Lecture 6,7&8: AC

Bridges
A.C. Bridges
Note A: Alternating voltage: An Z  Z0Cos  jZ0 sin 
alternating voltage can be written as complex
Z  R  jX
number. It is also known as phaser voltage.
jt
Thus impedance is represented as a complex quantity. An
V  V0 e impedance vector consists of a real part resistance, R
V  V0 (cos t  j sin t) and an imaginary part (reactance) X as shown in the
V  V0 cos t  j V0sin t Figure. R=Z0 cos
X=Z0 sin
Real part V  V0 cos t
Magnitude of Z  R2  X 2
Img. part V  V0 sin t
1
Here V0 =maximum or peak value of voltage Phase angle of Z;   tan ( X / R)
The reactances are of two ftypes:
= t =phase of a.c. voltage
 =angular frequency of a.c. voltage Inductive reactance XL = ωL= 2πfL
Note B: Alternating current: Similar to an Capacitive reactance XC = 1/ωC= 1/(2πfC)
alternating voltage, the alternating current can Here f and ω are the frequency and angular frequency of
also be written as complex number. It is also a.c. source. L is inductance, and C is capacitance.
known as phaser current.
jt
I  I0 e
I  I0 (cos t  j sin t)
I  I 0 cos t  j I0sin t
Real part I  I 0 cos t
Img. part I  I 0 sin t
Here I0 =maximum or peak value of current
Note C: Impedance: Impedance is an important
Figure A
parameter used to characterize electronic circuits,
The unit of impedance is the ohm (Ω). Impedance is a
components, and the materials used to make
commonly used parameter and is especially useful for
components.
representing a series connection of resistance and
Impedance (Z) is generally defined as the total
reactance.
opposition a device or circuit offers to the flow of Note D: Admittance: Admittance is ratio of phaser
an alternating current at a given frequency. It is current and voltage or is equal to reciprocal of
ratio of phaser voltage and phaser current. i.e.
impedance. i.e. Y  1 / Z  I/V
Z=V/I If phaser voltage and current are :
Let the phaser voltage leads the phaser current
by V  V0 j( t  , I  I0 jt
)
an angle . Then the equation for voltage and e eI e I0 - j
current will be: 1 0

jt 0
Then, Y    e
)V  V0 e j( t  Z V0 e j( t  ) V
jt -j
I  I0 e Y  Y0e  Y0 

V0 e j( t  ) V0 j Y  Y0Cos(-)  jY0 sin()

Thus, Z   e

I e jt I0 Y 1/Z G

0
jB
Do not publish it. Copy righted 1 Dr. D. K. Pandey
material.
 Lecture 6,7&8: AC
Bridges
j Here G is conductance, and B is susceptance. The unit
Z  Z0e  Z0 : In polar co-ordinates
of admittance is the siemen (S).

Do not publish it. Copy righted 2 Dr. D. K. Pandey

material.
A.C. Bridges: AC bridges are similar to Wheatstone bridge in which D.C. source is replaced by an
A.C. source and galvanometer with head phone/null detector. The resistors of bridge are replaced
with combination of resistor, inductor and capacitors (i.e. impedances). These bridges are used to
determine the unknown capacitance/inductance of capacitor/inductor. The working of these bridges is
also based on Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s law.
Circuit diagramme: It has four arms with impedances forming a
bridge. The two opposite junctions are connected to a head
phone while the other two are connected with an a.c. source
(Fig.1).
Principle and Balance condition: When the potential difference
across B and D becomes zero. No current flows through BD
arm. Thus no sound is heard in head phone. This situation is
called as bridge balance situation. The bridge balance condition
can be obtained using the Kirchoff’s voltage and current law.
Suppose
that, total current flowing from source is I. The currents in the Fig.1
arms AB, BC, AD, DC and BD are I 1, I2, I3, I4 and IH
respectively.
Since under the balance condition Let, Z1  R1  jX1 ; Z 2  R2  jX 2
the head phone current (IH) is zero. Thus, Z3  R3  jX 3 ; Z 4  R4  jX 4
I1=I2 and I3=I4 Putting impedances in eq.(3b)
Applying KVL for loop ABDA, we have R  jX
1 1R2  jX 2
Z1I1  Z3I3  0 R3  jX  R4  jX 4
3
 Z1I1  Z 3 I 3 (1  R1  jX1 R4  jX 4   R2  jX 2 R3  jX 3 
)
And applying KVL for loop BCDB, we have R1R4  X1X 4  j(R1X 4  R1X 4 )
Z 2 I2  Z4 I4  0
 Z 2 I1  Z 4 I3  0  R2 R3  X 2 X 3  j(R2 X 3  R3 X (4)
2)

 Z 2 I1  Z 4 I3 Comparing real term of eq.(4) we

(2 have, (5)
) R1R4  X1X 4  R2 R3  X 2 X 3
Dividing eq.(1) with eq.(2) we have, If X1X 4  X 2 X (6)
3
Z1I1 Z I
3 3 Under the condition given by eq.(6), the eq.
Z 2  Z 4 I3 (5) becomes as,
I1
 Z1 Z3  2R2
RR11R4 R (7a)
Z2  Z4 RR33 
(3a) (7b)

Or Z1 Z2 (3b) Eq.(3) is the balance condition for a.c bridges.

Z 3  Z4
This indicates that when the ratio of
impedances Eq.(7) is the real part condition of the bridge
balance condition.
Comparing imaginary terms of eq.(5), we have,
in two adjacent arms of bridge is equal to the R1X 4  R4 X1  R2 X 3  R3 X 2 (8)
ratio of impedances of other two adjacent Dividing eq.(8) by eq.(7b), we get,
arms, then the bridge is balanced. R1X 4  R4 X1 R2 X 3  R3 X 2

Since impedance is combination of real and R1R4 R2 R3
imaginary part. Thus the above X 4 X1 X 3 X 2
balance condition can be divided in R4  R1  R3  R2
to two sub condition.
X1 X4 X2 X Parameters measured from AC Bridges: The
3   
capacitance of capacitor, inductance of an
R1 R4 R2 R3
(9 inductor and frequency of ac source can be
)
1  4  2 
Here  is phase angle. The eqs. (6), (7) and (9) measured with AC bridge.
3
suggests that a.c. bridge balance condition has AC bridges for measurement of C
two type of balance condition. i.e.(i) magnitude (1) De-sauty bridge
and (ii) phase angle balance condition. (2) Weins bridge (Series)
(3) Schering bridge
Alternate proof of balance condition : AC AC bridges for measurement of L
bridge balance condition is obtained when, (4) Anderson bridge
VB  VD (5) Maxwell inductance bridge
If V is the source voltage then, (6) Maxwell L/C bridge or Maxwell-Weins
Z1 bridge
V Z3
Z1  Z2 (7) Hay bridge
Z  Z4
Z1 V 3 (8) Owen’s bridge
 Z
3 (9) Heavisible –Campbell equal ratio bridge
Z1  Z2 Z3  Z4
AC bridges for measurement of ‘f’
Z1  Z2 Z3  Z4 (10)Robinson bridge
Z1  Z3 (11)Weins bridge (parallel)
Z2 Z4
 or Z1 Z3 (1 Note: There are two types of Weins bridge:
Z Z Z2  Z4
1 3 ) (a)Weins series bridge: It is used to determine
This is the ac bridge balance the unknown capacitance, its power factor .
condition. (b) Weins parallel bridge: It is used in feedback
Since Z  Z0 ; Z0=magnitude of Z
Thus, Z1  Z0 11 , Z 2  Z0 2 2 network circuit of oscillator. It is used as
frequency determining element in audio and
Z3  Z0 3 3 , Z 4  Z0 4 high frequency oscillators. It is also used in
4 harmonic
Putting values of impedances in eq.(1), distortion analyzer, where it is used as a notch
Z 0 Z0 2 2 Z0  3
 Z 3 
11 0 1 4
filter for nating one specific frequency. The circuit diagram
discrimi against and formula for
Z 0 1 Z0 3
(  )   )
frequency is given below.
 (
ZZ0 2 1 2
Z0 13 3 4
0 1
(   )    ) (2)
(
Z0 2 1 4
Z 0 1 2 3
Separating the magnitude and phase angle in
Eq.(2), we have
Z0 1 Z0 3 (3a)

Z0 2 Z0 1
(1  4 )  (2  3
(3b)
)
Eqs. (3a) and (3b) suggests that a.c. bridge 1
f 
balance condition has two type of balance 2 C1C3R1R3
condition. i.e.(i) magnitude and (ii) phase angle If R1=R3 and C1=C3 then R2=2R4 and
balance condition. f  1/(2RC)
Wein’s Bridges: It is an ac bridge. It is used to Putting values of impedances, we have
determine the unknown capacitance of 1 1
R1  jC R3 
a capacitor in terms of known X jC0
capacitance of 
standard capacitor and is used to define the R2 R4
quality of capacitor by determination of its
R1 1 R 1 (2)
power factor.   3
R2 jCX R2 R4 jC0 R4
The four arms of this encloses Comparing real part of eq.(2), we
following components. have (3)
R1 R3

AB arm: Capacitor of unknown capacitance Cx R2 R4
with a series internal resistance R1 Eq.(3) is the real part/dc balance condition of this
BC arm: Fixed resistance R2 bridge. By this, the series internal resistance of
AD arm: Standard capacitor of unknown capacitor can be determined.
known capacitance C0 with a series And comparing imaginary part of eq.(2), we have
non-inductive
variable resistance R3 1 1
DC arm: Variable resistance R4 
CX R2 C0 R4
The complete bridge circuit is shown in C X R2  C0 R4
following figure (X). C X  C0 R4
(4)
R2
The equation (4) is the formula for
the determination of unknown
capacitance. On the
knowledge of R2 R4 in balance condition,
and
the unknown capacitance is calculated with
eq.(4).
The power factor of unknown capacitor can
be written as,
R
cos  1  R1
Z R21  1/ C x 2
Figure(X) If R1 (1/C x) then,
Working: The variable R3 and R4 cos  C x (5)
resistances R1
are varied at fixed value of R2 , till no sound is By knowing the value of R1 and C X , the power
heard in head phone. At no sound, bridge factor can be determined with eq.(5). If power
becomes balanced. factor is small then quality of capacitor is good
Let Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the otherwise not.
four arms of the bridge. Then, Advantage
Z1  R1 1 This bridge is most suitable for comparing capacitances
; Z2  R2
 jCX of capacitors.
 1
Z R  ; Z R Disadvantage
3 3 4 4
In this bridge, final balance condition is obtained by
jC0 alternate variation in R3 and R4. Thus both the
Under the balance condition of bridge, balance conditions are dependent on each other. Thus
Z1 Z3 (1 sensitivity of bridge is low and is high for equal
Z2  Z4 value of R2 and R4.
)
Schering Bridges: This is an ac bridge which is 1
used for the determination of the most R1 jCX 1  1 
 
accurate
value of the unknown capacitance of a capacitor  R jC  jC4 
and is used to define the quality of capacitor 2 0 4 
C4 1
by determination of its power factor. This bridge R1 1   (2)

is
also used in measurement of dielectric constants of R2 jCX R2 C0 jC0 R4
liquids, testing of cables and insulators at high Comparing real part of eq.(2), we have
voltages. R1 C4 (3)

The four arms of this encloses following R 2 C0
components. And comparing imaginary part of eq.(2), we have
AB arm: Capacitor of unknown capacitance 1 1
  C X R2  C0 R4
C1with a series internal resistance R1 CX R2 C0 R4
BC arm: Fixed resistance R2 C X  C0 R4
AD arm: Standard Capacitor of known (4)
R2
capacitance C0
DC arm: A variable capacitor of capacitance C4 in Eq.(3) is the first balance condition of this bridge.
parallel combination with Variable resistance R4. By this, the series internal resistance of unknown
The complete bridge circuit is shown in capacitor can be determined. This condition also
following figure (Y). indicates that the variation in C4 results this
balance condition and is independent of R4 .
The equation (4) is second balance condition
and provides formula for the determination of
unknown capacitance. On the knowledge of R2
and R4 in balance condition, the unknown
capacitance is calculated with eq.(4). This equation
also suggests that this balance is obtained by
variation in R4 and is independent of C4 .
Thus C4 an R4 are varied at fixed value
d
Figure (Y) of R2 for getting the balance condition.
Working: The variable capacitor C4 The power factor of unknown capacitor can be
an written as,
d R
resistance R4 are varied at fixed value R2 , till cos  1  (5)
of
no sound is heard in head phone. At no sound, Let Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the
bridge becomes balanced. four arms of the bridge. Then,
 R1
R21  1/ C x 2
Z Power factor of unknown capacitor can be determined
with eq.(5) by knowing the value of R1 and C X .
1
Z1  R 1  ; Z2  R 2 Since the Both C4 an R4 are required for
d
jCX determination R1 and C X , thus power factor require
Z3  1 1 1  jC both the variable quantity. If power factor is small
; Z4  4 then quality of capacitor is good otherwise not.
jC0
R4
Under the balance condition of bridge, Advantage: This bridge provides Good/fine balance
condition, most accurate result and is most sensitive.
Z1 Z3
Z2  Z4 (1) It is also useful in measurement of dielectric
Putting values of impedances, we constants of liquids and testing of cables and
have insulators at high voltage.
Maxwell inductance bridges: It is the R1 L R L
 j X  3  j 0 (2)
simplest ratio AC Bridge for the R2 R2 R4 R4
determination of
unknown medium inductance of an inductor. Comparing real part of eq.(2), we
This bridge is very similar to Weins series bridge. have (3)
R1 R3

The four arms of this bridge encloses R2 R4
following components. Eq.(3) is the real part/dc balance condition of this
AB arm: Inductor of unknown inductance Lx bridge. By this, the series internal resistance of
with a series internal resistance R1 unknown inductor can be determined.
BC arm: Fixed resistance R2
And comparing imaginary part of eq.(2), we have
AD arm: Variable inductor of known inductance
L0 with its series internal resistance R3 LX L0
R2  R4
DC arm: Variable resistance R4
The complete bridge circuit is shown LX  L0 R2 (4)
in following figure (XX). R4
The equation (4) is the formula for the
determination of unknown inductance. On the
knowledge of R2 R4 in balance condition,
and
the unknown inductance is calculated.
R3
Advantage
From eqs. (3) and (4), we can write,
R
LX  L0 1
R3
LX L0
R1 
 (5)
Thus balance condition is obtained when,
Figure(XX) Time constant of unknown inductor
Working: The variable inductance L0 =time constant of known inductor

and
resistance R4 are varied at fixed value of R2 , Hence, this bridge is the most suitable for the
till no sound is heard in head phone. At no comparing inductances and in measurement of self
sound, bridge becomes balanced. inductance in terms of known self inductance.
Let Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the This bridge is also used for measuring the iron
four arms of the bridge. Then, losses of the transformers at audio frequency.
Z1  R1  jLX ; Z2  R2 Disadvantage
Z3  R3  jL0 ; Z4  R4 The disadvantage of this bridge is that the both
Under the balance condition of bridge, balance condition can not be satisfied
Z1 Z3 independently because any change in L0 causes
Z2  Z4 (1 change in R3. Thus process of getting balance is
) not easy.
Putting values of impedances, we
have
R1  R  jL0
jLX  3 R
4
R2
Maxwell L/C bridges: This is an AC bridge
Z1 Z3
which is also known as Maxwell-Wein bridge. Z2  Z4
It is modified Maxwell’s inductance bridge. Z2 Z4 (1)
By 
this bridge unknown inductance of an inductor Z1 Z3
is measured in terms of capacitance.
Putting values of impedances, we have
The four arms of this bridge encloses  1  R  jL
following components. R2  R  jC1   4 R X
 1  3
AB arm: A variable capacitor of capacitance R2 R4 L
 jC1R2   j X (2)
C1 R1 R3 R3
in parallel combination of resistance R1 Comparing real part of eq.(2), we
BC arm: Fixed resistance R2 have
AD arm: Fixed resistance R3
R2 R4
DC arm: An inductor of unknown inductance R1  (3)
LX in series of variable resistance R4
R3
R1 R
The complete bridge circuit is shown in  3
R2 R4
following figure (yy).
Eq.(3) is the real part/dc balance condition of And comparing imaginary part of eq.(2), we have
this bridge. Thus variation in R4 provides dc L
C1R2  X
balance condition. R3
LX  C1R2 R (4)
The (4) is the formula for
the of unknown
equation inductance. On the
determination
knowledge of C1 R2 R3 in balance
,
and
Figure(yy) condition, the unknown inductance is calculated.
Working: The variable inductance C1 and Advantage
resistance R4 are varied at fixed value of Both the balance conditions are independent to
R1 , R2 and R3 , till no sound or minimum sound each other. Initially, R4 is varied then C1 is varied
is heard in head phone. At this situation, to obtain final balance condition. Thus process
bridge becomes balanced. of getting the balance condition is easy. In view
of getting the balance condition, this bridge is
Let Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the better than the Maxwell’s inductance bridge.
four arms of the bridge. Then, Disadvantage
1 1  jC ; Z  R The perfect balance can never be obtained in
Z1  1 2 2
this bridge due to stray capacitance (self
; Z4  R4  jLX capacitance of coil) and presence of harmonics in
R1
Z3  R3 ac source.
Under the balance condition of bridge,