Chapter #1: Signals and Amplifiers

Introduction
 IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL LEARN…

Chapter #1: Signals and  That electronic circuits process signals, and thus understanding
electrical signals is essential to appreciating the material in this book.
Amplifiers  The Thevenin and Norton representations of signal sources.

 The representation of a signal as sum of sine waves.
 The analog and digital representations of a signal.
Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications

Assoc. Prof. Bui Thanh Tung Principle of Analog Electronics (ELT-2050) Assoc. Prof. Bui Thanh Tung Principle of Analog Electronics (ELT-2050)
1 2
Introduction 1.1. Signals
 IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL LEARN…

 The most basic and pervasive signal-processing function: signal  signal – contains information
amplification, and correspondingly, the signal amplifier.
 How amplifiers are characterized (modeled) as circuit building  e.g. voice of radio announcer reading the news
blocks independent of their internal circuitry.  process – an operation which allows an observer to
 How the frequency response of an amplifier is measured, and how it understand this information from a signal
is calculated, especially in the simple but common case of a single-
time-constant (STC) type response.  generally done electrically
 transducer – device which converts signal from non-electrical
to electrical form
Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications
 e.g. microphone (sound to electrical) Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications
3 4
1.1: Signals Example 1.1: Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Sources
 Q: How are signals represented?

 A: thevenin form – voltage source vs(t)
with series resistance RS
 preferable when RS is low  Consider two source / load combinations to upper-right.
 A: norton form – current source is(t)  note that output resistance of a source limits its ability to deliver a signal
with parallel resistance RS at full strength
 preferable when RS is high  Q(a): what is the relationship between the source and output when
maximum power is delivered?
 for example, vs < vo??? vs > vo??? vs = vo???
Figure 1.1: Two alternative representations of a signal source: (a) the  Q(b): what are ideal values of RS for norton and thevenin representations?
Thévenin form; (b) the Norton form.
5 6
1.2. Frequency Spectrum of Signals What is a Fourier Series?
 frequency spectrum – defines the  decomposition – of a periodic function into the

a time-domain signal in terms of (possibly infinite) sum of simpler oscillating
the strength of harmonic functions
components
 Q: What is a Fourier Series? Fourier
 Series Representation
 of f(x )
 A: An expression of a periodic a0 
f(x)   ak cos(kx)  bk sin(kx)
function as the sum of an 2 k 1
  
infinite number of sinusoids 1
whose frequencies are ak   f( x)cos(kx)dx , n0
 
harmonically related
1
bk   f( x)sin(kx)dx , n1
Assoc. Prof. Bui Thanh Tung
Principle of Analog Electronics (ELT-2050) Assoc. Prof. Bui Thanh Tung   Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications
Principle of Analog Electronics (ELT-2050)
7 8
What is a Fourier Series? (2) Fourier Series Example
step #1: define ak for the square wave

 Q: How does one calculate Fourier Series of square note that the piece-wise square wave must be divided in two dc functions
wave below?

0 
Va Va
 
 A: See upcoming slides… ak  cos(kx)dx   cos(kx)dx  0
 0
 
0 
1 1
sin kx  sin kx 
k  k 0
1 1 1 1
sin k 0  sin  k  sin k  sin k 0 
k k k k
00 00

9 10
this series may be truncated

Fourier Series Example Fourier Series Example because the magnitude of each
step #2: define bk for the square wave if k is even
terms decreases with k…
  step #3: define Fourier Series

0 
Va V 0 0 4Va

bk 
   Va sin(kx)dx  a  sin(kx)dx
 0 a0    k

    f(x )    ak cos(kx)  bk sin(kx)
1
0
1
 2 k 1  
 cos kx   cos kx 
k  k 0  
1 1 1 1
 cos k 0  cos  k   cos k   cos k 0   1
k k k k
4V   k is odd sin(k0t )
1 1
  (-1)k
1
 (-1)k 
1 f( x )  a   k  x  0t
k k k k  k 1 k is even 0
4Va 

 k is odd 4Va  1 1 
bk   k f( x )  sin(0t )  sin(30t )  sin(50t )  
k is even 0   3 5 
11 12
Fourier Series Example 1.2. Frequency Spectrum of Signals
 Examine the sinusoidal wave below…
v a (t )  Va sin(t   )
 
Va  amplitude in volts
  angular frequency in rad/sec
 = phase shift in rad
t  time in sec
root mean square magnitude =

Figure 1.6: The frequency spectrum (also known as the
sine wave amplitude / square root of two
line spectrum) of the periodic square wave of Fig. 1.5.
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1.2. Frequency Spectrum of Signals 1.3. Analog and Digital Signals
 Q: Can the Fourier Transform be applied to a non-periodic function of time?  analog signal – is continuous with respect to both value and time
 A: Yes, however (as opposed to a discrete frequency spectrum) it will yield  discrete-time signal – is continuous with respect to value but
a continuous… sampled at discrete points in time
 digital signal – is quantized (applied to values) as well as sampled
at discrete points in time
Figure 1.9 Block-diagram representation of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).

15 16
1.3. Analog and Digital Signals 1.3. Analog and Digital Signals
analog signal
discrete-time signal
sampling
digital signal
quantization

17 18
1.3. Analog and Digital Signals 1.4. Amplifiers
digital  Q: Are digital and binary  Q: Why is signal amplification needed?

synonymous?  A: Because many transducers yield output at low power
 A: No. The binary number levels (mW)
system (base2) is one way to  linearity – is property of an amplifier which ensures a signal
represent digital signals. is not “altered” from amplification
 base 10  base 2
   distortion – is any unintended change in output
digital and
y  b0 20  b1 21  b2 22  
binary 
LSB
n 1
  b3 23  b
n1 2
MSB

19 20
1.4.1. Signal Amplification 1.4.2. Amplifier Circuit Symbol
 voltage amplifier – is used to boost voltage levels for

increased resolution.
 power amplifier – is used to boost current levels for
increased “intensity”.
output / input relationship for amplifier
  
v o (t )  Av v i (t )
Figure 1.11: (a) Circuit symbol for amplifier. (b) An amplifier with a
voltage gain common terminal (ground) between the input and output ports.

21 22
1.4.4. Power and Current Gain 1.4.5. Expressing Gain in Decibels
 Q: What is one main difference between an amplifier and

transformer? …Because both alter voltage levels.  Q: How may gain be expressed in decibels?
 A: Amplifier may be used to boost power delivery.
voltage gain in decibels  20 log Av dB

load power (PL ) vo io current gain in decibels  20 log Ai dB
power gain ( Ap )   power gain in decibels  10 log(Ap )dB
input power (PI ) vi ii

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1.4.6. Amplifier Power Supply 1.4.6. Amplifier Power Supply
 supplies – an amplifier has two power supplies  conservation of power – dictates that
power input (Pi) plus that drawn from
 VCC is positive, current ICC is drawn supply (Pdc) is equal to output (PL) plus
 VEE is negative, current IEE is drawn that which is dissipated (Pdis).
 power draw – from these supplies is defined below  Pi + Pdc = PL + Pdissapated
 Pdc = VCC ICC + VEE IEE
 efficiency – is the ratio of power output
to input.
 efficiency = PL / (Pi + Pdc)
Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications Figureof 1.13:

Faculty An amplifier
Electronics that requires two dc
and Telecommunications
Assoc. Prof. Bui Thanh Tung Principle of Analog Electronics (ELT-2050) Assoc. Prof. Bui Thanh Tung supplies
Principle(shown
of Analogas batteries)
Electronics for operation.
(ELT-2050)
25 26
1.4.7. Amplifier Saturation 1.5. Circuit Models for Amplifiers
 limited linear range – practically,  model – is the description of component’s (e.g. amplifier) terminal behavior
amplifier operation is linear over a  neglecting internal operation / transistor design
limited input range.
 saturation – beyond this range,
saturation occurs.
 output remains constant as
input varies
Lminus L
 vi  plus
Av Av
 
or...
L v L Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications
Assoc. Prof. Bui Thanh Tung minus o plus Principle of Analog Electronics (ELT-2050) Assoc. Prof. Bui Thanh Tung Principle of Analog Electronics (ELT-2050)
27 28
1.5.1. Voltage Amplifiers 1.5.1. Voltage Amplifiers
model of amplifier input terminals model of amplifier output terminals

      Q: How can one model the amplifier behavior from
Ri RL
input voltage  vi  (v s ) output voltage  vo  (Avovi ) previous slide?
 R R  R R
i
source 
volt.
s open-ckt 
output
L
o  A: Model which is function of: vs, Avo, Ri, Rs, Ro, RL
source and
input voltage output and
load
resistances resistances
 
 
 
R  RL  Avov s Ri RL
vo   Avo (v s ) i
 R R R R
 source 
i R Rs L  Ro
R
 volt.
 s   L
o i
source and output and
 input  load
 resistances  resistances
open-ckt output voltage

29 30
1.5.1. Voltage Amplifiers 1.5.1. Voltage Amplifiers
 ideal amplifier model – is function of vs and Avo only!!

 Q: What is one “problem” with this behavior?
 It is assumed that Ro << RL…
 A: Gain (ratio of vo and vs) is not constant, and
dependent on input and load resistance.  It is assumed that Ri << Rs…
non-ideal model
  ideal model
 
 
R  RL  Avov s Ri RL
vo   Avo (vs ) i

 source Ri  Rs  RL  Ro Ri  Rs RL  Ro
 volt.
  
source and output and
 input  load
 resistances  resistances
open-ckt output voltage

key characteristics of ideal voltage amplifier model = high input
The ideal amplifier model neglects this
Facultynonlinearity.
of Electronics and Telecommunications impedance, low output impedance
31 32
1.5.1. Voltage Amplifiers 1.5.2. Cascaded Amplifiers
 ideal amplifier model – is function of vs and Avo only!!  In real life, an amplifier is not ideal and will not have infinite
 It is assumed that Ro << RL… input impedance or zero output impedance.
 It is assumed that Ri << Rs…  Cascading of amplifiers, however, may be used to emphasize
desirable characteristics.
Ri RL  first amplifier – high Ri, medium Ro
vo  Avov s  Avov s
Ri  Rs RL  Ro   last amplifier – medium Ri, low Ro
  model
ideal
 aggregate – high Ri, low Ro
non-ideal model
key characteristics of ideal voltage amplifier model = source

resistance RS and load resistance RL have no effect on gain
33 34
Example 1.3: Cascaded Amplifier Configurations Example 1.3: Cascaded Amplifier Configurations
 Examine system of cascaded amplifiers on next slide.

 Q(a): What is overall voltage gain?
 Q(b): What is overall current gain? aggregate amplifier
 Q(c): What is overall power gain? with gain
vL
Av 
v s  i i Rs
Figure 1.17: Three-stage amplifier for Example 1.3.

35 36
1.5.3. Other Amplifier Types 1.5.3. Other Amplifier Types
Voltage amplifier Current amplifier v0 Ri   i0 Ri  0

Av 0  with Av 0  with
vi i0 0
Ro  0 ii v 0 0
Ro  
voltage amplifier current amplifier

Transconductance amp. Transresistance amp.
transconductance amplifier transresistance amplifier
i0 Ri   v0 Ri  0
Gm  with Rm  with
vi v0 0
Ro   ii Faculty R o 0
i 0of Electronics and Telecommunications
0
37 38
1.5.4. Relationship Between Four Amp Models 1.5.5. Determining Ri and Ro
 interchangeability – although these four types exist,  Q: How can one calculate input resistance from terminal behavior?
any of the four may be used to model any amplifier  A: Observe vi and ii, calculate via Ri = vi / ii
 they are related through Avo (open circuit gain)  Q: How can one calculate output resistance from terminal behavior?
 A:
current
to voltage transres.  Remove source voltage (such that vi = ii = 0)
amplifier transcond. to voltage
  to voltage
 amplifier  Apply voltage to output (vx)
amplifier
 Ro   R  Measure negative output current (-io)
Avo  Ais    GmRo  m  Calculate via Ro = -vx / io
 Ri  Ri

39 40
Section 1.5.5:
1.5.6. Unilateral Models
Determining Ri and Ro
 question: how can we calculate input
resistance from terminal behavior?
 unilateral model – is one in which signal flows only from input to output (not
 answer: observe vi and ii, calculate via reverse)
Ri = vi / ii
 question: how can we calculate output
 However, most practical amplifiers will exhibit some reverse
resistance from terminal behavior? transmission…
 answer:
 remove source voltage (such
that vi = ii = 0)
 apply voltage to output (vx)
 measure negative output
current (-io)
 calculate via Ro = -vx / io Figure 1.18: Determining the output resistance.
41 42
input resistance (r)

Example 1.4: Common-Emitter Circuit Examplebase
1.4. collector
output resistance (ro)
 Examine the bipolar junction transistor (BJT).  examine:
 three-terminal device  bipolar junction transistor (BJT):
 when powered up with dc source and operated with small signals, may be  three-terminal device
modeled by linear circuit below.  when powered up with dc source and operated with small signals, may be modeled
by linear circuit below.
C
short-circuit Figure 1.19 (a) small-signal

circuit model for a bipolar
E
conductance junction transistor (BJT)
Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications (gm) emitter Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications
43 44
Example 1.4: Common-Emitter Circuit input and output share common terminal
 Q(a): Derive an expression for the voltage gain vo / vi of common-emitter source load
circuit with:
 Rs = 5kohm
 r = 2.5kohm
 gm = 40mA/V
 ro = 100kohm
 RL = 5kohm
Figure 1.19(b): The BJT connected as an amplifier with

the emitter as a common terminal between input and
output (called a common-emitter amplifier).
Principle of Analog Electronics (ELT-2050) Principle of Analog Electronics (ELT-2050)
45 46
1.6.1. Measuring the 1.6.1: Measuring the

Amplifier Frequency Response Amplifier Frequency Response
input and output are similar for linear
 Q: How does one examine frequency response? amplifier
 A: By applying sine-wave input of amplitude Vi and frequency .
 Q: Why?
 A: Because, although its amplitude and phase may change, its shape and
frequency will not.
this characteristic of sine wave applied to linear circuit is

unique
47 48
1.6.1. Measuring the
1.6.2. Amplifier Bandwidth
Amplifier Frequency Response
 amplifier transfer function (T) – describes the input-  Q: What is bandwidth of a device?
output relationship of an amplifier – or other device –  A: The range of frequencies over which its magnitude response is constant
with respect to various parameters, including (within 3dB).
frequency of input applied.  Q: For an amplifier, what is main bandwidth concern?
 It is a complex value, often defined in terms of  A: That the bandwidth extends beyond range of frequencies it is expected
magnitude and phase shift. to amplify.
V
T( )  o and  ) 
T(
 
V
 i phase shift
magnitude gain

49 50
1.6.4. Single Time-Constant Networks 1.6.4. Single Time-Constant Networks
 single time–constant (STC) network – is composed of (or may be  low pass filter (LPF) high pass filter (HPF)
reduced to) one reactive component and one resistance. attenuates output at
 low pass filter – attenuates output at high frequencies, allow low high s
to pass
 high pass filter – attenuates output at low frequencies, allow
high to pass
 time constant (t.) – describes the length of time required for a
network transient to settle from step change (t = L / R = RC)
Figure 1.22: Two examples of STC networks: (a) a low-pass network and
Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications (b) a high-pass network.
51 52
1.6.4. Single Time-Constant Networks 1.6.4. Single Time-Constant Networks
Figure 1.2 : Characteristics of Various STC
1
vo Zo R low - pass high - pass
vo Zo jC 1 high-pass:    k
low-pass:   k vi Zi  Z o R  1 transfer function
K Ks
vi Z i  Z o R  1  jC 1  (s / 0 ) 1  0
jC transfer function K K
(for physical freq.) 1  j( / 0 ) 1  j(0 /  )
K K
magnitude response
1  j( / 0 )2 1  j(0 /  )2
phase response  tan( / 0 ) tan(0 /  )
transmission at   0 K 0
transmission at    0 K
1
3db Frequency 0  same
t
Bode Plots refer to next slide
53 54
-20dB/decade drop, beginning -45 degrees/decade drop,

from maximum gain at corner moving outward from -45
Figure: Low-Pass Filter Magnitude (top-left) and Phase (top-right) Responses as well as Figure: Low-Filter Magnitude degree
frequency (top-left) andatPhase
shift corner(top-
frequency
High-Pass Filter (bottom-left) and Phase (bottom-right) Responses right) Responses as well as High-Pass Filter (bottom-left)
and Phase (bottom-right) Responses
+20dB/decade incline, until -45 degrees/decade drop,
maximum gain is reached at moving outward from +45
corner frequency degree shift at corner frequency

55 56
Example 1.5: Voltage Amplifier Example 1.5: Voltage Amplifier
 Examine voltage amplifier with:  Q(b): What is unity-gain frequency? How is it calculated?
 input resistance (Ri)  A: Gain = 0dB
 input capacitance (Ci)  A: It is known that the gain of a low-pass filter drops at 20dB per
 gain factor (m) decade beginning at 0. Therefore unity gain will occur two
 output resistance (Ro) decades past 0 (40dB – 20dB – 20dB).
 Q(a): Derive an expression for  Q(c): Find vo(t) for each of the following input: vs = 0.1sin(102t), vs =
the amplifier voltage gain Vo / Vs 0.1sin(105t)
as a function of frequency.
From this, find expressions for
the dc gain and 3dB frequency.
57 58
1.6.5. Classification of
1.6.5. Classification of Amps Based on Frequency Response
Amps Based on Frequency Response
 internal capacitances – cause the falloff of gain at high frequencies  directly coupled / dc amplifiers – allow passage of low frequencies
 like those seen in previous example  capacitively coupled amplifiers – allow passage of high frequencies
 coupling capacitors – cause the falloff of gain at low frequencies  tuned amplifiers – allow passage of a “band” of frequencies
 are placed in between amplifier stages
 generally chosen to be large

59 60
Conclusion Conclusion (2)
 An electrical signal source can be represented in either Thevenin form  The sine-wave signal is completely characterized by its peak value (or
(a voltage source vs in series with source resistance Rs) or the Norton rms value which is the peak / 21/2), frequency ( in rad/s of f in Hz;  =
form (a current source is in parallel with resistance Rs). The Thevenin 2f and f = 1/T, where T is the period is seconds), and phase with
voltage vs is the open-circuit voltage between the source terminals. respect to an arbitrary reference time.
The Norton current is is equal to the short-circuit current between the  Analog signals have magnitudes that can assume any value. Electronic
source terminals. For the two representations to be equivalent, vs circuits that process analog signals are called analog circuits. Sampling
and Rsis must be equal. the magnitude of an analog signal at discrete instants of time and
 A signal can be represented either by its waveform vs time or as the representing each signal sample by a number results in a digital signal.
sum of sinusoids. The latter representation is known as the Digital signals are processed by digital circuits.
frequency spectrum of the signal.

61 62
Conclusion (3) Conclusion (4)
 The simplest digital signals are obtained when the binary number system  Amplifiers increase the signal power and thus require dc power supplies
is used. An individual digital signal then assumes one of only two for their operation.
possible values: low and high (e.g. 0V and 5V) corresponding to logic 0  The amplifier voltage gain can be expressed as a ratio Av in V/V or in
and logic 1. decibels, 20log|Av| in dB.
 An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) provides at its output the digits of  Depending on the signal to be amplified (voltage or current) and on the
the binary number representing the analog signal sample applied to its desired form of output signal (voltage or current) there are four basic
input. The output digital signal can then be processed using digital amplifier types: voltage, current, transconductance, and transresistance.
circuits. A given amplifier may be modeled by any of these configurations, in
 A transfer characteristic, vo vs. vi, of a linear amplifier is a straight line which case their parameters are related by (1.14) through (1.16) in the
with a slope equal to the voltage gain. text.
63 64
Conclusion (5) Conclusion (6)
 The sinusoid is the only signal whose waveform is unchanged through a  Single-time-constant (STC) networks are those networks that are
linear circuit. Sinusoidal signals are used to measure the frequency composed of, or may be reduced to, one reactive component (L or C) and
response of amplifiers. one resistance. The time constant (t) is L/R or RC.
 The transfer function T(s) = Vo(s)/Vi(s) of a voltage amplifier may be  STC networks can be classified into two categories: low-pass (LP) and
determined from circuit analysis. Substituting s = j gives T(j) whose high-pass (HP). LP network pass dc and low-frequencies while
magnitude (|T(j)| is the magnitude response and () is the phase attenuating high-frequencies. The opposite is true for HP.
response.  The gain of an LP (HP) STC circuit drops by 3dB below the zero-frequency
 Amplifiers are classified according to the shape of their frequency (infinite-frequency) value at a frequency 0 = 1/t. At high-frequencies
response. (low-frequencies) the gain falls of at a rate of 6dB/octave or
20dB/decade.
 Refer to Table 1.2. on page 34 and Figs. 1.23 and 1.24. Further details are provided in Appendix E.
65 66

Chapter #1: Signals and Amplifiers

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Chapter #1: Signals and Amplifiers

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Introduction

 IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL LEARN…

Amplifiers  The Thevenin and Norton representations of signal sources.

Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications

Introduction 1.1. Signals

 IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL LEARN…

 Q: How are signals represented?

1.2. Frequency Spectrum of Signals What is a Fourier Series?

 frequency spectrum – defines the  decomposition – of a periodic function into the

step #1: define ak for the square wave

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this series may be truncated

 Examine the sinusoidal wave below…

root mean square magnitude =

1.2. Frequency Spectrum of Signals 1.3. Analog and Digital Signals

Figure 1.9 Block-diagram representation of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).

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1.3. Analog and Digital Signals 1.4. Amplifiers

digital  Q: Are digital and binary  Q: Why is signal amplification needed?

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 voltage amplifier – is used to boost voltage levels for

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1.4.4. Power and Current Gain 1.4.5. Expressing Gain in Decibels

 Q: What is one main difference between an amplifier and

voltage gain in decibels  20 log Av dB

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Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications Figureof 1.13:

1.4.7. Amplifier Saturation 1.5. Circuit Models for Amplifiers

model of amplifier input terminals model of amplifier output terminals

open-ckt output voltage

1.5.1. Voltage Amplifiers 1.5.1. Voltage Amplifiers

 ideal amplifier model – is function of vs and Avo only!!

open-ckt output voltage

key characteristics of ideal voltage amplifier model = source

 Examine system of cascaded amplifiers on next slide.

Figure 1.17: Three-stage amplifier for Example 1.3.

Voltage amplifier Current amplifier v0 Ri   i0 Ri  0

voltage amplifier current amplifier

1.5.4. Relationship Between Four Amp Models 1.5.5. Determining Ri and Ro

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input resistance (r)

short-circuit Figure 1.19 (a) small-signal

Figure 1.19(b): The BJT connected as an amplifier with

1.6.1. Measuring the 1.6.1: Measuring the

this characteristic of sine wave applied to linear circuit is

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1.6.4. Single Time-Constant Networks 1.6.4. Single Time-Constant Networks

-20dB/decade drop, beginning -45 degrees/decade drop,

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Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications

Conclusion (3) Conclusion (4)

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