Chapter 6

Quadric hypersurfaces in Euclidean

space

6.1 Quadric hypersurfaces

6.1.1 Canonical equation of a quadric hypersurface.

Theorem 6.1.1. In Euclidean space En there always exists an orthonormal frame in which the
equation of a given quadric hypersurface is of one of the following forms, called the canonical
equation of the quadric hypersurface:

1. Type I: λ1 X12 + λ2 X22 + ... + λr Xr2 = 1, λi 6= 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , r, 1 ≤ r ≤ n;

2. Type II: λ1 X12 + λ2 X22 + ... + λr Xr2 = 0, λi 6= 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , r, 1 ≤ r ≤ n;

3. Type III: λ1 X12 + λ2 X22 + ... + λr Xr2 = 2pXr+1 , λi 6= 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , r, p > 0,

1 ≤ r ≤ n − 1.

Proof. Suppose that in the orthonormal frame {O; → −

e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } of En , the equation of a quadric
hypersurface S is
Xn n
X
aij xi xj + 2 ai xi + a = 0. (6.1)
i,j=1 i=1

Consider the second order part of (??)

n
H(→
−
X
x)= aij xi xj . (6.2)
i,j=1

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

−
→
This is a quadric form in Euclidean vector space En and therefore there exists an orthonormal
−
→n
frame {−→, −
w → −
→
1 w2 , . . . , wn } of E in which (??) can be expressed in the canonical form:

r
H(→
−
X
y)= ki yi2 , 1 ≤ r ≤ n, ki 6= 0, i = 1, . . . , r. (6.3)
i=1

Let C = (cij )n be the matrix of the change of coordinates from the basis {→
−
e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } to the basis
{−
→, −
w 1
→, . . . , −
w 2
→}. Consider the change of coordinates from the orthonormal frame {O; →
w n
−
e1 , . . . , →
−
en }
−→ −
→
to the orthonormal frame {O; w1 , . . . , wn } determined by the equation

n
X
xi = cij yj , i = 1, . . . , n. (6.4)
j=1

Then the equation of S in the frame {O; −

→, . . . , −
w 1
→} is
w n

r
X n
X
ki yi2 +2 bi yi + b = 0, 1 ≤ r ≤ n, ki 6= 0. (6.5)
i=1 i=1

If using the change of coordinates whose equation is

(
yi = zi − kbii , i = 1, 2, ..., r
;
yj = zj , j = r + 1, ..., n

then in new coordinates, the equation of S is

r
X n
X
ki zi2 +2 ci zi + c = 0, 1 ≤ r ≤ n, ki 6= 0. (6.6)
i=1 i=r+1

We have the following cases:

1. ci = 0, i = r + 1, ..., n and c 6= 0. Then (??) is of type I with coefficients λi = − kci , i = 1, ..., r.

2. ci = 0, i = r + 1, ..., n and c = 0. Then (??) is of type II with coefficients λi = ki , i = 1, ..., r.

3. r < n and there exists ci 6= 0, i = r + 1, ..., n, for example cr+1 6= 0.

Set v
u n 2
uX
ci
p=t cj , di = , i = r + 1, ..., n
j=r+1
p

and substitute these to Equation (??), we obtain

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

r n
X X c
ki zi2 + 2p( di zi + ) = 0,
i=1 i=r+1
2p
Pn
where di , i = r + 1, . . . , n, satisfy the condition i=r+1 d2i = 1.

Consider the change of coordinates


X i
 = zi , i = 1, ..., r
Xr+1 = − ni=r+1 di zi − 2p c
P
,
 Pn
Xj = k=r+1 djk zk , j = r + 2, ..., n


where djk are chosen such that the matrix of the change of coordinates is orthogonal. This mean
that the new frame is orthonormal.

Then the equation of S in the new frame is

r
X
λi Xi2 = 2pXr+1 , λi = −ki , 1 ≤ r ≤ n.
i=1

This is of type III.

Example 1. In E3 , find the canonical equation of a quadric hypersurface S whose equation in a

given orthogonal frame {O; →
−
e1 , →
−
e2 , →
−
e3 , } is

x21 + 2x22 + 2x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 6x1 + 6x2 + 6x3 + 9 = 0.

Solution. Consider the quadric form

H(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x21 + 2x22 + 2x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 .

Step 1. Find the canonical form of H. The matrix of H is

 
1 1 1
A= 1 2
 0 .
1 0 2

The characteristic polynomial of A is

 
1 − λ 1 1 
 
 1
 2−λ 0  = −λ(λ − 3)(λ − 2).
 1 0 2 − λ

Thus, there are three eigenvalues of A : λ1 = 2, λ2 = 3, λ3 = 0. For finding eigenvectors corre-

sponding to λ1 , λ2 , λ3 , we solve the following systems of equations

−x1 + x2 + x3 =0
    
−1 1 1 x1 0 
 1 0 0 x2  = 0 ⇔ x1 =0; (6.7)
1 0 0 x3 0

x1 =0


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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry


−2x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
    
−2 1 1 x1 0 
 1 −1 0  x2  = 0 ⇔ x1 − x2 =0; (6.8)
1 0 −1 x3 0

x1 − x3 =0


x 1 + x 2 + x 3 = 0
    
1 1 1 x1 0 
1 2 0 x2  = 0 ⇔ x1 + 2x2 =0. (6.9)
1 0 2 x3 0

x1 + 2x3 =0


From equations (??), (??), (??) we can choose three eigenvectors →

−
a1 (0, 1, −1), →
−
a (1, 1, 1), →
−
a (2, −1,√−1).
√ √ √ √ √2 √ 3 √
−
→ −
→ −
→
Normalize them, we obtain an orthonormal basis {ω1 (0, 2 , − 2 ), ω2 ( 3 , 3 , 3 ), ω3 ( 3 , − 66 , − 66 )}
2 2 3 3 3 6
−
→
of E3 .

In the new basis {−

→, −
ω → − →
1 ω2 , ω3 }, H is expressed in the canonical form

H(y1 , y2 , y3 ) = 2y12 + 3y22 ,

under the change of coordinates

 √ √
x 1
 = 33 y2 + 36 y3
√ √ √
x2 = 22 y1 + 33 y2 − 66 y3 .
 √ √ √
x3 = − 22 y1 + 33 y2 − 66 y3


Step 2. Determine the canonical form of the quadric hypersurface.

The equation of S in the new frame {O; −

→, −
ω → − →
1 ω2 , ω3 , } is

√
2y12 + 3y22 + 6 3y2 + 9 = 0.

By the change of coordinates 

y1
 = X1
√
y2 = X2 − 3 ,

y3 = X3


we obtain the canonical equation of S

2X12 + 3X22 = 0.

The corresponding orthonormal frame is {I; −

→, −
ω → − →
1 ω2 , ω3 }, where

−→ √ →
I(−1, −1, −1) (since OI = − 3− ω2 = −(→ −
e1 + →−
e2 + →
−
e3 ));
√ √ √
−
→ 2 →
− →
− −
→ 3 →
− →
− →
− −
→ 6 →
ω1 = ( e2 − e3 ), ω2 = ( e1 + e2 + e3 ), ω3 = (2−
e1 − →−
e2 − →
−
e3 ).
2 3 6

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

6.1.2 The names of some quadric hypersurfaces in En

Based on their canonical equations, we name some quadric hypersurfaces as follows.

1. A quadric hypersurface whose equation is of type I, where r = n and λi > 0, i = 1, 2, ..., n

is called an ellipsoid (of (n − 1)-dimension) and its equation can be written as bellow:

x21 x22 x2n

+ + ... + = 1.
a21 a22 a2n

The coefficients ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , n are called semi-axises of the ellipsoid.

Examples: the ellipses in E2 and ellipsoids in E3 .

2. A quadric hypersurface whose equation is of type I, where r = n and λi , i = 1, 2, . . . , n

are in different signs is called a hyperboloid (of (n − 1)-dimension) and its equation can be
written as bellow:
x21 x2k x2k+1 x2n
+ ... + − − ... − = 1.
a21 a2k a2k+1 a2n
The coefficients a1 , a2 , . . . , ak > 0 are called real semi-axises. The coefficients ak+1 , ak+2 , . . . , an >
0 are called imaginary semi-axises.
Examples: hyperbolas in E2 , and hyperboloids of 1-sheet and of 2-sheets in E3 .

3. A quadric hypersurface whose equation is of type II where r = n and λi , i = 1, . . . , n are in

different signs is called a (real) hypercone.
Examples: intersecting lines in E2 , intersecting planes in E3 , cones in E3 .

4. A quadric hypersurface whose equation is of type III where r = n − 1 is called an elliptic

paraboloid (of (n − 1-dimension) provided λi , i = 1, ..., n − 1 are of same sign and is called a
hyperbolic paraboloid (of (n − 1-dimension) provided λi , i = 1, ..., n − 1 are of different signs.
Examples: parabolas in E2 , elliptic paraboloids and hyperbolic paraboloids in E3 .

5. A quadric hypersurface whose equation is of type I, II where r < n or is of type III where
r < n − 1 is called a hypercylinder (elliptic, hyperbolic, parabolic. . . ).
Examples: coincident lines, parallel lines in E2 ; elliptic, hyperbolic and parabolic cylinders,
intersecting planes, coincident planes in E3 .

Remark 1. There are some equations of types I, II, that have only one real solution (equations
of type II with r = n and λi , i = 1, . . . , n are all either positive or negative) or have no solution
(equations of type I with r = n and λi < 0, i = 1, ..., n). In a complex space, i.e. the sets of
solution is bigger. The equations can be seen as equations of imaginary quadric hypersurfaces.
For examples:

1. Equations of type I with r = n and λi < 0, i = 1, ..., n can be seen as equations of imaginary
ellipsoids.

2. Equations of type II with r = n and λi , i = 1, . . . , n are all either positive or negative can
be seen as equations of imaginary hypercones.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

6.2 Principal directions and principal diametral hyperplanes

6.2.1 Definitions

In En with an orthonormal frame {O; → −

e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en }; let S be a quadric hypersurface whose equa-
tion is
[x]t A[x] + 2[a]t [x] + b = 0.
Each eigenvector → −c of the matrix A determine a 1-dimensional vector subspace h→ −c i, generated
by →−c , called a principal direction of S. Let h→ −c i is a principal direction that is not asymptotic,
then the diametral hyperplane of S conjugate to h→ −c i is called a principal diametral hyperplane of
S. In E2 , principal diametral hyperplanes are called principal diametral lines.

Remark 2. 1. Principal direction h→

−c i is not asymptotic if and only if the eigenvalue λ corre-
spondent to the eigenvector →
−c is non-zero.

Indeed, suppose that λ is the eigenvalue correspondent to the eigenvector ~c. It follows that

h→
−c i is not asymptotic ⇔ [c]t A[c] 6= 0
⇔ [c]t (λ[c]) = λ(→
−c )2 6= 0
⇔ λ 6= 0 (since (→ −c )2 > 0).

2. The eigenvector → −c is a normal vector of the principal diametral hyperplane α conjugate to

h c i. Moreover, if an eigenvector →
→
− −c is a normal vector of a diametral hyperplane α, then α
is a principal diametral hyperplane conjugate to → −c and therefore, h→
−c i will be a principal
direction.
Indeed, since equation of a diametral hypersurface is

[x]t A[c] + [a]t [c] = 0,

it follows that if A[c] = λ[c] then →

−c is a normal vector α.

Conversely, by the above equation of a diametral hypersurface , we can see that A[c] is a
normal vector. Therefore, if → −c is also a normal vector, then A[c] = λ[c], i.e. →
−c is an
eigenvector and α is a principal diametral hyperplane.

3. By the above remark, we can see that the reflection through a principal diametral hyperplane
keeps S fixed.

It is not hard to prove the following theorem.

Theorem 6.2.1. Equation of a quadric hypersurface S in a given orthonormal frame {O; →

−
e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en }
is of the following form
Xn n
X
2
bi x i + 2 ai xi + b = 0, (6.10)
i=1 i=1

if and only if the vectors →

−
e1 , . . . , →
−
en determine principal directions of S.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

6.2.2 Principal diametral lines in E2 .

In E2 with an orthonormal frame {O; →

−
e1 , →
−
e2 }, let C be a quadric hypersurface whose equation is:

Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0.

We seek conditions such that h→ −c (c , c )i is a principal direction. Since h→

−
d (−c2 , c1 )i is perpen-
1 2
→
− →
− →
− →
−
dicular to h c i, it follows that h c i is a principal direction if and only if c is conjugate to d ,
i.e.
− Ac1 c2 + B(c21 − c22 ) + Cc1 c2 = 0. (6.11)

1. If A = C and B = 0, then C is a circle. Every pair (c1 , c2 ) satisfies ??, therefore every
direction are principal and every line passing through the center of the circle is a principal
diametral line.

2. If A 6= C and B = 0, then C may be an ellipse, a hyperbola or a parabola. Equation ??

becomes
(C − A)c1 c2 = 0.
There are two principal directions h→
−
c (c , 0)i, h→
1 1
−
c (0, c )i that are orthogonal together.
2 2

c1
3. If A 6= C and B 6= 0, the equation ?? is a quadratic equation with unknown t = c2
(c2 6= 0
because if c2 = 0, then ?? implies c1 = 0)

Bt2 + (C − A)t − B = 0. (6.12)

It is obvious that (??) has two distinct solutions t1 , t2 satisfying t1 t2 = −1. Therefore, there
are two orthogonal principal directions.

In brief, we can state that: In E2 , if a quadratic curve C is not a circle then C has two orthogonal
principal directions that are conjugate together. It follows that, if C has only one center, i.e.
AC − B 2 6= 0, then there are exactly two orthogonal principal directions, that are two axes of
symmetry of C. If C has no centers or has infinitely many centers, i.e. AC − B 2 = 0, then a
principal direction is asymptotic, therefore, there does not exist any diametral line conjugate to it;
the second principal direction is orthogonal to the the first one (the asymptotic direction) and the
principal diametral line conjugate to it is the only axis of symmetry of C that are parallel to the
asymptotic direction.

Example 2. In E2 , an ellipse or hyperbola has two orthogonal principal diametral lines that are
their two axes of symmetry. A parabola has a principal direction that is asymptotic, the other
one is orthogonal to the asymptotic direction and the correspondent principal diametral line is the
only axis of symmetry of the parabola.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

6.3 Hyperspheres and power hyperplanes.

6.3.1 Hyperspheres

Definition 1. In En given a point I and a real number r ≥ 0. The set

C(I, r) = {M ∈ En | d(I, M ) = r}

is called a hypersphere with center I, radius r.

A hypersphere in E2 is a circle and a hypersphere in E3 is a sphere.

Suppose that I has coordinates (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) in an orthonormal frame {O; →

−
e1 , →
−
e2 . . . , →
−
en } of En .
Then the equation of the hypersphere can be written as

(x1 − a1 )2 + ... + (xn − an )2 = r2 (6.13)

or n n n
X X X
x2i −2 ai x i + a2i = r2 . (6.14)
i=1 i=1 i=1

By ??, a hypersphere is a quadric hypersurface. When I ≡ O, the hyperplane C(O; r) has an

equation of simple form
x21 + x22 + ... + x2n = r2 . (6.15)
Pn
Set bi = −ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , n and b = i=1 a2i − r2 then (??) becomes

n
X n
X
x2i +2 bi xi + b = 0. (6.16)
i=1 i=1

Conversely,
pPn an equation Pnof form (??) determines a hypersphere C(I; r) where I(−b1 , ..., −bn ) and
2 2
r= b
i=1 i − b, if b
i=1 i ≥ b.

Example 3. In E3 with an orthonormal frame {O; → −

e1 , →
−
e2 , →
−
e3 ), consider a quadric hypersurface
whose equation is
x21 + x22 + x23 − 2x1 + 4x2 + 2x3 − 3 = 0. (6.17)
Equation ?? can be written as

(x1 − 1)2 + (x2 + 2)2 + (x3 + 1)2 = 9. (6.18)

Therefore, the quadric hypersurface is a hypersphere with center (1, −2, −1) and radius r = 3.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

6.3.2 Inside and outside regions of a hypershere

Definition 2. In En let C(I; r) be a hypersphere with center I and radius r. The set of all points
M ∈ En such that d(I, M ) < r is called the inside region of the hypersphere, while the set of all
points M ∈ En such that d(I, M ) > r is called the outside region of the hypersphere.
Proposition 6.3.1. 1. A point M belongs to the inside region of C(I; r) if and only if every
line passing through M intersects C(I; r) at two distinct points.
2. A point M belongs to the outside region of C(I; r) if and only if there exists a line passing
through M that does not intersect C(I; r).
3. Every hyperplane passing through the center is a principal diametral hyperplane.

Proof. 1. In an orthonormal frame with the origin I, the equation of the hypersphere is

x21 + x22 + ... + x2n = r2 .

Consider the line l passing through M (x01 , ..., x0n ) defined by


 x1 = x01 + c1 t

x 2 = x 0 + c 2 t

2
.. .. ,


 . = .

x
n = x0 + c t
n n

where →
−c (c , ..., c ) is a unit directional vector.
1 n

The intersection points of l and C(I; r) are solutions of the following equation
(x01 + c1 t)2 + (x02 + c2 t)2 + ... + (x0n + cn t)2 = r2 , (6.19)
or
−c .−
t2 + 2(→
−→
IM )t + d(I, M )2 − r2 = 0. (6.20)

Therefore, if M is in the inside region of C(I; r), i.e. d(I, M ) < r, then Equation (??) has
two distinct solutions, i.e. l intersects C(I; r) at two distinct points.
Conversely, suppose that every line passing through M intersects C(I; r) at two distinct
−−→ −c .−−→
points. Let l be a line passing through M and orthogonal to IM . Then → IM = 0
therefore Equation (??) becomes
t2 + d(I, M )2 − r2 = 0. (6.21)
Since (??) has two distinct solutions, it follows that d(I, M ) < r, or in other words, M is
in the inside region of C(I; r).
2. The proof is similar as the one of the above case.
3. From the equation of the hypersphere, we can see that every direction is principal. Therefore
every hyperplane passing through the center is a principal diametral hyperplane.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

6.3.3 The power of a point and power hyperplanes

Definition 3. In En , consider a hypersphere C(I; r) and a point M ∈ En . We define the power of

M w.r.t. C(I; r), denoted by P(M, C), is the number
d(I, M )2 − r2 .

By the definition, a point M is on the hypersphere if and only if P(M, C) = 0; is inside the
hypersphere if and only if P(M, C) < 0 and is outside the hypersphere if and only if P(M, C) > 0.

If an equation of C(I; r) is (??) and M has coordinates (x01 , ..., x0n ), then
n
X n
X
P(M, C) = x0i +2 bi x0i + b. (6.22)
i=1 i=1

Theorem 6.3.2. Let C1 and C2 be two hyperspheres in En whose centers are distinct. Then the
set
{M ∈ En : P(M, C1 ) = P(M, C2 )}
is a hyperplane α orthogonal to the line joining two centers of the hyperspheres.

Proof. Suppose that {O; → −

e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } is an orthonormal frame in En , C1 is a hypersphere with
center I1 (a1 , ..., an ) and radius r1 and C2 is a hypersphere with center I2 (b1 , ..., bn ), and radius r2
where I1 6= I2 .

Let M (x1 , ..., xn ) ∈ E2 . Then,

P(M, C1 ) = P(M, C2 ) ⇔ d(M1 , M )2 − r12 = d(I2 , M )2 − r22
Xn n
X
⇔ (xi − ai )2 − r12 = (xi − bi )2 − r22 .
i=1 i=1

We obtain the equation

n n
X 1 X
(bi − ai )xi + ( (a2i − b2i ) + r22 − r12 ) = 0. (6.23)
i=1
2 i=1

Since I1 6= I2 , i.e. the coefficient bi − ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , n are not all zero, Equation (??) determines
−−→
a hyperplane and I1 I2 is its normal vector..
Definition 4. The hyperplane α in Theorem ?? is called the power hyperplane of two hyperspheres
C1 and C2 , denoted by Π(C1 , C2 ). In E2 a power hyperplane is called a power line.

6.3.4 The intersection of a hypersphere and a hyperplane

In En with an orthonormal frame {O; → −

e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } let C(I; r) be a hypersphere with center
I(a1 , ..., an ), radius r and α be a hyperplane whose equation is
c1 x1 + c2 x2 + ... + cn xn + d = 0,

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Pn 2
where i=1 ci = 1. Let H be the projection of I onto α, then

d(I, H) = |c1 a1 + c2 a2 + ... + cn an + d|.

We have the following cases:

1. d(I, H) < r. Then H is inside C(I; r) and

p α intersects the hypersphere. Their intersection is
the hypersphere with center H, radius r2 − d(I, H)2 in α.

2. d(I, H) = r. Then H is on the hypersphere and every line passing through H in α is a tangent
line of the hypersphere at H. In this case, α is tangent to the hypersphere.

3. d(I, H) < r. Then H is outside C(I; r) and α does not intersect C(I; r).

6.4 The Euclidean classification of quadric hypersurfaces

in En

6.4.1 Quadric hypersurfaces of the same kind

In En let S be a quadric hypersurface. By Theorem (??) there exists a suitable orthonormal frame
in which equation of S is one of three types I, II or III. These equation are called the canonical
equation of S.

Two canonical equations are said to be the same if:

1. they are of type I and their coefficients of order two are all the same in pairs;

2. they are of type II and their coefficients of order two are differ by a factor a ∈ R, a 6= 0; or

3. they are of the type III and their coefficients of order two are differ by a factor ±1.

Definition 5. Two quadric hypersurfaces in En are said to be of the same Euclidean kind if their
canonical equations (in suitable orthonormal frames) are the same.

The following theorem gives us a criterion for classifying quadric hypersurfaces based on their
canonical equations.

Theorem 6.4.1. Two quadric hypersurfaces in En are of the same Euclidean kind if and only if
they are isometric isomorphic.

Proof. Suppose that S and S 0 are two quadric hypersurfaces that are isometric isomorphic, i.e.
there is an isometric automorphism
f : En −→ En
such that f (S) = S 0 .

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

We can check that equation of S in a given orthonormal frame {O; → −

e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } and equation of
−
→ −
→ −
→
f (S) = S in the orthonormal frame {I; ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn }, where
→
− →
− −
I = f (O); ωi = f (→
ei ), i = 1, 2, ..., n,

are the same. Therefore, S and S 0 are of the same kind.

Conversely, suppose that S and S 0 are of the same kind, there exist two orthonormal frames
{O; →
−
e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } and {I; −
→, −
ω → −
→
1 ω2 , . . . , ωn } such that the canonical equation of S in the first frame
and the canonical equation of S 0 in the second one are the same.

Firstly, suppose that canonical equations of S and S 0 are of types I or II.

Consider the isometric automorphism f : En −→ En such that

→
− →
f (O) = I; f (−
ei ) = →
−
ωi , i = 1, 2, ..., n.

Then, equation of S in the orthonormal frame {O; → −e1 , →

−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en } and equation of f (S) in the
orthonormal frame {I; − →, −
ω1
→, . . . , −
ω2
→} are the same. That mean S 0 and f (S) are coincident, i.e. S
ωn
and S 0 are isometric isomorphic.

Now suppose that equations of S and S 0 are of the type III. Consider the isometric auto-
morphism that maps {I; − →, −
ω → −
→ −
→0 − →0 −→0 −
→0 −→0 −
→0
1 ω2 , . . . , ωn } into {I; ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn } where {ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn } is just
{−
→, −
ω → −
→ 0 −
→0 −→0
1 ω2 , . . . , ωn } by a permutation in such a way that equation of S in {I; ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn } is com-
−
→0
pletely the same as equation of S in {O; → −
e1 , →
−
e2 , . . . , →
−
en }. Consider the isometric autoomorphism

f : En −→ En

such that
→
−
f (O) = I and f (ei ) = →
−
ωi 0 , i = 1, ..., n
and by the same arguments as above we prove that S and S 0 are isometric isomorphic.

Remark 3. 1. Two quadric hypersurfaces that are of the same Euclidean kind are of the same
affinely kind but the conversion is not true. In other words, Euclidean classification is finer
than affinely classification.

2. Thanks Theorem (??) we can classify (Euclidean) the class of quadric hypersurfaces in En
based on their canonical equations.

6.4.2 Euclidean classification of quadratic curves in E2 .

In E2 , the class of quadratic curves is classified into 9 kinds:

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

1. k1 X12 + k2 X22 = 1,
k1 > 0, k2 > 0 ellipse;
2. k1 X12 + k2 X22 = 1,
k1 .k2 < 0 hyperbola ;
3. k1 X12 + k2 X22 = 1,
k1 < 0, k2 < 0 imaginary ellipse;
4. k1 X12 = 1, k1 > 0 pair of parallel lines;
5. k1 X12 = 1, k1 < 0 empty set (pair of parallel conjugate complex lines
6. k1 X12 + k2 X22
= 0, k1 > 0 a point
7. k1 X12 + k2 X22
= 0, k1 .k2 < 0 two intersecting lines
8. k1 X12 = 0, k1 6= 0 two coincident
lines
9. k1 X12 = 2pX2 , k1 6= 0 parabola

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

EXERCISES

Exercise 6.1. In E2 with a given orthonormal frame {O; →−

e1 , →
−
e2 }, find the canonical equation and
the corresponding orthonormal frame of the following quadratic curves:

1. C1 : 6x1 x2 + 8x22 − 12x1 − 26x2 + 11 = 0;

2. C2 : x21 + x1 x2 + x22 − 8x1 + 4 = 0;

3. C3 : 4x1 + 4x1 x2 + x22 + 12x1 + 6x2 + 9 = 0.

Exercise 6.2. In E3 with a given orthonormal frame {O; →−

ei }, find the canonical equation and the
corresponding orthonormal frame of the following quadric surfaces:

1. S1 : 2x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 + 2x1 x3 + 4(x1 + x2 + x3 ) − 3 = 0;

2. S2 : x21 + 2x22 + x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 + 2x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 − 6 = 0;

3. S3 : 3x21 + 2x22 + 2x23 + 4x1 x2 − 28x1 x3 − 4(2x1 − x2 + 2x3 ) − 18 = 0.

Exercise 6.3. Find the canonical equation and the principal diametral lines of the following
quadratic curves in E2 whose equations in a given frame {O; →
−
e1 , →
−
e2 } are:

1. C1 : x21 − 2x1 x2 + x22 − 10x1 − 6x2 + 25 = 0;

2. C2 : 2x21 − 5x1 x2 − 10x22 − x1 + 26x2 − 10 = 0;

3. C3 : 4x21 − 4x1 x2 + x22 − x1 + 3x2 − 4 = 0;

4. C4 : 2x21 + 4x1 x2 − 5x22 − 6x1 − 8x2 − 1 = 0.

Exercise 6.4. In E3 with a given orthonormal frame {O; →

−
ei }, let S be the quadric hypersurface
defined by the equation

x21 + 2x22 + 2x23 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 − 2(3x1 + 5x2 + x3 ) − 7 = 0.

1. Find the canonical equation of S.

2. Find the principal directions and the principal diametral planes of S.

Exercise 6.5. In En , prove that every special direction is principal.

Exercise 6.6. In En , find necessary and sufficient conditions such that

1. n + 1 points in En determine a hypersphere;

2. n + 2 points in En are on a hypersphere.

Exercise 6.7. Prove that, every affine automorphism of En that maps a hypersphere into a
hypersphere is a similarity.

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Exercise 6.8. In En , let A, B be two distinct points and k 6= 1 is a positive real number. Prove
that the set of all points M ∈ En such that

d(M, A) = kd(M, B)

is a hypersphere with the center is on the line AB, and intersects AB at two points C, D such that
(ABC)
the double ratio (ABCD) = (ABD) = −1. We call this hypersphere Apolonius hypersphere.

Exercise 6.9. In En with a given orthonormal frame {O; →

−
ei }, let

C1 : x21 + · · · + x2n + 2(a1 x1 + · · · + an xn ) + c = 0,

C2 : x21 + · · · + x2n + 2(b1 x1 + · · · + bn xn ) + d = 0

be two hyperspheres. Then S1 and S2 are said to be orthogonal if
1
a1 b1 + · · · + an bn = − (c + d).
2

Prove that, C1 and C2 are orthogonal if and only if the power of the center of C1 w.r.t. C2 is the
square of the radius of C1 .
Exercise 6.10. In E3 with a given orthonormal frame {O; → −
e }, leti

C(I; r) : x21 + x22 + x23 + 6x1 − 4x3 + 4 = 0

be a sphere and (α) : 2x1 + x2 − 2x3 + 1 = 0 be a plane.

1. Find the center I and radius r of C(I; r).

2. Consider the intersection between C(I; r) and (α).
Exercise 6.11. Write the equation of the power plane of two following spheres in E3
C : x21 + x22 + x23 − 6x1 + 4x2 + 4 = 0;
C 0 : (x1 − 1)2 + (x2 + 2)2 + (x3 + 1)2 = 9.

Exercise 6.12. In E3 with a given orthonormal frame {O; →

−
ei }, let

C : (x1 + 2)2 + (x2 − 1)2 + (x3 + 1)2 = 9

be a sphere.

1. Prove that the hyperplane α defined by the equation 2x1 + 2x2 − x3 + 1 = 0 is a principal
diametral plane of C and find the correspondent principal direction.
2. Write an equation of the plane β tangent to C and parallel to α.
Exercise 6.13. In E3 with a given orthonormal frame {O; →−ei }, consider the intersection between
2 2 2
the sphere C : (x1 + 2) + (x2 − 1) + (x3 + 1) = 9, and the line
(
x1 − x3 =0
d: .
x1 − 4x2 + x3 = 2

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 Affine and Euclidean Geometry

Exercise 6.14. In En given 4 points A, B, C, D. Prove that

−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −→ −−→

1. AB.CD + AD.BC + AC.DB = 0.

2. Prove that three altitudes of a triangle in En are concurrent.

Exercise 6.15. Find the locus of all points M from whom the distance to a given hyperplane α
is a given constant h.

Exercise 6.16. Let An be a real affine space with a given frame {O, →
−
e1 , . . . , →
−
en }. Prove that we can
n n
construct a scalar product on A in such a way that A becomes a Euclidean space of n-dimension
and the given frame becomes an orthonormal frame.

Exercise 6.17. Prove that for two arbitrary distinct points P, P 0 in En , there exists uniquely an
orthogonal reflection that maps P into P .

90