Math1Compur. Modelling,Vol. 12,No. 9, PP. 1155-1165,1989 0895-7177/89$3.00+ 0.

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Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved Copyright 0 1989Maxwell Pergamon Macmillanplc

CASE STUDIES IN SOLAR RADIATION MODELLING

J. R. USHER’and T. MUNEER’
Schools of ‘Mathematical Sciences & Computer Studies and 2Mechanical & Offshore Engineering, Faculty
of Technology, Robert Gordon’s Institute of Technology, Aberdeen, Scotland

(Received January 1988; accepted for publication February 1989)

Communicated by E. Y. Rodin

Abstract-Mathematical modelling has played a significant role in many aspects of the study of solar
radiation. Attention here is focused on the problem of estimating solar irradiation on surfaces of arbitrary
orientation and tilt. In an attempt to solve this problem a group of appropriate modelling case studies
are presented and discussed. These case studies are presented in a form suitable for classroom
development.

1. INTRODUCTION

Solar radiation is essential to life on Earth. It affects the Earth’s weather processes which determine
our natural environment. Its presence at the Earth’s surface is necessary for the provision of food.
Thus, it is important to be able to understand the physics of solar radiation and in particular to
determine the amount intercepted by the Earth’s surface. Until 1960 there were only three stations
in north-west Europe, with irradiation records exceeding a 25year period. Since then there has been
a steady increase in interest in this area of study and mathematical modelling has had an
increasingly important role to play in various developments that have taken place [l-3].
It is intended that the following material will give the student an insight into some aspects of
the modelling process for estimating solar irradiation on surfaces of arbitrary orientation and tilt.
In view of the complexity of this area of study the material is presented as a group of related case
studies, not everyone of which illustrates all phases of the modelling process, though each illustrates
some aspect of the process. Nevertheless, when these case studies are looked at in their entirety
they should provide the student with an overview of the modelling process.
One very important procedure in the modelling process which has to be employed in complex
situations involves breaking down a problem into constituent parts, analysing each part individ-
ually and then re-constructing the parts as a whole. It is with such a procedure in mind that the
following material is presented.
A statement of the primary problem and general background is given in Section 2. The material
is presented in such a way that it should enable the student, with the lecturer’s aid if necessary, to
(i) compile a list of questions which he/she would require answering
and
(ii) categorize the questions compiled in (i) and identify different areas of relevant
interest.
This forms the essence of Case Study 1 presented in Section 3. One approach to answering the
questions raised in Case Study 1 is given in Section 3.3, which then leads directly to the
identification of two particular models. These models are developed in Case Studies 2 and 3 and
they enable us to discuss the primary problem of estimating solar irradiation on surfaces of
arbitrary orientation and tilt.

2. PRIMARY PROBLEM AND BACKGROUND MATERIAL

2.1. Statement of the Primary Problem

There are many situations in which we need to know the effect of solar radiation, e.g. the effect
on the breeding of livestock [4]; the effect on buildings, particularly on windows, walls and roofs

1155
 1156 J. R. USHERand T. MUNEER

for energy conservation purposes [5]; the effect on human skin, which has now been shown in
certain circumstances to be a likely cause of skin cancer [6]. In the climatological study of solar
radiation there is a general dearth of data available, particularly for inclined surface irradiation.
It is this particular area of study that we shall be interested in. The main question we shall try to
answer is:
“How can we estimate solar irradiation on surfaces of arbitrary orientation and tilt?”

2.2. General Background Material

The understanding of the climatological study of solar radiation is comparatively new. Until 1960
there were only three stations in northwest Europe with irradiation records exceeding a 25-year
period.
In the U.K. it was only in the 1950s that Kipp solarimeters were installed by the Meteorological
Office and some other research establishments [7].
The initial research carried out in the U.K. was concerned with the relationship between
irradiation and the duration of bright sunshine [8]. Using the results of that research the seasonal
variation of radiation all over Britain was derived. This work was carried out in the early 1960s.
Since then research in the field of solar radiation has come a long way. The terms solar radiation,
irradiation and irradiance are frequently encountered in the literature and a note on their use is
perhaps appropriate at this stage. Solar radiation is usually referred to as the energy emanating
from the sun, while the term irradiation implies the energy incident on a surface. Irradiance refers
to the instantaneous incident energy.
The interception of solar radiation by arbitrary surfaces is a function of their geometry and is
dependent on their microclimatic interaction, i.e. the energy exchange between the surface and its
surroundings.
Estimation of horizontal irradiation is one task while assessment of insolation (solar irradiation)
on slopes is another. Information of insolation on arbitrary sloped surfaces is a prerequisite in
many sciences. For example, agricultural meteorology, photobiology, animal husbandry, daylight-
ing, comfort air-conditioning, building science and solar energy utilization, all require such
knowlege.
In agricultural meteorology, the importance of net radiation in determining crop evaporation
is well-documented [9]. It has been suggested that in the British Isles climate the annual enthalpy
of evaporation from short grass is equal to the net radiation. A similar situation occurs on a daily
basis. Net radiation is also required in estimating the heating coefficient of a field, which is a key
index for the soil germination temperature. The first step in determining net radiation involves
investigating the incident short-wave radiation on the surface of the field, which may be situated
on a hill.
Photosynthesis is an important phenomenon in photobiology. This term is commonly reserved
for the process by which green plants are able to convert light (the visible part of irradiation) into
chemical energy. However, the absorption of energy is selective as far as the wavelength of the
incident radiation is concerned [lo].
The effects of solar radiation are of interest in the breeding of cattle, sheep and other livestock.
It is usually the major factor limiting the distribution of livestock in the tropics. The heat load on
an animal is the result of solar radiation and in some cases its magnitude could be several times
the animal’s normal heat production. Nature helps, however, in keeping down the heat load; as
well as by the animal’s coat having a low absorptivity it also provides an insulating barrier in the
form of thick fleece. Nevertheless, the limited ability of the animal to vaporize moisture, and thus
regulate the dissipation of solar heat load, makes the effect of solar radiation on its surface, an
important factor. The problems of solar heat load are not limited to the tropics. Even in Scotland
the insolation levels may induce considerable solar heat load in the summer season.
The rising cost of electricity has provided a motive for making best use of daylight [ll].
Utilization of daylight and solar radiation has led to new architectural developments. Typical
design elements include atria, sloping facades and large windows. But, although there are new
opportunities for making use of daylight, there is a lack of information on appropriate calculations.
Traditional prediction methods are based on the daylight factor derived for an overcast sky [12];
 Solar radiation modelling 1157

however, this ignores the effects of orientation and of bright days. By employing realistic prediction
methods for daylight, subsequent results can be employed in the design process for reducing energy
costs. The need for reliable prediction methods for daylight is genuine owing to the fact that there
is a dearth of measured illuminance data.
The current awareness of the energy consumption in buildings has called for strict conservation
measures. The optimal building design from an energy conservation viewpoint demands among
other requirements, precise knowledge of solar irradiation on windows, walls and roofs. The low
energy loss, multiple glazed window technology has helped pave the way for a greater use of
fenestration. Although, in winter seasons, the fenestrations may be employed for admittance of
solar energy they may tend to overheat the building in the summer. Thus, an optimum design would
require a year-round study of the energy balance: day-gains and nocturnal losses.
Also in the utilization of active or passive solar energy, estimation of the irradiation on collectors
of different orientations and tilts is required [13].
In the U.K. components of solar irradiation are measured and recorded by the Meteorological
Office at various locations. For many of these locations the records exceed a period of 37 years
[14]. It is also worth noting that the Meteorological Office also records snow cover data for a large
number of locations [ 151.

3. ESTIMATION OF SOLAR IRRADIATION ON INCLINED SURFACES

3.1. Introductory Discussion

There is a dearth of data available for solar irradiation on inclined surfaces. An obvious question
is “how can we use existing solar irradiation data to reliably predict solar irradiation on a surface
of specified orientation and tilt?”
It is proposed to construct appropriate mathematical models which will provide a rationale upon
which we may base an investigation of this question.

3.2. Case Study 1

Compile a list of questions which you require answering. Then arrange these questions into
general categories and identify what would appear to be the major components of the problem
requiring investigation.

3.3. Solution
It is suggested that for students with little modelling experience the lecturer pools the students’
questions and it is hoped that the suggested questions would fall into the following broad
categories. For students with some modelling experience, groups of students could carry out the
above procedure themselves, with the lecturer helping if necessary.

Category Examples
Aims How is solar irradiation measured?
On what surface is solar irradiation measured?
Control variables What is the meaning of surface orientation and tilt?
What is the meaning of the daylight factor?
What is the meaning of components of solar irradiation?
What is the difference between diffuse and global irradiation?
How often are solar irradiation measurements taken by the
Meteorological Office at the various sites?
What is the significance of the Meteorological Offices’s snow
cover data?
Constraints Where are the locations of the Meteorological Office measurements?
Are there enough radiation recording stations?
To what extent is the Meteorological Office data valid?
Miscellaneous Are measurements being carried out frequently enough?
(irrelevant?)
1158 J. R. USHER
and T. MUNEER

If the lecturer, or group of students with the lecturer’s guidance, can categorize each question
as above the lecturer may (if he wishes) direct the student’s thinking along the lines suggested in
the following case studies where answers to some of these questions may be found. Such a
categorization may both reduce the need to find an answer to each individual question and
concentrate attention on the general conceptual components of the problem.
The following approach to the problem of predicting solar irradiation on an inclined surface
assumes that the most significant variables are:

(i) Orientation of the surface-position of surface relative to due North (degrees).

(ii) Tilt of the surface-inclination of the surface to the horizontal (degrees).
(iii) The components of solar irradiation-diffuse and beam
(N.B. global = diffuse + beam).
(iv) Frequency of solar irradiation measurements-hourly or daily.

However, before we can formulate the problem mathematically we will require answers to the
following questions:

1. Do we have measurements of diffuse and beam components of solar irradiation

or do we only have measurements of global irradiation?
2. Do we have hourly data or daily data?
3. Do we have measurements for solar irradiation on inclined surfaces?
4. Do we have the exact location where each irradiation measurement has been
taken?
5. Do we know the accuracy of each irradiation measurement that has been taken?

4. INCLINED SURFACE IRRADIATION FROM HORIZONTAL

BEAM AND DIFFUSE IRRADIATION
4.1. Background Material
The need for a validated model for inclined surface irradiation was highlighted in the earlier
sections. The usefulness of this type of work was also brought to light. Hourly inclined surface
irradiation, usually employed for detailed simulation studies, can be conveniently obtained by
models [16] which take into account the details of solar geometry and the distribution of
sky-radiance.
Global slope (inclined surface) irradiation is the sum of its beam, sky-diffuse and ground-reflected
components. The beam irradiation on a slope is obtained from the horizontal beam irradiation data
and solar geometry. The sky-diffuse component, which is not so straightforward to evaluate, is
computed from the knowledge of the angular distribution of the sky-radiance. As far as the
ground-reflected component is concerned, the problem is doubly difficult; not only does it involve
estimation of incident energy on the foreground, but also the reflected part of it. The usual
assumption of isotropic diffuse reflectance is not entirely valid. An accurate estimation of the
ground-reflected irradiation would require knowledge of the foreground type and geometry, its
reflectivity, degree of isotropicity, the details of surrounding skyline and the condition of sky. There
is little information available on the interaction of all these parameters. As highlighted above, in
most applications the usual approach is to take a constant value of ground-reflectance and assume
isotropic reflection. It is common knowledge that the reflectivity of snow-covered ground could be
as high as 0.9. The U.K. Meteorological Office records snow cover data for a large number of
locations. The number of locations is of the same order as the sunshine recording stations. Thus,
by incorporating the snow cover data, better estimates of ground-reflectivity may be provided. As
mentioned above, this does not address the problem completely, nevertheless better estimates of
isotropic ground-reflectivity would produce more reliable values of slope irradiation.

4.2. Case Study 2

Develop a model for sky-diffuse irradiation on a slope. (Note to lecturer: this may be used as
a free-standing case study.)
 Solar radiation modelling 1159

4.3. Solution
The background material suggests that a validated model for diffuse irradiation on an inclined
surface would require:

(i) hourly horizontal diffuse and slope diffuse irradiation data

and
(ii) determination of the angular distribution of the sky radiance.

In the discussion which follows attention will be restricted to deterministic models.

The diffuse irradiation model for an inclined surface may be categorized for the hours in which:

(a) the surface is in the shade,

(b) the surface faces the sun but is under overcast conditions
and
(c) the surface faces the sun under non-overcast conditions.
An empirical model for the angular distribution of the overcast sky luminance has been suggested
by Moon and Spencer [ 121:

L = L (1+ b cos 0)
0 z (1)
(l+b) ’

where

&---the zenith angle (i.e. angle between the line of observation and the vertical),
b-the radiance distribution index
and
LO, L,--the luminance at angle 8 and along the vertical axis, respectively.

Moon and Spencer [12] have suggested a value of b = 2 on the basis of certain measured
horizontal and inclined surface illuminance data. In particular, Fig. 1 shows measured data from
two sites in the U.S.A. and one site in Germany. The curve illustrates the model proposed by Moon
and Spencer [12]. In regard to Fig. 1 it should be noted that Moon and Spencer [12] reported the
position of the sun for the days on which measurements were carried out in Washington, D.C.,
and Chicago, Ill. (viz. OS), but not for measurements reported for Kiel.
Using the model due to Moon and Spencer and employing one year’s hourly data for Lerwick
(Shetlands) and Easthampstead (Berks., England), Muneer [3] has proposed the radiance distri-
bution of the sky for the three categories which a surface may be placed under. The values of “b”
for the three cases are provided in Table 1.

0.25 -A Chicago Illinois Sun at 8, =70*

s
. KM, Germany
B
I 1 I I I I I
. I
.
0 30 60 E
Zenith angle of observation (8)

Fig. 1. Illuminance distribution for overcast skies.

1160 J. R. USHER and T. MUNEER

Table 1. Values of b for Moon and Spencer’s [12] model [equation (l)] for Lenuick
and Easthampstead
Case Lerwick Easthampstead
Surface in the shade 5.49 5.13
Sunlit surface under overcast sky I .04 1.68
Sunlit surface under non-overcast skv -0.73 -0.62

Equation (1) provides the radiance distribution of the sky. In order to obtain the total diffuse
irradiation on an inclined surface, equation (1) is integrated for the portion of the sky which is
“seen” by the surface. The resultant equation [see 171 is

where
a---the inclination of the surface
and
Zn, I,,--represent the horizontal and slope diffuse irradiation, respectively.
(For a synopsis of the derivation of this result see the Appendix; this derivation provides a good
student exercise.)
Thus, the above equation provides the value of slope diffuse irradiation emanating from the sky
vault (In,) if the horizontal diffuse irradiation (In) and the inclination of the surface (a) are known.
Consequently, equation (2) provides a complete model for the two cases when the surface is in the
shade and when the surface faces the sun under overcast conditions. However, for the case when
the surface faces the sun under non-overcast conditions the diffuse irradiation on an inclined
surface is composed of two components-a circumsolar component incident with the beam
irradiation and a background-sky component. These two components are “mixed” according to
the clarity of the sky, i.e. for clear skies there will be more circumsolar and less background
radiation and vice versa. The empirical model suggested by Muneer [3] is

zrh= &I SF+ T(1 -F) ,

[ 1
where: F is the modulating function, given by
F = (Zd - Z,)/Z, ; (4)
Zr and Zo respectively denote the hourly extraterrestrial irradiation and hourly global irradiation
on a horizontal surface; T is the tilt factor for background irradiation, given by

[see equation (2)]; and i is the angle between the incident beam and a normal to the inclined surface.
Note that the first term on the r.h.s. of equation (3) represents the circumsolar component and
the second term the background-sky component.

5. ESTIMATION OF HORIZONTAL DIFFUSE IRRADIATION

5.1. Background Material

It was pointed out in the earlier sections that a model for inclined surface irradiation would
require horizontal beam and diffuse irradiation. However, many meteorological stations record
only the global irradiation. Therefore, for these locations the diffuse irradiation on a horizontal
surface has first to be estimated before slope irradiation computation can be carried out.
Even when data on both diffuse and global irradiation are available, it is often necessary to
estimate diffuse irradiation to fill gaps in meteorological records. With the advent of micro-
computers, a regression equation relating diffuse and global irradiation would be especially helpful
to the user, as this would halve the size of the database needed for simulation. Muneer and
Saluja [18] have investigated this problem.
 Solar radiation modelling 1161

Camborne

0.20

-1
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Clearness index

Fig. 2. Hourly diffuse ratio vs clearness index for Cambome-winter.

5.2. Case Study 3

Develop a model for horizontal diffuse irradiation. (Note to lecturer: this may be used as a
free-standing case study.)

5.3. Solution
It has been reported by investigators [19,20] that the diffuse ratio (ratio of diffuse/global
irradiation) is uniquely related to the clearness index (ratio of global/extraterrestrial irradiation).
The earlier work in this field of solar radiation was carried out in the U.S.A. and Canada.
Recently, Muneer [3] has reported regression equations between the hourly diffuse ratio and
hourly clearness index for 11 locations in the U.K. Figure 2 shows a plot of the diffuse ratio vs
clearness index for Camborne, England. From this plot it is evident that there is a distinct
correlation between these two parameters. Clearly, the relationship is non-linear. If a regression
analysis is carried out for 1, /IG (diffuse ratio) on Ic /ZE(clearness index) employing several different
degrees of fit and R2 (coefficient of determination) calculated in each case, it is found that a cubic
provides the best fit. Thus, the relationship between &/lo and 1,/l, can be represented as follows:
IDI& = a, + a2KT + a3K: + a4K: for KT > 0.2, (6)
where

and ai (i = 1,2,3,4) are constants to be determined. From Fig. 2 it can be seen that for 0 < KT c 0.2
it is reasonable to assume that the diffuse ratio takes on a constant value.
Table 2 displays the locations of all the hourly solar radiation stations in the U.K. with the 11
locations chosen by Muneer [3] marked for identification. Muneer found the locations fell into two
groups, one containing all the mainland locations and the other group containing the locations in
the northern islands, i.e. Lerwick and Stornoway. For each of the 11 locations chosen by Muneer
 Table 2. Hourly solar radiation stations in the U.K.
Latitude Longitude Parameter
station dee. min deg min Diffuse Global
Lerwicka 60 08 01 IlW X X
Stomoway” 58 12 06 19w X X
Aviemore 57 12 03 5OW X X
Aberdeen 57 10 02 05w X
Dunstaffnage 56 28 05 26W X
Dundee 56 27 03 04W X
Shamveil’ 56 26 02 52W X X
Eskdalemuir’ 55 19 03 I2 w X X
Moorhouse 54 41 02 23 W X
Aldergrove’ 54 39 06 13w X X
Cawood 53 50 01 08 W X
Aughton’ 53 33 02 52W X X
Finningley’ 53 29 01 OOW X X
Thornton 53 18 02 5ow X X
Hemsby 52 51 01 41 E X X
Graham Water 52 17 00 19w X
Cambridge 52 13 00 06E X X
Aberporth’ 52 08 04 34w X X
Cardington 52 06 00 25W X X
Hurley 51 32 00 49w X
London W.C. 51 31 00 07w X X
KeW 51 28 00 19w X X
Eastbampstead’ 51 23 00 47w X X
Crawley 51 05 00 13w X X
Camborne’ 50 13 05 19 w X X
Jersey 49 11 02 1lW X X
*Locations chosen by Muneer [3] for his work.

Table 3. Meteorolo.aical stations and mrameters for the regressed equations

Latitude Winter Spring
No. of
Station deg min Period hours 02 a1 R' 43 a7 a, R=
Lerwick 60 08 Jan. 1981 to Dec. 1983 12,701 0.617 3.668 -11.197 8.352 0.49 0.304 5.768 - 14.271 8.840 0.81 0.685 3.143 -9.510 6.184 0.79
Stomoway 58 12 Oct. 1982 to Dec. 1983 5263 0.539 4.513 -13.254 9.695 0.63 0.524 4.056 - 10.106 5.766 0.88 0.576 4.030 - II.701 7.951 0.81
Shanwell 56 26 Jan. 1982 to Dec. 1983 9396 0.456 5.237 -15.718 11.469 0.76 0.721 2.722 -7.903 4.614 0.84 0.579 4.148 - 12.576 8.767 0.82
Eskdalemuir 55 19 Jan. 1981 to Dec. 1983 12,723 0.559 4.032 -11.715 7.818 0.72 0.638 3.228 -9.102 5.621 0.80 0.755 2.379 -1.429 4.609 0.78
Aldergrove 54 39 Jan. 1981 to Dec. 1983 14,107 0.644 3.090 -9.220 5.938 0.69 0.513 3.793 -9.139 5.745 0.82 0.679 2.800 -8.396 5.279 0.79
Aughton 53 33 Jan. 1982 to Dec. 1983 8144 0.758 2.660 -8.839 6.162 0.56 0.777 2.142 - 6.224 3.317 0.83 0.786 2.186 -6.891 4.062 0.79
Finningley 53 29 Nov. 1982 to Dec. 1983 5116 0.312 6.614 -19.263 14.472 0.76 0.744 2.386 -6.796 3.718 0.84 0.572 4.034 -11.966 8.311 0.80
Hemsby 52 51 Jan. 1982 to Dec. 1983 9006 0.487 5.055 -14.896 10.476 0.80 0.787 2.073 -6.198 3.340 0.83 0.790 2.139 - 6.922 4.111 0.83
Aberporth 52 08 Jan. 1981 to Dec. 1983 11,937 0.579 4.093 - 12.006 8.058 0.76 0.681 2.821 - 7.650 4.260 0.80 0.741 2.628 -8.162 5.088 0.79
Easthampstead 51 23 Jan. 1981 to Dec. 1983 14,058 0.349 6.085 -17.438 12.387 0.80 0.857 1.570 -5.608 3.271 0.82 0.784 2.396 -8.306 5.558 0.83
Cambome 50 13 Jan. 1982 to Dec. 1983 9109 0.514 4.644 -13.539 9.389 0.80 0.632 3.211 -8.730 5.167 0.80 0.804 2.145 - 6.971 4.198 0.84
U.K. - 111,552 0.629 3.549 - 10.651 7.098 0.79 0.651 3.050 -8.460 5.006 0.81 - - - -
 Solar radiation modelling 1163

[3], a third degree regression equation was found to be the optimum. This result was obtained
by processing 2-3 years of hourly irradiation data for each of the 1I locations. The data were
recorded by the Meteorological Office using first class pyranometers and a digital logging
system; it should be borne in mind that there are still errors involved in taking these measure-
ments.
Muneer [3] found the regression curves for all 9 mainland locations to be close to each other
for each of the three seasons, i.e. winter, summer and spring/autumn. Furthermore, the winter and
spring/autumn curves were found to be in close proximity to each other. Thus a single regression
equation for the U.K. mainland for summer and for the rest of the year were found to be feasible.
The coefficients for the cubic given by equation (6) for each of the 11 locations and for the U.K.
mainland are provided in Table 3.
Thus, it is now possible to estimate the horizontal diffuse irradiation for those locations where
only the global irradiation is recorded. Also the diffuse irradiation model described in this section
may be used even for locations recording both parameters by alleviating the need for acquiring
additional diffuse irradiation data.

Acknowledgement-The authors wish to thank Dr M. D. Steven (Department of Geography, University of Nottingham)

for the use of his analysis employed in the Appendix.

REFERENCES

1. M. D. Steven, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Nottingham, U.K. (1977).

2. Commision of the European Communities, Prediction of Solar Radiation on Inclined Surfaces, Vol. III (Edited by
J. K. Page). Reidel, Brussels (1986).
3. T. Muneer, Ph.D. Thesis, Council for National Academic Awards, London (1987).
4. C. G. Jones, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Aberdeen, U.K. (1984).
5. J. D. Balcomb, R. W. Jones, R. D. McFarland and W. 0. Wray, Passive Solar Heating Analysis: (I Design Manual.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Ga (1984).
6. J. Bird, Sunday Times Magazine, 8 Nov., pp. 98-101 (1987).
7. J. L. Monteith, Q. JI R. met. Sot. 88, 508-521 (1962).
8. J. P. Cowley, Met. Mug. 107, 357-373 (1978).
9. J. L. Monteith and G. Sziecz, Q. JI R. met. Sot. 87, 159-169 (1961).
10. K. Y. Kondratyev, Radiation in the Atmosphere. Academic Press, New York (1969).
11. P. J. Littlefair, Reprint R3/84, Building Research Est., Garston, U.K. (1984).
12. P. Moon and D. E. Spencer, Trans. Illum. Eng. Sot. 37, 707-726 (1942).
13. T. Muneer and A. H. Uppal, Appl. Energy 19, 209-229 (1985).
14. Meteorological Office Report 912, Meteorological Office, Bracknell, U.K. (1980).
15. Snow Survey of Great Britain (annual publication). Meteorological Office, Bracknell, U.K.
16. T. Muneer and G. S. Saluja, Energy Conver. Mgmt 25, 443458 (1985).
17. M. D. Steven and M. H. Unsworth, Q. JI R. met. Sot. 106, 57-61 (1980).
18. T. Muneer and G. S. Saluja, BSER&T 7, 37-43 (1986).
19. B. Y. H. Liu and R. C. Jordan, Sol. Energy 4, I-19 (1960).
20. J. F. Orgill and K. G. T. Hollands, Sol. Energy 19, 357-359 (1977).
21. M. D. Steven, Private communication, Univ. of Nottingham, U.K. (1987).

APPENDIX
Derivation of Equation (2) for Diffuse Irradiation on an Inclined Surface
In order to obtain the total sky-diffuse irradiation on an inclined surface we may proceed as follows. (The analysis is
due to Steven [21].)
Consider the solar geometry for a surface having a slope of angle a to the horizontal and normal fi (see Fig. Al). Let
A be a unit vector in the direction of the sun, 0 be the zenith angle and r$ be the azimuthal angle. With respect to the
Cartesian co-ordinates x, y, z in the horizontal plane, as shown in Fig. Al.

d = (sin 0 cos I#+ sin 6 sin 4, cos 0)

N = (sin a, 0, cos a).

1164 J. R. USHERand T. MUNEER

Fig. Al. Solar geometry for an inclined surface.

If I(& 4) denotes the radiance distribution then the flux of radiation on the inclined surface is given by

EC 1(0, d)(sin 6 cos 4 sin a + cos 6 cos a) sin 0 d6 d4. (A.1)

R
This integral may be simplified as follows. First consider the projection of the unit vector A onto the inclined surface,
the projected vector B being given by
B=&(W,fi)fi.
Now consider the transformation corresponding to the rotation of the inclined surface through an angle a about the y-axis
which maps the vector B into a vector C in the horizontal xy-plane. The matrix of this transformation is given by

and
C = R,B.
It is easily shown that

cos a sin e cos I$ - sin a case

C = sin e sin I#J
0 1.
Thus, consider co-ordinates in the inclined plane given by
x’=cosasinecos4-sinacos8
and
y’=sinesin$.
With these co-ordinates equation (A.l) reduces to

ID, = r(Kx’,y’)Mx’,y’))dx’dy’, (A.2)

ss
R
where the region R’ is the projection of the sky-hemisphere onto the inclined plane. For negative x’, i.e. n/2 < Q, Q 3n/2,
the region R’ is a semi-circle of unit radius. However, for positive x’, i.e. -x/2 Q 4 Q n/2, the region R’ is bounded by
an ellipse which is determined by the projection of the unit, semi-circle, -n/2 c 4 4 n/2, in the horizontal xy-plane, onto
the sloped x’y’-plane. The parametric equation of this ellipse will be given by
x’= cosa cos+
- n/2 < d d z/2.
y’ = sin 4
 Solar radiation modelling 1165

For subsequent evaluation of the integral in equation (A.2) it is convenient to transform to polar co-ordinates (r, q). Thus,

I, = Z@(r, rt)), 9(r, rl))r dr dq. (A.3)

I
We now require a suitable expression for the rtdiance distribution &9, 4). We shall assume: (i) I is independent of 4
and (ii) I varies linearly with cos 0. Thus, let I(0) = I,(1 + ,!3cos 0) where Zm and /I are constants to be determined.
It is easily shown that if the flux on a horizontal surface is Iu then

r(e) = 42 (I + p cose). (A.4)

~(1 + 2813)
Using this expression for the radiance distribution and the appropriate polar co-ordinate transformation, equation (A.3)
becomes

{l+b[-rcosnsina+cosz-,/m]}n(l:2P,3)rdrd+ (A.3
D.
The limits of integration are found to be. given by
O<r<l fors/2<1<3n/2,
and

where
cos a
4=
(1 -sin2asin2~)’
After some algebra the following result can be obtained:

)I
I 28
D” = co9 ;+ sin u - ci cos a - II sin2 E (‘4.6)
ID 0 3s(l + 2/?/3) [ (2 ’
where the subscript a has been introduced to signify that this is the total diffuse irradiation on a surface inclined at an
angle a to the horizontal. When /3 = 0, equation (A.6) reduces to the isotropic case.