Chapter 3

Quadric hypersurfaces

3.1 Quadric hypersurfaces.

3.1.1 Definition .

Definition 1. In an n-dimensional affine space A, given an affine frame {O; → −

ei }. A quadric hy-
persurface in A is a set S consisting all points whose coordinates in the given frame are zeros of a
quadric polynomial, i.e. they satisfy the following quadric equation:
n
X n
X
aij xi xj + 2 ai xi + a0 = 0, (3.1)
i,j=1 i=1

where aij ∈ K are not all zeros and aij = aji , ∀i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n. This means that the matrix
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
A =  ..
 
.. . . .. 
 . . . . 
an1 an2 . . . ann

is symmetric and non-zero.

The equation (3.1) is called the equation of the quadric hypersurface in the given frame and can
be written in the matrix form
[x]t A[x] + 2 [a]t [x] + a0 = 0. (3.2)

Usually, a quadric hypersurface in A2 (K) is called a quadratic curve and a quadric hypersurface in
A3 (K) is called a quadric surface.

45
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Let  
a0 a1 a2 . . . an
 a1 a11 a12 . . . a1n 
 
B =  a2 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
.

 .. .. .. . . . .. 
. . . . 
an an1 an2 . . . ann
A quadric hypersurface is said to be nondegenerate (or nonsingular) if B is nondegenerate, i.e.
invertible (det B 6= 0) and is said to be degenerate (or singular) if B is degenerate, i.e. det B = 0.

For a degenerate quadric hypersurface, if rank A = rank B, then it is called a quadric hypercone
and if rank A 6= rank B, then it is called a quadric hypercylinder. The meaning of the definitions
can be seen in Exercises 3.19 and 3.20.

1. The definition of a quadric hypersurface is well-defined, i.e. does not depend on the given
frame. Indeed, suppose that we have a change of coordinates

[x] = C[x0 ] + [b].

Substitute the value of [x] into equation (3.2), we get

[x]t A[x] + 2 [a]t [x] + a0 = 0

⇔ (C[x0 ] + [b])t A(C[x0 ] + [b]) + 2[a]t (C[x0 ] + [b]) + a0 = 0
⇔ ([x0 ]t C t + [b]t )A(C[x0 ] + [b]) + 2[a]t (C[x0 ] + [b]) + a0 = 0
⇔ [x0 ]t C t AC[x0 ] + ([x0 ]t C t A[b] + [b]t AC[x0 ] + 2[a]t C[x0 ]) + [b]t A[b] + 2[a]t [b] + a0 = 0.
(3.3)

Since [x0 ]t C t A[b] and [b]t AC[x0 ] are squared matrix of order 1,

([x0 ]t C t A[b])t = [b]t AC[x0 ] = [x0 ]t C t A[b].

Therefore, (3.3) becomes

[x0 ]t C t AC[x0 ] + 2([b]t AC + 2[a]t C)[x0 ] + [b]t A[b] + 2[a]t [b] + a0 = 0. (3.4)

2. It is easy to prove that rank A and rank B do not depend on the given frame.
Example 1. In A2 , the equation
x2 y2
+ 2 = 1, a > 0, b > 0;
a2 b
determines a quadratic curve called an ellipse.
Example 2. In A3 , the equation
x2 y2 z2
+ 2 + 2 = 1, a > 0, b > 0, c > 0;
a2 b c
determines a quadratic curve called an ellipsoid.

46
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Theorem 3.1.1. If S is a quadric hypersurface in An and f is an affine automorphism of An ,

then f (S) is a quadric hypersurface in An .

Proof. Suppose that (3.1) is the equation of S in a given affine frame {O; →
−ei } and f : An −→ An
is an affine automorphism. Let {O0 ; →
−
wi } is the image of {O; → −
ei } under f, i.e. O0 = f (O) and
→
− →
−
wi = f (→−ei ); i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Suppose that (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is the coordinates of a point M in the frame {O; →

−
ei }. Since
n n n
−−0−−−→ → − −−→ →
− X → − →
− → − xi →
−
X X
O f (M ) = f (OM ) = f ( xi ei ) = xi f ( e i ) = wi ,
i=1 i=1 i=1

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is the coordinates of the point M 0 = f (M ) in the frame {O0 ; →

−
wi }. This proves that,
0 →
−
the coordinates (in the frame {O ; wi }) of a point in f (S) satisfies the equation (3.1). In other
words, the equation of S in the frame {O; → −
ei } and the equation of f (S) in the frame {O0 ; →−
wi } are
the same.

By the definition, f (S) is a quadric hypersurface. Of course, singulatity and nonsingularity of a

quadric hypersurface are preserved.

3.1.2 Center of a quadric hypersurface.

Definition 2. The center of a quadric hypersurface S is a point I such that if I is chosen as the
origin, then the equation of S is of the simple form

[x]t A[x] + a = 0, (3.5)

If the center I of S belongs to S, then I is called a singular point of S.

A quadric hypersurface S is symmetric about its center. This means that the symmetry about I,
i.e. the dilation with center I, and ratio −1 of An maps S into itself.

Indeed, the coordinates (x1 , . . . , xn ) of a point M satisfy (3.5) if and only if the coordinates
(−x1 , . . . , −xn ) of M 0 , the symmetric point of M about I, satisfy the equation (3.5). That means
S is symmetric about I. The opposite is also true. If a quadric hypersurface S is symmetric about
a point I, then I is a center of S (see Exercise 3.18).

Theorem 3.1.2. In an affine space An , let S be a quadric hypersurface and (3.2) be its equation
in a given frame {O; →−
ei }. Then S has a unique center if and only if det A 6= 0. If det A = 0, then
S has infinitely centers or it has no center.

Proof. Suppose that equation of a quadric hypersurface S is (3.2) and I is a point whose coordinates
are (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) in the frame {O; →
−
ei }. The formula of the change of coordinates from {O; →
−
ei } to
→
−
{I; ei } is
[x] = [x0 ] + [b].

47
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Substitute [x] into Equation (3.2) we obtain an equation of S in new frame {I; →
−
ei } is

[x0 ]t A[x0 ] + 2(A[b] + [a])t [x0 ] + [b]t A[b] + 2[a]t [b] + a0 = 0.

By the definition, I is a center of S if and only if

A[b] + [a] = 0.

In other words, I is a center of S if and only if its coordinates is a solution of the system of
equations
A[x] + [a] = 0. (3.6)

Thus, S has only one center if and only if Equation (3.6) has only one solution, i.e. det A 6= 0. If
det A = 0, then (3.6) has no solutions (S has no centers) or it has infinitely many solutions(S has
infinitely many centers).
Remark 1. 1. By the proof of Theorem 3.1.1, an affine automorphism f maps a quadric hy-
persurface S with a center I to a quadric hypersurface f (S) with a center f (I).
2. By the proof of Theorem 3.1.2, if rank A = r ≤ n and Equation (3.6) has at least one
solution, then the set of all solutions of (3.6) determined an (n − r)-plane in An .
3. By the proof of Theorem 3.1.2, for finding centers of a quadric hypersurface, we have to solve
the system (3.6).
4. For finding singular points we have to solve the system
(
A[x] + [a] =0
[x]t A[x] + 2[a]t [x] + a0 = 0

or have to solve the equivalent system

(
A[x] + [a] =0
.
[a]t [x] + a0 =0

3.1.3 Asymptotic directions and asymptotes

Definition 3. 1. Let S be a quadric hypersurface whose equation in a given frame {O; → −e1 , →−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en }
→
− →
−
is (3.1). A vector c 6= 0 is called an asymptotic vector if its coordinates (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) in
−
→
the basis {→
−e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } of An satisfy the following condition
n
X
aij ci cj = 0,
i,j=1

or in the matrix form

[c]t A[c] = 0.
The direction of an asymptotic vector, i.e. the 1-dimensional vector subspace h→
−c i generated
→
−
by →
−c 6= 0 is call an asymptotic direction.

48
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

2. If S has only one center and has an asymptotic vector →−c , then the line passing through the
center with the directional vector →
−c is called an asymptote of the quadric hypersurface S.
Then the set of all asymptotes of S forms a hypercone called the asymptotic hypercone of S
(see Exercise 3.19).

3. Given two non-zero vectors in Vn , → −c (c , ..., c ), and →

−
d (d1 , ..., dn ). Then → −c is said to be
1 n
→
− −c i is conjugate to the direction h→ −
conjugate to d , or the direction h→ d i w.r.t. S if
n
X
aij ci dj = 0,
i,j=1

or in the matrix form

[c]t A[d] = 0.

4. A direction h→
−c i is called a special direction of S if →
−c is conjugate (w.r.t. S) to every non-zero
vector.
Remark 2. 1. By the definition and the proof of Theorem 3.1.1 we can see that an affine
→
−
automorphism f maps an asymptote to an asymptote and f maps an asymptotic vector
of S to a such one of f (S). Of course, two conjugate directions (of S) are mapped to two
conjugate directions (of f (S)).
−c is conjugate to →
2. If →
− →
−
d , then d is conjugate to →
−c (w.r.t. S).
→
−
3. A vector →
−c =
6 0 is an asymptotic vector of S if and only if →
−c is conjugate to itself (w.r.t.
S).

4. Every special direction is an asymptotic one.

Example 3. In A2
x2 y 2
- an ellipse + 2 = 1 has no asymptotic directions.
a2 b
x2 y2
- a hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 has two asymptotic directions, that are →
−
c1 (a, b) and →
−
c2 (a, −b). The
a b
corresponding asymptotes are
b b
y = x and y = − x.
a a

- a parabola y 2 = 2px has an asymptotic vector →

−c (0, 1), but has no asymptote because it has no
centers.

3.1.4 Diametral hyperplanes.

The intersection between a line and a quadric hypersurface. Let d be a line passing
through a point B(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) and having → −c (c , c , . . . , c ) as a directional vector. Then a
1 2 n
parametric equation of d is
xi = ci t + bi i = 1, 2, . . . , n; (3.7)

49
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

or in the matrix form

[x] = [c]t + [b]. (3.8)
The coordinates of the intersection points between d and a quadric hypersurface S that has Equa-
tion (3.2) is a solution of a system consisting (3.2) and (3.8). Substitute the value of [x] in (3.8)
into (3.2) we obtain the equation

([c]t t + [b]t )A([c]t + [b]) + 2[a]t ([c]t + [b]) + a0 = 0.

Expand this equation, we get

[c]t A[c]t2 + 2P t + Q = 0, (3.9)
where n n
X X
t t
P = [b] A[c] + [a] [c] = aij bi cj + ai c i ,
i,j=1 i=1
n
X n
X
Q= aij bi bj + 2 ai b i + a0 .
i,j=1 i=1

We have the following cases:

1. Vector →−c is not an asymptotic vector, i.e. [c]t A[c] 6= 0. Then because (3.9) is a quadric
equation, it may have two distinct real roots; two complex roots which are complex conjugates
of each other or a double root. Correspondingly, the line intersects the quadric hypersurface
at two points, does not intersect the quadric hypersurface (in this case we can think that
the line intersects the quadric hypersurface at two imaginary points) or intersect the quadric
hypersurface at a double points M0 (in this case we say that the line is tangent to the quadric
hypersurface at M0 ).

2. Vector →
−c is an asymptotic vector, i.e. [c]t A[c] = 0. Equation (3.9) becomes

2P t + Q = 0, (3.10)

(a) If P 6= 0, then Equation (3.9) has only one root. The line intersect the quadric hyper-
surface at one point.
(b) If P = 0 and Q 6= 0, then Equation (3.9) has no roots. The line does not intersect the
quadric hypersurface.
(c) If P = Q = 0, then every value of t is a root of (3.9). Therefore, the line is a subset of
the quadric hypersurface.

Diametral hyperplanes. In An , let S be a quadric hypersurface that has equation (3.2) in a

given frame {O; →
−
ei }. Consider the set of parallel lines that have →
−c (c , ..., c ) as their directional
1 n
→
−
vector. Suppose that c is not an asymptotic vector of S.

Let d be a line in this set. Suppose that d intersects S at two real points that are distinct or
coincident M1 and M2 . Let B(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) be the midpoint of the segment M1 M2 . Then d has
Equation (3.8), and M1 , M2 corresponding to two values t1 , t2 , that are distinct or coincident.

50
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Their coordinates are two real roots of the equation (3.9) and can be written in the matrix form
[b] + [c]t1 and [b] + [c]t2 . The segment M1 M2 is called a chord of S.
−−−→ −−−→
Since B is the midpoint of the chord M1 M2 (i.e. BM1 = −BM2 ) we get

[c](t1 + t2 ) = 0.

Therefore, t1 = −t2 .

The condition for the sum of two roots of Equation (3.9) to be zero is

P = [b]t A[c] + [a]t [c] = 0.

Thus, if B is the midpoint of M1 M2 , then it coordinates must satisfy the following equation

[x]t A[c] + [a]t [c] = 0,

or
[c]t A[x] + [c]t [a] = 0. (3.11)

Since →
−c is not an asymptotic vector, [c]t A 6= 0. Equation (3.11) determines a hyperplane. Any
center of S (if exists) is on this hyperplane. The hyperplane defined by Equation (3.11) is called
the diametral hyperplane of S conjugate to the direction h→ −c i of the chords. Thus, we have the
following.

Theorem 3.1.3. The set of midpoints of parallel chords, whose directional direction is not asymp-
totic, of a quadric hypersurface S is a subset of a hyperplane.

Example 4. In A2 a diametral hyperplane is called a diametral line while in A3 a diametral

hyperplane is called a diametral plane. We have

2 2
−c (c , c )i, of the ellipse x + y = 1 is the
1. The diametral line conjugate to the direction h→ 1 2
a2 b2
line
c1 x c2 y
+ 2 = 0.
a2 b

→
− x2 y 2
2. The diametral line conjugate to the direction h c (c1 , c2 )i, of the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is
a b
the line
c1 x c2 y
− 2 = 0.
a2 b
3. The diametral line conjugate to the direction h→ −c (c , c )i, of the parabola y 2 = 2px is the
1 2
line
c2 y = pc1 .

51
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

3.1.5 Tangent lines and tangent hyperplanes of a quadric hypersurface.

Definition 4. In An given a quadric hypersurface S. A line d is called a tangent line of S if:

1. either the direction of d is not an asymptotic one and d intersect S at a double point; in this
case, d is said to be tangent to S at that point

2. or the direction of d is not an asymptotic one and the line d containing in S, in this case, d
is said to be tangent to S at every point of d.

Let S be a quadric hypersurface whose equation is (3.1), B ∈ S is a point whose coodinates is

(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ), →
−c be a vector whose coordinates is (c , c , . . . , c ) and d be the line passing through
1 2 n
B with directional vector → −c . We will find a necessary and sufficient condition for d being a tangent
line of S. Recall that, equation for determining intersection points between d and S is:

[c]t A[c]t2 + 2P t + Q = 0,

where n n
X X
t t
P = [b] A[c] + [a] [c] = aij bi cj + ai c i ,
i,j=1 i=1
n
X n
X
Q= aij bi bj + 2 ai b i + a0 .
i,j=1 i=1

Since B ∈ S, Q = 0. The equation becomes

[c]t A[c]t2 + 2P t = 0,

or
([c]t A[c]t + 2P )t = 0. (3.12)

1. If [c]t A[c] 6= 0, i.e →

−c is not an asymptotic vector, then d is a tangent line if and only if (3.12)
has a double root, i.e. P = [b]t A[c] + [a]t [c] = 0.

2. If [c]t A[c] = 0, i.e. →

−c is an asymptotic vector, then d is a tangent line if and only if d ⊂ S.
This is equivalent to P = [b]t A[c] + [a]t [c] = 0.

In other words, the line d is a tangent line if and only if

[b]t A[c] + [a]t [c] = 0. (3.13)

If B is a singular point of S, then every line passing through B is a tangent line of S at B. Indeed,
if B is singular, then B is a center, therefore its coordinates satisfies the equation A[b] + [a] = 0,
i.e. its coordinates satisfies (3.13), too.

If B is not a singular point of S, then tangent lines of S at B form a hyperplane containing B.

This hyperplane is called a tangent hyperplane of S at B.

52
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

−−→
Indeed, a point M (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) lying on a tangent line passing through B if and only if BM = λ→
−c
satisfies (3.13), i.e.
[b]t A([x] − [b]) + [a]t ([x] − [b]) = 0.
or
([b]t A + [a]t )([x] − [b]) = 0. (3.14)
Since B is not singular, [b]t A + [a]t = (A[b] + [a])t 6= 0. Equation (3.14) determines a hyperplane,
the tangent hyperplane of S at B. Since B ∈ S, −[b]t A[b] − [a]t [b] = [a]t [b] + a0 . Substitute this
into (3.14), the equation of the tangent hyperplane of S at B becomes

[b]t A[x] + [a]t ([x] + [b]) + a0 = 0. (3.15)

Example 5. In A2 ,

x2 y 2
1. an equation of the tangent line of the ellipse + 2 = 1 at M0 (x0 , y0 ) is
a2 b
x0 x y0 y
+ 2 = 1;
a2 b

x2 y 2
2. an equation of the tangent line of the hyperbola − 2 = 1 at M0 (x0 , y0 ) is
a2 b
x0 x y0 y
− 2 = 1;
a2 b

3. an equation of the tangent line of the parabola y 2 = 2px at M0 (x0 , y0 ) is

y0 y = p(x + x0 ).

3.2 The classification of quadric hypersurfaces.

3.2.1 Canonical equation of a quadric hypersurface.

Theorem 3.2.1. There exists a suitable affine frame such that a quadric hypersurface in An has
an equation of one of the following forms:

1. x21 + . . . + x2k − x2k+1 − . . . − x2r − 1 = 0 (type I);

2. x21 + . . . + x2k − x2k+1 − . . . − x2r = 0 (type II);

3. x21 + . . . + x2k − x2k+1 − . . . − x2r − 2xr+1 = 0 (typeIII).

Equations of types I, II and III as above are called canonical equations of quadric hypersurfaces.

53
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Proof. Suppose that an equation of S is (3.1). Consider the corresponding quadratic form
n
H(→
−
X
x) = aij xi xj .
i,j=1

−
→
By results in Linear Algebra, we can find a change of coordinates in An such that H has a canonical
form.
k r
→
−
X X
0 02 2
H( x ) = x − x0 ; 0 ≤ k ≤ n; 1 ≤ r ≤ n.
i i
i=1 i=k+1

Then the equation of S in the new frame is

k
X r
X n
X
2 2
x0i − x0i +2 a0i x0i + a00 = 0.
i=1 i=k+1 i=1

Under the change of coordinates


0 0
xi = x̄i − ai
 i = 1, 2, . . . , k
x0i = x̄i + a0i i = k + 1, k + 2, . . . , r

 0
xi = x̄i i = r + 1, . . . , n

the above equation becomes

k
X r
X n
X
x̄2i − x̄2i +2 a0i x̄i + b = 0. (3.16)
i=1 i=k+1 i=r+1

We have the following cases:

1. The case of a0r+1 = . . . = a0n = 0 or r = n and b 6= 0. Under the change of coordinates

 q
X i = 1
x̄
−b i
b<0
q
Xi = 1 x̄i b>0
b

Equation (3.16) is reduced the one of type I.

2. The case of a0r+1 = . . . = a0n = 0 and b = 0. Equation (3.16) is of type II.

3. The case of there exists a0j =

6 0 (j > r). We can suppose that a0r+1 6= 0. Under the change of
coordinates 
X i = x̄i if i 6= r + 1
n
Xr+1 = − Σ a0j x̄j − b
2
j=r+1

Equation (3.16) is reduced to the one of type III.

54
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Example 6. In A3 , let S be a quadric hypersurface whose equation in a given frame {O; →

−
e1 , →
−
e2 , →
−
e3 }
is
x21 + 2x22 + x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x1 + 6x2 + 2 = 0.
Find a canonical equation of S and corresponding frame.

Solution.
−
→
Consider the corresponding quadratic form in A3

H(→
−
x ) = x21 + 2x22 + x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 .

We have
H(→
−
x ) = (x1 + x2 + x3 )2 + (x2 − x3 )2 + x23 .
Under the change of coordinates

X 1 = x 1 + x 2 + x 3

X 2 = x2 − x3 , (3.17)

X 3 = x3


or equivalently, 
x1 = X1 − X2 − 2X3

x2 = X 2 + X 3 , (3.18)

x3 = X 3


H can be written in the canonical form

→
−
H( X ) = X12 + X22 − X32 .

The corresponding basis is {−

→, −
w → − → −
→ → − − → →
− → − − → →
− → − → −
1 w2 , w3 }; where w1 = e1 ; w2 = − e1 + e2 ; w3 = −2 e1 + e2 + e3 .

We can consider (3.18) as a change of coordinates in An . Then equation of S in the new frame
{O; −
→, −
w → − →
1 w2 , w3 } is
X12 + X22 − X32 + 2X1 + 4X2 + 2X3 + 2 = 0.

Under the change of coordinates  √

X 1 = 2y1 − 1
√

X2 = 2y2 − 2 , (3.19)
 √
X3 = 2y3 + 1


we obtain the canonical equation

z12 + z22 − z32 − 1 = 0, (3.20)
and the corresponding frame {I; → −
u1 , →
−
u2 , →
−
u3 }, where the coordinates of the point I is (−1, −2, 1) in
→
− →
− →
−
the given frame {O; e1 , e2 , e3 } and
→
− √ − → √ √
u1 = 2→ e1 ; −u2 = 2(−→ −
e1 + →
−
e2 ); →−
u3 = 2(−2→ −
e1 + →−
e2 + →
−
e3 ).

Equation (3.20) is a canonical equation of S.

55
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Remark 3. 1. If a canonical equation of S is of type I, then S has centers and the centers are
not belonging to S. If a canonical equation of S is of type II, th S then S has centers and the
centers are belonging to S. If a canonical equation of S is of type III, then S has no centers.

2. Since r is the rank, while k and (r − k) are positive and negative indexies of the quadratic
form, they are invariant under a change of coordinates. This means that, two equations that
are of the same type but are different in r or k or r − k can not be a canonical equation of a
quadric hypersurface.

3.2.2 The classification of quadric hypersurfaces.

Definition 5. Two quadric hypersurfaces in An are called of the same kind if their canonical
equations are of the same type and are of the same values r, k. In other words, two quadric
hypersurfaces are of the sam kind if their canonical equations (in suitable frames) are the same.

Theorem 3.2.2. Two quadric hypersurfaces are affinely equivalent, i.e. there is an affine auto-
morphism that maps a quadric hypersurface to the other, if and only if they are of the same kind.
In other words, the classification in Definition 5 is the affine classification.

Proof. Suppose that the canonical equation of S in the frame {O; → −

ei } and the canonical equation
of S 0 in the frame {O0 ; →
−
ei 0 } are the same. Consider the affine automorphism f that maps the frame
{O; →−ei } to the frame {O0 ; → −
ei 0 }. We have f (S) = S 0 .

Conversely, suppose that f is an affine automorphism and f (S) = S 0 . Let {O; → −ei } be an affine
frame such that the equation of S in this frame is canonical and {O ; ei } is the image of {O; →
0 →
− 0 −ei }
0 0 →
− 0
under f . Then the canonical equation of S in the frame {O ; ei } is the same as that of S in the
frame {O; →−
ei }. Therefore, S and S 0 are of the same type.

Below are tables of the classifications of quadric hypersurfaces in A2 and A3 .

The classification of quadratic curves in A2 .

In A2 , equation of a quadratic curve is of general form as follows

a11 x21 + a22 x22 + 2a12 x1 x2 + 2a1 x1 + 2a2 x2 + a = 0.

By Theorems 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, based on the types of their canonical equations, we can arrange
quadratic curves together their names as follows

56
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

1. x21 + x22 − 1 = 0 ellipse;

2. x21 − x22 − 1 = 0 hyperbola;
3. −x21 − x22 − 1 = 0 imaginary ellipse;
4. x21 + x22 = 0 a pair of intersecting imaginary lines (at a real point);
5. x21 − x22 = 0 a pair of intersecting lines;
6. x21 − 2x2 = 0 parabola;
7. x21 − 1 = 0 a pair of parallel lines;
8. −x21 − 1 = 0 a pair of parallel imaginary lines;
9. x21 = 0 a pair of coincident lines.

The classification of quadric surfaces in A3 .

In A3 , equation of a quadric surface is of general form as follows

a11 x21 + a22 x22 + a33 x23 + 2a12 x1 x2 + 2a13 x1 x3 + 2a23 x2 x3 +

+2a1 x1 + 2a2 x2 + 2a3 x3 + a = 0.

By Theorems 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, based on the types of their canonical equations, we can arrange
quadric surfaces together their names as follows
1. x21 + x22 + x23 − 1 = elipsoid;
2. x21 + x22 − x23 − 1 = 0 hyperboloid of 1-sheet ;
3. x21 − x22 − x23 − 1 = 0 hyperoloid of 2-sheets;
4. −x21 − x22 − x23 − 1 = 0 imaginary ellipsoid;
5. x21 + x22 + x23 = 0 imaginary cone;
6. x21 + x22 − x23 = 0 cone;
7. x21 − x22 − 2x3 = 0 paraboloid elliptic;
8. x21 − x22 − 2x3 = 0 paraboloid hyperbolic;
9. x21 + x22 − 1 = 0 elliptical cylinder;
10. x21 − x22 − 1 = 0 hyperbolic cylinder;
11. −x21 − x22 − 1 = 0 imaginary elliptical cylinder;
12. x21 + x22 = 0 a pair of intersecting imaginary planes;
13. x21 − x22 = 0 a pair of intersecting planes;
14. x21 − 1 = 0 a pair of parallel planes;
15. −x21 − 1 = 0 a pair of parallel imaginary planes;
16. x21 = 0 a pair of coincident planes;
17. x21 − 2x2 = 0 parabolic cylinder.
EXERCISES
Exercise 3.1. In the table of the classification of quadratic curves in A2 , study the curves one by
one:

1. Is the curve singular or not? What is the rank of matrix A and B? Does it have centers?

2. Find asymptotic directions and asymptotes (if they exist).

Exercise 3.2. The same questions as in Exercise 3.1 but for the table of the classification of
quadric surfaces in A3 .

57
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Exercise 3.3. Prove that in An , a nonsingular quadric hypersurface has no centers or has only
one center.
Exercise 3.4. Consider the relative position between a quadric hypersurface and an m-plane in
An . (Hint: Choose a suitable frame).
Exercise 3.5. Prove that, an asymptote (if there is) of a nonsingular quadric hypersurface never
intersect the quadric hypersurface.
Exercise 3.6. Prove that, if a quadric hypersurface S has a singular point, then S is singular.
Exercise 3.7. In A2 with a given frame, consider the following quadratic curves

1. S1 : 4x1 2 + x2 2 + 4x1 x2 + 2x2 = 0.

2. S2 : 3x1 2 + x2 2 − 2x1 x2 − 2x1 + 2x2 + 1 = 0.

3. S3 : x1 2 − 4x2 2 + 2x1 x2 + 2x2 = 0.

4. S4 : 5x21 + 13x22 − 16x1 x2 + 4x1 − 6x2 = 0.

5. S5 : x22 − 2x1 x2 − 2x1 + 2x2 + 1 = 0.

6. S6 : 4x21 + x22 − 4x1 x2 − 8x1 + 4x2 + 3 = 0.

7. S7 : 3x21 − 6x1 x2 + 2x1 + 2x2 = 0.

Find their centers, singular points, asymptotic directions and asymptotes.

Exercise 3.8. For quadric curves in Exercise 3.7, find their canonical equations and corresponding
affine frames.
Exercise 3.9. 1. Let →
−
α = (1, −2). Find the diametral line conjugate to the direction h→
−
α i of
the curves given in Exercises 3.7.

2. Let A(0, 0) ∈ S1 . Write an equation of the tangent line of S1 at A. Let B(0, 1) ∈

/ S2 . Write
an equation of the tangent line of S2 passing through B.
Exercise 3.10. In A3 given quadric surfaces whose equations in a given frame are:

1. S1 : x1 2 + 5x2 2 + x3 2 + 2x1 x2 + 6x2 x3 + 2x1 x3 − 2x1 + 6x2 + 2x3 = 0.

2. S2 : x1 2 − 2x2 2 + x3 2 + 4x1 x2 − 8x1 x3 − 14x1 − 14x2 + 14x3 + 18 = 0.

3. S3 : x1 2 + x2 2 + x3 2 + 2x1 x2 − 2x1 − 2x2 − 2x3 + 1 = 0.

4. S4 : 2x21 + 5x22 + 2x23 + 4x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 0.

5. S5 : 4x21 + 5x22 + x23 − 8x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 − 2x2 x3 − 4x1 − 4x2 − 1 = 0.

6. S6 : 4x21 + 5x22 + x23 + 8x1 x2 + 4x1 x2 + 6x2 x3 − 2x2 + 2x3 − 2 = 0.

7. S7 : x1 2 − x2 2 + 5x3 2 − 6x1 x3 − 4x2 x3 + x1 + x2 − x3 = 0.

58
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Find their centers, singular points, asymptotic directions and asymptotic cones (see Exercise 3.21).
Exercise 3.11. For quadric surfaces in Exercise 3.10, find their canonical equations and corre-
sponding affine frames. Which one is singular?
Exercise 3.12. 1. Let A( 43 , − 23 , − 13 ) ∈ S1 . Write an equation of the tangent hyperplane of S1
at A.

2. Choose a point B on each of the quadric surfaces in Exercises 3.10 and write an equation of
the tangent hyperplane of the surface at B.
→
− →
−
Exercise 3.13. Let d = (1, −2, 1). Find the diametral hyperplane conjugate to the direction h d i
of the quadric surfaces given in Exercises 3.10.
Exercise 3.14. In A2 let d be a line whose equation is 2x1 + 3x2 − 3 = 0. Consider the intersection
between d and quadratic curves in Exercises 3.7.
Exercise 3.15. In A3 with a given affine frame f{O; →−
e ,→−
e ,→
1
−e }, let S be a quadric surface whose
2 3
equation is
x21 − 2x22 + x23 + 4x1 x2 − 8x1 x3 − 14(x1 − x2 + x3 ) + 17 = 0.

1. Find centers of S.

2. Prove that the vector →

−c (1, 2, 3) is not an asymptotic vector of S. Write an equation of the
diametral hyperplane of S conjugate to h→ −c i.

3. Prove that M0 (1, −1, 2) ∈ S is not a singular point of S. Write an equation of the tangent
hyperplane of S at M0 .
Exercise 3.16. In A3 with a given frame {O; → −
e1 , →
−
e2 , →
−
e3 }, let S1 and S2 be quadric surfaces whose
equations, respectively, are:

x21 + x22 + x23 + 2x1 x2 − 2(x1 + x2 + x3 ) + 1 = 0

and
x21 + 2x22 + 2x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2(3x1 + 5x2 + x3 ) = 0.
Are S1 and S2 affinely equivalent?
Exercise 3.17. In A3 with a given frame {O; → −
e1 , →
−
e2 , →
−
e3 }, let S be a quadric surface whose equation
is
4x21 + 3x22 + x23 − 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x1 + 2x2 = 0.

1. Find a canonical equation of S and the correspondent frame.

2. Prove that the set of all tangent lines passing through I(1, 0, 1) is a quadric surface and write
an equation of that quadric surface.

Exercise 3.18. Prove that if I is a point of symmetry of a quadric hypersurface S, the it is a

center of S.

59
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Exercise 3.19. Recall that, a singular quadric hypersurface in An with rank A = rank B is called
a hypercone. Then rank A(= rank B) is called the rank of hypercone.

1. Prove that an affine automorphism maps a hypercone of rank r to a such one.

2. Suppose that S is a hypercone of rank r. Prove that there exists an affine frame {O; →
−
ei } in
which the equation of S is
Xr
aij xi xj = 0, aij = aji ,
i,j=1

where rank(aij ) = r.

3. Let O be the origin of the frame in item 2, prove that if S is a hypercone and M ∈ S, then
the line OM is a subset of S. The line OM is called rullings of S.

4. Prove that, for a hypercone of rank r, the set of all singular points is an (n − r)-plane α.
Prove that for every M ∈ S \ α, M + α ⊂ S.

5. Classify hypercones in A2 , A3 .

Exercise 3.20. Recall that, a singular quadric hypersurface in An with rank A 6= rank B is called
a hypercylinder.

1. Prove that an affine automorphism maps a hypercylinder to a such one.

2. Suppose that S is a hypercylinder. Prove that there exists an affine frame {O; →
−
ei } in which
the equation of S is one of the followings:

r
X
aij xi xj + a = 0; a 6= 0; aij = aji ; i, j = 1, . . . , r; (3.21)
i,j=1
or r
X
aij xi xj + 2ar+1 xr+1 = 0; ar+1 6= 0, aij = aji ; i, j = 1, . . . , r. (3.22)
i,j=1

3. Prove that a hypercylinder has no singular points.

4. Let →
−α be a vector subspace generated by {−e−→ →
−
r+1 , . . . , en }. Prove that, if M ∈ S then the affine
set α passing through M and directional space → −α is a subset of S.
→
−
5. Let β be a vector subspace generated by {→ −
e1 , . . . , →
−
er }. Prove that the intersection between S
and r-plane β passing through O (where O is the origin of the frame in item 2) and directional
→
−
space β is a quadric hypersurface in β whose equation in the frame {O; → −ei } is just (3.21)
or (3.22), respectively. This quadric hypersurface (in β) is called the base of hypercylinder,
denoted by S 0 .
→
−
6. Prove that if ρ : A −→ β is the parallel projection onto β with direction β , then ρ(S) = S 0 .

7. Classify hypercylinders in A2 , A3 .

60
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

Exercise 3.21. In An , let S be a nonsingular quadric hypersurface that has a center and an
asymptote. Prove that the set of all asymptotes of S passing through the center is a hypercone,
called the asymptotic hypercone. Find the rank and an equation of that hypercone.

Exercise 3.22. Let S be a quadric hypersurface that does not contain any line and d be the
tangent line of S at M ∈ S. Prove that

→
−
1. d is not an asymptotic vector,
→
−
2. M belongs to the diametral hyperplane conjugate to d .

Exercise 3.23. In A2 , given quadratic curves whose equations in a given frame are:

1. S1 : 4x21 + 4x1 x2 + 2x22 − 6x2 + 8 = 0. (Ellipse).

2. S2 : 4x21 + 4x1 x2 + x22 − 2x1 + 4 = 0 (Parabola).

3. S3 : x21 + 4x1 x2 + 4x2 − 2 = 0 (Hyperbola).

4. S4 : x21 − 6x1 x2 − 2x1 + 8x22 + 12x2 − 8 = 0 (a pair of intersecting lines).

5. S5 : x21 + x22 − 2x1 x2 − 2x1 + 2x2 − 3 = 0 (a pair of parallel lines).

Find their centers, singular points, asymptotic directions and asymptotes.

Exercise 3.24. For quadric curves given in Exercise 3.23, write canonical equations and corre-
sponding frame.

Exercise 3.25. In A3 given quadric surfaces whose equations in a given frame are:

1. S1 : x21 − 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 5x22 − 6x2 x3 + 6x23 − 1 = 0.

2. S2 : 4x21 − 4x1 x2 − 8x1 x3 + 2x22 + 6x2 x3 − 4x23 − 1 = 0.

3. S3 : 9x21 − 12x1 x2 + 6x1 x3 + 3x22 − 2x2 x3 − x23 − 4x2 + 4x3 − 5 = 0.

4. S4 : x21 + 6x1 x2 − 2x1 x3 + 10x22 + 6x23 − 16x3 − 16 = 0.

5. S5 : 8x21 − 20x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 + 13x22 − 4x2 x3 + x23 − 2 = 0.

6. S6 : x21 − 6x1 x2 − 4x1 x3 + 5x22 + 8x2 x3 + 3x23 − 2 = 0.

7. S7 : x21 − 6x1 x2 + 8x22 + 4x2 x3 − 2x2 − 4x23 + 4x3 − 1 = 0.

8. S8 : x21 − 2x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 + 2x1 + x22 − 4x2 x3 − 2x2 + 4x23 + 4x3 = 0.

9. S9 : x21 − 4x1 x2 + 2x1 + 4x22 − 4x2 + 1 = 0.

10. S10 : 4x21 + 4x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 + x22 + 2x2 x3 + x23 − 2 = 0.

11. S11 : 13x21 − 12x1 x2 − 6x1 x3 + 4x22 − 4x2 x3 + 10x23 − 1 = 0.

61
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

12. S12 : 4x21 − 4x1 x2 − 4x1 x3 − 8x22 − 10x2 x3 − 3x23 − 12x2 − 8x3 − 5 = 0.

Find their centers, singular points, asymptotic directions and asymptotic cones (if they exist).

Exercise 3.26. For quadric surfaces given in Exercises 3.25, write canonical equations and corre-
sponding frame. Which one is a cylinder? Which one is a cone?

Exercise 3.27. In A3 let S be a quadric surface whose equation is

x21 + 6x1 x2 − 2x1 x3 − 2x1 + 10x22 − 2x2 x3 − 4x2 + 5x23 + 6x3 + 1 = 0

and d1 , d2 , d3 be three lines whose equations, respectively, are

(
−x2 − 2x3 − 1 = 0
d1 :
x3 + 2 = 0
(
−x1 − 3x2 + 2x3 + 3 = 0
d2 :
−x2 − 2x3 − 2 = 0
(
−x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 0
d3 :
−x2 − 2x3 − 1 = 0

Consider the intersections between S and the lines di , i = 1, 2, 3.

Exercise 3.28. In A3 let S be a quadric surface whose equation is

x21 + 5x22 + 12x23 − 4x1 x2 − 6x1 x3 + 16x2 x3 − 2x1 − 8x3 − 5 = 0

and d1 , d2 , d3 be three lines whose equations are

(
−x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0
d1 :
−x2 + 5 = 0
(
−x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0
d2 :
x3 + 3 = 0
(
−x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0
d3 :
−x2 − x3 + 5 = 0

Consider the intersections between S and three lines di , i = 1, 2, 3.

Exercise 3.29. In A3 let S be a quadric surface whose equation is

x21 + 5x22 + x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 6x2 x3 − 2x1 + 6x2 + 2x3 = 0

and α be a plane whose equation is 2x1 − x2 + x3 − 4 = 0. Consider the intersection between α

and S.

Exercise 3.30. In A3 let S be a quadric surface whose equation is

x21 + 4x23 + 2x1 x2 + 6x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 + 4x1 + 2x2 + 12x3 − 2 = 0

62
 Affine and Euclidean Geometry (version1)

and α1 , α2 , α2 , be three planes whose equations are

α1 :x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0;
α2 :x2 + 2x3 − 1 = 0;
α3 :x1 + x2 + 4x3 − 1 = 0.

Prove that α1 ∩ S is an ellipse (in α1 ); α2 ∩ S is a hyperbola (in α2 ); α3 ∩ S is a parabola (in α3 ).

Exercise 3.31. In An given a quadric surface S determened by the equation

x21 + x22 + · · · + x2k − x2k+1 − · · · − x2n − 1 = 0 (0 ≤ k < n).

Prove that:

1. If n < 2k, then S contains some m-plane, where m ≤ n − k;

2. If n = 2k, then S contains some m-plane, where m ≤ n − k − 1;

3. if n > 2k, then S contains some m-plane, where m ≤ k − 1.

Exercise 3.32. In A3 with a given frame {O; →

−
e1 , →
−
e2 , →
−
e3 } let S be a quadric surface and α be a
plane whose equations, respectively, are

x21 + x22 − 2x1 x2 + x23 + 9 = 0

and
x1 + x2 + x3 − 3 = 0.
Let S1 = S ∩ α and lM be a line passing through M ∈ S1 with direction h→
−
e3 i. Let C be the union
of all lM , M ∈ S.

1. Prove that C is a cylinder.

2. Find the image of S1 under the parallel projection with direction h→

−
e3 i onto the first coordinate
plane.

63