of the Guptas Scope + Sources: Literary — Accounts of Fa-Hien; Archaeological — Allahabad Pillar inscription + Reigns of Samudragupta and Chandragupta Vikramaditya + Contribution to the fields of education (Nalanda University), science (Aryabhatta) and culture (works of Kalidasa, Deogath temple) 455 CE: End of Kumaragupta's rule 240 CE: Srigupta 335 CE 405 CE i founds Gupta Samudragupta_Fa-Hien Empire ascends throne arrives in India l +t, OO 0 200 CE 300 CE 400 CE 509 ce , 320 CE: Chandragupta | 474 CE: Birth ascends throne of Aryabhatta 375 CE: Chandragupta II 500 CE: Foundation ascends throne of Nalanda University Around 185 BCE, the Mauryan Empire collapsed when the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, was S§43Siitated by his army general Pushyamitra Sunga. After the @Gilise of the Mauryan Empire, small kingdoms arose all over India. This was a period of political disunity and chaos with various small kingdoms contesting against each other to gain dominance in North India. The unity finally came with the rise of the Guptas in around 240 CE The Gupta period is marked by creativity and great achievements in literature, music, art, architecture and philosophy. These phenomenal achievements have led many historians to proclaim the Gupta period as a ‘Golden Age’ in the history of India Srigupta, the first Gupta king, a@@@iided the throne in around 240 CE and ruled till 280 CE. He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha who ruled from around 280 CE to 319 CE Their first sitfi@ntial ruler Chandragupta I, took the title Maharajadhiraja after ascending the throne in 320 CE. He revived many principles of the Mauryan government and paved the way for his son, Samudragupta, to develop an extensive empire. —$_____@-______ The Age of the Guptas. ——Sources The literary and archaeological sources for the reconstruction of the age of the Guptas are discussed here. Literary Sources Information regarding the Gupta period is available from a variety of literary SOUrCES. The accounts of foreign travellers such as Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang and Kalidasa’s writings provide detailed information on the Gupta period. : . Accounts of Fa-Hien: Fa-Hien was a Chinese monk who visited India during the age of Chandragupta Vikramaditya or Chandragupta II. He conveyed a fine impression about his empire. The various aspects of the Gupta Empire, such as political, religious, social and economic, were recorded in his writings. He travelled mostly on foot with the purpose of collecting Buddhist canon in India to carry them to China. Although his book The Travels of Fa-Hien is largely devoted to places of worship of Buddha, his observations give us valuable information about India in the fifth century CE. He described the country as peaceful and prosperous under the rule of the Guptas. The overall impression is that while Buddhism still flourished, it had lost its importance and royal patronage in the land of its origin. Hinduism was in the ascendancy again. Archaeological Sources The archaeological sources mainly consist of three categories — inscriptions, coins. These sources provide us more precise information regarding the Gu Inscriptions: The prominent inscriptions of the Gupta period include: + Allahabad Pillar inscription (composed by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta) * Mathura Stone inscription (Chandragupta II) * Udayagii Cave inscription (two inscriptions of Chandrapupta II) * Junagadh rock inscription (Skandagupta) Other stone pillar inscriptions are those at Bhitari, Kaha many other inscriptions found at different Guptas. monuments and ta period. ium, Bilsad and Eran. There are Places which help us reconstruct the age of the stanzas is followed by the historical value of knowledge about East and South Let” ® South (daksinapatha). It gives us extensive However, some scholar: 'S argue that since P; Poet of Samudragupta under . meee Yayaga Prasasti was composed by the court T's Patronage, SGGGetated. the version might be Ages and Events —_-e- iPUPLAS arg ICES, The writing, re age of on about cial and TPose of Travels of valuable tas. The nce and nts and gupta) re are of the aphic ayaga eight jered d by das sive gurl ae prominent Monarchs of Gupta Empire gandragupta T (320 to 335 CE) ndragupta Iwas the first prominent rul er ihe Gupta Dynasty. He began his career fa local chief in the kingdom of Magadh. £4 silowed twin policies of matrimonial and direct conquest to increase the cl chal fe of his Kingdom. atsimonial alliance: He got married to Mess Kumaradevi of the Licchavi tribe rch then controlled North Bihar and Nepal. He increased his power, pré8tige and Mhtory with this marriage. conquest: He conquered the kingdoms of Nagadh, Saket and Prayag. re adopted the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’ or the ‘king of kings’. Samudragupta (335 to 380 CE) king Samudragupta’s mother was the Licchavi queen Kumaradevi and possibly he was not the eldest son. From the Allahabad Pillar inscription composed by Harisena, itis Jearnt that Chandragupta | deliberately chose samudragupta to succeed him as the next king. These were some of his characteristics. * Historians such as as his principle was war an Tndian Napolean’ due to his ml « He was not only a gre an able and efficient administrator. + He was also known as ‘the prince of + He was also a protector of the poor an Conquests: Samudragupta ™ South. He decided to subdue dl expeditions. +(In his first campaign Ahichhetra (areas of mo ruler of Padmavati (near Gwal among them. | } in North Indi Points to Remember The Gupta Empire which emerged after the collapse of the Mauryas has been known for its immense cultural and artistic achievements. Therefore, itis called the Golden Age in the history of India. > Main literary sources of the Gupta period are the account of foreign travellers such Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang and the writings of Kalidasa. ‘Archaeological sources such as the ‘monuments and coins inscriptions, formation about the provide valuable int Gupta period The Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta is the most significant epigraphic evidence of the imperial Guptas. The Dashavatar temple at Deogarh is a fine example of the Gupta architecture. ‘The Nalanda University was established in the fifth century CE under the s supposedly the first dential university in the m various parts of the Gupta rule. It wa international resi world. Students frot RK Mukherjee have ¢ .d aggression. litary exploits. vat conqueror but al poets’ (Kaviraj) as he comp! .d the weak. ‘ade elaborate pla he neighbouring jia, Sas dern Bareilly distr’ ior). The Naga _-@—_——_ The Age of the Guptas world came here to stud) gupta the opposite of Ashoka alled Samudra} incent Smith has called him The historian Vi tstanding diplomat, statesman and osed several poems. Iso an oul of the North and the ns for his conquests then went for far off kingdoms first and mudragupta defeated Achyuta, the ruler of ict), the Naga kings of Mathura and the kings were the most powerful kingsA 5 335 — 455 CE SS After securing his position in the Ganga-Yamuna valley, he turned his attention towa, the southern kingdoms. Samudragupta’s successful southern expedition is conside, to be his biggest achievement. In the South, he marched against twelve kings, includin, those of modern Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and defeated them qj; However, he realised that governing the far-flung areas of the South would be difficy, from his capital. Therefore, he did not annex these kingdoms. He allowed their king, to rule as f@ii@atory chiets. Impressed by his military success, many frontier states submitted to Samudragupy, and agreed to pay annual tribute. These were the states of Bengal, Assam, Nepay, Kartripura (part of Kumaon, Garhwal and Rohilkhand). There were many independent republican tribes that existed on the western frontier of the Guptas. The Allahabad inscription mentions that nine tribes that inhabited Punjay, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh submitted to Samudragupta. He led military expeditions to kingdoms of local tribes such as the Malwas, Yaudhyeyas, Arjunayanas, Maduras and Abhiras. When he died in 380 CE, there were twenty kingdoms in his empire that stretched from the Himalayas in the North to Narmada in the South. He also conquered Afghanistan and Kashmir which were known as mlechig (barbarian or non-Vedic) countries seo “he N Sa THE GUPTA EMPIREAccording to Harisena, Samudragupta had performed an ashwamedha yajna or ‘horse - sacrifice’. A stone replica of the horse has 1+ What were the two policies followed by peen Kept at the Lucknow Museum, He Chandragupta Ito increase his power and iso had issued gold coins to celebrate his prestige? conquests. 2. How do we know that Samudragupta was patron of art: Apart from his military a patron of art? owess, Samudragupta also had great > Whowwere known as ‘mecha’? coo oe Sal terature and learning, Many eminent scholars adorned his court. Harisené 8 asubandhu were the major scholars. He was also a music-lover. In some of his coins, he is shown seated on the couch playing a vena or lute. Religious policy: Though Samudragupta was an orthodox Hindu and a follower of Vishnu, he was tolerant to other religions. He permitted Sirimeghvanna, @ Buddhist king from Sri Lanka, to construct a monastery at Bodh Gaya. chandragupta Vikramaditya or Chandragupta II (375 to 415 CE) Chandragupta II, also called Vikramaditya, was the son of Samudragupta from his queen, Dattadevi. He was chosen as the successor to the imperial throne by Samudragupta himself. However, it is also said that he came to power by assassinating a weak elder brother. Inheriting a large empire, he continued the policy of his father by extending control over the neighbouring territories. During his rule, art, architecture and sculpture flourished and the cultural development of India reached its climax. Foreign policy: Chandragupta Vikramaditya used matrimonial alliances as a part of his foreign policy. « He married the Naga princess, became his allies. /* He also married the '* He then got his daught IL, the Vakataka prince Kuberaga. With this marriage, the powerful Naga rulers Kadamba princess from the Kuntala region. er Prabhavati, born of the Naga queen, married to Rudrasena from South India. This alliance helped him establish political influence in the Deccan. Military policy: Chandragupta Il also carried out military campaigns to extend his territories. + the Saka rulers of West India. By 408-409 CE, the Saka A He fought a long campaign agains rule in Malwa, Gujarat and Saurasl or the ‘conqueror of Sakas’. * He also crushed the chiefs of Bengal Jntra had come to an end. He was given the title ‘Sakari’ (then known as Vanga) and his main enemy Rudrasimha II. * According to Kalidasa, Chandragupta II also conquered Paraskias and Kambojas who Jived near present-day Iran. ta Il won the lands run by tribes such as Kiratas and # Kalidasa also said that Chandragup Kinnaras, He had stated that Chand India. SH ‘The Age of theGuptas. —— ragupta II had won 21 kingdoms within and outside© AKashmiri writer, Kshemendra, has described in Brihatkathamanjart the victories attaineg by the emperor over tribes such as Yavanas and Tusharas. ° Administration: If the reign of Samudragupta is known as the period of conquest ang expansion of the empire, then Chandragupta I's period was one of consolidation, Peace and prosperity. We learn about the administration of Chandragupta II from the accounts of Fa-Hien He described Chandragupta II as a tolerant king and described the administrative system as: fA,)* People lived in peace and prosperity in his kingdom. The government was efficient “7 and well organised. zg + The administration was never har: "certain acts of crime. (\y* Chandragupta II wed ‘a follower of Vishnu but was tolerant to other religions too, like ~ his father. CL His gold coins show that he was a great lover of art and learning, literature and 7 sculpture. Many learned poets and writers adorned his court. Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, Varahamihira and Amarsimha were a part of the group of nine literary geniuses called the navaratna. ‘sh with punishments. (They suggested fines for Xcumaragupta and Skandagupta The strength and prosperity of the Guptas continued during the rule of the next emperor, Kumaragupta. Kumaragupta was the second son of Chandragupta Il and he reigned till 455 CE. Among all the Gupta rulers, he issued the maximum number of gold coins. It indicated the prosperity of the kingdom. Kumaragupta's reign was marked by threat from external forces. © Towards the end ofhis reign, the northern India was attacked by the Hunas (a barbarian nomadic tribe living on the borders of the Chinese Empire) for the first time. + Pushyamitras,atribe from the Narmada valley, also became powerful and a threat to the Gupta Empire. Skandagupta, Kumaragupta’s son, became the next Gupta king. He spent most _ Review 1. How was crime dealt with during the reign of Chandragupta II? 2. What external forces threatened the Gupta of his time and effort in fighting the Hunas. Empire during Kumaragupta’s reign? He emerged victorious. Skandagupta also 3. What was the consequence of conflict defeated the Pushyamitras but the invasion between Skandagupta and the White of Hephthalites (also referred to as White Hunas? Hunas) was a major threat. Although he was able to defeat the Hunas, it drained the kingdoms resources and led to its eventual decline. Gupta rulers succeeding Skandagupta were weak and inefficient. Under their reigns, the Gupta Empire gradually declined. _ Ages and Events fneo gupta Administration Points to y -gin' kin fue a Remem| pole of King Chandragupta I was the first prominent the Guptas discarded the modest title ruler of the Gupta dynasty. He increased of raja. They adopted gfaiidiose titles his power through matrimonial alliances and military conquest. Samudragupta extended the Gupta territories by following an aggressive policy of conquest in North and South India. Chandragupta Il’s reign was a period of consolidation and the Gupta Empire reached its peak during his rule. Kumaragupta and Skandagupta were powerful leaders who fought against external forces like the Hunas to safeguard the frontiers of the Gupta Empire. The successors of Skandagupta were weak and power of the Gupta Empire gradually declined. och Maharajadhiraja, Paramabhataraka and parannda‘oata making the rulers all powerful. rhe king was the central authority and their characteristics are the following. 4 gh The king exercised all executive, military CY and judicial powers, 4 The people believed in Divine Right 4) Theory of kingship in which the king was considered as an incarnation of god. () fs The laws of hereditary succession were "followed (\A Rulers such as Samudragupta and “Y Chandragupta I personally led the armies in the battlefield. ° The king appointed all the important 1 officers and governors of his kingdom. iy Y However, the king shared his power with ministers, guilds and corporate bodies. The Brahmanas, as the in-charge of laws and their interpreters, exercised a check on the power of the king. Central Administration The central administration of the Gupta Empire comprised the council of ministers and provincial administrators. 7 / Council of ministers: The ministers assisted the king in administering the state and were part of the council called the mantriparishad, The mantri (prime minister) was the head of the civil administration. * Officers: Among other high officers were the mahabaladhikrta (commander-in-chief), mahadandanayaka (general) and mahapratihara (chief of the palace guards). * Ahigh ranking officer called the sandhivigrahika (foreign minister or minister of war and peace) was responsible for feudatory issues. Harisena held this position first time when this post was created under Samudragupta. Shaulkika was the officer responsible for collecting toll * Provincial administration: The biktis (provinces), also known as pradesha and bhoga, were usually governed by princes of royal blood and sometimes by a class of officers called uparikas. The uparika was a governor appointed by the king. * Thelink between the central and provincial administration was formed by kumaramatyas and aywktas who ruled over vishayas (districts). ——_—_—_@—____ The Age of the Guptas_ ———Points to Remember The King was the most impo! dministration. * ‘Phe headquarters of the district was Known as adhis) The district otticers were nominated by the wrtant person provincial governors. .n the Gupta 4 « Vishayapntt was in-charge of a vishaye, |, TheGu Pe eda well defined system of which was divided into smaller units of . central Pd provincial administration. of the Guptas y The armed forces contributed significant the Gupta Empire. administration. ly to the success of Below the vishaya were the villages. Gramika headed the village administration and settled the internal disputes. He was assisted by a village council. + Purapala or mayor administered acity. Military Administration s to its magnificent army: Following are In many ways the Gupta Empire owed its success .e Gifient features of its army: | oF inkantry archers were very significant to the Gupta army: Steel bow wes eee They used shields, long swords and javelins. Elephants and armed ca y r f their army. ; s a timed ary ae pnisation with superior tactics to outwit the local kin; invaders from the northwest. They also maintained a navy- Atthe time of Viktamaditya’s mule, they had five lakh infantry soldiers; © ‘se,e9e-cavalry soldiers and 40,000-elephants. The Golden Age: Development in Art and Science ‘The Gupta Age has been called the Golden on ‘Age of Indian Culture because of the evel | Ty important was the king —aoal AB ization and culture had attained during (ow important was the king in the Gupia this period. This period is marked by rapid | Empire? | development in art, architecture, literature 2. Write a shortnote on the provincial sind science. It also saw the emergence of the administration of the Guptas. first international residential university in | 3. How many soldiers did Chandragupta IIs the world, the Nalanda University. Extensive t inventions and discoveries were made in science, technology, engineering, art, literature, logic, philosophy. These developments are discussed here. gdoms and 20,000 charioteers, army have? mathematics, astronomy, religion and Education Nalanda University a oa os ae eee in present-day Nalanda district of Bihar, was supposedly the first ae al ea aa university in the world. Nalanda's history begins under the Gupta ntury CE. A seal identifies a monarch named Sakraditya as its founder Ages and Events 4pduring the reign of Kumaragupta 1. At its peak, it had 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers on its rolls ‘They came from different parts of India, China, Tibet, Korea, Java, Sri Lanka, Japan, Sumatra and srarlous other places. ‘The education imparted here was free of cost, Revenue was collected from 200 villages to meet the expenses. The subjects such as ‘H@dlogy, logic mathematics, philosophy, grammar, astrology, medicine and language were taught here. Admission was held through an entrance examination. Hiuen A. Ruins of Nalanda University Tsang’s accounts give us vivid information about the university. At a point of time, he too taught here. Apart from hostels for the students, the , university had a central assembly hall with 1+ What is Prayaga Prasasti? various prayer halls, parks, pavements and 2, What is meant by the panchayatana style? rest halls. It also had a central kitchen. There 3+ Where did the students of the Nalanda was a huge nine-storey library which had the University come from? What subjects finest Buddhist and Hindu manuscripts. were taughthere? By the end of the Pala Dynasty in the eleventh century CE, there was a revival of Brahmanism. Buddhism lost its popularity with which the decline of Nalanda University was directly related. The final blow was struck by the Turkic general, Bakhtiyar Khalji’s raid in 1193, Science TheGupta period also witnessed immense progress in the field of science. This age Coin ofthe Gupta period saw great scientists, mathematicians, astronomers and physicians. Some of them were the following. _Atyabhatta: A great mathematician and astronomer, Aryabhatiya and Surya Siddhanta are his two famous works. Aryabhatiya is a monumental work dealing with algebra, arithmetic, geometry and trigonometry. These are some of his achievements. * Aryabhatta discovered the exact value of pi as 3.1416. © He was the first to proclaim that the Earth was a sphere rotating on its axis around the Sun. He also said that eclipses were caused by the Earth’s shadow on the Moon. * With remarkable accuracy, Aryabhatta calculated the length of the solar year to be 365.3586805 days. * He discovered the rule for finding the area of a triangle. The Age of the Guptasos Aryabhatta is credited with the initial acquaintance and use of the decimal and Notion, system in mathematics. He also knew the use of zero. Later, the numerical System a called Arabic numerals as Arabs, after learning it from Indians, took it to Europe, Ty had given the system the name Hindse meaning, ‘from India’. y Sanskrit Literature Sanskrit received the encouragement and patronage from the Guptas. The period Witnesseq the revival of Hinduism. Its knowledge became a symbol of culture. It also became the language of the learned and was used in official documents and inscriptions. The Gupta rulers had patronised numerous scholars, poets and dramatists who Produce me of their greatest works during this time. alidasa was an Indian dramatist and poet. He is regarded as the greatest figure in Classica} Sanskrit literature. Some of his works are: * the plays—Abhijnanashakuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala), Vikramorvashiyan (Urvashi Won by Valour) and Malavikagnimitram (Malavika and Agnimitra) the epic poems—Raghtvamsham (Dynasty of Raghu) and Kumarasambhavam (Birth of the War God) the lyric Meghadutam (Cloud Messenger) Kalidasa’s works give us reliable information about various aspects of the Gupta periog such as the society, religion and government. Culture Architecture The Vishnu temple at Deogath was first described in detail by Alexander Cunningham in his tour of 1874-77. He referred to it as the Gupta temple. It is also referred to as the Dashavatara temple due to the ten avatars or ifiéaiiilations of Vishnu depicted on the temple walls. Built in the sixth century, the temple is situated in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh. It is one of the earliest Hindu stone-temples which still survives. The Vishnu Temple is a fine example of the ornate and beautiful nature of Gupta architecture. Some of its features are the following. * It is made up of stones and bricks. It is placed on a large terraced platform with four corner shrines (now ruined). This arrangement, known as the panchayatana, became popular throughout the subcontinent and was followed till the eighteenth century. * The Dashavatara Temple was the first North Indian s temple with a tower or shikhara. A part of the shikhara has eroded in time. * The temple also consists of a single cubical $aii¢tum. * The exterior is sculpted with scenes from the Ramayan. The entrance and pillars have beautiful paintings and carvings. * Impressions of Vishnu have been sculpted both in the interior and exterior walls of the temple. On the outer wall, he is shown asleep on the coil of Sheshnaga, _* ster will of Dsizotara the giant serpent. ia Dr ~ Ages and Events 4 gfwo qe Gupta period launched a new era in the history of Indian architecture, painting and qulpture. The age is connected with the phenomenal growth and development of temples. Unfortunately, ine Seance of the Gupta architecture have been lost in to the ravages of time. Moreover, the Hunas destroyed most of the architectural work of those days. GLOSSARY ‘alliance: a relation or friendship formed for mutual benefit ‘Cssassinated: act of political murder Demise: death Diplomat: someone who works on behalf of a country on various issues like finding peaceful solutions to problems Epigraphic: the study of inscriptions Exaggerate: to present a story in better or worse manner than it really is Exploit: (here) victory and achievement Feudatory: a lesser lord owing allegiance or loyalty to higher lord or king Grandiose: large but pretentious and imposing in style Incarnations: birth of gods or goddesses on the Earth in different forms Influential: someone with a lot of power who can impact behaviour of others Prestige: importance and respect Prominent: important, something or someone who easily attracts attention Salient: a main or important fact Sanctum: a shrine or sacred place inside a temple (here) Speculation: forming theory about an event or person without knowing the actual sequence of events Theology: the study of religion EXERCISES A. Short answer questions 1. Name the two Chinese travellers who visited India during the Gupta Age. 2. Name one literary and one archaeological source which provide valuable information about the Age of the Guptas. 3. Who was the first prominent ruler of the Gupta Dynasty? When did he ascend to the throne? Mention the famous inscription that tells us about Samudragupta’s reign. Who was Fa-Hien? Name the book that he wrote about India. The Gupta Age is called the ‘Golden Age of Indian culture’. Why? State four conquests made by Samudragupta? Name any two titles adopted by the Gupta rulers. Name two dramas written by Kalidasa. Mention any famous temple constructed during the Gupta period. Mention the divisions in towns and villages in the administration of the Gupta kings? a ‘The Age of the Guptas. —— ZS eeNousScope sources: Inscriptions, Brihadeshwara Temple ‘Abrief political history, administration and social life ee 846 CE: 907 CE: 1178 CE: Vijayalaya Parantaka 1010 CE Kulothunga Chola founds Chola Brihadeshwara Grow Later Chola ascends temple built by ascends 1279 CE: End of Empire throne Rajaraja throne Chola Dynasty 848 CE: 985 CE: Decline of Rajaraja Rajendra Pallavas Chola Chola ascends ascends 891 CE: Aditya throne throne Chola ascends throne 1017 CE: Rajendra conquers Western Chalukya Kingdom and Sri Lanka The term ‘medieval’ in history is referred to indicate a stage in the development of Gwvilization, Historians find it more convenient to divide history into broad periods— ancient, medieval and modern. The medieval period in India is said to have begun in about eighth century ce. In the medieval period, three powerful kingdoms—the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas iiminated the political sphere in South India. The Cholas were the most powerful among found They were the earliest ruling dynasty of the South. References to them have been in the Mahabharat and in the inscriptions of Ashoka ee Cheras were one of the earliest dynasties of the South occupying the Western coast ent, ‘nt-day Kerala). They were defeated in the fourth century by the Pallavas. In the sixth Paley the Pandyas came into prominence threatening the neighbouring kingdoms of the orasand the Cheras. They were attacked by the Cholas and the area ruled by them was y the Cholas in the early tenth century ending the Pandya kingdom. ~~ _ ————— Medieval India: The Cholas ———Sources rial Cholas was the most creative period in the history of South India, “Golden Age’ of Tamil culture. A lot of truction of the history of the The age of the imp It has even been termed by many scholars as the archaeological and literary sources are available for the recons| Cholas in the medieval age. Inscriptions Inscriptions found at various places in the form the chief archaeological sources. They were engraved on stone or metal. . eee Tamil copper plate inscriptions contain records of grants of villages, plots a cultivable lands or other privileges. It was given to individuals or public institutions by the ministers of the various South Indian kings. The study of these inscriptions has been especially important in reconstructing the history of Tamil Nadu. : These inscriptions are important because: ; ; « they provide us a valuable insight into the social conditions of medieval South India and Tamil kingdom and the monuments of the time act as a mirror of cultural and economic history of the region. © they help to fill chronological gaps in the history of the ruling dynasties of South India, For example, the Kanyakumari stone inscription provides legendary genealogies indicating the solar origin of the Cholas. * they throw light on the administration during Chola period, the land revenue and taxation system. | _ * there are interesting pieces of information in these inscriptions about various religious procedures and rituals observed during festivals such as péiBtual burning of the lamps, the use of holy water in the temple, construction of temples and setting up of anew deity ina temple. ih * the copper plates record tracts of lands and money given as gifts by rulers, chiefs, village assembly and plijafitfiteptats. For example, an inscription of Rajaraja I dating back to 997 CE describe a large extent of land gifted by the villagers, its measurement and boundaries. It also records information about the religious rituals such as the amount of paddy to be used in the worship and festivals to be celebrated. Brihadeshwara temple rae CI ji : The Chola emperors built grand temples and palaces. These temples became the centre of major peutic economic and cultural activities,{The Cholas represent the finest tradition of sculpture, dance, music and literature of the Tamil culture. Some of the important monuments of the Cholas are the Brihadeshwara and Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple at Thanjavur, the Airavat Sane aii iravateshwara Temple at Darasuram and the Koranganatha temple at The Bri ve eee temple testifies to the Chola’s brilliant achievements in architecture, pine} ro ee osting and sculpture. This temple, also known as the Big Temple, is rst granite temple in the world. It was constructed in Thanjavur by Ages and Fvente —.. Amyee ajaraia Chola in 1010. The temple is dedicated to iat Brihadeshwara, a manifestation of Shiva. vomple architecture had several unique features, Pits tower is one of the finest examples of Dravidian art. Known as the vimana, the tower of the temple is about 70m high and is amon; the tallest of its kind in the world, 6 The shikhara (crown) is large and heavy (about g0 tons) and has been carved out of a single stone. ruunaank anh teen g «The shrine has a massive Shiva Lingam which © J Briadesoara empl, Thanaoar js about 9m high. ‘ mus Sy ond « At the entrance of the temple, sits ahuge Rt stone bull (Nandi) which is considered one of the largest in the world. 4 The walls of the temple are adorned with beautiful sculptures of gods and goddesses. UNESCO designated the Brihadeshwara 3. Temple a World Heritage site in 1987. The temple completed a millennium in the year 2010. 1. Which powers dominated the political scenario of South India in the medieval period? 2. What kind of information do we get from Tamil copper plate inscriptions? What does vimana and shikhara mean? Political History of the Cholas ‘There are two phases of Indian history when the Cholas were in power over this region. First Chola kingdom The first Chola kingdom was established by Karikala in about 280 BCE. It continued till about 200 CE. However, this kingdom lost its glory and power and they were oveighadowed by the Pandyas and the Cheras. Second Chola kingdom The second phase of the Cholas came after the decline of the Pallavas in about 848 CE. These are some important facts about them. * The founder of the later Chola Empire was Vijayalaya (848-891 CE). He defeated the Pallavas and captured Thanjavur, which became the capital of the dynasty. * Vijayalaya was succeeded by his son Aditya Chola (891-907 CE) who defeated the last Pallava king, Aparajita and amiiéxed the Pallava kingdom. * Aditya’s successor Parantaka Chola, who ruled for 43 years from 907 CE to 950 CE, further enhanced the Chola power. He Stbjiigated the Pallavas completely. He also fought a war of invasion against the Pandyas. The Pandyan ruler Maravarman Rajasimha II sought the help of the king of Sri Lanka, who sent an army to his aid. But Parantaka defeated the combined army of the Pandyas and Sri Lanka. The Pandya king Pn — 9 ——___—- Medieval India: The Cholasfled into exile to Sri Lanka and Parantaka annexed the entire Pandya country, The Chola power was at its height during the tenth and eleventh centuries CE, The imperial greatness of the Cholas was achieved during the rule of Rajaraja I and his Successo, Rajendra Chola. Rajaraja I . a Points to Rajaraja I (Rajaraja literally translates to'the /~ Remember King of Kings’), the third child of Parantaka Chola, daid the foundation for the growth of the Chola kingdom into an empire by conquering the kingdoms of South india o The Chola Empire expanded as far as Sri Lanka in the South and Kalinga (present-day Odisha) in the East under him. Achievements: Rajaraja I fought many battles with the Chalukyas in the North and the Pandyas in the South. { tn the first eight years of his reign, he organised and increased the strength — of his army. His first attack was on the Chera king, Bhaskara Ravi Varman. He conquered Kandalur Salai, which belonged to the Chera king, according to the various inscriptions. /* In his battle against the Pandyas, he defeated their monarch, Amarabhujanga and captured the port of Vilinam. * He also conquered Vengi (in present-day Andhra Pradesh) laying the foundations for the Later Chola Dynasty. +The Western and the Eastern Chalukyas of the Deccan were conquered too. A few “years later, the Eastern Chalukya prince, Vimaladitya, married the eldest daughter of Rajaraja I. He became the king of Vengi but it was still under the Cholas. « The invasion of the territory of the Gangas of Mysore too was a success and the entire region came under the Chola Empire. 7 The army of Rajraja | crossed the ocean by ships, burnt Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and destroyed Anuradhapura, the capital of Ceylon. He won the Northern half of the island. His son Rajendra Chola I won rest of the territories in the island. / One of the greatest achievements of Rajaraja I was the building of a powerful navy. It played a great role in the creation and maintenance of the Chola Empire. His naval power made the Bay of Bengal practically a Chola lake. # His kingdom included the whole of Tamil Nadu, a part of Karnataka, Kalinga (Odisha), northern part of Sri Lanka and a large number of islands. Rajaraja was not only a great military g@flitus but also an efficient administrator, @ great builder and a patron of arts and literature. He made excellent arrangements for the , ‘Ages and Events “80 ~The sources of information regarding the Chola Empire can be divided into two categories— archaeological and literary, Kalingattuparani is perhaps the most important literary source related to the Chola Empire. » The archaeological sources can be categorised into inscriptions and monuments. > The Brihadeshwara temple in Thanjavur can be said to be the finest monument of the Chola period.Re ministration of his vast d@iiiifiions. The famous Brihadeshwara temple built by him is @ , representation of his construction activities. He was a Shaiva but was tolerant towards ing JiPB jigions and sects as well, ther re 8} gajendra chola T ‘ 5 ee i ‘ 1 pajaraja ] was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I in 1014 CE. The powerful army and javy organised under Rajaraja Chola 1, achieved even greater heights under him. His army is pelieved to have had at least 1.7 million soldiers. jieverments: Rajendra Chola I continued the ambitious conquests of his father and added Achi . rritories to the Chola Empire, more te t vin 1017, he led a campaign against Ceylon. His ifiWifitible navy overran the capital Anuradhapura. The Sinhala king, Mahinda V, was taken a prisoner. The whole island was conquered by Rajendra Chola I. He, thus, completed the task begun by his father of conquering the island. + in 1038, Rajendra Chola I marched as the head of his army through the Pandya and Chera (Kerala) territories. + He next turned his attention towards the Western Chalukyas around 1021. He defeated jayasimha M1, the Western’ Chalukya Review! king and the River Tungabadhra was he political recognised as the boundary between the > Which powers dominated the political - ario of South India in the medieval Cholas and Chalukyas. ne . period? + His most famous expedition was to North What kind of information do we get from India, The Chola army crossed the Ganges. Tamil copper plate inscriptions? by defeating a number of rulers on its way. 3, What does vimana and shikhara mean? The Kalinga and the Vengi kingdoms gave - as up in front of the Chola army. Only the Pala kingdom challenged their might. In one of the bloodiest wars of that time, Rajendra Chola’s army defeated the Pala King Mahipala LHe then took the title, ‘Gangaikonda Chola’, the Chola who brought the Ganges to his heel. Rajendra Chola also founded a new capital city called Gangaikonda Cholapuram. He next eyed to conquer the East. He sent a naval expedition to Indo-China peninsula, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia in 1025 to subdue Srivijaya) The causes of the hostility are not clear. While some scholars say that the campaign was undertaken to establish the Chola dominance over these lands, others suggest that it might have been 2 War of filiiifidter. Rajendra had heard tales from the merchants of Kaveripattinam about the riches of these kingdoms. Thus, he strengthened his navy and sent it on an expedition to conquer these lands, Rajendra’s naval fleet was so large and powerful that the kings of the Southeast Asian nations accepted him as their overlord rather than fight him. The kings of Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian archipelago submitted tohim. The land around the Bay of Bengal belonged to the Cholas. Thus, it was called the ‘Chola Lake’. ) i Medieval India: The Cholas ——i> a o* Atthe height of Rajendra Chola’s power, the Chola Empire had control over the Deccan, Bengal, Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Andaman- Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Maldives and Sri Lanka. Therefore, it was one of the largest empires to ever rule India. In addition to being a capable martial administrator, Rajendra Chola was a great builder The Shiva temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, where he made a near-replica of the Brihadeshwara temple of Thanjavur, is his greatest achievement. )He also built a Shiva temple on the banks of the Ganga. He brought the river’s water to his homeland in the South to be sprinkled on all the major temples there{He even sent artisans to help build a temple at Angkor Wat, the world’s largest temple complex, in Cambod As an efficient administrator, father had introduced. He formalised it as the p: to decide issues affecting their life. / The Chola Empire lost its former glory after R n 1279, Thereafter, the Pandyas, doms on the ruins of the mighty Cholas. by the Pandyas i independent king fhola Administration The Chola administration system was very we was essentially monarchical in character where executive, legislative and mil administrative divisions: central government « provincial government © local government King “ « The king was the head of the administration. f god on the Earth and their idols were « They were considered the representatives o: in the temples. « The kingship was hereditary. apparent was called the yuvaraja. hémade changes in the village adi anchayat system which allowed local people litary powers were guided by hi The eldest son generally succeeded the king. The Points to Remember ey The three major dynasties of South India were the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. The Cholas were the most prominent among them. Karaikala established the Chola kingdom during the first century CE. Rajaraja I and Rajendra Chola I were the most important rulers of this dynasty. Rajaraja [ laid the foundation for the growth of the Chola kingdom into an empire by conquering the kingdoms of South India. Under Rajendra Chola, the Chola Empire included the areas such as the Deccan, Bengal, Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Andaman-Nicobar Lakhsadeep Islands, Maldives Islands, and Sri Lanka. ministration that his ajendra Chola I. Its last ruler was defeated Hoysalas and the Gangas established their Il organised and efficient. The administration the king was the head of administration. All m. The Cholas had three major kept heir eeoo « The kings enjoyed enormous powers and privileges. » They often went on tours to ensure the smooth running of the administration. + The king was a benevolent dictator and the supreme commander of the army and fo tral Government / Cent 7 The king carried out his duties with the help of a council of ministers and other officials. « The higher officials were called peruntaram and the lower officials, siruntaram. ¢ The royal orders were written and copies of it would be sent to respective departments and officers. « The royal priest was a reliable adviser to the king, « Since there was no central assembly, the king was alone responsible for efficient administration of the Chola Empire. + Aninscription of Kullotonga I indicates that each department was represented by a group of officers. The central government decided on the matters of external defence, internal peace and order, material and cultural progress of the subjects. / Provincial Government + The Chola Empire, which was known as Rajyam or Rastrayam, was divided into a number of provinces called mandalam. ¢ The mandalams were placed under the charge of viceroys who were generally the princes of the royal family. The viceroys were in constant touch with the central government. They received orders from the king. * The viceroys had a large number of officials to assist them in the work of administration of the province. Local Government The system of local government during the Chola regime was a rather detailed one. © Each mandalam was divided into several kottams or valanadus. They were further subdivided into nadu (districts), kurram (group of villages) and gramam (village). * The village was the lowest unit of administration, each being a self-governing unit. The kings gave power and authority to their local units. The basic assumption emerging at this period was that each village should be administered by the villagers themselves. The officials acted as advisers to the village assemblies. There was no interference in the daily administration of the villages from outside. * The general assemblies included most of the local residents and were of three categories. i. Ur was the general assembly of the village where the residents discussed their matters without any formal rules or procedures. Very large villages had two urs. Ur comprised the tax-paying residents of an ordinary village. The ur and the sabha were found together in some villages. ii. The sabha was the most powerful assembly. It was a body of the Brahmins. Only a selected few and elders of the village took part and carried business in it. —$$____@___ Medieval India: The Cholas7 S— Age: oS . It looked aft iii, The nagaram constituted of merchants and eae vt as ler ec . The nagaram was found mors The Plage ene eed after the peainenee 4 ee Ponds, ins f the payment les. They were also in-charge of ; h ted Tiny ented public markets and helped people at times of famine trade ang ‘Ucatio, villages 5 4" and flogg. "® Revenue System Land revenue was the chief source of income of the Cholas. The unique features. * The revenue was collected either by the ji jew local authorities or by the royal servants. =) * The lands were classified into taxable and Tevenue system haq Som, 5 1. What kind of a body was the sabia non-taxable categories. * There were many grades in the taxable lands. Land revenue differed depending . What information regarding Cholg administration can be learnt fr OM the inscription of Kullotonga 17 upon these grades. * Ingeneral, however, one-sixth of the Bross Produce was collected as tax either in cash or in kind or both. - Who were the yiroarajas? ‘Law and Order The king was the chief justice of the kingdom. Justice was administered through village courts, royal courts and panchayats, Minor disputes were settled in the village itself. Punishment was in the form of fines of donation for some charitable purpose, The trial of serious offences and major cases Were conducted by the king himself The punishment in such cases was either Sxecution or Confiscation of property. Bation projecs aM was an artificial reservoir build -Pointsio _ a ( Remember The Cholas had an efficient and organised system of administration, The king was the central authority with supreme power, The Chola administration had three ‘main divisions —the central, provincial and local governments, The empire was divided into mandalam (Provinces). It was divided into severd kottams or valanadus, They were further subdivided into nadu (districts), kurram (group of villa, ges) and gramam (village). The local gov ernment was well “stablished within the Chola kingdom s and Event: i a