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Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
GEAR SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
The landing gear of the very first airplanes was not very complex. The Wright Flyer, for instance, took off from a
rail and landed on skids. However, soon after the basic problems of flight were solved, attention was turned to
providing better control and stability of the aircraft while it was operated on the ground. Bicycle and motorcycle
wheels were first used, which in turn, gave way to specially designed landing gear and wheels that absorbed the
extreme loads imparted during takeoffs and landings. In addition, braking systems were installed to provide safer
and more efficient control for slowing an airplane after landing. In later years, as aircraft designs improved to
increase speed and efficiency, retraction systems were provided to allow the landing gear to be stowed during
flight to reduce aerodynamic loads, or drag. With continued improvements in technology, landing gear systems
on modern aircraft are highly reliable and capable of handling extreme conditions, enabling safe transitions
between flight and ground mobility.
LANDING GEAR SYSTEMS
AND MAINTENANCE
LANDING GEAR TYPES retract the wheels into the wing or the fuselage to
The first airplanes with wheels used a tricycle decrease drag. [Figure 9-1]
landing gear. In a tricycle gear configuration, the
main wheels are located behind the center of LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT
gravity and an auxiliary wheel (nose wheel) is Landing gear arrangement is determined by the
located at the front of the aircraft. When airplanes manufacturer. The most prevalent arrangement on
with aft or "pusher" propellers were replaced modern aircraft is the tricycle gear configuration.
with those having the propeller up front, the tail- However, it is important that the maintenance tech-
wheel landing gear was used in order to keep the nician be familiar with other arrangements, particu-
propeller further above the ground. This configu- larly the tailwheel or conventional gear arrange-
ration became so popular that it is called "con- ment. Occasionally, a technician will encounter
ventional" landing gear, even though it has the some other form of landing gear such as the tandem
disadvantage of being difficult for ground arrangement in which the wheels are located down
the centerline of the longitudinal axis of the aircraft,
such as in the case of some gliders.
When engines were developed that produced their
power at speeds that allow for shorter propellers, TAILWHEEL TYPE LANDING GEAR
the ground handling advantages of the tricycle land- The majority of modern aircraft do not utilize con-
ing gear eventually came back as the most popular ventional landing gear, resulting in a generation of
landing gear configuration. pilots who have never flown an airplane with a tail-
wheel arrangement. Tailwheel aircraft are configured
Slow airplanes gain flight efficiency by using fixed with the two main wheels located ahead of the air-
landing gear. The weight savings more than make craft's center of gravity and a much smaller wheel at
up for the additional drag inefficiencies, especially the tail. Moving the rudder pedals that are linked to
when the wheels are enclosed in streamlined wheel the tailwheel steers the aircraft on the ground. The
fairings, or "pants." However, as the speed of the rudder pedals are connected to the tailwheel steering
airplane increases, the parasitic drag from a fixed by a control cable system and spring. The spring pro-
landing gear offsets the advantage of its light vides steering dampening. Some aircraft have no pro-
weight. Hence, it has become advantageous to vision for steering the tailwheel. In that case, the
Figure 9-1. Decreased drag can be achieved by the use of streamlined fairings or by retracting the gear.
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
TANDEM LANDING GEAR Figure 9-4. Streamlined wheel fairings called "wheel pants"
The tandem wheel arrangement is seldom used on are used to decrease the wind resistance of fixed landing
civilian aircraft other than gliders. Some of the gear.
9-4 Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
SHOCK ABSORBING AND NON-
ABSORBING LANDING GEAR
Some aircraft landing gear absorb landing shock and
some do not. Non-absorbing gear include spring
steel, composite, rigid, and bungee cord construc-
tion. Shock absorbing gear incorporate shock
absorbers that converts motion into some other form
of energy, usually heat.
SPRING STEEL AND COMPOSITES
Most aircraft provide for absorbing the landing
impact and shocks of taxiing over rough ground.
Some aircraft, however, do not actually absorb these
shocks but rather accept the energy in some form of
elastic medium and return it at a rate and time that
the aircraft can accept. The most popular form of Figure 9-6. Fabric enclosed rubber bungee cords in this
landing gear that does this is the spring steel gear landing gear accept both landing impact and taxi shocks.
used on most of the single-engine Cessna aircraft.
These airplanes use either a flat steel leaf or a tubu-
lar spring steel strut that accepts the loads and SHOCK STRUTS
returns it in such a way that it does not cause the The most widely used shock absorber for aircraft is
aircraft to rebound. [Figure 9-5] the air-oil shock absorber, more commonly known
as an oleo strut. The cylinder of this strut is attached
to the aircraft structure, and a close fitting piston is
free to move up and down inside the cylinder. It is
kept in alignment and prevented from coming out of
the cylinder by torsion links, or scissors. The upper
link is hinged to the cylinder and the lower link to
the piston. The wheel and axle are mounted to the
piston portion of the strut. [Figure 9-7]
RIGID GEAR
Certain older types of aircraft use rigid landing gear
that transmit all the loads of landing touchdown
directly to the airframe's structure. Some of the
shock is absorbed by the elasticity of the tires.
However, this type of landing gear system is not
only hard on the aircraft's occupants, but can cause
structural failure during a hard landing. Some air-
craft, such as helicopters, that normally land very
softly utilize rigid landing gear.
BUNGEE CORD
Some aircraft use rubber to cushion the shock of
landing. This may be in the form of rubber dough-
nuts or as a bungee cord, which is a bundle of small
strands of rubber encased in a loosely woven cloth
tube. Rubber bungee cords accept both landing Figure 9-7. The oleo strut has become the most widely used
impact and taxi shocks. [Figure 9-6] form of shock absorber on aircraft landing gear.
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems 9-5
Shock Strut Operation
The cylinder of a shock strut is divided into two
compartments by a piston tube. The piston itself fits
into the cylinder around the tube. A tapered meter-
ing pin, which is a part of the piston, sticks through
a hole in the bottom of the piston tube. To fill the
strut, the piston is pushed all of the way into the
cylinder. The strut is then filled with hydraulic
fluid to the level of the charging valve. With the
weight of the aircraft on the wheel, enough com-
pressed air or nitrogen is pumped through the
charging valve to raise the airplane until the piston
sticks out of the cylinder a distance specified by the
manufacturer. [Figure 9-8]
BEARING LUBRICATION
Bearings should be packed using the grease speci-
fied by the aircraft manufacturer. MIL-G-81322D is
the most recently developed type of lubrication and
has superior qualities to previously developed
lubrications. Not all brands of MIL specification
grease are the same color, but those having the same
specification number are compatible and inter-
changeable, regardless of their color.
If equipment is available for pressure-packing the Figure 9-14. The bead seat area of a wheel assembly is the
bearings, it should be used. Pressure packing uni- most difficult area of a wheel to inspect. Eddy current
formly covers all of the rollers. If the bearings must inspection is a type of inspection that can reliably find
cracks in this area.
be packed by hand, the grease must be worked up
around each of the individual rollers and inner
cone until they are all uniformly covered. After the maintenance shops. Eddy current inspection is a
bearing is thoroughly greased, the inner cone and comparison system rather than an absolute mea-
roller assembly should be packed in clean waxed surement, and its effectiveness depends to a large
paper and stored until ready for installation. A extent on the experience and judgment of the oper-
light film of grease should be applied to the bear- ator. Dye penetrant inspection procedures can be
ing cups in the wheel halves, which protects the used to check for cracks in the key slot areas
cup from dirt or damage until the wheel is because cracks in this area have no tendency to
reassembled. close up. [Figure 9-15]
Most large aircraft use mechanical locks to hold the LANDING GEAR SAFETY DEVICES
landing gear in its UP or DOWN position. There Retractable gear aircraft must have gear safety
must be a provision in these systems for the devices to prevent unwanted actions from taking
hydraulic pressure to release the locks before fluid place. Among these are devices to prevent raising
is directed into the actuating cylinders. the gear on the ground, devices to lock the gear
down when the aircraft is sitting on the ramp, indi-
The brakes are usually applied when the landing- cators to tell the pilot what position the gear is in,
gear selector is placed in the GEAR UP position. and provisions for centering the nose gear before it
This prevents the fire hazard that would exist if the is raised into the wheel well.
wheels were spinning while in the wheel wells as
well as preventing the possibility of damaging the SAFETY SWITCH
aircraft due to a spinning wheel. Most aircraft with retractable landing gear are
equipped with a means of preventing the retraction
Most of the large aircraft landing-gear systems use of the landing gear while the aircraft is on the
an orifice check valve in the fluid lines to the actu- ground. If not, the landing gear would retract if the
ators. The weight of the landing gear dropping out aircraft's hydraulic system was powered and the
of the wheel well could cause it to fall so fast that gear handle was moved to the up position. To pre-
damage to the structure is a possibility. Therefore, vent this from happening, a squat switch with a
the return flow from the actuator is restricted which lever attached prevents the gear control handle from
prevents uncontrolled free fall. Unrestricted flow, being placed in the up position when there is
however, is allowed into and out of the actuator weight on the aircraft wheels. A switch connected
when the gear is being retracted. [Figure 9-28] to the aircraft's landing gear senses whether the air-
craft is on the ground or in the air. If the aircraft is
EMERGENCY EXTENSION SYSTEMS in the air, the switch pulls the lever away from the
Retractable landing gear systems must have a means gear handle so it can be placed in the up position.
of lowering the landing gear if the primary method Some aircraft are equipped with an override trigger
of lowering the gear fails. Because there are many that will manually pull the lever clear so the gear
methods used to actuate the landing gear, this dis- handle can be moved to the up position. The flight
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems 9-17
crew can use this provision in case the sensor up and down positions without binding. The gear
switch malfunctions when the gear needs to be must remain locked after the gear handle is
raised in flight. moved to the off or neutral position. Many gear
latches are mechanical devices that either lock
GROUND LOCKS the gear in place or lock the gear over center so it
Ground locks are used to secure the landing gear in cannot become unlocked until the retraction sys-
the down position. These locks are generally tem causes it to unlock and move to a new gear
removed manually by ground personnel. Ground position.
locks are placed into position after the aircraft lands
and are kept engaged until the aircraft is ready for GEAR DOOR CLEARANCES
the next flight. The locks generally consist of a pin To set or check the gear door clearances, the airplane
inserted into the retraction mechanism in such a is first placed on jacks. Once the main gear is prop-
manner to block the retraction of the landing gear. erly adjusted in the retracted position, the gear doors
can be adjusted. This is usually done by setting the
GEAR INDICATORS retraction rod end at the gear door so the door will
Position indicators, generally located close to the pull up tightly when the gear is fully up. Over-tight-
landing gear lever, include green gear down and ening may result in door buckling. However, if the
locked lights, a red gear door open light, and red a door is too loose, it will gap in flight. All rod ends
gear disagreement light, but may use a red gear should be checked for adequate thread engagement,
unsafe/in transit light. Smaller airplanes do not use for safety, and tightness of jam nuts.
gear door open lights. Generally when the gear is up
and locked, all the lights will go out signaling that the DRAG AND SIDE BRACE ADJUSTMENT
gear is up and locked. Switches or proximity probes The drag and side brace adjustments must be set so
at each gear position control the lights in the cockpit. the gear stops in the correct position and that the
gear's alignment is set properly. Since landing-gear
A warning system is used to inform the pilots if the systems are so different in construction always con-
gear is not down during a landing attempt. As the sult the manufacturer's maintenance manual before
throttles are retarded toward closed, a switch is performing any work on these components.
closed. If the gear is not down, a warning horn will
sound until the throttles are opened or the gear is LANDING GEAR RETRACTION CHECK
lowered. Although there are some variations from Landing gear retraction checks are performed as a
system to system, most are based on this basic idea of part of hundred-hour and annual inspections. They
warning the pilot that the gear is not in the down and are also performed after replacement of landing
locked position while in a landing configuration. gear components or after an event that could dam-
age the gear such as a hard landing. To perform a
NOSEWHEEL CENTERING retraction test, the airplane is placed on jacks. Next
The nose wheel is equipped with centering cams the main gear is inspected for full travel from gear-
located in the nose wheel shock strut. These centering down to gear-up, which is accomplished by cycling
cams center the nose wheel when the strut is extended the gear up and down while watching for loose-
after take-off. The nose gear will remain centered until ness, binding, and chafing of the gear or related
the weight of the aircraft, upon landing, compresses parts. The gear doors should be adjusted so that
the strut moving the centering cams away from their they pull up tightly when the gear is fully retracted.
slots. This allows the wheel to turn as commanded by If the doors are too loose, they will gap in flight.
the steering tiller or the rudder pedals. Check all gear components for damage, for safety,
and tightness.
LANDING GEAR RIGGING
AND ADJUSTMENT During a retraction test, the emergency extension
The purpose of having retracting gear is to reduce system (alternate extension system) should also be
parasite drag. If the system is out of adjustment so operated to ensure it is functioning properly. The
that one or more components are extended into the gear-up warning horn can also be checked during a
slipstream, there is more parasite drag than there retraction test. With the gear in the up position and
should be. Therefore, proper rigging is essential the throttles are pulled to the idle position, the
horn should sound until the throttles are moved
GEAR LATCHES forward. The manufacturer's service manual should
The landing gear latches, or up and down locks, always be followed when performing a retraction
must be adjusted so the gear will lock in the full test on an aircraft.
AIRCRAFT BRAKES
There are two basic types of disc brakes in use
today. For smaller aircraft, on which brakes are used
primarily as a maneuvering device and do not
require the dissipation of great amounts of kinetic
energy, the single-disc brake using spot-type linings
has proven very effective. [Figure 9-29]
CARBON BRAKES
Many aircraft employ multiple-disc brakes that use
discs made of pure carbon. The weight saving of car-
bon brakes is tremendous, and the heat-dissipating
properties of the relatively thick carbon discs elim-
inate the need for extensive cooling periods after
heavy braking. At present, these brakes are used pri-
marily on higher-performance military aircraft and
jet transport aircraft.
Figure 9-34. A sectional view of a fixed, single-disc
BRAKE CONSTRUCTION hydraulic brake with a movable caliper, as found on
The aviation maintenance technician can better Cleveland brakes. This type of brake is very common on
light aircraft.
maintain brakes by understanding the differences
between single-disc, multiple-disc, segmented-
rotor, carbon, and expander-tube braking systems.
and out enough to prevent binding as the brakes are
SINGLE-DISC BRAKE applied. Anti-rattle clips apply a spring pressure to
Brake systems utilizing a single disc have the disc the outside of the disc to hold it centered so it will
attached rigidly to the wheel or floating with the not rattle against the wheel as it rotates.
attachment to the wheel by way of drive keys. The
popular Cleveland brake for general-aviation air- A cast-aluminum or magnesium alloy housing is
craft uses a fixed brake disc bolted to the inside bolted to a flange on the aircraft landing-gear strut,
wheel half. The caliper for this brake consists of a and lining cavities in the housing hold the fixed
cylinder assembly holding one or more pistons that anvil lining on one side of the rotating disc and the
are actuated by hydraulic pressure to squeeze the movable piston-side lining on the opposite side.
disc between two brake linings, one of which is riv-
eted to the pressure plate and the other to the back A piston cavity, or cylinder, holds a machined alu-
plate. [Figure 9-34] minum alloy piston that is sealed in the cavity with
an O-ring packing around its circumference. The
The entire caliper is free to move back and forth on cavity is closed with a cylinder head that is either
two anchor bolts that ride in holes in the torque plate threaded into the housing or held in place by snap-
that is bolted to the landing-gear axle. [Figure 9-35] ring or machine screws. An O-ring seal keeps the
cylinder head from leaking. When hydraulic fluid is
A floating-disc brake system utilizes a forged-steel forced into the cylinder, the piston pushes the mov-
disc with a smooth ground surface that is keyed to able lining out and clamps the rotating disc between
rotate with the wheel. The disc is free to move in the two linings.
Aircraft Landing Gear 9-21
Systems
BOLT
BLEEFER
VALVE
WASHER O-
RING
BRAKE
PISTON
BRAKE
LINING
RIVET BACK
PLATE
MULTIPLE-DISC BRAKE
Figure 9-36. When installed on an aircraft, the lettered side A high-strength steel torque tube bolts to the center of
of the brake lining must be installed facing away from the the landing-gear strut, and the brake housing bolts to
disc. the torque tube. Keyed teeth on the outside circum-
ference of the torque tube engage slots in the pressure
Many models of single-disc brakes incorporate auto- plate and the stationary discs to prevent rotation. The
matic adjusters to maintain a constant clearance back plate bolts rigidly to the torque tube to form the
between the lining and the disc when the brake is clamp for the stack of discs. [Figure 9-38]
released. Pistons on brakes that include automatic
adjusters use a pin with a large head held centered The brake housing is usually made of cast alu-
in the piston cavity by a return spring and a spring minum or magnesium alloy and attaches to the strut
retainer. The end of the pin extends through the by bolts through the torque tube. Cavities in the
Figure 9-37. Automatic adjusters are used on many models of single-disc brakes. This device maintains the proper disc to friction
puck spacing as the puck wears with use.
Aircraft Landing Gear 9-23
Systems
time the brake is released. Each of the cavities, or
cylinders, in the housing is fitted with a machined-
aluminum alloy piston. These pistons are sealed in
the cylinder with an O-ring packing, backed up with
a spiraled Teflon55 backup ring. A composition
insulator is attached to the face of each piston,
where it presses against the pressure plate. This
insulator minimizes the transfer of heat from the
disc stack to the piston, preventing adverse effects
on the fluid and the seals.
housing hold the pistons that provide the clamping A machined-steel spring housing slips through a
action as they force the pressure plate against the hole in the brake housing to provide a base for the
stack of discs. [Figure 9-39] return spring. A heavy coil spring and spring holder
is located inside the spring housing and held in
place by a retaining ring when the brake is released.
CARBON BRAKE
This is a multiple-disc brake that uses a thick car-
bon disc as the brake rotor. These brakes can absorb
tremendous amounts of kinetic energy and yet have
relatively low weight. The thick, black carbon disc
dissipates heat extremely well, is very light, and has
excellent wear properties. [Figure 9-43]
BOOSTED BRAKES
Midsize airplanes require more braking force than
can be applied with an independent master cylin-
der, yet do not require the complex system of a
power brake. The boosted brake was designed to fill
this need.
The boosted brake master cylinder is typical for this
type of operation. The boosted brake cylinder is
mounted on the rudder pedal and attached to the
toe-brake pedal in such a way that depressing the
pedal pulls on the rod and forces fluid out to the
brake cylinder. If the pilot needs more pressure on
the brakes than can be applied with the pedal, the
pilot continues to push. As the toggle mechanism
straightens out, the spool valve is moved over so it
will direct hydraulic system pressure behind the
piston to assist the pilot in forcing fluid to the brake.
When the pedal is released, the spool valve moves
back to its original position and vents the fluid on
top of the piston back to the system reservoir. At the
same time, the compensator poppet unseats and
vents the fluid from the brakes to the reservoir.
[Figure 9-47] Figure 9-47. The hydraulic system pressure boosted brake
master cylinder has a toggle that vents boost pressure to
the backside of the piston to assist the pilot in applying the
POWER BRAKES brakes.
Most large aircraft use brakes operated by pressure
from the main hydraulic system. This cannot be In Figure 9-48, a simplified schematic of the brake
done by simply directing part of the system pressure system of a large jet transport-type aircraft is shown.
into the brake-actuating unit, because of the high The brakes get their fluid from the main hydraulic
pressures used in large aircraft hydraulic systems. system through a check valve. An accumulator
The brake application must be proportional to the stores pressure for the brakes in the event of a
force the pilot exerts on the pedals, and the pilot hydraulic system failure. The pilot and copilot
must be able to hold the brakes partially applied operate power brake control valves through the
without there being a buildup of pressure in the appropriate linkages. These valves are actually pres-
brake lines. Because power brakes are used on air- sure regulators, which provide an amount of pres-
planes so large that the pilot has no way of knowing sure to the brakes that is proportional to the force
when one of the wheels is locking up, there must the pilot applies to the pedals. Once the desired
also be some provision to prevent wheel skidding. pressure is reached, the valve holds it as long as that
The pressure supplied to the wheel must be lower amount of force is held on the pedals. In large air-
than the pressure of the main hydraulic system, so a craft, the pilot does not have a feel for every wheel,
pressure-reducing or deboosting system must be so an anti-skid system is installed to sense the rate
incorporated in the system. Because the wheels are of deceleration of each wheel and compare it with
susceptible to damage, provision should also be the maximum allowable rate of deceleration. If any
made to lock off the fluid from a wheel in the event wheel attempts to slow down too fast, as it does at
a hydraulic line is broken. Finally, there must be an the onset of a skid, the anti-skid valve will release
emergency brake system that can actuate the wheel the pressure from that wheel back into the system
units in the event of a failure of the hydraulic sys- return manifold, thus preventing a skid by that
tem. [Figure 9-48] wheel.
9-28 Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
Figure 9-48. Large jet transports utilize boosted brakes that
incorporate anti-skid into the system. Anti-skid is essential
because the pilot cannot feel the wheels locking up.
Rather than allow compressed air to enter the wheel The amount of lining wear on Goodyear single-disc
cylinders, which would require the entire brake sys- brakesis usually indicated by the length the return
tem to be bled, the emergency air may be directed pin of the automatic adjuster sticks through the
into a transfer tube. The air forces hydraulic fluid bushing. The manufacturer's service manual speci-
from this tube into the brake system, thereby pro- fies the minimum extension allowed before the
ducing braking action. brake should be disassembled and the linings
replaced. [Figure 9-54]
BRAKE INSPECTION AND SERVICE
Inspection and servicing of brakes is done both with If the brake does not have automatic adjusters, the
the brakes installed on the aircraft and with the lining wear can be measured by applying the brake
brakes removed. One of the major brake servicing and measuring the distance between the disc and
jobs done by a technician is the replacement of the housing. If this measurement is greater than that
brake linings. This job differs from system to sys- allowed, the linings have worn excessively and
tem, and the manufacturer's instructions should must be replaced. [Figure 9-55]
always be followed.
Cleveland brake linings should be replaced when
ON AIRCRAFT SERVICING they have worn to a thickness of 0.100 inch or less.
Aircraft brakes are designed and built to provide Part of the lining is usually visible and its thickness
excellent service, and they normally require little can be compared with the diameter of a number 40
Aircraft Landing Gear Systems 9-31
Figure 9-56. Cleveland brake linings are replaced when they
get down to 0.100 inch thick. A number 40 twist drill is .098
inch in diameter and serves as a good gauge when
inspecting.
TIRE TYPES
The type III tire is the most popular low-pressure
tire found today on piston-powered aircraft. The
section width is relatively wide in relation to the
bead diameter. This allows lower inflation pressure
for improved cushioning and flotation. The section
width and rim diameter are used to designate the
size of the tire. For example, a tire having a section
width of 9 1/2 inches that fits a 16-inch wheel
would be identified as a 9.50-16 tire. [Figure 9-68]
Figure 9-69. Jet aircraft are equipped with type VII extra-high
pressure tires.
Type VIII tires are used for high performance jet air-
craft with their extremely high takeoff speeds. They
use extra high inflation pressure and have a low
profile. Their size designation includes the outside
diameter, section width, and rim diameter. An
example of a tire designation for a Type VIII tire
would be 30X11.50-14.5.
PLY RATING
In the past, tires were rated for strength by the num-
Figure 9-68. The type III low-pressure tire is found on most ber of fabric plies used in the construction of the
small general aviation aircraft. carcass or body of the tire. Newer materials have
9-40 Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
much greater strength than the cotton originally they are allowed to have only a relatively small
used. Fewer actual layers of the new materials are amount of deflection. For example, passenger car
needed to get the same strength. Today, tires are tires are designed for a continual deflection of only
given a ply rating, rather than specifying the actual about 12 to 14%.
number of layers of fabric material used in the car-
cass. The ply rating of a tire relates to its maximum Airplane tires, on the other hand, must be strong
static load and its inflation pressure. enough to absorb the tremendous loads exerted on
them at touchdown, and, while they must operate at
TUBE OR TUBELESS TIRES very high speeds, the ground roll duration is lim-
Aircraft tires are manufactured as both tube-type ited. Because of these requirements, aircraft tires are
and tubeless, with the basic difference between the allowed a deflection of between 32 and 35%, more
two being the inner liner. Tubeless tires have an than twice that allowed for automobile tires.
inner liner that is approximately one-tenth of an [Figure 9-70]
inch thick and serves as a container for the air.
Tube-type tires have no such liner, but are some- THE BEAD
what smoother on the inside so the tube will not be The most important part of a tire is the bead. It is the
damaged by chafing against the inside of the tire. bead that anchors the carcass and provides a firm
Tubeless tires are identified by the word TUBELESS mounting surface for the tire on the wheel.
on their sidewall, and the lack of identification sig- Ultimately, all of the ground forces on the tire ter-
nifies that a tube should be used in the tire. minate in the bead. The beads are made of bundles
of high-strength carbon-steel wire, with one, two, or
TIRE CONSTRUCTION three of these bundles used in each side of the tire.
Automobile and truck tires are built to completely [Figure 9-71]
different specifications from those used for aircraft
tires. They are required to operate for long periods Rubber apex strips streamline the round bead bun-
of time, carrying a relatively large but steady load at dles, so the fabric will fit smoothly around them
reasonably high rotational speeds. Because of this, with no voids. Layers of rubber and fabric called
Figure 9-70. This cutaway shows the basic construction of an aircraft tire.
Aircraft Landing Gear 9-41
Systems
Figure 9-71. This cutaway shows the tread, sidewalls, beads, and other components of a typical low-pressure tire.
flippers enclose the bead bundles to insulate the The tread reinforcement, made of one or more plies
carcass plies from the bead wires. Because the great- of nylon fabric, strengthens the tread and opposes
est amount of heat in the tire is concentrated in the the centrifugal forces that try to pull the tread from
bead area, this insulation increases the durability of the carcass during high-speed operation. It also sta-
the tire. bilizes the tread on the cord body and prevents it
from squirming or moving. This reinforcement does
THE CARCASS not enter into the ply rating of the tire, but it is used
The carcass of the tire is made up of layers or plies of as a guide for the retreaders when buffing the tire to
rubber-coated nylon-cord fabric. This fabric is cut into remove the tread.
strips on the bias, meaning that the cords of the fabric
run at an angle of approximately 4596 to the length of Tubeless tires are lined with a special compound of
the strip. The strips extend completely across the tire rubber that is less permeable than the rubber used in
and lap back over the beads to form the ply turn-ups. the rest of the tire. This liner acts as a container for
Each successive ply of the fabric is placed in such a the air and minimizes the amount of air that seeps
way that the cords cross each other at approximately out through the casing plies. A thin coating of rub-
9096 to balance the strength of the carcass. ber over the inner ply cords protects the liner from
chafing.
Chafers of fabric and rubber wrap around the edges
of the carcass plies and enclose the entire bead area. THE TREAD
They provide chafe resistance between the bead and The tread is the wearing surface on the outer cir-
the wheel. An undertread, which is a layer of spe- cumference of the tire. It is made of specially com-
cially compounded rubber, is placed over the car- pounded rubber and has a pattern of grooves
cass to provide good adhesion between the tread molded into its surface to give the tire the required
and the carcass. traction characteristics according to the type of run-
9-42 Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
way surface the aircraft will encounter. There have
been a number of basic tread patterns used on air-
craft tires. The most familiar are the plain tread, all-
weather tread, rib tread, and the chine.
The plain, or smooth, tread was popular for tires
used on airplanes with no brakes, or for aircraft
whose brakes were used primarily as a taxi aid,
rather than for slowing the aircraft in its landing
roll. Today, this type of tread is found only on some
helicopters and on very light airplanes.
All-weather treads have a rib tread in the center and
diamonds molded into the shoulders. The diamond-
shaped tread pattern is effective for aircraft operat-
ing on grass or hard-packed dirt, and the rib tread in
the center gives good traction on hard surfaced run-
ways. [Figure 9-72]
The most important part of a tire is the bead area Before rejecting a tire that is questionable, a techni-
where all of the forces of the tire are carried into the cian should always get expert advice from a certifi-
wheel and where an airtight seal must be main- cated retreading agency.
tained with tubeless tires. The bead and the adja-
cent area should be inspected for indications of The great amount of abrasion a tire experiences on
damage from tire tools or from chafing against the its tread each time the airplane lands or taxis on a
rim. Any severe damage at the bead would require hard surface wears away the tread long before the
tire rejection. If the damage is only through the carcass is worn out. Therefore, it is standard practice
chafer, it can be repaired when the tire is retreaded. for commercial aircraft tires to be retreaded. When a
tire is received by the retreading agency, it is thor-
Damage from excessive heat usually shows up on oughly inspected. The tread, sidewalls and beads are
title bead area because the heat can build up faster checked for cuts, bruises, other damage, or wear. Air
than it can be dissipated. If the bead area is dam- is injected into the sidewall to check for any ply sep-
aged or has an unusual appearance or texture, the aration. The tire is checked for fabric fatigue and for
tire cannot be repaired. any indication of contamination by oil, grease, or
hydraulic fluid. The tires that pass this inspection
The bead surface from the wheel flange to the toe of then have their old tread rubber removed by contour
the bead is the sealing surface for a tubeless tire. If buffing, which produces a smooth shoulder-to-
it has been damaged by tire tools or by slipping on shoulder surface. New tread rubber and reinforce-
the wheel, it will not seal. Bare chafer cords, how- ment are then applied to the buffed carcass. The tire
ever, if they are not broken, will not normally cause is placed in a heated mold and cured. After it is
a tire to leak; and they are not necessarily a cause for taken from the mold, balance patches are bonded to
removing the tire from service. the inside of the tire to achieve the proper static bal-
ance, and the tire is then given a final inspection.
TIRE REPAIR AND RETREADING
Aircraft tires are highly stressed, and no repair should The tire is then identified as a retreaded tire, and a
be attempted by anyone not adequately equipped for record is made of the number of times it has been
or experienced in this work. General guidelines for retreaded. There is no specific limit to the number
repairable tires are given in the FAA Advisory of times a tire can be retread. Retreading is deter-
Circular 43.13-lB, but the actual repair should only mined by the condition of the carcass.
be made by a repair station equipped and approved
for this work. Time and money can be saved, how-
ever, if the technician knows what definitely consti- TIRE STORAGE
tutes a non-repairable tire, so that it can be discarded All new and retreaded tires should be stored in a
without first being sent to the repair station. cool, dry area, out of direct sunlight and away from
any electrical machinery. Fluorescent lights, electric
Repair is not recommended for any tire that has the motors, generators, and battery chargers all convert
following kinds of damage: oxygen into ozone, which is very harmful to rubber.
• Any evidence of breaks caused by flexing. This
type of damage is often associated with other The storage room should not be subjected to
damage that may not be visible. extreme temperatures, and should be maintained
between 32109 and 80109 F (0109 and 27109 C).
• Bead damage to more than the chafers, or any Whenever possible, the tires should be stored
damage that would prevent the bead of a tube vertically in racks with the tire supported on a flat
less tire from sealing to the wheel. surface which is at least three or four inches wide. If
• Any evidence of separation between the plies tubeless tires are stacked horizontally, the bottom
around the bead wire. tires in the stack may be distorted so much that the
• Any injury that would require a reinforcement. beads will not seat on the wheel unless a special
bead-seating tool is used. If it is necessary,
• Kinked or broken beads. however, to stack them horizontally, they should
not be stacked more
9-48 Aircraft Landing Gear Systems
than five tires high for tires with a diameter of up to mum of leakage. A hole in the tube or a defective
40 inches, four tires high for those between 40 and valve are two primary causes for an aircraft tube
49 inches, and three high for tires larger than 49 to leak.
inches. [Figure 9-84]
It is extremely important that only the tube recom-
mended for a particular tire be used with that tire. If
Figure 9-84.Tires should be stored vertically on racks when- the tube is too small for the tire, its splices will be
ever possible. overstressed, which will weaken the tube.
TUBE INSPECTION
AIRCRAFT TUBES If a tube is suspected of leaking, the valve should be
Though many tires today are tubeless, a large num- checked by spreading a drop of water over the end
ber of tubed tires may be found. The technician of the valve to see if a bubble forms. If a bubble does
needs to be aware of the procedures for handling form, the valve core should be replaced. If the leak
tubed tires, as they vary in a number of ways from is not in the valve, the tire must be deflated,
tubeless tires. removed from the wheel, and the tube removed. If
the tube is not too large, it should be inflated and
TUBE CONSTRUCTION AND SELECTION submerged in water to find the source of bubbles. If
A great number of aircraft tires, ranging from some the tube is too large for the available water con-
of the small type III, 5.00-5, up to large type VII, 56 tainer, water may be poured over the surface of the
x 16, require tubes. Tubes for these tires are avail- tube to identify the source of the leak.
able in either unreinforced rubber for normal appli-
cations or in a special heavy-duty reinforced tube. It is extremely important when inflating a tube that
Heavy-duty tubes include a layer of nylon fabric is not in a tire, that only enough air is used to round
molded to the inside circumference to protect it it out. Check the tube carefully around the valve
from chafing against the rim and from heat caused stem and the valve pad for any indication of the pad
by brake application. pulling away from the tube. [Figure 9-85]
All aircraft tubes are made of a specially com-
pounded natural rubber that holds air with a mini-
Figure 9-85. When an inner tube is leaking, the first place to
check is the valve stem. The valve core should be checked
for leakage and the area around the stem checked for
cracks.
All nylon tires stretch when they are initially the recommended value to seat the bead; then the
inflated and should be allowed to remain for 12 to tire is deflated. After seating the bead, the tire is
24 hours with no load applied. This stretch may reinflated to the correct pressure. This inflation,
cause a five- to ten-percent decrease in pressure. deflation, and reinflation procedure allows the tube
The pressure should be adjusted after this period. to straighten itself out inside the tire and will
Continue to monitor the inflation pressure daily. remove any wrinkles from the tube. [Figure 9-87]
There will be some pressure loss, but it should not
exceed 5% in any 24-hour period.
Figure 9-87. Tires should be placed in a safety cage during
inflation. A tire, if defective or overinflated, can explode with
TUBE-TYPE TIRES enough force to cause serious injury or death.
When mounting a tube-type tire on a wheel, the tire
and tube must both be correct for the installation.
The wheel should be inspected for any indication of The air pressure in a tube-type tire will drop after its
damage or corrosion. If any corrosion is found, all initial inflation because the nylon plies stretch in
traces of the damage must be removed and the pro- the same way as a tubeless tire, and there may also
tective oxide film restored. Two coats of zinc chro- be air trapped between the tube and the tire. When
mate primer should be applied and the finish
restored to match the rest of the wheel. To ensure
cleanliness, wipe the bead seat area with a rag
dampened with isopropyl alcohol before mounting
the tire.
FIELD CONDITION
While taxiing over areas that could contain loose
gravel and sand, the engine rpm should be kept as
low as possible to prevent propeller damage. Rocks
can be drawn up into the area of the propeller blades,
striking the blades' leading edge and causing serious
blade damage. Tires and, if applicable, the wheel fair-
ings should be checked due to the increased amount
of friction from the rough surface. Operating an air-
craft on muddy fields can also pack mud into the
wheel fairings. After drying, the mud can rub on the
tire surface creating premature wear patterns.