CHE2006- FUELS & COMBUSTION

Instructor: Dr. Dharmendra Kumar Bal

School of Chemical Engineering
dharmendrakumar.b@vit.ac.in
Course Outline
Reference Books
 Course Objectives
1. Imparting knowledge about basic physical and
chemical properties of fossil and alternative fuels.

2. Developing the student’s understanding levels of fuels

and combustion fundamentals

3. Introducing different types of fuels and fuel analysis

techniques that assists the students to choose most
convenient fuel for a process involving combustion
Expected Course Outcomes
Course Configuration
 Fuels
Fuel is a combustible substance which during combustion
gives large amount of heat.
There are chemical fuels, nuclear fuels and fossil fuels.
Classification of Fuels
These can be classified on the basis of their occurrence
and physical state
(I) On the basis of occurrence they are of two types:
Primary Fuels: Fuels which occur in nature as such are
called primary fuels. E.g., wood, peat, coal, petroleum,
and natural gas.
Secondary Fuels: The fuels which are derived from the
primary fuels by further chemical processing are called
secondary fuels. E,g., coke, charcoal, kerosene, coal gas,
producer gas etc.

(II) On the basis of physical state these may be

classified as:
Solid Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Fuels Classification- Physical State
Coal Formation
Oil and Gas Formation
 Classification of Fuel
Fuels can also be classified into four general classes
• Fossil fuels: Derived from fossil remains of plants and
animal life, found in the crust of earth (Ex. Coal,
petroleum, natural gas)
• By product fuel : Co product of some regular
manufacturing process (Ex. coke oven gas –process of
coke, blast furnace gas – process of iron making)
• Chemical Fuel : Exotic nature and normally not used
in conventional processes (Ex. Hydrazine, ammonium
nitrate, fluorine)
• Nuclear fuel : Ex. Uranium, plutonium (release heat by
fission), deuterium, tritium (release heat by fusion)
 Fundamental Definitions
Calorific value: It is defined as the total quantity of heat
liberated when a unit mass of a fuel is burnt completely.
Units of Calorific value:

System Solid/Liquid Gaseous

Fuels Fuels
CGS Calories/gm Calories/cm3
MKS k cal/kg k cal/m3
B.T.U BTU/lb BTU/ft3

The quantity of heat can be measured in the following units:

(i) Calorie: It is defined as the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1gm of water by 1 oC
1 calorie = 4.184 Joules
(ii) Kilo Calorie: 1 k cal = 1000 cal
(iii) British thermal unit: (B. T. U.) It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
pound of water through 1oF.
1 B.T.U. = 252 Cal = 0.252 k cal
(IV) Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U): It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
pound of water through 1oC.
1k cal = 3.968 B.T.U.
= 2.2 C.H.U.
 Characteristics of Good Fuel
(i) Suitability: The fuel selected should be most suitable for
the process. E.g., coke made out of bituminous coal is
most suitable for blast furnace.
(ii) High Calorific value
(iii) Ignition Temperature: A good fuel should have moderate
ignition temperature.
(iv) Moisture content: Should be low
(v) low Non combustible matter content
(vi) Velocity of combustion: It should be moderate
(vii) Nature of the products
(viii) Cost of fuel, (ix) Smoke, (x) Control of the process
 Characteristics (Drawbacks) of Solid
Fuels
• High ash content
• Low thermal efficiency
• Form clinker
• Low calorific value
• Require large excess air
• Cost
• Not suitable for IC engines
 Characteristics of Liquid Fuels

• High calorific value

• No dust ash or clinker
• Less furnace air
• Less furnace space
• Used in IC engines

(Can we consider it as clean fuel?)

 Characteristics of Gaseous fuel

• Have high heat content

• No ash or smoke

Need very large storage space

 Characteristics of a Good fuel
• High calorific value
• Moderate ignition temperature
• Low moisture content
• Low NOx
• Moderate velocity of combustion
• Products of combustion not harmful
• Low cost
• Easy to transport
• Combustion should be controllable
• No spontaneous combustion
• Low storage cost
• Should burn in air with high efficiency
 Future of Coal Industry in India
 Coal is responsible for 40% of carbon dioxide
emissions from fossil fuels. Mining coal wreaks havoc
on the environment and on the people who live
there. Besides CO2, burning coal produces pollutants
like mercury, sulfur dioxide, which is linked to acid
rain, and particulate matter, which causes respiratory
illnesses.
 GSI, CMPDI (central mine planning and design
institute), SCCL (Singareni collieries company ltd),
MECL (mineral exploration corp. ltd) etc. made a
survey up to the maximum depth of 1200 metre to
estimate the reserve of coal in India and the report
says that there is a cumulative total of 2,93,497
million tonnes of geological resources of coal in the
country as on 1.4.2012.
 Coal-fired plants generate 72% of India’s
electricity. India’s Nationally Determined
Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement states
that India would achieve 40 per cent installed
capacity of power from non-fossil fuels by 2030.
 According to BP Energy Outlook 2019, coal’s share in
India’s primary energy consumption will decline from
56% in 2017 to 48% in 2040. Even the NITI Aayog,
which replaced the Planning Commission, in a 2017
report estimated the share of coal in the energy mix
 Coal Deposits in India

https://coal.nic.in/content/coal-reserves https://www.pmfias.com/coal-in-india-gondwana-coal-tertiary-coal-
coking-coal-non-coking-coal/
 Oil reserves in India

India had estimated crude oil reserves of

594.49 million tonnes (MT) and natural gas
reserves of 1339.57 billion cubic meters
(BCM). India accounted for 0.92% of world oil
http://petroleum.nic.in/sites/default/files/pngstat1516.pdf production in 2016–18. Production of crude
petroleum in India had a CAGR of 0.63%
between 2008–09 and 2017–18.
https://www.statista.com/chart/16274/oil-productin-countries/
Future of Natural Gas Industry in India
 The Indian government aims to increase the share of natural gas in the country’s energy
mix to 15% by 2030, from 6% 2020.
 The IEA welcomes this ambition, which would allow India to improve the environmental
sustainability and flexibility of its energy system.
 Increasing domestic gas production has been a key government priority, as output has
unexpectedly come in below forecast levels over the past few years.
 India has five operating terminals for liquefied natural gas. Projects under construction
could result in up to 11 additional terminals over the next seven years.
 The discovery of massive (Second largest in the world) methane hydrate reserve in India
has the potential to change the landscape of our energy sector. As per the US geological
survey, Krishna and Godavari (KG), Cauveri and Kerala basin hold approximately 100-
130 trillion cubic feet of gas hydrate and capable of quenching our hydrocarbon need
for 300 years.
Natural Gas Reserves (World & India)

https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/natural-gas-proved-reserves https://twitter.com/gailindia/status/916641265780850690
 Gas Hydrate Reserves

Clathrate hydrates, or gas hydrates, are

https://ktwop.com/2013/03/17/fire-ice-methane-hydrate-success-
in-japan-gets-india-all-excited/
crystalline water-based solids physically
resembling ice, in which small non-polar
molecules or polar molecules with large
hydrophobic moieties are trapped inside
"cages" of hydrogen bonded, frozen water
molecules.
Rank of Coal
Type of Percentage (dry, mineral matter % calorific
coal free basis) moist value
ure
C H O N VM

Wood 45-50 5-6 20-40 0-0.5 - 70-90 4000-

4500
Peat 45-60 3.5-6.5 20-45 0.75-3 45-75 70-90 4125-
5280
Brown 60-75 4.5-5.5 17-35 0.75-2 45-60 30-50 6600-
Coal/lignite 7100
6600-
75-90 4.0-5.5 20-30 0.75-2 11-50 10-20 8800
Bituminous
coal
8470-
90-95 3-4 2-3 0.5-2 3.8-10 1.5-3.5 8800
Anthracite
 Uses of Coal

• Electricity generation
• Steel production
• Cement manufacturing
• Liquid fuel
• Paper production
• Activated carbon used in filters for water
• Carbon fibre as light weight reinforcement material
for construction
• Silicon metal used to produce silicones
 Analysis of Coal
Coal is analyzed in two ways:
• Proximate analysis:
The proximate analysis of a fuel indicates the moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and
ash content of the fuel in terms of percentage by weight.
Moisture means the water expelled from the fuel by specified methods without causing
any chemical change to the fuel.
Volatile matter is the total loss in weight minus the moisture when the fuel is heated
out of contact with air to a sufficiently high temperature under specified conditions.
Ash is the inorganic residue left when the fuel is completely burnt in air under specified
conditions. It is different from the original mineral matter associated with the coal
because of changes that take place during incineration.
Fixed Carbon is the residue obtained by subtracting the sum of the percentages by
weight of moisture, volatile matter, and ash from 100. It is essentially carbon with trace
amounts of nitrogen, Sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen.
• Ultimate analysis:
The ultimate analysis of a fuel gives its elementary composition. It is the analysis in
terms of the percentage by weight of the elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
and Sulphur which constitute the pure fuel, free from moisture and inorganic
constituents.
Analysis of Coal (Proximate Analysis)
The results of analysis are generally reported in the following ways:
• As received basis
• Air dried basis
• Moisture free basis (oven dried)
• Moisture and ash free basis
Proximate Analysis
The data varies with the procedure adopted and hence it is called proximate
analysis. It gives information about the practical utility of coal.

Moisture Content: Air dried moisture is determined by heating a known amount of

coal to 105-110 oC in an electric hot air oven for about one hour. After one hour, it
is taken out from the oven and cooled in a desiccator and weighed.
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
Proximate Analysis (Contd.)
Volatile Matter: It consists of a complex mixture of gaseous and liquid products resulting
from the thermal decomposition of the coal.
It is determined by heating a known weight of moisture free coal sample in a covered
platinum crucible at 950 ± 20oC for 7 minutes.
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
=
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
Significance
• A high percent of volatile matter indicates that a large proportion of fuel is burnt as a
gas.
• The high volatile content gives long flames, high smoke and relatively low heating
values.
• High volatile matter content is desirable in coal gas manufacture because volatile matter
in a coal denotes the proportion of the coal which will be converted into gas and tar
products by heat.
Proximate Analysis (Contd.)
Ash : Coal contains inorganic mineral substances which are converted into ash by
chemical reactions during the combustion of coal.
Ash usually consists of silica, alumina, iron oxide and small quantities of lime, magnesia
etc.
Ash content is determined by heating the residue left after the removal of volatile
matter at 700 ± 50oC for ½ an hour without covering
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒔𝒉 =
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍
Ash can be classified as intrinsic ash and extrinsic ash. The mineral matter originally
present in vegetable matter from which the coal was formed is called intrinsic ash. It
consists of oxides of Na, K, Mg, Ca and Si.
The mineral matter like clay, gypsum, dirt which gets mixed up during mining and
handling of coal constitute the extrinsic ash which remains as a residue after the
combustion. E.g., CaSO4, CaCO3, Fe2O3 etc.
The high percentage of ash is undesirable. It reduces the calorific value of coal. In
furnace grate, the ash may restrict the passage of air and lower the rate of combustion.
Proximate Analysis (Contd.)
High ash leads to large heat losses and leads to formation of ash lumps. The
composition of ash and fusion range also influences the efficiency of coal.
When coal is used in boiler, the fusion temperature of ash is very significant. Ash
having fusion temperature below 1200oC is called fusible ash and above 1430oC is
called refractory ash.
Fixed Carbon: Fixed carbon content increases from lignite to anthracite. Higher the
percentage of fixed carbon greater is its calorific value and better is the quality of
coal.
The percentage of fixed carbon is given by:
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − %𝑴𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 + %𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 + %𝑨𝒔𝒉
Significance:
• Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater its calorific value.
• The percentage of fixed carbon helps in designing the furnace and shape of the
fire-box because it is the fixed carbon that burns in the solid state.
1. A coal from the bararee colliery gave the following proximate
analysis:
Moisture : 16%, ash 15.7%, volatile matter 27.8 % and fixed
carbon 54.9% on air dried basis.
Calculate its ash on a dry basis and volatile matter, fixed carbon on
d.a.f and d.m.m.f.
The proximate analysis of coal is: Moisture 2.4%, Volatile
Matter 29.4%, Fixed Carbon 58%, Ash 9.7% and Sulphur 0.5%.
Its gross calorific value is 7650 Kcal/Kg. Calculate proximate
analysis on
a) Moisture free basis
b) Dry ash free basis
 Ultimate Analysis
Ultimate analysis:
It is carried out to ascertain the composition of coal.
Ultimate analysis includes the estimation of carbon, hydrogen,
sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen.
1. Carbon and Hydrogen: A known amount of coal is taken in a
combustion tube and is burnt in excess of pure oxygen.
𝑔𝑚 𝑔𝑚 44 gm CO2 contains = 12 gm of carbon
𝐶 12 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 (44 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 gm of CO2 contains = (12/44) gm of C
𝑔𝑚 1 𝑔𝑚 Y gm of CO2 contains = (12/44)×Y gm of
𝐻2 2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂 (18 ) carbon
𝑚𝑜𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
18 gm H2O contains = 2 gm of Hydrogen
1 gm of H2O contains = (2/18) gm of Hydrogen
Z gm of H2O contains = (12/44)×Z gm of
Hydrogen
 Ultimate Analysis

Estimation of carbon and

hydrogen In first U-Tube, H2O gets captured in
2KOH + CO2 → K 2 CO3 + H2 O anhydrous CaCl , Z gm increase weight of
2
CaCl2 + 7H2 O → CaCl2 . 7H2 O
Anhydrous CaCl2 containing tube.
In second U-Tube, CO2 gets captured in KOH
solution, Y gm increase weight of KOH
solution containing tube.
 Ultimate Analysis
12 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × 100
Percentage of carbon = ×
44 weight of coal taken

Percentage of hydrogen
2 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × 100
= ×
18 weight of coal taken
Significance:
Calorific value of a fuel is directly related to its carbon content.
A higher percentage of carbon reduces the size of the combustion
chamber.
High percentage of hydrogen also increases the calorific value of
coal. The content of hydrogen in coals varies between 4.5 to 6.5
percent from peat to bituminous stage.
 Ultimate Analysis
2. Nitrogen: Nitrogen present in coal sample can be estimated by
Kjeldahl’s method.

The contents are then transferred to a round bottomed flask and

solution is heated with excess of NaOH.
The ammonia gas thus liberated is absorbed in a known volume of a
standard solution of acid used.
It is determined by digesting 1g of coal sample in Kjeldahl flask(long
necked flask) with conc. H2SO4 along with CuSO4. After the solution
becomes clear, it is treated with excess of NaOH and the liberated
ammonia is distilled over and absorbed in a known volume of
standard acid solution. The unused acid is then determined by back
titration with standard NaOH. From the volume of acid used by
ammonia liberated, the % of N in coal is calculated as follows.
Ultimate Analysis

Estimation of nitrogen by
Kjeldahl’s method
 Ultimate Analysis
 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 
(𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑆𝑂4 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑁𝐻3 + 2𝐻2 𝑂

2 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → (𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑆𝑂4

Let, weight of coal taken = W gm
Vol. of N/10 NaOH required for blank reading = y ml
Vol. of N/10 NaOH required = x ml (to titrate unreacted acid),
Vol. of N/10 acid reacted with ammonia = (y-x) ml =Vol. of acid used,
Vol. of N/10 ammonia solution = (y-x) ml % 𝒐𝒇 𝑵
Vol. of acid used × Normality of Acid × 1.4
1000 ml of 1N ammonia (NH3) solution= 17 gm of NH3=
Weight of coal taken
1000 ml of 1 N ammonia (NH3) solution = 14 gm of N
% 𝒐𝒇 𝑵
1000 ml of 0.1 N ammonia (NH3) solution = 1.4 gm of N 1.4(y − x)
=
10W
1.4 𝑦−𝑥
(y-x) ml of 0.1 N NH3 solution = 𝑔𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑁
1000

1.4(𝑦−𝑥)
1 gm of coal contains = gm of N, 100 gm of coal contains = (1.4(𝑦−𝑥))/10𝑊 gm of
1000𝑊

N
 Ultimate Analysis
Determination of Sulphur:
Bomb calorimeter is used to determine the Sulphur. A known mass
of coal sample is taken in calorimeter. If Sulphur is burnt with
oxygen, Sulphur is converted to Sulphate. The washing are treated
with Barrium chloride (BaCl2) solution.
When Barrium sulphate (BaSO4) is precipitated the precipitate is
filtered, washed and heated to constant weight.
BaSO4 Molar Mass = 233.38 gm/mol
233.38 gm BaSO4 contains = 32.06 gm of Sulphur
1 gm of BaSO4 contains = (32.06/233.38) gm of Sulphur
Y gm of BaSO4 contains = (32.06/233.38)×Y gm of Sulphur
% Sulphur = ( Weight of BaSO4 obtained x 32.06 x 100)/(weight of
coal x 233.38)
Bomb Calorimeter
Four essential parts are required in any
bomb
calorimeter:
1. A bomb or vessel in which the
combustible
charges can be burned.
2. A bucket or container for holding the
bomb in a measured quantity of water,
together with a stirring mechanism.
3. An insulating jacket to protect the
bucket from transient thermal stresses
during the combustion process.
4. A thermometer or other sensor for
measuring temperature changes within
the bucket.
Ultimate Analysis and Significance
Determination of Oxygen:
Oxygen is determined by difference
% oxygen = 100 - % (C + H +S + N)
C and H: Greater the % of C and H, better is the coal in quality and
calorific value. However, H is mostly associated with volatile matter
and hence it influences the use of coal. Since H is mainly present in
combination with O as water it lowers the calorific value of fuel, so
lesser the percentage of H better is the quality of coal.
N: N is an inert and incombustible gas and doesn't contribute any
useful property. It is generally found in small amounts (around 1%).
 Significance of Ultimate Analysis
S: S present in metallurgical coal is harmful for use in metallurgy as it
transfers to the metal and adversely affects the properties of metal.
Oxidation products of S (SO2 and SO3) especially formed in presence of
moisture, have corrosive effect on the equipment and also causes
atmospheric pollution. Hence the presence of S is undesirable.

O: O content decreases the calorific value of coal. High O content coals are
characterized by high inherent moisture, low calorific value and low coking
power. Moreover oxygen is in combined form with hydrogen in coal and
thus H available for combustion is lesser than actual. An increase in 1%
oxygen content decreases the calorific value by 1.7% and hence O is
undesirable.
 Calorific value (CV)
Calorific value: It is defined as the total quantity of heat liberated
when a unit mass of a fuel is burnt completely.
• Units of Calorific value:
Unit System Solid/Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels
CGS Calories/gm Calories/cm3
MKS kcal/kg kcal/m3
BTU BTU/lb BTU/ft3

The quantity of heat can be measured in the following units:

Calorie: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gm of water by 1oC , 1 calorie = 4.184 Joules
 CV Measuring Units and GCV
Kilo Calorie: 1 kcal = 1000 cal
British thermal unit (B. T. U.) It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1oF.
1 B.T.U = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal
Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U) It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1oC.
1 kcal = 3.968 B.T.U = 2.2 C.H.U
Gross Calorific Value (higher heating value) at constant volume is the quantity of
heat liberated by the combustion of a unit quantity of fuel at constant volume in
oxygen saturated with water vapor, the original materials and final products of
combustion being at a reference temperature of 25oC, and the water obtained
from the fuel being in the liquid state.
Gross Calorific Value at constant pressure is similar to the former expression
except that the combustion takes place at constant pressure instead of constant
volume. In laboratory experiments, solid and liquid fuels are burnt at constant
volume whereas gaseous fuels are burnt at constant pressure. In furnace, the
combustion takes place at constant pressure. For coal, the calorific value at
constant pressure exceeds the calorific value at constant volume by 5.5 kcal/kg.
 Gross Calorific Value (Contd.)
• Gross Calorific Value: It is the total amount of heat
generated when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt
in oxygen and the products of combustion are cooled
down to the room temperature.
• As the products of combustion are cooled down to room
temperature, the steam gets condensed into water and
latent heat is evolved. Thus in the determination of gross
calorific value, the latent heat also gets included in the
measured heat. Therefore, gross calorific value is also
called the higher calorific value.
• The calorific value which is determined by Bomb
calorimeter gives the higher calorific value (HCV) (constant
volume)
 Net Calorific Value
• Net Calorific Value (NCV) It is defined as the net heat produced when a
unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion
are allowed to escape.
• The water vapor do not condense and escape with hot combustion
gases. Hence, lesser amount than gross calorific value is available. It is
also known as lower calorific value (LCV).
LCV=HCV - Latent heat of water vapor formed ……….(1)
• The net calorific value is, therefore less than gross calorific value by an
amount corresponding to the heat of condensation of water vapor,
which is at 25oC is 583.5 kcal/kg. For hydrogen, this is equal to 5252
kcal/kg. Approximately, the following formula is used to calculate the net
calorific value(CN) from gross caloric value (CG) of solid and liquid fuels:
CN= CG-52.5H……….(2)
LCV= (HCV-0.09H×587)………..3)
• where, CN and CG are NCV and GCV in in kcal/kg, respectively, H is the
percentage of hydrogen in the fuel, including hydrogen present in
moisture and in water of hydration of minerals for fuels like coal.
 Net Calorific Value (Contd.)
• For gaseous fuels, the formula is
CN= CG-4.7V (4)
where, CN and CG are NCV and GCV in kcal/Nm3, respectively,
V is the volume percentage of total hydrogen of the gaseous
fuel, including hydrogen obtainable from water vapor in the
gas and other combustible components.
Dulong Formula for Calorific Value Calculation
If C, H, O and S are the percentage of Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen and Sulphur by weight respectively present in a fuel
then the higher calorific value of fuel can be calculated from
the following formula known as Dulong’s formula.
H.C.V.= (80.8 C +344 (H - O/8)) kcal/kg (5) (Without Sulphur)
HCV= 1/100(8080C+34500(H-O/8)+2240S) kcal/kg (6)
 Flash Point of Liquid Fuel
1. Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric
pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm Hg), at which application of an
ignition source causes the vapors of a specimen of the sample to
ignite under specified conditions of test (ASTM D92)
2. The flash point is one measure of the tendency of the test
specimen to form a flammable mixture with air under controlled
laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of properties that
should be considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of
a material.
3. Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to define
flammable and combustible materials.
4. Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile
and flammable materials in a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable
material. For example, an abnormally low flash point on a test
specimen of engine oil can indicate gasoline contamination.
 Fire Point and Ignition Point of Liquid
Fuel
Fire point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric
pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm Hg), at which application of an
ignition source causes the vapors of a test specimen of the sample to
ignite and sustain burning for a minimum of 5 s under specified
conditions of test.
Fire point temperature is higher than the flash point. Both the
temperature indicate the fire risk of a liquid fuel. For highly volatile
fuels, the flash point and fire points are much lower than the ignition
point.
Ignition point or ignition temperature or spontaneous ignition
temperature is the minimum temperature at which a fuel ignites in
an oxidising atmosphere without the help of any external source of
fire. It is a characteristics properties of fuel and also depends upon
other factors like atmosphere (oxygen or air), method of heating and
nature of container.
 Bomb Calorimeter
• Calorific value of coal is determined by Bomb calorimeter. It is a thick walled
steel cylindrical vessel with lid which is called Bomb. Two electrodes are
inserted through the lid which are in contact with fuse and fuel sample of
known weight. An oxygen inlet valve is provided with the lid through which
high pressure oxygen gas (at about 25 to 30 atm) is supplied. Entire
arrangement is held in a calorimeter containing known weight of water and
a mechanical stirrer is provided to stir the water for uniform heating. A
thermometer is also provided to measure the change in temperature of
water due to combustion of fuel. The gross calorific value is calculated by
the following formula,
𝐶. 𝑉 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑇𝑐 + 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝐶𝑤 /𝑚𝑓
• Where, m1 and m2 are mass of water in calorimeter and water equivalent of
bomb calorimeter, respectively. mf is mass of fuel sample whose calorific
value is to be determined. T1 and T2 are final and initial temperature of
water sample. Tc is temperature correction for radiation losses. Cw is specific
heat of water.
Bomb Calorimeter
Four essential parts are required in any
bomb
calorimeter:
1. A bomb or vessel in which the
combustible
charges can be burned.
2. A bucket or container for holding the
bomb in a measured quantity of water,
together with a stirring mechanism.
3. An insulating jacket to protect the
bucket from transient thermal stresses
during the combustion process.
4. A thermometer or other sensor for
measuring temperature changes within
the bucket.