or components.
7.2 Comments to the tests

This TB will not address the individual tests, but gives a guide to the use of referenced standards and
recommendations. The focus is therefore on issues that are not specified or are open for interpretation,
and will have to be addressed in each specification or contract, to have well-defined understanding of
what is agreed.
7.2.1 Routine tests / Factory Acceptance test (FAT)

In CIGRE and IEC “Factory Acceptance test” is a relatively new expression introduced in TB 490 [7.2].
Even though FAT often is used for testing according to these standards, it usually just refers to the normal
routine test performed on final lengths of cable just before shipping, as agreed.
Individual test can be found in the standards and recommendations referenced in Section 7.3
7.2.1.1 PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS

Since submarine cable are often tested in long lengths outside dedicated test rooms in a factory
environment, attenuation respectively noise will have a significant influence on the partial discharge (PD).
As a Consequence PD measurements may not be possible to perform according to established methods,
and agreement for PD testing must be addressed during contract negotiations. TB 490 provides a guide
to this issue, it also recommends PD measurements on all factory joints, but again the method and limits
must be agreed.
7.2.1.2 WITNESSING
For Routine tests it is a question if all tests are to be witnessed. This is normal for deliveries including only
one or a few lengths of export cable. If there is a delivery of a large number of array cables, then only a
portion of the tests should be witnessed.
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The level of witnessing routine tests of cable accessories should be considered, since this testing may be
carried out in different location(s) than the cable factory and as a part of a different production flow.
7.2.1.3 AC VOLTAGE TEST OF EXTRUDED DC CABLES

In TB 496 [7.4] a routine voltage test is specified at a negative DC voltage, but the recommendation in
addition recommends an AC test if possible, taking into account the length of the delivered cable. AC
voltage and frequency range should therefore be agreed for each project, and PD detection must be
addressed as mentioned above. It is a precondition that the insulation system and the cable design allow
AC testing.
7.2.2 Handover test

A handover test could be anything from repetition of a full or limited electrical routine test, over an OTDR
measurement of an integrated optical fibre to a visual inspection of the delivery. Handover tests are not
covered by standards or recommendations, and must be agreed during contract negotiations. Notice that
electrical testing of cable on-board a vessel could be limited by space or third party approval of safety.
7.2.3 Sample tests

The sample test is often made (or remade) in connection with a witnessed routine test.
It is often remade since several of the tests are good internal tests to assess the quality, and they are
made in the production flow anyway (e.g. dimension control, hot-set).
Notice that the frequency of some of the sample tests specified in the standards and recommendations
are only suggestions and should be agreed in the contract.
Individual test can be found in the standards and recommendations referenced in Section 7.3.
7.2.4 Type tests

Type tests are typically presented for a similar cable system design during the tender phase to indicate
the capability of the tenderer, or as basis for agreeing (at latest in the contract) whether a project-specific
type test must be performed.
TB 303 [7.1] gives a good tool for evaluating the need for new type testing.
The time schedules for delivery of cable systems for offshore generation are often very compact and
consequences of delay often severe, why it should be considered especially carefully in each case, if a
project specific type test needs to be performed, rather than accepting previously performed test.
It is in the nature of a type test, that there is a statistical probability of any type test object to fail, almost
regardless of the quality of the cable system. At least the number of components included in the test
program should be limited if possible, to the components that have not previously been tested, and the
time schedule should have room for a repetition of any test before first delivery of cable or even before
production start if possible.
Before entering a type test, it should also be declared which of the test circuit components (cable,
accessories) are a part of the type test and type test objects.
If a water penetration test is carried out under a contract, the length of allowed penetration should be
agreed, since it is not specified in the recommendations, as it is for underground cables.
7.2.4.1 TYPE TEST OF AC CABLES

For AC cables the electrical type test is very straight forward since all voltage levels are given in the
standards. The level of mechanical testing before the electrical testing is, however, to be agreed.
See referenced standards in Section 7.3.1 below.
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7.2.4.2 TYPE TEST OF DC CABLES

Regarding HVDC power cable there are no standardised voltage levels for service voltage as are
available for HVAC power cables. More importantly to notice, there are no standard test voltage levels for
the switching surges or impulse voltages during the type test. These are solely defined according to the
protection level of the system the cable is connected to. The protection level is usually dictated by the
converter/surge arrestor design, and if the cable is connected to overhead lines or an outdoor connection
yard or not. An IEC working group is launched in order to produce a standard for DC tests.
Also temperature limits, and especially temperature drop over the insulation are important parameters
that must be specified for the type test.
This is important since surge/impulse voltages and temperatures will have direct influence on electrical
field strengths, and often dictate the design (thickness) of the insulation rather than the system voltage.
However, the protection level can be influenced if requirements are made to the converter design early in
the design process, and specific system study on the exposure for lightning flashes of a specific HVDC
system is useful for the determination of relevant impulse test levels.
Type Test of Extruded DC cables (TB 496 [7.3])

A challenge for extruded DC cable insulation is considered to be polarity reversal (even though the issue
is under development), but polarity reversal test will normally not be required for applications covered by
this brochure, because VSC solutions are preferred for offshore applications. So even though polarity
reversal test is described in the recommendations, this test can most likely be omitted.
See referenced recommendations in Section 7.3.2 below.
Type Test of Mass Impregnated DC cables (Electra 189 [7.4])

A special issue for MI cables is the fluid dynamic conditions in the insulation during load cycling,
especially under low ambient temperatures. This may have to be considered specifically in the type test.
See referenced standards and recommendations in Section 7.3.2.
7.2.5 Prequalification test (PQ) - AC above 30 (36) kV and Extruded DC

The PQ test qualifies electrical and thermo mechanical issues but not the mechanical design. TB 490
[7.2] talks about “internal design” and “external design” of submarine cables – the PQ test only qualifies
the “internal design”.
This is why a PQ test of a land cable system, will normally qualify a submarine cable system, if all
accessories i.e. joint and termination designs are covered. Therefore, attention should be given to flexible
factory joints, which are often hot moulded joints developed for submarine cables only, whereas a rigid
joint is often build-up of (three) prefabricated joints previously developed for underground cable systems.
It is noted in TB 490 that: “The range of PQ approval for submarine cable is therefore more or less related
to the prequalification of the flexible or factory joint”
Normally PQ test reports must be available for review at the time of contract award, since carrying out the
test takes half a year or more up to 150 (170) kV AC and one year or more above, both for above
150 (170) kV AC and for Extruded DC cables, not including assembly and cable production time.
Notice that PQ testing has just been introduced in IEC 60840 [7.5] for voltages up to 150 (170) kV, but
that it is not always required on this voltage level, since it is only required for nominal outer/inner electrical
stress higher than respectively 4/8 kV/mm, or if the manufacturer cannot demonstrate previous service
experience.
TB 303 [7.1] gives a good tool for evaluating PQ testing, and is also a good introduction to the history of
PQ test. Its recommendations are the basis for changes to the latest revisions (2012) of IEC 60840 [7.5]
and IEC 62067 [7.6].
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Up to 30 (36) kV the Electrical field strength is kept relative low because the standard IEC 60502 [7.7]
specifies the insulation thickness and PQ testing has never been deemed necessary for this voltage level.
For DC cables with extruded insulation the recommendation TB 496 [7.3] specifies a prequalification test.
Here it is even more clear that the prequalification is for general qualification only, since the final
switching surge voltage test (and optional impulse voltage test) is specified in relation to the rated voltage,
whereas it may vary in the type test, that may include project specific surge voltage levels. However, in
the case of extruded DC cable it is important that temperature limits from the PQ test is maintained in the
delivered design, i.e. maximum conductor temperature and maximum temperature drop over the
insulation.
See referenced standards and recommendations in Section 7.3.
7.2.6 Extension of qualification (EQ) AC above 30 (36) kV

EQ test was introduced in TB 303 [7.1] and have since been implemented in both IEC 60840 [7.5] and
IEC 62067 [7.6] from the 2011 editions. The main difference from the PQ test, is that the heat cycling is
done as a preconditioning without voltage and only for 60 cycles, normally equal to 60 days or just over
for large cables.
The nature of the EQ test makes it possible in some projects to accept EQ test after contract, but it should
be noticed that it still impose a greater risk on the time schedule than a type test and that neither the PQ
nor the EQ test is intended to be project specific.
7.2.7 Mechanical type test

The de-facto standard for mechanical testing of submarine cables has since 1997 been ELECTRA 171
“Recommendation for Mechanical test of Sub-Marine Cables” [7.8]
This recommendation is now under revision by WG B1.43, so for clarity, reference should be made to the
replacing CIGRE Technical Brochure when available, even when referencing standards and
recommendations referring to ELECTRA 171.
7.2.8 Development tests

Development tests are normally not specified or provided by manufactures, but with the sometimes very
specific installation conditions of cable for offshore generation, special “fictional requirements” could be
required to be investigated. The functional analysis method described in Cigré TB 303 [7.1] could be
helpful for the cable and accessories development engineers, and it is expected that a number of
mechanical development tests will be introduced in the revision of Electra 171 [7.8] for engineering
purpose, such as:
Bending without tension, crush test, sidewall force test, impact test, pulling stocking test, sea trial,
handling test for bend restrictor, mechanical test for rigid joint, abrasion test, tensile characterization test,
and friction factor assessment.
It is not the intention that all development tests automatically are part of the testing regime for all
submarine cable systems. If a test is required as part of a type test, project requirement or otherwise
included under a contract, it should be agreed herein.
Three of these tests will be commented separately in the following since they are especially relevant for
offshore generation cable connections.
Side wall pressure test for J-Tube Installation

Mechanically the most significant special issue with offshore generation cables are the fact that they are
usually pulled into at structure via a J-tube from the sea bottom.
Mechanically the cable design could easily be tested for this operation in a type test with the standard
tensile bending test, but the mechanical part of the type test in this case should reflect the conditions,
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such as bending radius and forces during the J-tube pulling, rather than only submarine installation as
specified in ELECTRA 171 relating only to water depth. The revision of ELECTRA 171 is, as mentioned,
expected to include side wall pressure tests, but as a development test relevant for J-tube installation, so
if a specific test is required for a project this should be agreed in the contract.
Sea trial
Depending on the offshore experience of the installer/manufacturer and the complexity of the installation
spread, a sea trial could be relevant. It should in each case be specified and agreed upon in the contract
since it is only briefly mentioned in the recommendations.
It should be mentioned, that since water depth is often limited for offshore generation cables connections,
experience from previous projects of the installer and/or manufacturer will often match or exceed the
complexity of projects under this TB.
However, a number of parameters should be considered: Lack of previous experience, new vessel, new
crew, new equipment, changed cable design, handling of new joints, experience with J-tube pull-ins, and
experience with self-installing bend restrictors at J-tubes etc.
It should also be noticed that even a number of changes, each not sufficient to justify a sea trial, could in
combination make a sea trial relevant.
As mentioned it is expected that the revision of ELECTRA 171, will include wording about sea trial as a
development test.
Dynamic testing
Dynamic issues during installation as well as in service are expected to be addressed in the revision of
ELECTRA 171 as development test. Special interest for installations covered by this TB, is vortex
strumming normally in case of free span of the cable along the sea bed, but in this case especially from
the sea bed to the bell-mouth of a J-tube. Also vibration issues inside the J-tubes of towers (especially
installed in deep waters) may have to be considered, if not dealt with in the design of the J-tube, see
Chapter 6 Installation.
Test of dynamic cables are treated separately.
7.2.9 After installation test AC

After installation testing is not as straight forward offshore because of the length of the cables or their
placement offshore, and should therefore be agreed according to what is practically possible, rather than
strict references to the standards and recommendations.
7.2.9.1 AFTER INSTALLATION TEST OF AC CABLES - EXPORT CABLES

With AC voltage testing (20-300 Hz) available at more and more reasonable cost compared to cost of
losing production from an OWF in full production, it is recommended to adopt the following priority of
possible after installation tests.
After installation, testing should especially be considered with increasing number of offshore joints that of
course have not been tested after assembly on site.
The tests for After Installation are:

• Recommended: HV test 1.7 x U0 (10-500 Hz), 1 hour
• Alternative: HV test 1.4 x U0 (10-500 Hz) for practical reasons on long cables, 1 hour
• Second alternative: 24 hour at system voltage (soak test)
• Other tests such as Very Low Frequency (VLF), Damped AC (DAC) can be considered but only if
first alternatives are not practical
The reason for not recommending the tests in the last bullet point is, that the voltage, which the cable
experience during test, is not comparable to the service voltage, and the advantages with the test is
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mainly in combination with PD measurements in field joints. But if an export cable has field joints, it is
expected to be at a distance from shore where the attenuation of PD signals will have made PD
measurements irrelevant.
In TB 502 “High-Voltage On-Site Testing with Partial Discharge Measurement” [7.9] this PD issue is
discussed and the CIGRÉ WG B1.38 is investigating site testing for a Technical Brochure that may clarify
this issue further.
Termination on offshore substation during testing.

When testing export cables from shore it should be checked (or required) that the test can be performed
with the cable terminated in the GIS on the platform. The GIS supplier need to be informed about test
voltage and expected frequencies. Usually this means that it must be possible to disconnect current
transformers from the cable, either with build in breakers or disconnectors or temporary disconnecting
some connections in the GIS. If this issue is addressed too late, one will need to install temporary
terminations on the platform.
7.2.9.2 AFTER INSTALLATION TEST OF AC ARRAY CABLES

After Installation testing of array cables and even export cables going from platform to platform is
complicated, since it is a challenge to get test equipment offshore. Typically 24 hours of energization from
the grid is acceptable (soak test).
For array cables an alternative test method such as VLF and DAC may be considered, since equipment is
smaller and with the latest version of IEC 60502 [7.7] VLF (0.1 Hz) is specified as an option for cables up
to 30 (36) kV.
Space at the test locations may still be restrictive and therefore compromise safe working distances or
practices, therefore testing may have to be applied through adjacent equipment, e.g. testing all cables in
a string/branch with one test, by applying voltage through the cables and switchgear.
DC tests are an option for array cables up to 30 (36) kV, however different safety considerations need to
be taken into account due to slow discharging.
At the end, the importance of the cables and the cost and risk of testing must be compared, to evaluate
the need for After Installation Tests.
7.2.10 After installation test DC cables

Test of DC export cables on site is a simple issue compared to AC, since DC test equipment is
inexpensive and reasonably portable. The test voltages are given in the recommendations referenced in
Section 7.3.2 below.
7.2.11 Measurements (AC and DC)

For future fault localisation and system calculation TDR (initial finger print), wave propagation speed and
impedance should be measured before the cables are put in service.
TDR measurement is described in recommendations referenced in Section 7.3 below. (TB 490 [7.2] and
TB 496 [7.3] respectively)
7.2.12 Integrated Fibre Optical cables

In cables for offshore generation it is common to integrate fibre optical cables, and they should be tested
together with the cable in the type tests (before and after mechanical test) and in the routine test/FAT. All
or some fibres may even be tested at other occasions, such as before inclusion in the power cable, after
load-out on the cable laying vessel, just after laying etc. All or single fibres could even be online
monitored during any handling of the cable (in test or during installation) to register any mechanical
overload on the cable (see installation Section 6.3.11).
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The later tests and monitoring will help to clarify issues as a Handover Test, when there is a transfer of
responsibility of the cable, if the cable cannot otherwise be tested before or after a transfer. Generally
fibre cables should be tested at every given opportunity, since it is an inexpensive test that may tell
something about the health of the cable and may reveal if and when a mechanical damage occurred.
Normally, a full test of the fibre optical cable is done as a FAT of from the fibre optical cable factory, again
as a FAT from the submarine power cable factory and finally as an after installation tests.
A full test would include:
Measurement of the end to end damping in both directions at both 1310 nm and 1550 nm, and
Reflectrometer measurements (OTDR) at both 1310 nm and 1550 nm.
For intermediate or handover test of the fibre cable it is usually considered sufficient to test single or a few
fibres too ensure that the power cable have not been submitted to a severe mechanical event, and often,
only OTDR measurements are performed since one cable end may not be available for testing.
Fibres are quite fragile, and the space in the power cable usually allows for more fibres than needed, why
it may be considered to allow for some failed fibres in delivered cable, if it is not suspected, that the failure
is due to a general mechanical overload of the fibre cable or the entire power cable.
Type test of fibre optical cables

Different test on the fibre optical cable can be considered as a type test in addition to testing the fibre
optical cable integrated in the power cable. This could include tensile performance, crush and impact
resistance, water penetration, water pressure test and thermal cycling.
See referenced standards and recommendations in Section 7.3.3
7.3 Standards and recommendations

7.3.1 AC
7.3.1.1 TESTING OF AC CABLES ABOVE 30 (36) KV

Basically testing for export cables above 30(36) kV could be specified with a reference to one CIGRE
recommendation:
TB 490 “Recommendations for Testing of Long AC Submarine Cables with Extruded Insulation for
System Voltage above 30 (36) kV to 500 (550) kV” [7.2]
(Replaces and extends ELECTRA 189 Testing of long AC Submarine Cables)
This recommendation will reference to underlying test specifications, where the most important are listed
below.
IEC Standards
The basis for electrical test of AC submarine cables, are the two IEC standards for testing of HV and EHV
underground cables covering each a voltage span:
IEC 60840, “Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltages above 30 kV
(Um = 36 kV) up to 150 kV (Um = 170 kV)” [7.5]
IEC 62067, “Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltages above 150 kV
(Um = 170 kV) up to 500 kV (Um = 550 kV) “ [7.6]
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CIGRE
TB 303 “Revision of Qualification Procedures for HV and EHV AC Extruded Underground Systems” [7.1]
ELECTRA 171 “Recommendation for Mechanical test of Sub-Marine Cables” (under revision by B1.43)
[7.8]
7.3.1.2 TESTING OF AC CABLES UP TO 30 (36) KV

Specifying testing requirements up to 30 (36) kV is more challenging since no test standard formally
gathers the needed test. However a practical approach will be to reference standards and
recommendations below and ask for relevant test accordingly.
IEC 60502, “Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltages from 1 kV
(Um=1.2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um=36kV)” [7.7]
ELECTRA 171 “Recommendation for Mechanical test of Sub-Marine Cables” [7.8] (under revision by
B1.43)
Also tests or test philosophies from TB 490 [7.2], is relevant on e.g. water tightness test, test of
semiconducting core jackets if applicable.
Furthermore, even if cables up to 30 (36) kV are usually array cables, and thus often delivered in short
lengths, they may be used as export cables, and depending the layup of the delivery, it may not be
possible to get array cables into the factory routine test laboratory for PD testing. This means that for
routine testing, it may be challenging to meet PD requirements in IEC 60 502, with sufficiently low noise
levels and a test philosophy similar to that of TB 490 could be adopted.
7.3.2 DC
7.3.2.1 EXTRUDED DC CABLES

For Extruded DC cables tests are described in the following recommendations:
TB 496 “Recommendations for Testing DC Extruded Cable Systems for Power Transmission at a Rated
Voltage up to 500 kV” [7.3]
TB 496 replaces TB 219, that even if it applies to only up 250 kV have been used as the basis for
qualifying cable systems up to 300/320 kV prior to publication of TB 496.
IEC has started work to implement the TB 496 in the IEC standards but only for up to 320 kV and land
cable.
TB 496 will cover submarine cable with its references to CIGRÈ ELECTRA 171 (under revision) for
mechanical testing.
Also ELECTRA 189 [7.4] (DC) is referenced for some electrical tests and even IEC 62067 [7.6] for
material testing.
7.3.2.2 MI DC CABLES
For Mass Impregnate cables tests are described in:
CIGRÉ ELECTRA 189 “Recommendations for Test of Power Transmission DC Cables for a Rate Voltage
up to 800 kV” [7.4].
Again the submarine part is covered with its references to CIGRÉ ELECTRA 171 [7.8] (under revision) for
mechanical testing.
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7.3.3 Integrated Fibre Optical cables

Fibre optical test and specifications are covered by a number of IEC sub-standards to IEC 60793 [7.19]
and IEC 60794 [7.20].
An overview of test of fibres included in power cables can be found in this sub-standard:
IEC 60794-1-2 Optical fibre cables - Part 1-2: Generic specification - Cross reference table for optical
cable test procedures.
«Applies to optical fibre cables for use with telecommunication equipment and devices employing similar
techniques, and to cables having a combination of both optical fibres and electrical conductors.»
And depending on specified fibres typically the following sub-standards can be referenced:
IEC 60793-2-40 for Multimode fibres and/or IEC 60793-2-50 for Singlemode fibres.
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8 SERVICE, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

8.1 Introduction
In general cable systems require minimal maintenance, especially XLPE cable systems.
For submarine cable systems, some maintenance activities need to be taken into account, such as: route
inspections/surveys (subsea), verification of burial depth, survey of subsea crossings with other cables or
conduits, inspection of the scour protections at platform entries (J-tubes), marine growth (J-tube entry,
dynamic cables), etc.
The use of monitoring techniques can provide an input for maintenance techniques.
Often used monitoring techniques for submarine cables are:

• Temperature monitoring
This monitoring provides the asset owner with a clear indication if the cable is overheating or not.
In addition it can give some indications if the cable is less or more buried than originally installed.
• Vibration monitoring
This monitoring can give indications related to free spans of the cable system, as well as anchors
that are dropped close to the cable system.
• Navigation monitoring at the cable route
This monitoring will follow the vessels crossing the submarine cable. In case of damages by
anchors, the vessel can be traced back.
As described in TB 279 [8.1], Maintenance for HV Cables and Accessories, there are three fundamentally
different ways to carry out maintenance:
• Time Based Maintenance (TBM), to perform preventive maintenance based on specified
predetermined schedule
• Condition Based Maintenance (CBM), to perform preventive maintenance based on the present
condition of the component (condition assessment)
• Corrective Maintenance (CM), to repair or replace broken items
The maintenance activities for submarine cables are not only related to the cables but also to the
surroundings. The mechanical protection of submarine cables is very important and a main part of the
maintenance has to do with this.
TBM and CBM both have the intention to avoid failures in service. CBM can also be called “Predictive
Maintenance”, meaning maintenance to be carried out to determine which maintenance actions will follow
in order to avoid failures in service.
TBM is often the basis and is carried out as offshore surveys. The observations from the TBM may result
in CBM. The time interval between particular activities may be changed because of the observed
conditions during TBM or monitoring.
Corrective maintenance is activities directly on the submarine cable. Corrective maintenance on the
protection system (e.g. burial depth) can be seen as CBM.
Before performing offshore maintenance activities, the people going offshore must follow safety trainings
for the different offshore activities. Also appropriate personal safety equipment must be used when going
offshore.
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8.2 Time based maintenance activities

8.2.1 External conditions controlling the maintenance activities
Time based maintenance activities are maintenance activities that are planned following a fixed time
base; e.g. every year, every 2 years, etc.
The periodicity of this maintenance should be analysed and take into account the following conditions:
• Marine activities (shipping lanes, shipping activities, other activities in the neighbourhood of the
submarine cable)
• Profile of the seabed (slopes, etc.)
• Stability of the seabed (moving sand bars, etc.)
• Impact of outage of the submarine cable system (availability) which can lead to financial claims,
loss of reputations, etc.
• Consent requirements
Period between inspections can be increased if no significant changes are observed over several
inspections.
For submarine cable systems, the maintenance activities described below are often time based.
8.2.2 Cable route survey

During this survey following conditions can be checked:
• Burial depth
• Possible free spans
• Moving sand dunes
• Inspection of crossings
• Boulders, shipwrecks, fishing gear, mobile UXO etc. on cable route
• Cable entry at J-tube, scour protection
Inspections can be made using drop down video, ROV/AUV (Autonomous Underwater Vehicle) or they
can be made by a diver (e.g. at shore ends). See also Section 3.2.1 and Appendix C - Geophysical
surveys.
In areas with seismic activities a plan should be made to re-survey the route after seismic activity has
been observed.
8.2.3 Transition joint pit inspection

At the transition of the submarine cable to the land cable system there is often some extra equipment
installed such as, metallic screen disconnection, connection of fibre optic cables, etc. This extra
equipment is best checked on a regular basis if accessible..
8.2.4 Shore erosion

If there is a risk of shore erosion it must be checked at regular intervals or after strong storms that the
cable crossing the shore is still well protected. If the crossing is made with a long and/or deep directional
drilling, the risk may be out of question.
8.2.5 Land cable route inspection

The land cable part of the link can be maintained equal to other land cable systems that are in service.
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8.2.6 Scour protection around cable entry for platform

See Section 6.3.7.
When the scour protection at the cable is no longer intact, this can lead to extra mechanical forces on the
submarine cable. These forces have a dynamic behaviour which can lead to accelerated mechanical
fatigue and failure of the cable system.
8.2.7 Inspection on platform

At the platform the following should be checked.
• Hang-off
• Fixing clamps of the cable on the platform and the supporting structure for the cable system
• Fire-retarding passages of the cable when crossing different compartments
• Termination, mainly GIS for HVAC and AIS (Air Insulated Switchgear) for HVDC systems,
including extra monitoring if present.
• Control of alarms if applicable
• Inspection of cable for damage/corrosion
• Earth-connections
• Bending restrictors
8.2.8 Inspection on complementary hardware

In case of other hardware (buoyancy modules, helical strakes, protection sleeves etc.) they must be
controlled on a regular basis. See also Section 9.3, regarding dynamic cables and complementary
hardware.
8.2.9 Inspection of Spare parts

Since submarine cable systems are mainly tailor made solutions and the delivery time of components is
rather long (6 months to 2 years is not exceptional) the necessary spare parts to reduce the risks of
extreme long outages must be foreseen.
These spare parts must also be inspected on a regular basis, mainly visual inspections. Some products in
the accessory kits have an expiring date. These products have to be replaced before the expiring date.
The management of the spare parts can also be outsourced to the submarine cable supplier.
8.2.10 Measurements
In addition to above mentioned maintenance activities, some additional tests or maintenance activities
can be performed such as:
• TDR measurements
o Before commissioning for “initial finger print”
o In case of failure
• OTDR measurement if applicable (fibre optic cable)
o Before commissioning for “initial finger print”
o In case of failure
• Partial discharge measurement at terminations
The measurements mentioned here are offline methods made with specific time intervals determined by
risk or failures. Online measurements (monitoring) are mentioned in Section 8.5.
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8.3 Condition based maintenance activities

Condition based maintenance (CBM) is maintenance performed based upon the condition of the asset
(including the near surroundings) and not with a fixed time interval.
Triggers for CBM can be based upon observations during a TBM activity, monitoring (see Section 8.5) or
diagnostic measurements.
Diagnostics measurements that can be applied on the cable system and that can give an input for CBM
are:
• Online PD monitoring at termination level. This monitoring can give an indication when something
is going wrong at the termination. Especially for the offshore side this could be helpful. Due to the
fact that the submarine cables are rather long this monitoring is less suited to monitor the
complete cable length since the PD pulses will almost disappear after several km.
• Dielectric loss angle (tanδ) measurements will give an indication of the condition of the main
insulation of the cable system (offline measurement).
• Temperature monitoring (see Section 8.5) to determine hotspots along the cable route.
• Sheath testing for land part of the route.
• Tests on oil when using oil filled accessories.
• Thermal inspection of connection point with infra-red camera to detect local hotspots.
Most of above diagnostic measurements are not pass or fail measurements that requires immediate
intervention. The purpose of these measurements is to follow the evolution of the system. Based upon
this evolution appropriate maintenance activities can be planned (e.g. preventive replacement of a GIS
termination).
Furthermore during repair works or other planned cable works it may be interesting to take a cable
sample for more detailed inspection of the aged cable (insulation, lead sheath, armour, etc.). This will give
a more complete overview of the condition of the cable system.
Examples of condition based maintenance activities are:

• Cable reburial
• Mechanical protection of cable (rock dumping, mattresses etc.)
• Cable protection at crossings
• Sand dunes removal
• Wreck, boulders, fishing gear removal
Although this also can be considered as corrective maintenance, above activities can be planned on a
longer term depending of the risk for the submarine cable system.
8.4 Corrective maintenance

Besides the planned time based maintenance activities there will be also some non-planned corrective
maintenance activities such as cable repair due to internal failure or external damage of the submarine
cable system. Sources for external damage to submarine cables are mainly: anchors, fishing activities or
marine operations in the vicinity of the submarine cable.
The cable repair is described in Section 8.8.5.
8.5 Monitoring of submarine cable systems

Submarine cable systems are often long connections with difficult access. Offshore interventions are very
expensive and need to be planned very well.
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Monitoring techniques can give useful input for the maintenance activities. When it is decided to install
monitoring equipment, it is recommended to integrate the different monitoring techniques at a
management level so that the different informations from each monitoring can be synchronised.
Possible monitoring techniques that can be provided on submarine cable systems are described in the
following sections.
8.5.1 Distributed Temperature Sensing

The use of DTS systems require optical fibres that are integrated or in the vicinity (in contact) of the
submarine cable system. DTS can be used for detection of hot-spots along the route caused by local
variations of the thermal resistance of the seabed, or deviating ambient temperature. Regular monitoring
can reveal potential local changes of the thermal environment over time, e.g. by sediment movement. The
cable may have been exposed, or covered with a thicker sediment layer. This can be used as a trigger to
plan a survey of the submarine cable.
The DTS system can be equipped with a Real Time Thermal Rating (RTTR) (previously called Dynamic
Cable Rating (DCR)) system, which continuously can show the actual load and calculate the maximum
continuous load of the cable system based upon the temperature measured by the DTS system. The
RTTR system is also capable to calculate overload conditions for the submarine cable system without
exceeding maximum allowable conductor temperature.
8.5.2 Vibration monitoring and acoustic monitoring with optical fibres

Vibration and acoustic monitoring techniques using optical fibres can be used to detect abnormal
mechanical threats in the vicinity of the submarine cable system such as: anchor drops or other heavy
loads dropped, free spans, etc. See also Section 5.7.2.
This monitoring can trigger events to start a survey.
8.5.3 Shipping activities around submarine cable route

The shipping activities around the submarine cable route can also be monitored and logged based on
data from Automatic Identification System (AIS). This can be helpful to identify possible vessels
afterwards when there is an anchor damage of the submarine cable. Abnormal behaviour of vessels
(drifting, anchoring) can also be logged and if needed, they can be contacted to warn them that they are
in the vicinity of submarine cables. See also TB 398 [8.2].
8.6 Spare parts management

Submarine cable systems are mainly tailor made solutions and the delivery time of components is rather
long (6 months to 2 years is not exceptional). It is important to foresee which spare parts are necessary to
reduce the risks of extreme long outages.
For each project it is necessary to make a risk assessment of the failures that can happen and the
frequency of the failures. Based on this, a proposition of needed spare parts can be made. Spare parts
are to be foreseen not only for the operation and maintenance phase, but also for the installation phase.
The spare submarine cable length depends on several parameters such as:
• Number of repairs to foresee (risk analysis)
• Maximum water depth for a repair
• Length of special crossings such as shipping lanes were it is restricted to perform a repair
• Exposure to water ingress (time needed between failure and repair has an impact)
• Layout of the repair vessel
• Expected accuracy of the fault localisation
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Other spare parts to be foreseen are:

• Repair joints
• Terminations
• Transition joints
• Land cable, land cable joint and terminations
• Specific accessories needed when using dynamic cables (buoyancy modules, helical strakes,
protection sleeves. See Chapter 9 for more details
Besides the spare parts themselves, a suitable location for these spare parts has to be found. For the
submarine cable the location must be chosen so that the location can be reached by the laying or repair
vessel and that all equipment is available for safe loading without damaging the cable.
Another possibility is to bury the cable in the seabed in the neighbourhood of the link in operation (this
must be included in the permits).
The proper storage has to be checked with the cable supplier.
The management of the spare parts can also be outsourced to the submarine cable supplier. In this case
a maintenance contract is recommended including SLA (Service Level Agreements).
8.7 Service contracts

In order to reduce time for repair it is sometimes an advantage to make service contracts with companies
involved in the repair work. Repair of HV and EHV cables will normally be done by the cable
manufacturer. There might be more possible repair vessels that can be used for the repair work, but it is
important to know the requirements to the vessel before a failure occurs. It is normally not possible to get
a guarantee that a specific vessel is available in case of a cable failure. Service contracts may in some
situations reduce the mobilisation time.
The contents of service contracts are not a part of the scope in this TB, but it is recommended to make an
assessment of the risks and costs in case of failures and conclude how to prepare a repair.
Service contracts can also be made regarding monitoring of shipping traffic, offshore surveys and
transport by boat or helicopter to OHVS or wind turbines.
8.8 Repair after cable failure

A “failure” is defined as an event that leads to a “fault” of the cable. The fault is a state of the cable after
the failure.
Although cable systems are very reliable, it is possible that there will be a cable failure during the entire
life time of the system. Often these failures have an external cause.
After the failure has been noted, the type and location of the failure must be found. When the fault
location has been detected (or even before), the mobilisation of a repair vessel can start and the cable
repair crew can be contacted as well.
When mobilisation is finished, the repair work shall be done. The whole process may take weeks or
months. The better prepared for the repair work, the shorter is the repair time expected to be.
8.8.1 Fault localisation
8.8.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Conditions and methods for cable fault localisation on submarine power cables can differ from classical
cable fault localisation on buried land cables. The following highlights some effective fault localisation
methods. Measurements performed in the field show that a fault localisation system especially designed
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for submarine cables can detect faults with a good error accuracy helping to reduce the outage time for
repair activities.
It is important to note that special safety measures are required for long submarine cables as they can
store a tremendous amount of electrical energy that may be of high risk for the operator as well as the
instruments.
In the event of a possible cable failure, following steps (Figure 8-1) are recommended to be followed:
Final
Pre- Route localisation
Test of cable system
localisation determination and cable
identification
FIGURE 8-1 STEPS TO FOLLOW AFTER CABLE FAILURE
The next section describes recommended diagnostic methods that can be used in the pre-localization
and fault localization steps. In the following sections possible actions in the steps are described.
The CIGRÉ WG B1.52, “Fault location on land and submarine links (AC and DC)”, is investigating fault
localisation methods and it is recommended to consult the Technical Brochure from this working group,
when it is ready.
8.8.1.2 DIAGNOSTIC METHODS

Prior to fault localisation it is necessary to define the fault type that will then determine the best diagnostic
to be used. The final pin pointing can be carried out visually, using tone injection or by voltage gradient.
If the distance relays, which may have been installed to protect the cable connection, have been set
correctly, these can often be used to localise (roughly) a fault. The methods below may be used for the
fault types listed.
Fault Type Recommended Diagnostic
TDR, Time Domain Reflectometry

Low Resistance
Murray Bridge
ICM Impulse Current Method

Impulse Current Diff. Method
SIM-MIM, Secondary Impulse Method - Multiple Impulse
High Resistance
Method
Murray Bridge
Fault Burning then to Low Impedance diagnostics
SIM-MIM, Secondary Impulse Method - Multiple Impulse

Intermittent
Method
TDR Time Domain Reflectometry

Interruption
OTDR Optical Time Domain Reflectometry
Sheath Faults Murray Bridge
TABLE 8-1 DIAGNOSTIC METHODS BASED UPON FAULT TYPE (MANFRED BAWART [8.3])
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8.8.1.3 TEST OF THE CABLE SYSTEM

A TDR measurement compared with a virgin finger print made before commissioning will often show that
something has happened to the cable. In case of doubt that a high voltage failure has occurred, it is
recommended to confirm the cable failure by means of an external voltage source before starting the fault
localization. This is to verify that there is a cable failure and there is no other reason for the outage of the
cable system.
Simultaneously, some investigation can be made of possible activities in the vicinity of the cable route.
Due to the long cable length for offshore purposes, following voltage sources can be used:
• Series-resonance test equipment (resonance frequency between 10 and 300 Hz)
• VLF (Very Low Frequency) test equipment, typical 0.1 Hz
• DC voltage for paper insulated cable systems and HVDC cable systems
When the cable failure is confirmed by the voltage test, the next step can be planned: pre-localization of
the cable fault.
8.8.1.4 PRE-LOCALISATION OF THE CABLE FAULT

The purpose of this test is to pre-localize the fault before going offshore. Ideally this test is done from both
sides of the cable system. This helps to have an idea if the pre-localization is accurate or not. If the test
from both sides gives the same location, the result can be considered as accurate. In this case the exact
localization can be done at the pre-localized area. In the other case a much bigger area must be taken
into account for the localization of the cable failure.
For the pre-localization several techniques can be used. See Table 8-1
It is recommended to start with the following relatively simple techniques:
TDR measurement
This measurement technique can be used to pre-locate low resistive faults.
In order to do this, it is recommended to have a TDR measurement done after installation of the link and
before energizing. This measurement will be used as a starting point to compare the new measurement.
FIGURE 8-2 TDR MEASUREMENT ON SUBMARINE AND LAND CABLE [8.4]
It is not always possible to obtain sufficiently precision using only one method. Depending on the fault
type other methods as mentioned in Table 8-1 and Appendix F.1 Diagnostic methods for fault localisation
on submarine cables, may be found useful.
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OTDR measurement
Since this is a fairly easy and accurate measurement, this measurement can be used as a first test in
trying to pre-locate possible cable damage. Since it is not sure that there is a FO break at the cable fault
spot, or there might be another FO break, this measurement technique is only used to give an indication.
The cable fault itself still has to be pre-located and confirmed by measuring techniques for the HV cable
itself.
OTDR can detect heavy cable damage. Since fibre breaks also can occur spontaneously without a failure
in the electric cable, and an electric insulation breakdown not necessarily damages the fibre, a direct
relation between damage in the power cable and a detectable fibre break is not given.
Carrying out fault localisation using fibres, the fibre length should be referenced to the actual cable length.
If no failure can be detected on the optical fibres but on the power cable, it may be possible to locate the
failure by use of a Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) system, because a test current in the cable
may increase the temperature in the cable fault.
DTS measurement
In certain cases where the fibre cable is integrated into the power cable and where the fault occurs within
the distance range of a DTS system, the fibre optic cables can be used to trace localised heating at the
point of the fault. If the cable is subjected to a controllable fault current (external voltage source) it may be
possible to measure a temperature rise at the position of the breakdown in the cable. Consideration
needs to be given to the helix length of the fibre tube installed within the cable, the packing length of the
fibre within the tube and any cable over length at the terminations. While the DTS system may identify a
linear distance to the fault location, engineering is still required to identify the exact position of the fault
location offshore. Correlation of the DTS fault position with known OTDR measurements which identify
previous splice positions which may have known coordinates may be one option, while another method
may be to create localised hotspots on the cable offshore for cross reference.
8.8.2 Route determination and cable identification

If the cable route is not well known or when there are several cables placed close by, it is of paramount
importance to identify the cable route of the cable system in question. The cable can be identified by
means of a cable tracing device. For this a signal with a specific frequency will be put on the cable in
order to distinguish the cable to be identified from other cables in the neighbourhood.
8.8.3 Final localisation

Based upon the pre-localized cable failure distance from land, the purpose is to localize the cable more
accurately off-shore.
This can be done by acoustic means. From landsite the faulty phase of the cable system is connected to
a shockwave generator. This shockwave generator will generate acoustic shock waves which can be
detected by means of a digiphone. See also Table 8-1 and Appendix F.1 Diagnostic methods for fault
localisation on submarine cables.
Once the fault is localized, the repair can be planned taken into account the situation at the fault location.
This will determine the type of equipment needed for the repair.
8.8.4 Mobilisation for cable repair

Mobilisation of a repair vessel is one of the most critical operations. If there is no vessel available it may
take months before a repair can start. Therefore, it is important to immediately contact companies with
possible repair vessels – or contact the companies which have signed a service contract for such a work.
It is not possible to mobilize before the fault location is found and the circumstances of the work are
clarified. Some of the same issues as discussed in Chapter 6, Installation, are relevant here. The water
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depth, wind, tide and current must be taken into account in the choice of vessel. The vessel must be with
sufficient space to be equipped with the necessary tools for the repair.
On shallow water the cable repair can be done on a locally mobilized barge, on deeper water a special
vessel is needed.
If the faulty cable is buried, it must be uncovered before repair of the cable can start. This must be taken
into account in the planning of the repair.
It is also necessary to arrange any permits that may be necessary to grant access to the area for repairs.
8.8.5 Repair of submarine cables
8.8.5.1 EXPORT CABLES

Failure on export cables requires repair by cutting the faulty cable on both sides of the fault, installation of
two joints between the original cable and the spare cable, laying and burying/protecting it in the sea bed.
The general method involved in an offshore repair is:

• Cut the cable at first end (one side of the damage)
• Retrieve the damaged end
• Cut the cable at second end (damage section now removed from system)
• Joint new length to second end
• Lay spare cable length
• Retrieve the first end
• Joint the spare cable with the first cable end
• Lay the cable down at the seabed in a hairpin shape
• Protect the cable after the repair
Fault location
Pull up the
• TDR Make joint
second end Laying cable
• OTDR Pull up the between first
• Visual inspection Cutting cable and make (with burial if
first end end and spare
joint with needed)
cable
spare cable
FIGURE 8-3 GENERAL METHOD INVOLVED IN AN OFFSHORE REPAIR
8.8.5.2 ARRAY CABLES

Array cables will normally be treated in the same way as export cables regarding repair. In some
situations it may be considered, if the cable should be repaired or replaced. Depending on the length and
the circumstances it might be quicker or even cheaper to replace the cable over its entire length.
8.9 Decommissioning
In the permits there may be regulations about cables no longer in service. In some areas, the submarine
cable may be left buried in the sea bottom.
If the submarine cable is taken out of service, but in the near future might be commissioned again (for
example for a new offshore generation purpose) it is recommended to leave the cable buried at sea, if
there are no restrictions against it. The lifetime of a submarine cable is normally longer than the lifetime of
an offshore wind farm. When a wind farm is decommissioned, a new wind farm or another type of
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offshore generation may be installed. Because of the longer life time, the submarine cable may be utilised
for a new offshore plant. The condition of the submarine cable should be considered before decision of
reuse is taken.
If submarine cables must be removed after decommissioning, many of the same issues that are
discussed regarding installation of cables must be handled.
The method to remove the submarine cables and the possible tools for de-burial and removal of the cable
should be described including their influence on the environment. Stakeholders should be contacted and
agreement about the conditions must be made with authorities.
Cables buried very deep can be hard to remove. It is recommended to take that into consideration before
decision about burial depth is taken.
Crossings, especially of later installed, cables or pipes may also make removal of the submarine cable
more difficult. Agreement between the involved parties should be made regarding the removal. This
should be implemented in the crossing agreement.
Risk analyses should be made for the different processes to find the optimal solutions.
There is no risk of leak from extruded or MI submarine cables during the removal.
After removal of the submarine cables, the cables should be handed over to a qualified company which is
able, in an approved environmental manner, to separate the different cable layers and recycle as much
as possible. The metal (copper, aluminium, lead) can normally be reused.
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9 DYNAMIC CABLES FOR OTHER TYPES OF GENERATION

9.1 Introduction
Other types of offshore power generation have been discussed and are in different stages of
development that is between studies, pilot projects, and semi-commercial operation. These include:
• Submerged turbines collecting the kinetic energy of streaming water (tidal or fluvial)
• Wind turbines on floating structures
• Generation from tidal oscillations
• Wave energy converters
Floating structures require mechanically dynamic cables that can sustain the perpetual wave movements
during the lifetime of the generation plant. Special emphasis must be given to the cable constituents and
their fatigue-resistant designs. If a metallic sheath is considered necessary (e.g. at rated voltages over 36
kV) lead sheaths are not appropriate due to a lack of fatigue resistance; copper or other metallic sheaths
have a much better fatigue performance.
Wave energy convertors have been suggested in a large array of different shapes and sizes. They have
in common that the output power of each individual unit is relatively low, so very many units are needed
to make up an offshore power plant. This requires a simple, low-voltage submarine cable utilising a fast
installation technology. Such cables are not covered here, however the principles are much the same.
The growing demand for deep-water offshore wind turbine installations, associated with the consistently
stronger and steady winds, prompted the development of floating wind generators.
Based on the limited experience with such type of floating structures, this chapter addresses a few basic
guidelines for the design of MV and HV cable power collecting/feeding systems to or from floating
generators and platforms.
9.2 Dynamic cables

9.2.1 Mechanical constraints
The electric cables feeding or collecting power from floating platforms will be subject to severe
environment conditions and with significant hang-off free spans down to the touchdown point:
FIGURE 9-1 DYNAMIC CABLES FOR FLOATING GENERATORS
The design of the cable needs to address the combined hydro-dynamic loads that result in the most
unfavourable scenarios in terms of overall mechanical stresses during service. The dynamic loads and
motions are caused by:
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Waves
For shallow waters wave loading predominates as the main contribution to the total dynamic load applied
to the dynamic cable. Hence the cable design should take into account the statistical wave data for each
specific location.
Load combinations emerging from the regular and irregular wave analysis must be addressed. The sea
states are normally represented by statistical analysis that take into account relevant information such as:
significant wave height, wave period, and directionality.
Currents
A current velocity pattern showing the magnitude and direction as a function of water depth shall be used
for design analysis. For deep waters, wave loading will affect mainly the upper section of the free span
while currents will dominate the dynamic loading on most of the length down to the touch-down point.
Wind
Wind loads are directly applied to floating platforms and hence to the anchor point of the dynamic cable.
Moreover, whenever the bend stiffener is not submerged and a short span of the dynamic cables remains
above the water surface, wind loading on this surface cable must also be addressed.
Vortex induced vibration

The dynamic cable “free span” can be modelled as a spring with natural vibration frequencies. The water
flow crossing the cable surface at a right angle creates vortices. If the frequency of the vortex shedding
matches the harmonic vibration frequencies of the free span, the energy of the water flow is transferred to
the cable. The cable will vibrate with a given amplitude limited by the hydraulic damping.
Marine growth
Marine growth will accumulate on the cable over time leading to additional loading that must be
considered in the design of the dynamic cables.
Tides
Water depth variation needs to be taken into account for shallow water applications.
Emergency
Extreme conditions and emergency situations (e.g. mooring breakdown) shall be carefully addressed and
taken into consideration.
The final configuration for the cable section between the seabed and the floating generator/platform is
defined by the magnitude of the movements of the later and restrictions settled by the position of the
mooring lines. A few possible configurations are shown in Figure 9-2:
A: Catenary
The cable is a simple hang-off from the floating generator/platform describing a catenary shape.
B: Lazy wave
The U-shaped free span between the floating generator/platform (anchor point) and the buoyancy set
provides enough slack to absorb the movement of the former.
C: Steep wave
Similar to a lazy wave but with a steeper configuration near the seabed.
D: Pliant wave
Basically a lazy wave with a tether restraining the touch-down point.
E: Lazy S
A tethered buoy keeps the lower section of the wave configuration and the touch-down point in an almost
static position.
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F: Chinese Lantern
U-shaped cable slack keeping the tether vertically aligned with the cable entry in the floating
generator/platform.
FIGURE 9-2 CONFIGURATION FOR THE DYNAMIC CABLE BETWEEN SEA BED AND FLOATING GENERATOR
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9.2.2 Structural behaviour analysis

The structural behaviour of a dynamic cable should be assessed by taking the following into account:
• The continuous bending efforts and associated relative deformations between the cable
components
• The bending stiffness of the cable
• The axial and torsional deformations
Since most of the cable components are assembled with a helix structure – electric cores, fillers, fibre
optical cable and armour wires – the respective axial stresses built-up during the cable bending will be
released through the slippage of these elements.
The friction associated with the reaction forces between the helix components should be carefully
addressed when high axial stresses are expected, as in deep water installations. For shallow waters the
structural behaviour is dominated by the elastic strain of each component.
The assessment of fatigue life time shouldl take into account the reference sea states, winds, currents
and associated cyclic loading features. The loading conditions associated with the cyclic behaviour of
wave loading, the hang-off connector motion as well as vortex-induced vibration will require multiple
short-term conditions to be assessed to completely understand the long-term behaviour.
The critical cable components in terms of fatigue issues should be identified and a fatigue test performed
to obtain the respective S-N curve (behaviour of the magnitude of a cyclic stress - S - against the
logarithmic scale of cycles to failure –N).
9.2.3 Dynamic cable design

The detailed cable design of submarine cables is described in Chapter 4. In this section the design of
dynamic submarine cables is addressed by highlighting the distinctive features of several cable
components particularly when compared with its static counterparts.
9.2.3.1 TYPICAL CABLE CROSS-SECTION

Figure 9-3 below shows a typical cross-section for a dynamic cable:
FIGURE 9-3 TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION FOR A DYNAMIC CABLE
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9.2.3.2 METALLIC SCREEN AND METALLIC SHEATH

This metallic layer is applied over the insulation screen (over a proper semi-conductive bedding), and acts
in normal operation conditions as a return path for both capacitive charging currents and induced
currents. In the event of an electrical failure this metallic screen can also carry zero-sequence short circuit
currents.
A lead sheath is not recommended for dynamic cables, since it is highly prone to fatigue issues.
The manufacturer will normally identify the most suitable solution, depending on the project electric
requirements, particularly the voltage and fault current level.
9.2.3.3 CORE SHEATH

Depending on the type of insulation material a layer of thermoplastic material can be extruded over the
metallic screen for extra protection. This sheath can be made of medium density polyethylene (MDPE)
coloured black. The electric phases should be identified by marking a specific ID (colour or number) on
each core. In the case of a numeric ID the numbers should be printed at regular intervals - according to
the manufacturer recommendation.
9.2.3.4 BEDDING LAYER

The three cores and any additional elements (e.g. fibre optic cables) are then laid up together and the
interstices filled with appropriate fillers to achieve a circular cable cross-section. A continuously extruded
thermoplastic material could be applied over this core. The thermoplastic material should incorporate
protection against UV radiation if the free span between the hang-off connector and the entrance into the
wind turbine is not protected against direct solar radiation. The material should also be compatible with
sea-water.
The thickness of this sheath should be sufficient to ensure a correct distribution of the radial compression
by the armour wire layers laid over the sheath.
To release the axial stresses during bending, the coefficient of friction between the sheath and the
sheaths of the electric cores and other components (optical fibre cable, fillers etc.) should be minimized.
9.2.3.5 ARMOUR
Typically the armour design for static submarine cables is driven by the installation water depth and other
installation issues specific for each project.
For submarine dynamic cables this concept changes radically. The armour design must address the
same installation issues as for the static cables, and at the same time satisfy all of the post-installation
dynamic loads experienced by the free span between the floating generator/platform and the touch-down
point (TD).
Standard static submarine cables designed for shallow waters, require normally single layer armour. For
higher axial loads the twisting action induced by the single layer of stranded wires prompts a significant
load transfer to the inner core. Two or more contra-helically wound layers of stranded armour wires need
to be applied to counteract the twisting action.
On grounds of tensile strength and anti-torsion requirements, dynamic cables hanging off a floating
generator/platform should have at least a double layer armour and each armour layer lay direction should
be in the opposite lay direction (clockwise/counter clockwise). Moreover such armour will provide the
required ballast for a better stability during the dynamic operation. In addition the cable design should be
torque balanced, and such behaviour verified during the type test qualification.
The bending stiffness performance and ballast of the dynamic cable will also be adjustable through a
correct choice of lay lengths of the helically stranded components. For a less demanding tensile
performance, a few metallic wires can be replaced by thermoplastic filler rods.
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9.2.3.6 OUTER SERVING

A layer of a thermoplastic material may be continuously extruded over the armour. This layer may provide
additional corrosion protection, especially in the splash zone and prevents the anti-corrosion compounds
to be washed out of the armour wires.
In order to facilitate the underwater operations during the cable installation, the outer serving should have
a high-visibility colour. To assist the installation of complementary hardware on the cable and to provide a
visual indication of the twisting during the cable deployment, a metric marking shall be printed with
another contrasting colour and with a suitable size and intervals.
9.3 Complementary Hardware

9.3.1 Bend stiffener
A bend stiffener protects the cable from over bending when submitted to extreme mechanical conditions.
Over bending will occur whenever the cable approaches its minimum allowable dynamic bending radius
(MBR).
The stiffener body is a conical mass of polymer material with a central axial opening to allow the passage
of the dynamic cable. The bending stiffener consists of two main components:
• Internal steelwork
• Elastomer moulding
The internal steelwork promotes load transfer to the attachment point - typically the base of the J- tube.
The bending stiffness of this structure increases gradually from the tip to the top of rigid section.
The bend stiffener is designed to cope with a combination of tension (T) and angle (θ) for a representative
scenario of sea-states. The supplier of the bend stiffener should address the load situations specified by
the purchaser of the system. Such load cases combine the associates tensions and angles from the
dynamic analysis.
The angle of the rigid section and the operation temperature should also be considered.
FIGURE 9-4 THE BEND STIFFENER IS DESIGNED TO COPE WITH A COMBINATION OF TENSION T AND ANGLE Θ
A temporary tip clamp should be attached to the tip of the bend stiffener to prevent sliding relative to the
dynamic cable during the installation process. This clamp shall be removed after fixing the bend stiffener
to the floating platform.
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The attachment to the floating platform can be made by a flange mounted at the base of an I-tube or
directly to the support structure on the floating generator/platform:
FIGURE 9-5 CABLE WITH HANG-OFF AND STIFFENER WITH FLANGE MOUNTED TO THE I-TUBE
The bend stiffener can be complete with a spool section for diver assisted connection.
The conical mass of polymer material over the cable outer serving should be taken into consideration for
the cable rating calculations.
For a correct bend stiffener design the data below will be required (as a minimum):
• Load cases (tension, angle)
• Minimum dynamic operating bending radius of the cable
• Temperature
• Breaking load of the cable
• Maximum allowable axial compression
• Axial stiffness of the cable
• Torsional stiffness of the cable
• Bending stiffness of the cable
• Weight of the cable (air and in water)
• Cable outer diameter and respective tolerance
• Characteristics of the cable outer serving
• Temperature: The ambient temperature surrounding the bending stiffener and the temperature on
the cable outer serving
As an alternative a bell-mouth (trumpet termination of I-tube) could be used instead of bend stiffener. For
smaller array cables it may be a simpler and cheaper solution.
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9.3.2 Buoyancy modules

To achieve the required shape for the extra-length of cable, several equally spaced buoyancy modules
need to be installed on the cable.
Roughly the buoyancy module consists of two main components:

• Buoyancy element, with two halves held together by two corrosion resistant securing straps or
bolts.
• An internal clamp designed for the minimum outer diameter (further reductions of the outer
diameter associated with the in-service mechanical constraints should be taken into account) of
the dynamic cable is attached directly to the dynamic cable.
The application of the internal clamp should not be harmful to the outer serving of the dynamic cable. The
reduction of the minimum outer diameter of the cable should be carefully assessed taking into account
the maximum axial tensile loads and long-term creep.
The effects of seawater absorption and hydrostatic compression should also be carefully addressed.
9.3.3 Helical strakes

To counteract the Vortex induced vibrations a helical strake can be applied along a portion of the cable
free span. The design of such devices should address the depth, current profile, the tensile load applied
to the cable and the outer diameter of the cable.
The fatigue associated with the vortex induced vibrations should be carefully addressed to assess if
helical strakes are required.
The additional mass and drag associated with the utilization of helical strakes should be considered for
the hydrodynamic analysis of the free span.
9.3.4 Top side hang-off

The dynamic cable is anchored at the top of the I-tube or directly to the support structure on the floating
generator/platform by a hang-off. The hang-off device shall be designed to cope with the mechanical
dynamic loads expected for worst case scenarios without compromising the integrity of the dynamic
cable.
The hang-off should provide adequate corrosion protection for the cable tensioner (armour).
The hang-off should also be designed to have a fatigue life time higher than the one required by the
project (normally 25 years).
9.3.5 Protection sleeves for the touch-down point

The interaction between the dynamic cable and seabed should be carefully assessed at the touch down
point of the free span. The abrasion driven by the cable movement will trigger a premature degradation of
the outer serving. Without proper protection against water penetration and abrasion, the structural
components will be, depending on their nature, highly prone to corrosion and mass loss. Under these
extreme conditions the armour will fail prematurely.
To counteract the abrasion issues at the touchdown point, the outer serving of the dynamic cable can be
protected with specially designed sleeves.
The extra weight and diameter that results from the application of these sleeves has a beneficial damping
effect that counteracts the cable movement.
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9.3.6 Transition point dynamic/static

The deployment of a structurally supercharged dynamic cable up to onshore substation or to an
onshore/offshore transition point would be economically unreasonable.
Alternatively a standard export static cable will be connected to the dynamic cable that collects the power
from the floating generator/substation or platform:
FIGURE 9-6 TRANSITION JOINT BETWEEN DYNAMIC AND STATIC CABLE
Such a connection can be performed using either a permanent joint or a mate-able (plug-able) solution.
The principle of a permanent joint is similar to other joints; therefore once the joint is completed it cannot
be separated without cutting the cable.
The mate-able solutions can be disassembled and re-connected without cutting the cables. This type of
connection can be separated into two categories (see also Section 5.8.3):
• Dry-mate connectors: assembled outside the water on a barge/vessel.
• Wet-mate connectors: the connector mate and de-mate can be performed underwater -
prompting cost reduction (remotely operated vehicles can perform the connection on the sea-bed
avoiding the assembly of the joint on a barge). Amid cost effectiveness the wet-mate technology
is currently voltage-limited, and proven solutions for the higher voltage connections would be
scarce.
The transition joint should be designed and qualified to cope with the water pressure and with the
electrical features specified for the dynamic/static cables.
Regarding the electric current rating the dynamic cable is designed to cope with a more demanding heat
extraction process than its static counterpart. While the latter is normally designed to cope with the
environmental conditions through the landfall crossing, the electric current rating of the dynamic cables is
calculated taking into account the heat dissipation inside the I-tube and through all the additional layers of
plastic materials deployed over the cable outer serving (namely: bend stiffeners and protection sleeves).
Therefore the conductor cross-section for the dynamic cable is normally higher than its static counterpart,
and the transition joint shall be designed accordingly.
The transition joint can include an optical fibre splice box or a patch panel for jointing the fibres with
connectors. Both solutions should accommodate the optical fibres so that they are free of tensile or
bending stresses.
Bend restrictors should be incorporated on each side of the transition joint to limit the bending of the
dynamic and static cables.
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9.4 Maintenance of dynamic cables

Maintenance procedures for dynamic cables and complementary hardware follow the generic guidelines
addressed in Section 8. To cope with specific features, additional procedures shall be undertaken,
namely:
• Visual inspection of bending stiffeners and hang-offs
• Visual inspection of the complementary hardware attached to the cable free span, in particular
the condition of the buoyancy modules and assessment of the marine growth
• Visual inspection of the protection sleeves at the touch-down point
• Visual inspection of transition joint from stiff to dynamic cable
The visual inspection should be carried out using a ROV equipped with a video camera or a side-scan
sonar (test of basic configuration).
9.5 Test of dynamic cables

Further to the tests mentioned in Section 7, dynamic cable systems require a few more complementary
tests.
The design of dynamic cables is driven by software simulations based on the physical characteristics of
the multiple cable components. Therefore, to validate a specific cable design, the cable materials that
drive such simulations should be tested to verify a match with the data used in the software models.
Once the data used in the software models is validated, the static and dynamic behaviours of the dynamic
cables and complementary hardware should be tested. The tests should be made on full scale samples
from the production length. The tests below are guidelines only for qualification or verification purposes,
the final test package shall be agreed between the manufacturer and the purchaser:
• Bend stiffness test
• Dynamic fatigue test
• Hydrostatic diameter reduction
• Specific test for the buoyancy modules:
o Density verification
o Water absorption
o Buoyancy loss verification
o Hydrostatic crush pressure test
o Axial slippage test
o Full scale buoyancy test
o Full scale hydrostatic test
o Fit-up and assembly test
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10 GUIDANCE TO TENDERS
The below list can be used as an indicative check list for tenders. These lists highlight recommended
information to gather or supply to various parties involved in the tender process.
10.1 Information used for geophysical surveys

Which surveys are required for the tender? Should the surveys be made in a specific sequence? What
are the time windows when the surveys should be carried out? How will the studies be reported to the
client?
The following surveys could be considered:

1. Bathymetry
2. Side Scan Sonar
3. Magnetometer/Gradiometer
4. Sub Bottom Profile
5. Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
6. Drop Down Video
a. Video of specific areas (e.g. reefs)
b. Marine archaeology
c. Marine flora and fauna
7. Grab Samples
10.2 Information used for geotechnical surveys

Which geotechnical surveys should be made, at what interval and at what time? Will the geotechnical
surveys be made together with the geophysical surveys or separate?
The following surveys could be considered:

1. Cone Penetrometer Test
2. Gravity Core/Vibrocore/High Penetration Corer
3. Soil analysis
a. Thermal resistivity
b. Shear strength
c. Material composition
d. Organic content
How will the surveys and tests be reported to the client?
10.3 Information used for cable dimensioning

In the tender document for the submarine cable supply, some basic information must be given to the
cable manufacturer to design the right cable solution.
Below are some considerations that the project engineer must consider prior to going to the cable
supplier as each item can change the overall system design and/or cable design.
1. Redundancy requirements
2. HVAC or HVDC connections
3. Voltage level (maybe possible to choose among more levels)
4. Current load profile
5. FO – type (single- and/or multi-mode) and number of fibres
6. Compensation method (location, type: reactors, SVC etc.)
7. Cable length
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8. Thermal conditions (thermal resistivity, air and soil temperature, burial depth, HDD with
information about size and material of pipe, backfill, J-tube, open or closed J-tube, solar radiation
etc.)
9. Terminations (GIS or open air) and transition joints
10. If coilable design of cable or not
11. Installation conditions (water depth, HDD length and depth, static or dynamic etc.)
12. Spare parts
10.4 Information used for cable installation

Information from geophysical and/or geotechnical surveys should be a part of the tender material
regarding cable installation. The cable installer should know the conditions for the installation, the water
depth, wind speed, wave height, the current and tide in the local area. The installer must know as early as
possible if there are any objects that must be avoided, any crossings with other assets, if there are any
restrictions from the authorities, consents requirements etc.
Waiting on weather is in some areas of the world very common. It must be clarified if the risk on waiting
on weather is considered by the client or the contractor. The weather criteria for the vessels must be
agreed between the parties as a part of the contract.
Some typical items that the Installers require are below:

1. Charts
a. Bathymetry
b. Cables and pipelines
c. Wrecks
d. Restricted areas
2. Chart with information about proposed cable route and crossings
3. Route length and lay length (length of cables to be installed)
4. Route position list
5. Number of cables to be installed
6. Cable type (coilable or not)
7. Cable diameter
8. Cable weight (in air and in water)
9. Minimum bending radius of cable
10. Maximum side wall pressure
11. Maximum roller pressure
12. Maximum pulling force
13. Crossing of other assets (method)
14. Requirements regarding monitoring of cable pulling
15. Who is paying for waiting on weather
16. Harbour to cable loading
17. What is included
a. Mobilisation and demobilisation
b. Route preparation including route clearance and pre lay grapnel run operations
c. Cable loading
d. Transport to site
e. Cable pulling onshore or to offshore generator
f. Cable laying at sea bed
g. Cable pulling at platform
h. Transport of spare cable
i. Unloading of spare cable
j. Guard ships
k. Transport of staff to and from site
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l. Reporting
m. As laid documentation
18. If simultaneous burial is required
10.5 Information used for mechanical protection of

submarine cable
Information from the geophysical and geotechnical surveys should be a part of the tender material
regarding cable protection – or cable burial. The survey information and burial requirements (mechanical
protection) should be supplied by the employer. The Installer should provide proof of the equipment to be
used to bury the cable to the required depth and afterwards document that it has been reached.
The following information is useful to the cable installer:

1. Charts
a. Bathymetry
b. Cables and pipelines
c. Wrecks
d. Restricted areas
2. Chart with information about proposed cable route
3. Number of cables
4. Route length
5. Cable diameter
6. Cable weight in water
7. Maximum side wall pressure
8. Demands to burial type (pre-excavating, jetting, ploughing etc.)
9. Burial depth in different zones along the route
10. What is included
a. Mobilisation and demobilisation
b. Burial of cable
c. Protection of cable at crossings
d. Protection shells
e. Protections at J-tube
f. Protection at HDD
g. Installation of mattresses
h. Rock dumping
i. Guard ships
j. Transport of staff to and from site
k. Reporting
l. As laid documentation
11. Who pays for waiting on weather
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11 CONCLUSION
Cigré WG B1.40, Offshore Generation Cable Connections, has described in this Technical Brochure the
main issues regarding submarine cable projects related to offshore generation.
Most attention has been paid to offshore wind generation, but many of the principles and ideas about
submarine cable connections can be used for submarine cables in general. Special requirements for
submarine cables used to connect floating generation or platforms are discussed in a separate chapter.
The TB can be used as a guide for both novices and experienced cable engineers, installation
companies, authorities responsible for offshore activities and other stakeholders. This guide does not
cover every detail, but it is possible to obtain an overview of the necessary actions and decisions to be
taken during the design and installation of an offshore cable project. Relevant references are made to
other Technical Brochures from Cigré, where further information can be found on specific topics.
In addition, the TB can also be used as a general guide for the design, installation and maintenance of
submarine cables.
Page 149
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
12.1 Reference list
Initial studies, surveys and permissions:
[3.1] ICPC Recommendation No. 9, Minimum Technical Requirements for a Desktop Study, March
2012
System design:
[4.1] TB 483, Guidelines for the Design and Construction of AC Offshore Substations for Wind Power
Plants
[4.2] TB 556, Power System Technical Performance Issues Related to the Application of Long HVAC
Cables
[4.3] TB 492, Voltage Source Converter (VSC) HVDC for Power Transmission - Economic Aspects
and Comparison with other AC and DC Technologies
[4.4] Reactive Power Generation by DFIG Based Wind Farms with AC Grid Connection, M. Wilch, V.S.
Pappala, S.N. Singh, I. Erlich
[4.5] TB 379 Update of service experience of HV underground and submarine cable systems
[4.6] TB 398 Third party damage to underground and submarine cables
[4.7] TB 490 Recommendations for testing of long AC submarine cables with extruded insulation
above 30kV to 500kV
[4.8] TB 496 Recommendations for Testing DC Extruded Cable Systems for Power Transmission at a
Rated Voltage up to 500 kV
[4.9] Electra 171, Recommendations for mechanical test on submarine cables (expected to be
replaced by a new TB from working group B1.43, Recommendations for mechanical testing of
submarine cables
Cable design:
[5.1] TB 490 Recommendations for Testing of Long AC Submarine Cables with Extruded Insulation for
System Voltage above 30 (36) to 500 (550) kV
[5.2] IEC 60287-3-2 Electric cables - Calculation of the current rating - Part 3-2: Sections on operating
conditions - Economic optimization of power cable size
[5.3] IEC 60050-461 International Electrotechnical Vocabulary - Part 461: Electric cables
[5.4] IEC 60228 Conductors of insulated cables
[5.5] L. BENARD et a.: “DC extruded Cable System Design and its main characteristics”, Jicable-
HVDC ’13, Montpellier, France, 2013
[5.6] IEC 60949 Calculation of thermally permissible short-circuit currents, taking into account non-
adiabatic heating effects
[5.7] IEC 61443 Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cables with rated voltages above 30 kV (Um
= 36 kV)
[5.8] Selection of cable sheath lead alloys for fatigue resistance, IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-96, No. 1, January/February 1977. D.G. Havard.
Page 150
[5.9] The fatigue life of lead alloy E as a sheathing material for submarine power cables, IEEE/PES
(July 20-25, 1986) Summer Meeting Mexico City. P. Anelli, F. Donazzi, W.G. Lawson.
[5.10] CENELEC standard EN 50307-2002 "Lead and lead alloys - Lead and lead alloy sheaths and
sleeves of electric cables"
submarine cables
[5.12] IEC 60502-2 Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltages from
1 kV (Um = 1,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV) - Part 2: Cables for rated voltages from 6 kV (Um =
7,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV)
[5.13] IEC 60840 Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltages above
30 kV (Um = 36 kV) up to 150 kV (Um = 170 kV) - Test methods and requirements
[5.15] Ernesto Zaccone, Mechanical Aspects of Submarine Cable Armour – ICC Minutes Spring 2012,
Submarine Cables, discussion group C11D
[5.16] EN-10257-2 Zinc or zinc alloy coated non-alloy steel wire for armouring either power cables or
telecommunication cables - Part 2: Submarine cables
[5.17] IEC 60287 Calculation of the continuous current rating of cables (100% load factor)
[5.18] TB 483, Guidelines for the Design and Construction of AC Offshore Substations for Wind Power
Plants
[5.19] Electric Cables Handbook, BICC Cables, 3rd edition
Cable installation:
[6.1] TB 398 Third Party Damage to Underground and Submarine Cables
[6.2] ICPC Recommendation No. 3 Telecommunications Cable and Oil Pipeline / Power Cables
Crossing Criteria
above 30kV to 500kV
[6.4] Louis Dreyfus Travocean, web site: www.ldtravocean.com
[6.5] Richard J. Huizinga, U.S. Geological Survey
Testing:
[7.1] TB 303 Revision of qualification procedures for HV and EHV AC extruded underground cable
systems
above 30kV to 500kV
[7.3] TB 496 Recommendations for Testing DC Extruded Cable Systems for Power Transmission at a
Rated Voltage up to 500 kV
[7.4] ELECTRA 189 “Recommendations for Test of Power Transmission DC Cables for a Rate Voltage
up to 800 kV” (Under revision).
Page 151
[7.7] IEC 60502 Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltages from 1
kV (Um = 1,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV)
submarine cables
[7.9] TB 502 High-Voltage On-Site Testing with Partial Discharge Measurement
[7.19] IEC 60793-2-40 for Multimode fibres and/or IEC 60793-2-50 for Singlemode fibres
[7.20] IEC 60794-1-2 Optical fibre cables - Part 1-2: Generic specification - Cross reference table for
optical cable test procedures.
Service, maintenance and repair:
[8.1] TB 279 Maintenance for HV cables and accessories
[8.2] TB 398 Third party damage to underground and submarine cables
[8.3] Manfred Bawart & Massimo Marzinotto, “Fault Location on Long Submarine Power Cables”,
IEEE, ICC 2012, Fall Minutes, St Petersburg, Florida.
[8.4] Source: sebaKMT
Dynamic cables for other types of generation:
1 kV (Um = 1,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV) - Part 1: Cables for rated voltages of 1 kV (Um =
1,2 kV) and 3 kV (Um = 3,6 kV)
1 kV (Um = 1,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV) – Part 2: Cables for rated voltages from 6 kV (Um =
7,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV)
[9.3] P. Weiss, S. Beurthey, Y. Chardard, J. F. Dhedin, T. Andre, K. Rabushka, C. Tourcher, F. Gauch,

C. Micoli – “Novel wet-mate connectors for high voltage and power transmissions of ocean
renewable energy systems” (2012)
Appendices:
[13.1] http://www.ozcoasts.gov.au/geom_geol/toolkit/Tech_CA_sbp.jsp (Stoker et al. (1997))
[13.2] Summary expert report on technical feasibility of offshore wind farm grid connection concepts on
the example of the clusters DolWin, HelWin and SylWin on behalf of TenneT Offshore GmbH,
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Lutz Hofmann, June 2012)
[13.3] Manfred Bawart & Massimo Marzinotto, “Fault Location on Long Submarine Power Cables”,
IEEE, ICC 2012, Fall Minutes, St Petersburg, Florida.
[13.4] Information from WG-members and from web site: www.4coffshore.com
[13.5] TenneT web site: www.tennet.eu
Page 152
12.2 Further reading

General:
01. Abernethy, R. B. “The New Weibull Handbook”, 4th edition, ISBN 0-9653062-1-6.
02. Agrawal K C (2001). Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook. Newnes, 2001,
ISBN 0750673516, 9780750673518.
03. Anders G J (1997). Rating of electric power cables, IEEE Press, McGraw-Hill, 1997, ISBN 07803-
1177-9
04. Bartnikas R and Srivastiva KD (Ed.) (2000). Power and Communication Cables, IEEE Press
series on Power Engineering, ISBN 0-7803-1196-5
05. DNV-RP-J301 Subsea Power Cables in Shallow Water, DNV Recommended Practice
06. Gilbertson O (2000). Electric Cables for Power and Signal Transmission, John Wiley & Sons,
2000
07. Heinhold L (Ed.) (1990). Power Cables and their Applications, Siemens Aktiengesellschaft 1990,
Berlin/Munich, Germany, ISBN 3-8009-1535-9
08. IEEE Standard 1120, “IEEE Guide for the Planning, Design, Installation and Repair of Submarine
Power Cable Systems, 2004 (reaffirmed 2010).
09. McAllister D (1982). Electric Cables Handbook, Granada Technical Books Ltd, 1982, ISBN 0-246-
11467-3
10. Moore GF, “Electric Cables Handbook”, Third Edition, BICC Cables, Blackwell Science, 1998,
ISBN: 0632040750
11. Offshore Transmission Technology, entsoe, European Network of Transmission System
Operators for Electricity, 24.11.2011, prepared by the regional group North Sea for NSCOGI
(North Seas Countries’ Offshore Grid Initiative)
12. Tanaka, T and Greenwood, A, “Advanced Power Cable Technology, Volumes I & II, CRC Press,
Inc. ISBN 0-8493-5165-0 and ISBN 0-8493-5166-9, 1983
13. TB 370 Integration of Large Scale Wind Generation Using HVDC and Power Electronics
14. Worzyk T (2009) Submarine Power Cables: Design, Installation, Repair, Environmental Aspects,
Power Systems, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-26916-5
Initial studies, surveys and permissions:
15. ICPC Recommendation No. 2 Cable Routing and Reporting Criteria

16. ICPC Recommendation No. 5 Standardisation of Cable Awareness Charts
17. ICPC Recommendation No. 13 The Proximity of Offshore Renewable wind Energy Installations
and Submarine Cable infrastructure in National Waters
18. Newson T A, Brunning P (2004). Thermal Conductivity of Deepwater Offshore Sediments,
International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 4, December 2004
19. Wright J F et al (2002). Thermal conductivity of sediments , Geological Survey of Canada,
Bulletin 585, 2002
System design:
20. Foxall R G et al (1984). Design, Manufacture and Installation of a 525 kV Alternating Current
Submarine Cable Link from Mainland Canada to Vancouver Island. Paper 21-04, Cigré Session
1984, Paris, France
21. Giorgi G et al. (2002). The Italy – Greece HVDC Link, Cigré paper 14-116, Cigré session 2002,
Paris, France
22. TB 531 Cable Systems Electrical Characteristics
23. Worzyk T (2007). 100 years of high voltage DC links, Modern Power Systems, 2007, Vol 27; No.
11
Page 153
Cable design:
24. Bow, K.E., “Development of an Under-jacket Moisture Barrier Cable as a Counter Measure
against Treeing”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 1990, pp. 47-53
25. Bow, K.E., “New Developments in Medium and High Voltage Cable with Laminate Sheaths as
Moisture Barriers”, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, Sept.-Oct. 1993 Volume 9, Issue: 5, pp.
17-28
26. Chong Y L et al. (2007). Temperature Effect on Space Charge Dynamics in XLPE Insulation,
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 14, No. 1; February 2007
27. Eoll C K (1975). Theory of Stress Distribution in Insulation of High-Voltage DC Cables: Part 1,
IEEE Transaction on Electrical Insulation, Vol. Ei-10, No. 1 March 1975
28. Goodwin F E et al (1994). Recent technological developments for lead sheathed cables.
Transmission and Distribution Conference, 1994., Proceedings of the 1994 IEEE Power
Engineering Society Volume , Issue , 10-15 Apr 1994, p. 568ff
29. Hagen ST & Ildstad E; “Reduction of AC breakdown strength due to particle inclusions in XLPE
cable insulation”; Conf on Power cables and Accessories 10kV – 500kV 1993 pp 165 – 168
30. Jeroense M J P (1997). Charges and Discharges in HVDC Cables: in particular in mass-
impregnated HVDC cables, Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, 1997,
also published as ISBN 90-407-1438-X at Delft University Press
31. Leebeck, A., “Longitudinal Watertight XLPE-Insulated Cables”, Power Technology International,
1990, pp. 257, 258, 260
32. Orton HE and Hartlein R., “Long-life XLPE Insulated Power Cables”. 2006
33. Ross R et al (1998). Application of Polyethylene sheath and swelling powder against water
treeing. IEEE Intern. Conf. on Conduction and Breakdown in Solid Dielectrics, June 22-25, 1998,
Västerås, Sweden
34. Schaefer, W. and Graber, P., “Swellable Non-wovens for Cables”, Wire Industry Vol. 57, No. 670,
October 1989, pp. 629-632, 635
35. TB 268 Transient voltages affecting long cables
36. TB 446 Advanced Design of Metal Laminated Coverings. Recommendations for Tests, Guide to
Use, Operational Feed Back
37. TB 272 Large cross-sections and composite screens design
Cable installation:
38. Allan P G (2001). Hydrographic Information and the Submarine Cable Industry. Proc. Hydro
2001, Norwich, UK, March 2001
39. Allan P G et al. (2001). The selection of Appropriate Burial Tools and Burial Depths, Displayed at
SubOptic, Kyoto, May 2001
40. Carbon Trust, CTC835, February 2015, Cable Burial Risk Assessment Methodology Guidance for
the Preparation of Cable Burial Depth of Lowering Specification
41. Det norske Veritas DnV-RP-F109: On Bottom Stability of Offshore Pipeline Systems
42. Doyen H et al. (1989): Experiences with Different Cable Designs and Laying Methods in
Conjunction with the Power Supply of the Islands in the North and Baltic Sea, CIRED 1989
43. Hettinger F et al. (2006). Cable and Pipeline Burial at 3000 Meters, Oceans 2005, Sept 19-23,
Palmer A C and King R A (2006). Subsea Pipeline Engineering, PennWell, Tulsa, Ok., USA
44. ICPC Recommendation No. 10 The Minimum Requirements for Load and Lay Reporting and
Charting
45. ICPC Recommendation No. 11 Standardization of Electronic Formatting of Route Position Lists
46. ICPC Recommendation No. 6 (2007). Recommended Actions for Effective Cable Protection (Post
Installation)
47. Mechanical Protections, IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol. 7, No 2, April 1992
48. Review of cabling techniques and environmental effects applicable to the offshore wind farm
industry, BERR, January 2008
Page 154
49. Sharples M, P.E. Offshore Electrical Cable Burial for Wind Farms: State of the Art, Standards and
Guidance & Acceptable Burial Depths, Separation Distances and Sand Wave Effect, Offshore
Submarine Power Cable, November 2011
50. TB 476 Cable Accessory Workmanship on Extruded High Voltage Cables
51. Worzyk T, Karlstrand J, “On the Optimal Burial Depth of Submarine Power Cables”, Jicable 2011,
Paper A.7.4
Testing:
52. Schikarski P et al. (1999). Two Years of Experience with a Mobile Resonant Test System for
Testing Of Installed Medium- And High Voltage Power Cables, Int. Symp. On High-Voltage
Engineering, London, UK, August 1999
53. TB 415 Test Procedure for HV Transition Joints for Rated Voltages 30 kV up to 500 kV
Cable service, maintenance and repair:
54. Balog G et al. (2006). Vortex Induced Vibration on Submarine Cables, Cigré Paper B1-208, Cigré
Session 2006.
55. Hauge O et al (1988) Performance of the ± 250 kV HVDC Skagerrak submarine cables. IEEE
Trans. Power Delivery, Vol. 3, No.1, January 1988
56. Vandiver J K et al. (1988). Predicted and Measured Response of Flexible Cylinders in Sheared
Flow, Proc. ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Symposium on Flow-Induced Vibration, Chicago,
December 1988.
Associated Organisations
Below is a list of organisations that deal with either the electrical, material or installation aspect of the
cable system or all of the above. These organisations can hold useful information.
• AEIC
• ANSI
• ASTM
• CENELEC
• CIGRE
• EUROPACABLE
• EWEA
• ICC
• ICEA
• ICF
• ICPC
• IEC
• IEC Catalogues
• IEEE
• IEEE DEIS
There may be other national bodies or companies that can also provide useful information.
Page 155
13 APPENDICES
Appendix A - Selection of cable routes
A.1 Steps to examine during route selection
The processes to find the best cable route and to obtain the necessary permits can be run in parallel, but
it is often an advantage to make some of the studies and surveys in a specific order. However, it is not
possible to provide an overall sequence which has to be followed rigidly every time, but the flow chart
below suggests an order in the initial work that can often be used.
FIGURE 13-1 ILLUSTRATION OF ROUTE SELECTION STEPS
Page 156
A.2 Example of Cable Route Selection
A new offshore generation site has a possible 14 routes. To correctly select one route and have a
reasonable back up plan some analysis has to be undertaken. These routes go through a selection
process of three rounds, as seen below.
Round 1
1. The first route goes through a highly mobile sand bars and open rock fissures some spanning
100 m with a depth of 500 m. A small number of wrecks with some minor historical interest is in
the area. The route is technically possible, very challenging and very costly.
2. The second route has a gentle slopping route with minor wrecks, but there is a high degree of
marine life, though none is protected/endangered.
3. The third route has some sand bars, and is a major historic location; e.g. Trafalgar, with a diverse
marine life settled on the wrecks.
4. The fourth route has some sand bars, a few wrecks, but has a diverse marine life/ecology.
5. The fifth route has a highly mobile sand bar, along with a diverse marine life which has specific
requirements for their protection.
6. The sixth route has an easy installation route, but it has both a diverse and protected marine life
with heavy seasonal restrictions.
7. The seventh route has a relatively easy installation route, with some minor restrictions due to the
environment. There are a few historic wrecks with some wildlife.
8. The eighth route has a relatively easy installation route with little environmental issues or
restrictions.
9. The ninth route has an easy installation with some requirements due to a few areas of natural
interest and historical sites.
10. The tenth route has some shifting sand bars, the main interest is the coral reef, which has a large
number of restrictions due to the protected nature of coral reefs.
11. The eleventh route has a dormant underground volcano, with heavy restrictions on vibration,
burial depths, and routine surveys and monitoring vessels. The route is over sharp rocky surface,
with a large diversity using the latent heat.
12. The twelfth route has a challenging installation route, with some small rock fissures, sheer
subsea cliffs, minor restrictions, (no collapsing a subsea cliff) there is little to no marine life.
13. The thirteenth route has a challenging installation route, with some small rock fissures, sheer
subsea cliffs, minor restrictions, (no collapsing a subsea cliff) there is little to no marine life. In
addition there is a historic wreck /site which ran aground.
14. The fourteenth route has some challenges with the route terrain wise and due to natural
formations and a diverse marine life with some restrictions.
An assessment and score is given for each route as seen in Table 13-1. From this a number of informed
decisions are taken and a number of routes are eliminated in favour of the more consentable/practicable
routes.
Round 2
2. The second route has a higher than normal ecological system with some
recommendations/restrictions made. The soil survey indicates good soil for installation, stable
and the bathymetry indicate an easy installation. Due to the ecological report for this route there
has been an increase in marine consents, along with installation through a dredging area. Along
the route there is an increased chance of un-exploded ordnance due to an old dumping site in the
near vicinity. No crossings involved.
4. The fourth route has higher than normal ecological system with some
recommendations/restrictions made. The bathymetry indicates rocks and an undulating ground
where before it was believed to be flat. Due to the ecology report along this route there has been
an increase in some marine consent. One submarine fibre optic cable crossing.
Page 157
7. The seventh route has a moderate ecological system, with subsea fauna and flora, the soil trials
and bathymetry indicate there are some rocks and some stiff soils. The route crosses a
submarine fibre optic cable and a submarine power cable. There is increased marine traffic along
the route.
8. The eighth route has a deep channel crossing; this crossing is a main seaway traffic route. The
restrictions and consents required to limit shipping for installation, the route also contains a fibre
optic submarine cable that requires crossing. The ecology and soil stability test reports were
positive.
9. The ninth route had no crossings, with little to no shipping traffic, soil stability trials found the soil
to be highly turbid and rocky. An ecology report found a species not believed to be in the area
before; the report includes restrictions and requirements to protect the species.
12. The twelfth route has good soil conditions, the lay of the seabed is good for installation purposes,
there is little to no marine traffic. There is a high pressure oil pipeline pumping hot oil from an oil
field to an onshore refinery. The risk of damaging the pipeline and subsequent losses are the
main factors here.
An assessment and score is given for each route as seen in Table 13-1. From this a number of informed
decisions are taken and a number of routes are eliminated in favour of the more consentable/practicable
routes.
Round 3
2. The second route: The soil and burial assessment is carried out and the route is optimised and
found to be relatively easy. Due to no crossings there is no crossing agreement to be made,
again an easy route. The dialogue with the local council regards the landfall and sea defence and
local populace proves to be difficult.
4. The fourth route: The soil and burial assessment is carried out and the route is optimised and
found to be a minor challenge. There are some minor issues with the crossing agreement with
the fibre optic owner. There is a strong local opinion against the landfall for this route.
12. The twelfth route: The soil and burial assessment is carried out and the route is optimised and
found to be a minor challenge. The crossing agreement and risk with the oil pipeline has come
down due to agreed mitigation. The risk may have come down to 1/5 but the outcome may still be
5/5. The local populace are indifferent to the landfall and appreciate it may bring benefits to the
local community.
In order to make a decision on which route to proceed with all three routes must be investigated in some
detail and a preference determined – usually it is difficult to get local government and population support.
Page 158
Route 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Hydrographic survey 10 1 4 4 8 1 2 2 1 4 9 7 8 4
Initial Environmental 2 2 2 5 5 4 2 1 1 2 9 1 2 4
Round 1
Environmental requirements 2 4 5 3 5 8 2 2 5 9 8 2 2 3
Areas of natural interest 2 5 2 4 2 8 3 1 3 10 9 1 2 7
Areas of historic interest 2 2 10 2 2 2 3 1 3 1 3 1 9 2
Ecology Report 6 6 5 1 8 1
Bathymetry Survey 1 5 3 4 5 2
Initial Soil Trials 1 2 4 3 9 3

Round 2
Undischarged Ordnance
2 1 2 2 1 1
survey
Marine Consents 5 3 4 7 1 3
Initial crossing negotiations 1 1 5 2 1 8
Marine traffic 1 1 2 7 1 1
Soil & burial Survey 1 4 4

Round 3
Finalisation of crossing
1 3 6
negotiations
Ease of Dialogue with local
8 5 3
government
TABLE 13-1 SCORE (1-10) OF 14 POSSIBLE ROUTES ASSESSED DURING 3 ROUNDS
Page 159
Appendix B - Examples of sea charts

Thanks to SeaZone, UK, for providing demonstration charts which are not to be used for commercial use.
B.1 Bathymetry
Indicates seabed geometry/geology/features, water depth in m.
FIGURE 13-2 BATHYMETRY
B.2 Enviromental
Bathymetry with an overlay of environmental layers, indicating high levels of fauna and flora.
FIGURE 13-3 BATHYMETRY WITH ENVIRONMENTAL LAYERS
Page 160
B.3 Military boundaries

A Bathymetry chart with imposed boundaries set by the local military body.
FIGURE 13-4 MILITARY BOUNDARIES
B.4 Mooring areas/shipping lanes

The Bathymetry chart has areas indicating traffic separation and anchorage areas, along with Pilot
references. This is a heavy shipping area, with the vessels requiring to follow harbour pilots into the
harbour and keeping to separation lanes and designated anchor positions.
FIGURE 13-5 MOORING AREAS AND SHIPPING LANES
Page 161
B.5 Pipe wells and pipes

The Bathymetry chart with well heads located along with known pipelines and cable routes. Where it is a
straight line point-to-point, this often indicates no ’as-laid’ records were submitted to the Hydrographics
office. Further survey works required in the area if you wish to enter it.
FIGURE 13-6 CABLE ROUTES, PIPELINES AND WELL HEADS
B.6 Example – Rhyl Flats wind park

Chart which indicates site limits, location of structures, location of navigation aids and subsea services
(power cables).
FIGURE 13-7 CHART EXAMPLE, RHYL FLATS WIND PARK
Page 162
Appendix C - Geophysical surveys

The illustrations below are only to describe the principles, since technology is under rapid development.
C.1 Side scan sonar

Side scan sonar is used to identify and characterise seabed features which may influence routing.
FIGURE 13-8 SIDE SCAN SONAR PRINCIPLE
C.2 Sub bottom profile

Sub bottom profile is used to characterise sub-seabed (top 5 m) to determine burial strategy.
FIGURE 13-9 DEPLOYMENT OF VARIOUS SHALLOW-WATER SUB-BOTTOM PROFILING SYSTEMS (STOKER ET AL.
[13.1])
A sub-bottom profiler is effectively an echosounder that transmits a relatively low-frequency acoustic

pulse that can penetrate the seabed. This signal is reflected off sub-surface boundaries between
sediment or rock layers that have different acoustic impedances, which is related to density and sound
speed within each layer (Figure 13-9). The strength of the reflected signal depends on the degree of
impedance contrast. The returning sound waves are recorded by an array of hydrophones (towed behind
the vessel), or by a transducer/transceiver, depending on the type of system. The first useful signal
received represents the seabed-water interface, and shows the morphology of the seabed in a manner
similar to a single beam echosounder. The time of arrival and intensity of subsequent impulses provides
information about layers that exist below the seabed.
Page 163
Several physical parameters of the acoustic signal emitted, such as output power, signal frequency, and
pulse length affect the performance of the instrument and influence its usefulness in various marine
environments. Increased output power allows greater penetration into the substrate. However, in the case
of harder seabeds (e.g. gravels or highly compacted sands) or very shallow water, higher power will result
in multiple reflections and more noise in the data. Higher frequency systems (up to 20 kHz) produce high
definition data of sediment layers immediately below the seabed, and are able to discriminate between
layers that are close together (e.g. 10's of cms). Lower frequency systems give greater substrate
penetration, but at a lower vertical resolution. Longer pulse length transmissions (or 'pings') yield more
energy and result in greater penetration of substrate. However, they decrease the system resolution. The
depth of penetration also depends on the hardness of the upper layers and is significantly limited by the
presence of gas deposits.
Page 164
Appendix D - Examples of grid connection solutions

D.1 Case study, London Array wind farm, AC export cable solution
The AC solution was chosen for the export cables for the 630 MW London Array wind farm, which
entered into operation in 2013. The wind farm is located in the outer Thames Estuary, between Kent and
Essex, UK, and about 55 km from the grid connection point in north Kent. Power from the 175 turbines of
3.6 MW each is collected at 33 kV and transformed on two offshore substations to be brought ashore at
150 kV.
Substation 1
Substation 2
Export
Export Cable #2
Cable #1 Export
Cable #3
Export
Cable #4
FIGURE 13-10: LONDON ARRAY WIND FARM LAYOUT AND EXPORT CABLE ROUTE
The original consent was for 1000 MW, with a Phase 2 of up to 370 MW dependent on the lifting of a
consent constraint related to the impact of the extension on wintering birds. The owners of the project
announced in February 2014 that they would not be proceeding with Phase 2.
Page 165
D.2 Case study, German offshore wind farms

AC 155 S: single-port OWF grid connection using 3-phase AC 50 Hz and 155 kV
OWF structure and equipment details

OWF (400 MW, PGC1 6 at OWF platform 1x compensation with k=0.4
90 km offshore and 10 km offshore cable 2x170 kV 3x1x1200 mm² Cu cable
onshore route length) switching station at PCC 7 2xcompensation with k=0.4 each,
onshore cable switchgears, auxiliary systems, etc.
onshore substation at PGCTSO 8 2x170 kV 3x1x1200 mm² Al cable
1xcompensation with k=0.4, switchgears,
transformer, auxiliary systems, etc.
OWF (400 MW, PGC at OWF platform 1xcompensation with k=0.35

140 km offshore and 10 offshore cable 3x170 kV 3x1x800 mm² Cu cable
km onshore route length) switching station at PCC 2 x compensation with k=0.35 each,
onshore substation at PGCTSO 3 x 170 kV 3x1x800 mm² Al cable
1 x compensation with k=0.35,
switchgears, transformer, auxiliary
systems, etc.
OWF (400 MW, PGC at OWF platform 1x compensation with k=0.4

200 km offshore and 10 offshore cable 4 x170 kV 3x1x1200 mm² Cu cable
km onshore route length) switching station at PCC 2 x compensation with k=0.4 each,
onshore substation at PGCTSO 4 x 170 kV 3x1x1200 mm² Al cable
1 x compensation with k=0.4, switchgears,
transformer, auxiliary systems, etc.
HVDC S: single-port OWF grid connection using VSC HVDC
OWF cluster structure and equipment details

OWF (400 MW, offshore platform converter (±150 kV, 400 MW), transformer,
90 km offshore and 10 km offshore cable switchgear, auxiliary systems, etc.
onshore route length) onshore cable ±150 kV 1600 mm² Cu cable
onshore substation at PGCTSO ±150 kV 2400 mm² Al cable
converter (±150 kV, 400 MW), transformer,
switchgear, auxiliary systems, etc.
140 km offshore and 10 offshore cable switchgear, auxiliary systems, etc.
km onshore route length) onshore cable ±150 kV 1600 mm² Cu cable
200 km offshore and 10 offshore cable switchgear, auxiliary systems, etc.
km onshore route length) onshore cable ±150 kV 1600 mm² Cu cable
TABLE 13-2 CASE STUDY. GERMAN OFFSHORE WIND FARMS
6
PGC: Point of grid connection = offshore grid connection point
7
PCC: Point of common coupling = on-offshore transition point
8
PGCTSO: Point of grid coupling = onshore grid coupling point
Page 166
FIGURE 13-11 CASE STUDY, COSTS OF DIFFERENT TYPE OF CONNECTIONS
Figure 13-11 present specific values of investment-, loss- and maintenance costs for the different
technical concepts for grid connection of a fictitious 400 MW OWF for different offshore route length
(Source: Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Lutz Hofmann, June 2012) [13.2].
It is recommended to use the case study figures with reservation, since the relative prices may have
changed. The “start-costs” of HVDC connections are not well known and may influence the break-even
point.
FIGURE 13-12 GERMAN PLAN FOR OFFSHORE WIND POWER PLANTS IN NORTH SEA
Page 167
D.3 Reference list of wind farms in operation

Examples of offshore wind farms with HVAC export cables in operation. The list shows different voltage
levels and conductor cross-sections of export cables, route length and installed capacity.
Cross- Conductor
section of material of Submarine Installed
Voltage, Um Land route
Project, country submarine submarine route length capacity
[kV] length [km]
cable cable [km] [MW]
[mm2]
Sprogoe, DK 10 1 21
Choshi, Chiba, JP 22 3 2
Hirono, Fukushima,
22 25 2
(floating), JP
East Sea Bridge,

35 10 100
Shanghai, CN
Rudong Seashore,
35 5 240
Jiangsu, CN
Middelgrunden, DK 36 4 40
alpha ventus, DE 123 240 Cu 60 60
Lillgrund, SE 145 400 Cu 7 2 110
Ormonde, UK 145 630 Cu 42 3 155
Gunfleet, UK 145 800 Cu 10 4 170
Walney II, UK 145 630 Cu 44 5 180
Roedsand II, DK 145 800 Cu 9 28 200
Horns Rev II, DK 170 630 Cu 42 58 200
London Array 170 630 Cu 4 x 55 630
Anholt, DK 245 1600 Al 25 56 400
TABLE 13-3 EXAMPLES OF EXPORT CABLES FOR OFFSHORE WIND FARMS IN SERVICE [13.4]
Examples of planned offshore wind farms with HVDC export cables. The list shows expected voltage
levels, route length and installed capacity.
Insulation Submarine Installed
DC voltage Land route
Project, country material route length Capacity
[kV] length [km]
[km] [MW]
Borwin I, DE ±150 XLPE 125 75 400
BorWin 2, DE ±300 XLPE 125 75 800
BorWin3, DE ±320 XLPE 130 29 900
DolWin 1, DE ±320 XLPE 75 90 800
DolWin 2, DE ±320 XLPE 45 90 900
DolWin3, DE ±320 XLPE 83 78 900
HelWin 1, DE ±250 XLPE 85 45 570
HelWin 2, DE ±320 XLPE 85 45 690
SylWin 1, DE ±320 XLPE 160 45 860
TABLE 13-4 EXAMPLES OF OFFSHORE WIND FARMS UNDER CONSTRUCTION WITH HVDC EXPORT CABLES [13.5]
Page 168
D.4 Load profiles from wind farms

Recorded load data from existing wind farms is shown below. It is discussed how to relate the recorded
data to a load profile for an export cable.
Example from a German TSO:
FIGURE 13-13: CALCULATED LOAD FACTORS BASED ON THE FINO 1 DATA, 7 DAY AVERAGE VALUE (BLUE) AND 45
DAYS (RED) AVERAGE VALUE, 100 M TURBINE HEIGHT, FROM MARCH 2004 TO MARCH 2011
Design criteria from a German TSO for the cable rating based on the above calculated load factors
1) The whole cable must be capable to transmit 100% load
2) Obtaining local environmental temperature rise criterion with so called wind load: 77% continuous
preload, 99% peak load for 7 day, 77% followed load for 45 days
Page 169
Example from the Danish TSO:
The example below is from an offshore wind farm during one winter month (January). The current is
shown in Ampere as a function of time (days). The measured values are 5 minutes values.
FIGURE 13-14: MEASURED VALUES IN A
In some Danish examples both of the load profiles 1 and 2 shown below have been used as concurrent
requirements to the export cables. So far no rating problems have been found.
Load profile Preload Preload time Load Load time
1 0.80 * IR 100 hours IR 100 hours
2 0.5 * IR 24 hours IR 100 hours
TABLE 13-5 DIFFERENT LOAD SITUATIONS
800
700
600
Load [A]
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time [hours]
FIGURE 13-15: LOAD PROFILE 1
Page 170
800
700
600
Load [A]
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time [hours]
FIGURE 13-16: LOAD PROFILE 2
The value of IR in Table 13-5 is important. In the example above IR is equal to the highest measured value
(510 A). Normally it should be based on the total installed and running power (700 A).
In each case the probability of maximum load and load duration should be assessed.
D.5 Dimensioning based on wind production data or wind predictions

Dimensioning of export cables is often based on the continuous maximum effect of the planned wind
farm, due to grid code requirement, different owners/developers of the wind farm and the grid connection
etc.
But an optimization of the export cable could be made by looking at the actual load generated by the
wind, especially if the cable is buried more than one metre e.g. in the landfall, resulting in long thermal
time constants of the cable surroundings (many months or even years). This, however, requires a method
to assess the worst predictable production scenario or “worst case load event” in the lifetime of the cable.
The Horns Reef example

The following is an actual example that was used for dimensioning of the 245 kV export cable for the
Danish 400 MW offshore wind farm Horns Reef 3 (HR3), to show how this can be assessed. A practical
model or “worst case load event” can be found for the cable designers, to be used in practice in a
dynamic Finite Element Model (FEM) for dynamic calculations of the thermal surroundings of the cable.
The reason for trying this approach on the offshore export cable of the HR3 project, was because it is to
be installed in an area with great seabed mobility near the shore, so in this location it is expected that the
cable can be covered with up to 5 metres of sand. Therefore it was expected that a significant saving
would be achieved by looking at the dynamic load of the wind farm. It is important in this case as it was
predicted that a requirement to transmit the maximum power continuously, could potentially result in a
need for a second cable, even though a 245 kV single cable solution was used on the 400 MW sister
wind farm project at Anholt.
The data used in the example are based on production data from a nearby wind farm (Horns Reef 2,
HR2) adjusted for the later development of wind turbines, but checked against historical wind data and
wind data models for the actual area in combination with “power curves” for state of the art wind turbines.
The conversion of wind models to power production is not covered in this example.
The resulting load curve for a “worst case load event” that was included in the Invitation to Tender, and is
given in Figure 13-17.
Page 171
FIGURE 13-17 WORST CASE LOAD EVENT GIVEN IN THE TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION FOR THE 400 MW DANISH
WIND FARM HORNS REEF 3
Before starting the analysis it is important to remember that the cable losses are proportional to the AC
resistance in the cable times the square of the current. Therefore the average of current squared (and
thus the MW production squared) will be related to the losses. It is therefore also relevant to talk about
the RMS value of the current for a certain period, referring to the “long term RMS” value seen in scale of
the thermal time constants, rather than the 50 Hz RMS.
1 𝑡=𝑇
𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅−𝑇 = � � 𝐼2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑑
𝑇 𝑡=0
EQUATION 13-1
t=time
T=Length of the period
I(t)=Expected current as a function of time e.g. at the landfall or any expected hotspot.
The charging current should be estimated in advance, so it can be included in the current I(t), otherwise
only the current proportional to the power production P(t) should be used.
From the historical data two types of parameters can be derived:

1. The preconditioning current, that should be considered as the IRMS-T of the current over a normal
wind year or a whole number of years with known data, not to include two windy or quiet
seasons:
T= N years; where N is a whole number
2. From a (large) number of graphs showing “rolling averages” of the data with different lengths of
averages, one can get an overview of the data, and from that derive reasonable plateau values
that can be used to find the “worst case load event”, that can be used for dimensioning, with the
requirement that the allowed maximum conductor temperature is not exceeded at the end of the
event.
The number of plateaus in the “worst case load event” should be considered from case to case,
depending on the found load patterns, and the thermal time constants of the cable surroundings.
Page 172
Normally the thermal time constant for the cable and its immediate surroundings is considered to
be in the magnitude of hours, the cables surroundings up to 1 metre in the magnitude of days or
weeks, and the ultimate time constant of a deep buried/covered cable would be in the magnitude
of months or even years.
FIGURE 13-18 50 DAYS (1200 H) ROLLING AVERAGE OF 3.5 YEARS OF ADJUSTED WIND PRODUCTION FROM HR2.
WORST CASE ROLLING AVERAGE OF ABOUT 0.8 PER UNIT OF THE INSTALLED EFFECT OF THE
WIND FARM
Analysis
Step 1: Preconditioning
From the historical production data from HR2, adjusted to HR3 conditions, it was found, that one year
was a metrological “normal” wind year so IRMS-1year (see formula below) was used for this year, rather than
the IRMS-3year that also could have been derived from the 3,5 years of production data available.
𝑡=1𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅−1 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 1 1
= � � 𝐼2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑑 = 0,7 [𝑃𝑃]
𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚 1𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑡=0
EQUATION 13-2
Notice that this value of course differs from the average production of the wind farm.
9
The 0.7 is used as the level of the preconditioning plateau in Figure 13-17.
9
This normal RMS value 0.7 would also be useful for assessing the expected annual load losses in the cable:
Either to request the losses P at 0.7 x Imax
or
Request the full load loses (P at Imax) - as is often requested anyway and multiply with 0.7x0.7=0.49 (0.49 would be the time of the
equivalent full load loss in PU)
Neither will be fully accurate since temperature of the conductor will be too low in the first case and too high in the second case.
Page 173
Step 2: Plateau levels for the “worst case load event”

From the 3.5 years of production data from HR3 a large number (30+) of “rolling average curves” was
produced to get an overview of which periods to use (even more curves than included here (see Figure
13-19)).
FIGURE 13-19 PRINTED ROLLING AVERAGES IN PROJECT ROOM
The three worst case plateaus are chosen because they contain a period of generally high production of
energy (wind) and they also contain periods with maximum or almost maximum production. These
periods are identified from observation of the rolling averages with increasing period, and keep an eye,
where the maximum averages seem to remain at the same high level, as the periods over which the
rolling averages is taken, is gradually increased.
The longest (and lowest) plateau was chosen to be 1000 hours (1200 hours minus the length of the two
higher plateaus (200 hours) that was found inside the same event). The level of this plateau was found
as:
𝑡=1000ℎ
𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅−1000ℎ 1 1
= � � 𝐼2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑑 = 0,83 [𝑃𝑃]
𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚 1000ℎ 𝑡=0
EQUATION 13-3
This means that the 1000 hours, are the ones not including the worst 200 hours for calculating the top
plateaus.
The process was repeated for the two last plateaus, incidentally found in the beginning of the 1200 hour
period.
The final plateau (80 h of full load) is very consistent with the maximum time for a low-pressure system to
pass the wind farm.
IDENTIFICATION OF PLEATAUS
Below, an attempt is made to illustrate some of the process of identifying the plateaus. The process does
however require a great deal of intuitive assessment of the data that cannot easily be described in print.
Page 174
FIGURE 13-20 96 HOURS AND 120 HOURS ROLLING AVERAGE OF 3.5 YEARS OF ADJUSTED WIND PRODUCTION
FROM HR2. IDENTIFIES ONLY TWO 96 HOURS EVENT WITH CONSTANT FULL LOAD, BUT THESE ARE
NOT IDENTIFIED IN PERIODS WITH OTHERWISE CONSISTING PRODUCTION, SO THESE PERIODS ARE
NOT CONSIDERED.
FIGURE 13-21 192 HOURS AND 240 HOURS RUNNING AVERAGE OF 3.5 YEARS OF ADJUSTED WIND PRODUCTION
FROM HR2 IDENTIFIES TWO 200 HOURS EVENT OF ALMOST FULL LOAD, FURTHER ANALYSES GAVE
THE 120 HOUR LONG 0.95 PLATEAU AND THE 80 HOUR LONG 0.95 PLATEAU.
FIGURE 13-22 15 DAYS ( 360 H) AND 30 DAYS (720 H) RUNNING AVERAGE OF 3.5 YEARS OF ADJUSTED WIND
PRODUCTION FROM HR2, CONFIRMS THAT THE 1.00 AND 0.95 PLATEAUS ARE FOUND INSIDE
PERIODS THAT ALSO CONTAINS CONSISTENT HIGH PRODUCTION.
FIGURE 13-23 50 DAYS (1200 H) AND 90 DAYS (2160 H) ROLLING AVERAGE OF 3.5 YEARS OF ADJUSTED WIND
PRODUCTION FROM HR2, IDENTIFIES THE LONGEST PERIOD AND THE LOWEST PLEATEAU, AS THE
PERIODE JUST BEFORE THE PEEK VALUE START TO APPROACH THE PRECONDITIONING LOAD.
Page 175
As it happened, the data for the worst case event was taken from a single 1200 hours event December
2011, the second event of Figure 13-21 and Figure 13-22 and the peak of Figure 13-23.
An expansion of the event is given in Figure 13-24. These data were subjected to the appropriate RMS
integration over time to get the plateaus given for the “worst case load event” in Figure 13-17. It is seen
that in the worst case load event, the 200 hours (80+120 h) was even moved to the end of the event,
rather than in the beginning where it actually occurred.
FIGURE 13-24 ACTUAL HOUR-BY-HOUR ADJUSTED WIND PRODUCTION DATA FROM HR2 FOR THE IDENTIFIED
« WORST CASE LOAD EVENT» DECEMBER 2011.
Result
On HR3, with a burial depth of up to 5 metres offshore close to the coast, a 25% reduction of conductor
cross-section gave a material saving of approximately 10-15 %, but this also gave the possibility to use a
smaller installation vessel, with a possible saving on the installation costs of 25-50%.
It is even possible that no competitive offers would have been received with a single cable solution for the
400 MW wind farm without the reduction of the conductor cross-section.
A contract based on the described “worst case load event” given in Figure 13-17 was signed early 2014.
The conductor temperature was calculated by the manufacturer as seen in Figure 13-25.
Page 176
HR3 245 kV AXBTV 3x1800

90
85
80
75
Temperature oC
70
Surface
Conductor
65
60
55
50
45
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Duration days
FIGURE 13-25 CABLE TEMPERATURES IN THE OFFERED 245 KV 3X1800 MM2 AL SUBMARINE CABLE, CALCULATED
BY THE CABLE MANUFACTURER BASED ON THE WORST CASE LOAD EVENT. DURATION IS
STARTING AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 1000 HOUR PLATEAU. IT IS SEEN THAT CONDUCTOR
TEMPERATURE STAYS BELOW 90°C.
Page 177
Appendix E - Cable Installation

E.1 Burial tools, overview
Table 13-6 summarizes the burial depth and the operation depth for each burial tool system. Information
given in this table was extracted from documentations from consultants and manufacturers of burial
equipment available in 2013 and can be modified due to recent development. More precise information
can be found from different companies involved in submarine power cable burial.
The mentioned burial depth is not recommended practice but maximum depth that might be obtained
with the specific tool. Burial depth should be based on risk assessment. In general it is not
recommended to bury cables more than 1-2 m over a longer distance.
Burial system Burial depth

“Conventional” plough Up to 2m
New design plough Up to 5m
Plough Hard soil: up to 1m
Rock ripping plough
Soft soil: up to 4m
Vibrating plough Up to 2.2m
Burial sleds Up to 10m
Jetting systems Up to 3m (depending
ROVs
on seabed)
Rock wheel cutter Up to 1.5m
Mechanical
Chain excavator Up to 4m
TABLE 13-6 BURIAL DEPTH FOR DIFFERENT BURIAL TOOLS
Page 178
Appendix F - Fault localisation

F.1 Diagnostic methods for fault localisation on submarine cables
The following figures provide a basic understanding of the major diagnostics used for fault location on
submarine power cables.
TDR Time Domain Reflectometry
high Ω, open end
low Ω, short circuit
change of impedance, joint

LV pulse 20 to 160V
Reflection factor r = z −z
2 1
length calculation: l = t x v/2
z +z
2 1
FIGURE 13-26 TDR TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY BASICS
TDR Example
TDR echogram Splice at 1908m / 6263m Cable End at 4828m / 15840ft
TDR comparison simplifies

the interpretation,
fingerprint recommended!
FIGURE 13-27 AN EXAMPLE OF TDR USING A BASELINE FINGERPPRINT
Page 179
Surge
Generator
Thumper
TDR
For application on high resistance faults l = t x v/2
consider ionisation time delay on 1st period ICM on XLPE Submarine Cable
FIGURE 13-28 ICM IMPULSE CURRENT METHOD FOR APPLICATION TO HIGH IMPEDANCE FAULTS
Murray Bridge Method
•Measures the distance to the fault

displays the distance in % of cable length
or converted to Metre or Feet
•Requires healthy return line
•Requires a loop through at far end
•Applicable on resistive faults
•Offers great accuracy of 0.5 to 1%
•HV application on long cable length
Murray Bridge set up
requires special care for safety discharge
due to high amount of stored energy
Connection of a Murray Bridge
FIGURE 13-29 MURRAY BRIDGE METHOD AND SET-UP
See also Manfred Bawart & Massimo Marzinotto [13.3].
Page 180

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610

OFFSHORE GENERATION CABLE

“Ownership of a CIGRE publication, whether in paper form or on electronic support only

Offshore Generation Cable

3.5.3 Legal requirements and conditions ........................................................... 44

5.2.7 Water penetration/propagation ................................................................. 71

6.3.5 HDD (Horizontal Directional Drilling) ........................................................ 98

8.2.8 Inspection on complementary hardware ................................................. 127

13 APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 156

FIGURE 0-1 OFFSHORE WIND FARM

3. DESCRIPTION OF THE TECHNICAL BROCHURE

Chapter 1 is a short introduction to the TB and how it can be used.

FIGURE 0-2 INSTALLATION OF HVAC EXPORT CABLE

Chapter 11 gives a short summary of the brochure and some conclusions.

1.2 Introduction to technical brochure

1.3 Contents of technical brochure

Chapter 1 is an introduction to the technical brochure.

Chapter 11 is a Conclusion with an abstract.

2 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

3C-cable Three-core cable: 3 insulated conductors assembled into the same

AIS Automatic Identification System. An automatic tracking system to identify

AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle. A robot which travels underwater without

BAS Burial Assessment Study. A study of the soil conditions to determine

CAPEX Capital Expenditures. Funds to acquire or upgrade physical assets such as

CAR Contractors All Risk. An insurance specially designed to cover projects

CBM Condition Based Maintenance. To perform preventive maintenance based

CCTV Closed-Circuit TeleVision, Use of cameras to monitor or observe remote

CM Corrective Maintenance. To repair or replace broken items.

CPS Cable Protection System. Mechanical protection of a submarine cable.

CPT Cone Penetrometer Test - is a geotechnical method used to determine the

CSM Charge Simulation Method. Numerical method.

dGPS Differential Global Positioning System. Navigational system enhanced by

DoC Depth of Cover. Thickness of layer of natural seabed material or placed

DP 1 and DP 2 Dynamic Positioning system. Computer-controlled system to automatically

DTS Distributed Temperature Sensing system. Based on optical fibres as a

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment. Study to predict the potential

EMF Electro Magnetic Field. Field generated by a circulating current, e.g. in a

EPR Ethylene Propylene Rubber. Synthetic elastomer used as insulation

FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System. Thyristor-based

FAT Factory Acceptance Test. Tests made by the manufacturer on the

Fault The state of an item characterised by inability to perform a required

FDM Finite Difference Method. Numerical method to approximate the solutions

FEM Finite Element Method. Numerical method to find approximate solutions to

FO Fibre-optic. Used in cable systems to deliver information such as remote

GIS Gas Insulated Switchgear. Device in a substation used to de-energise

GPS Global Positioning System. Stand-alone navigational system for vessels

HDD Horizontal Directional Drilling. A trenchless method of installing ducts under

HV High Voltage. The voltage range:

HVAC High Voltage Alternating Current, which electricity is delivered to business

ICPC International Cable Protection Committee. Association of submarine cable

Inter array cable The same as “array cable”.

I-tube Tube formed as an “I” attached to a platform or foundation to facilitate,

J-tube Tube formed as a “J” attached to a platform or foundation to facilitate,

kt Knot. Nautical measurement of velocity, approximately equal to 0.5 ms-¹.

LCC Line-Commutated Converter. A HVDC system using Line Commutated

LDPE Low Density Polyethylene. Thermoplastic material with free radical

MBR Minimum Bending Radius. Bending limit to prevent any prejudicial

MDPE Medium Density Polyethylene. Type of polyethylene whose density is

MHT Maximum Handling Tension

MV Medium Voltage. The voltage range: 6 ≤ MV ≤ 30 kV (Um = 36 kV).

OHVS Offshore High Voltage Substation. Generally installed on a platform.

OOS Out Of Service. Removed from operation.

OPEX Operational expenses. Expenditures such as salaries or maintenance

OWF Offshore Wind Farm. Set of turbines (traditional fixed-bottom or floating)