Sustainability 11 00813 v2

sustainability
Article
Analysing Ways to Achieve a New Urban
Agenda-Based Sustainable Metropolitan Transport
Romanika Okraszewska 1, * , Kazimierz Jamroz 1 , Lech Michalski 1 , Joanna Żukowska 1 ,
Krzysztof Grzelec 2 and Krystian Birr 1
1 Department of Highway and Transportation Engineering, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk 80-233, Poland; kazimierz.jamroz@pg.edu.pl (K.J.);
lech.michalski@pg.edu.pl (L.M.); joanna.zukowska@pg.edu.pl (J.Ż.); krystian.birr@pg.edu.pl (K.B.)
2 Department of Transportation Market, Faculty of Economics, University of Gdansk, Sopot 81-824, Poland;
krzysztof.grzelec@ug.edu.pl
* Correspondence: romanika.okraszewska@pg.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-58-347-27-31

Received: 31 October 2018; Accepted: 29 January 2019; Published: 4 February 2019
Abstract: The New Urban Agenda (NUA) sets a new vision of sustainable urban development to help
cities deal with the challenges of changing demography. While numerous articles have addressed
how the NUA can be implemented at different levels and in different areas, this article points out the
potential limitations in incorporating the NUA into metropolitan transport policies. The relevance of
the limitations can be seen in three main fields: incompatibility between legal and financial frameworks
and the functional and spatial structures of metropolitan areas, the characteristics of how transport
systems are developed as part of metropolitan functional and spatial structures and the inconsistency
and inadequacy between political declarations (NUA) which are based on ideas and programmes and
the objectives of strategy papers which are based on diagnoses, data analyses and predictive models.
The authors put forward the thesis that by concentrating on cities, the NUA leaves out some of the
characteristics of metropolitan areas. As a consequence, although the NUA can work successfully for
metropolitan cores, outer areas are not covered directly. In order to verify the thesis, a comparison
was made between the NUA’s transport system approach with experience from running and planning
metropolitan transport systems described in the literature. The results of the comparative analysis,
confirmed the thesis of the authors and made it possible to formulate general conclusions regarding the
specific conditions of metropolitan areas for the running and developing of the transport system. By using
explanatory case study of Tri-City Metropolitan Area (TMA) and the Strategy for Transport and Mobility
for TMA 2030 general assumptions were confirmed and explain in more details. The NUA and STM
were compared for how they address the main areas of intervention related to transport. Differences were
identified and recommendations were formulated, should the documents be updated. The STM must be
updated in areas such as equity and climate change mitigations while the NUA should be expanded to
cover the specific conditions that prevail in functional and metropolitan areas.
Keywords: new urban agenda; metropolitan transport system; civil engineering and transport
1. Introduction
More than 50% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a large part of it in metropolitan
areas. It is predicted that by 2050 70% of the population will live in urban areas [1]. In this situation,
it is questionable if the cities are sufficiently equipped to keep pace with this demographic pressure.
To give an answer to the massive global trend in urbanization in October 2016 the III United Nations
Habitat Conference was held where the New Urban Agenda (NUA) was approved [2].
Sustainability 2019, 11, 813; doi:10.3390/su11030813 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 813 2 of 21
The NUA is serving as a new vision for the cities and municipalities for the next 20 years.
This document sets a new global standard for sustainable urban development and helps to rethink
how life in the cities can be planned and managed. The NUA aligns with the 17 key Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG) related to urban development, quality of life and social equity. The main
areas of NUA refer to specific targets of the SDG’s goal No. 11 which is: “to make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” [3]. Transport and mobility are key issues for
achieving the goal. Reflecting the complexity of urban structures, the new agenda covers a broad set of
topics, where transport and mobility find their place or interact with: other technical infrastructure,
urban planning, public space, housing, land use, real estate, energy efficiency, cultural heritage, good
governance, regional cooperation, inclusion, equality, gender issue, anti-discrimination, participation,
education, health, economy, industry, resilience, disaster risk reduction and financing.
The language used in the document is flexible and supports the delivery of the vision in many
areas and contexts [4]. With no legal force, the NUA is merely a declaration designed to express a joint
position of the stakeholders. Despite that, it does create a language in which urban issues and the
urban developments over the coming decades will be discussed. The implementation of the NUA
helps facilitate the achievement of other development agendas, policies, plans, approaches and actions
in the urban context in general [4] or sectoral terms [5] on regional [6,7], national [8] or local level [9]
both in developed and developing countries [10].
The NUA’s European delivery instrument is the Urban Agenda for the EU, approved in 2016 under
the Pact of Amsterdam [7]. Partnerships have been launched under the Urban Agenda for the EU
involving city authorities, member states, EU institutions and other stakeholders. Their goal is to
provide citizens with new opportunities, improve their quality of life and deal with the key challenges
that cities must face, including transport and mobility issues.
On the national level the NUA proposes National Urban Policies (NUPs) within local-national
partnerships as one of the fundamental drivers of change, including transport and mobility. The NUP
is a key instrument for governments to support the implementation of the NUA, city related SDGs
and other global agreements such as the climate change agreements. A report of the OECD [10] shows
that European countries still have a lot to do to develop NUPs. Only eight countries have an explicit
national urban policy and the next eight have partial elements of national urban policies in their
urban policy landscape, offering some foundations on which to build on. Poland adopted its NUP
in 2015 elevating it to the level of national strategy papers. With the NUP part of the hierarchy of
documents, more consistency is expected in linking thematic development goals with lower levels of
administration (region, municipality, city).
At the lowest level of administration, urban areas have been given a tool to achieve sustainable urban
mobility. This comes in the form of the European Commission’s proposed Sustainable Urban Mobility
Plans (SUMP), a strategic document designed to meet the demand for mobility whilst ensuring adequate
quality of life for the residents [11]. The concept of SUMP, as the document to implement SDG No. 11,
has been widely adopted in Europe over the last years. Today, two of the cities that form the TMA, that is,
Gdańsk [12] and Gdynia [13] have already adopted their SUMPs with Sopot still working on the process.
A system of strategic documents with known formal and legal ramifications corresponds to the
country’s fundamental territorial division. In many countries administrative divisions do not reflect
settlement processes as they happen. Recent decades have seen the rise of polycentric metropolitan regions
consisting of a number of connected large urban areas, which presents a new set of challenges for transport
planning [14]. New functional and spatial trends call for a metropolitan approach to governance and
new legal and financial frameworks. This is reflected in the NUA [2, article 90] and emphasised in IRU’s
publication [14]. Many countries, however, do not have metropolitan governance frameworks in place.
The result is a variety of informal structures of cooperation between the relevant bodies [15–20].
Metropolises come in different sizes, spatial forms and degrees of advanced metropolitan
processes. In Poland, Warsaw is the only city which may qualify as an established metropolis, although
at a low level when compared to international standards. Apart from Warsaw, other cities with
populations of more than half a million have fairly well developed metropolitan functions. They are
Poznań, Wrocław, Kraków, the Tri-City and Silesia Conurbation and Łódź. [21]. The functional
and spatial development of Polish metropolises follows the world’s trends. There are monocentric
metropolises with a single city and polycentric metropolises such as the Silesia Conurbation and
the Tri-City. The morphological differences carry functional consequences due to different types of
transport links (Figure 4). The common feature is a growing demand for longer and more complicated
technical infrastructure networks including the transport network.
Dedicated metropolitan governance is common in Poland. Four of the eight metropolitan areas in
Poland (Lódź, Wrocław, Poznań and the Tri-City) have metropolitan governance bodies. In Krakow and
Wrocław the voivodeship, the first level of sub-national government, provides some of the functions of
a typical governance body [15].
Regardless of what type of metropolitan governance has been adopted, strategic papers are
developed to support the delivery of metropolitan functions. The new classification of metropolitan
functions proposed in “Metropolitan areas in Europe” [22], puts transport next to politics, economy,
science and culture. Transport is indicated as a key challenge for metropolitan governance by Barcelona
Centre for International Affairs [23] too.
While EU countries commonly plan their strategy papers around the paradigm of sustainable
development, “planning lacks unifying themes or directives for achieving sustainability in cities ( . . . )
The existing rating systems can be context-specific by country and may at best target weak sustainability as
their intended outcome” [4]. Therefore, it seems reasonable to seek answers to how the New Urban Agenda
aligns with strategic planning of infrastructure and cities but also at particular levels of territorial division.
Because they are designed to promote new ideas, political declarations such as the NUA,
set the main goals and directions for sustainable development and non-discrimination policies.
They also relate to the relevant science and research. The literature presents debates on sustainable
development which can be divided into a few themes: a) conceptual; b) contextual; c) academic;
and d) geopolitical [24]. A review of the literature shows that research and development interests
concentrate on sustainable development goals, the results of decisions taken, proposed sequences of
actions, the tools used and ways to measure results [4,24–28]. The objective of this article is to enrich
the knowledge on how to plan and implement sustainable development effectively by identifying
potential inconsistencies and inadequacies of the political declarations (NUA) which are based on
ideas and programmes and the goals contained in strategy papers which are formulated on the basis
of diagnoses, data analyses and predictive modelling. If formalised and dedicated to a strict delivery
of political declarations, the inconsistency may hamper the delivery of strategic targets or even cause
organisations to abandon the goals altogether. This constitutes a methodological error and one that
stems from failure to acknowledge specific aspects of sustainable development policy which may
be a consequence of a country’s social, economic and political ramifications [10]. As suggested by
the author [10] Poland’s fundamental administrative division at city level may find it difficult to
implement the New Urban Agenda successfully “in the conditions of constantly changing law, lack of
proper financing and organizational problems that Polish cities have to face” [10].
2. Method
2.1. Study Method

Having developed the Strategy for Transport and Mobility for the Tri-City Metropolitan Area
our team realised that metropolitan areas are not addressed directly by the NUA and that the specific
needs of metropolitan areas and their transport systems are not accounted for. The overall objective of
the work was to establish whether:
• the NUA’s proposed approach to urban visions, principles, implementation and follow-up and
review can be successfully used in metropolitan areas?
• the NUA’s proposed principles can be used for planning metropolitan transport systems?
To achieve the main goal two groups of specific research objectives were adopted: scientific and
practical. The scientific objective was to analyse how well the NUA corresponds to previous experience
and principles ofTotransport
achieve the main goal two
planning ingroups of specific research
metropolitan areas.objectives were adopted:
The practical scientific
objective wasand to formulate
practical. The scientific objective was to analyse how well the NUA corresponds to previous
recommendations to both documents in the main areas of intervention covering the operation and
experience and principles of transport planning in metropolitan areas. The practical objective was to
developmentformulate
of the recommendations
urban (NUA) to andbothmetropolitan
documents in the transport
main areassystem (STM).
of intervention The objectives
covering the were
operation and development of the urban (NUA) and
achieved by using a set of methods as schematically presented in Figure 1. metropolitan transport system (STM). The
objectives were achieved by using a set of methods as schematically presented in figure 1.
Figure 1. Diagram of the method for achieving scientific and practical objectives.
Figure 1. Diagram of the method for achieving scientific and practical objectives. Commented [M4]: Please check
2.2. Achieving the Scientific Objectives citation in this manuscript

2.2. Achieving the Scientific Objectives
To achieve the scientific objectives the authors of this article used three study methods:
literature review, caseobjectives
To achieve the scientific study and comparative analysis.
the authors of this article used three study methods: literature
Literature review was designed to identify and analyse transport problems in metropolitan areas
review, case study and comparative analysis.
to use as the basis for answering the following questions:
Literature
•
review was designed to identify and analyse transport problems in metropolitan areas
RQ1. How are transport and population mobility problems represented in the NUA?
to use as the •basis forWhat
RQ2. answering the following
is the transport management questions:
experience in metropolitan areas?
• RQ3. What transport problems are found in metropolitan areas?
• RQ1. How are transport and population mobility problems represented in the NUA?
Literature studies looked at NUA implementation experience [6,29,30], the research methods
• RQ2. What is the transport management experience in metropolitan areas?
applied [24,27,28] and the identification of metropolitan transport problems [31]. A few dozen
• RQ3. What transport
scientific problems
publications are found
were studied in[16,25,32],
such as metropolitan
reports areas?
from NUA implementation, for
example [5,8] and case studies, for example [4]. The answers to scientific questions one (RQ1), two
(RQ2)
Literature and three
studies (RQ3) are
looked atpresented in Section 3.
NUA implementation experience [6,29,30], the research methods
Case study included identifying and analysing transport problems using the example of the Tri-
applied [24,27,28] and the identification of metropolitan transport problems [31]. A few dozen scientific
City Metropolitan Area (TMA). The authors first characterised the TMA and its transport system and
publications were
presentedstudied suchdocument
its strategic as [16,25,32], reports
titled Strategy for from NUA
Transport andimplementation,
Mobility in the TMA foruntilexample
2030. [5,8] and
case studies, Next, studies and
for example analyses
[4]. The were conducted
answers to help answer
to scientific more research
questions questions:
one (RQ1), two (RQ2) and three (RQ3)
are presented• in RQ4.
SectionWhat3. are the differences in delivering transport services in the TMA’s core and outer parts?
• RQ5. What are the problems in delivering transport services in the TMA’s outer part?
Case study included identifying and analysing transport problems using the example of the
The answers
Tri-City Metropolitan Areato(TMA).
the question
The four (RQ4) and
authors fivecharacterised
first (RQ5) are provided synthetically
the TMA and in Section 4.
its transport system
A number of analyses and studies were conducted. Results of TMA’s diagnostic studies were used
and presented itsas:strategic
such analysis ofdocument titled Strategy
planning documents for Transport
[13,33], transport and Mobility
system stocktaking, instudies
road traffic the TMA
(in until 2030.
Next, studiestheand analyses
field), transportwere conducted
behaviour to help
of the population answer
(surveys) more
[34,35] andresearch questions:
transport services by different
• RQ4. What are the differences in delivering transport services in the TMA’s core and outer parts?
• RQ5. What are the problems in delivering transport services in the TMA’s outer part?
The answers to the question four (RQ4) and five (RQ5) are provided synthetically in Section 4.
A number of analyses and studies were conducted. Results of TMA’s diagnostic studies were used
such as: analysis of planning documents [13,33], transport system stocktaking, road traffic studies (in
the field), transport behaviour of the population (surveys) [34,35] and transport services by different
transport modes (database exploration) [33,34,36]. Simulation studies were also conducted for various
options and scenarios [11,24] of TMA’s transport system operation. The simulation studies covered
the core and outer sections and a combined area of the entire TMA. The simulation was aided by a
transport model which was developed using the VISUM software [37]. Calibrated to in-the-field and
survey data, the programme was applied to cars and public transport [34,38].
Comparative analysis involved a comparison between how the NUA solves transport problems
and how this is addressed in the STM in the area of the TMA. The results were intended to help the
authors to answer the following questions:
• RQ6. Is there consistency between the NUA’s principles of shaping metropolitan transport
transport modes (database exploration) [33,34,36]. Simulation studies were also conducted for
systemsvarious
and the TM’s goals and programmes of action?
options and scenarios [11,24] of TMA’s transport system operation. The simulation studies
• RQ7. Do the the
covered NUA and
core and STM
outer cover
sections and a the same
combined areas
area of intervention
of the entire usedwas
TMA. The simulation for managing and
aided
by a transport model which was developed
developing transport systems in metropolitan areas? using the VISUM software [37]. Calibrated to in-the-field
and survey data, the programme was applied to cars and public transport [34,38].
Comparative analysis involved a comparison between how the NUA solves transport problems
The comparative analysis used the results of analyses from Sections 3–5. Section 5 gives the results
and how this is addressed in the STM in the area of the TMA. The results were intended to help the
of the analyses and the answer
authors to answer to thequestions:
the following question six (RQ6) and seven (RQ7).
• RQ6. Is there consistency between the NUA’s principles of shaping metropolitan transport
2.3. Achieving thesystems
Practical Objectives
and the TM’s goals and programmes of action?
• RQ7. Do the NUA and STM cover the same areas of intervention used for managing and
The authorsdeveloping
delivered the practical objectives of this article by analysing and synthetizing studies
transport systems in metropolitan areas?
and analyses presented in Sections 3–5. The results of the analyses are intended to help with these
The comparative analysis used the results of analyses from Sections 3, 4 and 5. Section 5 gives
practical questions:
the results of the analyses and the answer to the question six (RQ6) and seven (RQ7).
• PQ1. Which of the

2.3. Achieving the areas
Practicalof metropolitan transport intervention identified through literature
Objectives
studies andThecase studies
authors should
delivered the be included
practical in the
objectives NUA?
of this article by analysing and synthetizing
studies and analyses presented in Sections 3-5. The results of the analyses are intended to help with
• PQ2. Which of the areas of intervention proposed in the NUA and identified in the studies should
these practical questions:
be included in the TMA’s development efforts (e.g. the STM)?
•PQ1. Which of the areas of metropolitan transport intervention identified through literature
studies and case studies should be included in the NUA?
The recommendations which answer the above questions are given in Section 6.
• PQ2. Which of the areas of intervention proposed in the NUA and identified in the studies
should be included in the TMA’s development efforts (e.g. the STM)?
3. Identification and Analysis of Transport Problems in Metropolitan Areas—Literature Review
The recommendations which answer the above questions are given in Section 6.
3.1. Transport3.and Mobilityand

Identification According
analysis oftotransport
the NUA problems in metropolitan areas—literature review
As well 3.1.
as Transport
playinganditsMobility
original and primary
According to the NUArole, that is, moving people and goods, transport may
help to integrateAsa region, build its competitive advantage and stimulate economic growth (including
well as playing its original and primary role, that is, moving people and goods, transport
the creation may
of new jobs).
help to The
integrate NUAbuild
a region, makes frequentadvantage
its competitive references to transport
and stimulate in growth
economic multiple contexts
(including
and places (Figure 2)the creation
which of to
led newa jobs). The NUA
synthesis makes frequent
of transport references
and mobilityto transport in multiple
topics conducted within the
contexts and places (Figure 2) which led to a synthesis of transport and mobility topics conducted
NUA’s chapters.
within the NUA’s chapters.
2. Transport-Relevant
FigureFigure References
2. Transport-Relevant References in NUA.
in NUA.
The NUA’s vision of a sustainable city meeting its social, economic and environmental functions
The NUA’s vision of a sustainable city meeting its social, economic and environmental functions
includes the need for equal access to a sustainable and safe for all urban mobility. It talks about
includes the need for
resource equal access
efficiency to a sustainable
in using passenger and freightand safe systems
transport for all to
urban mobility.
effectively It talks
link people, about resource
places,
efficiency in goods
usingand economic potential.
passenger It puts transport
and freight emphasis onsystems
a high quality of transport services
to effectively and equalplaces, goods
link people,
access regardless of gender. Mobility management should contribute to promoting sustainable
and economic potential. It puts emphasis on a high quality of transport services and equal access
consumption patterns which mitigate the effects and adapt the transport system to climate change.
regardless ofAsgender.
regardsMobility management
metropolitan governance the should
NUA contribute to promoting
talks about the need to takesustainable
advantage ofconsumption
patterns whichopportunities
mitigate presented by today’s
the effects andand tomorrow’s
adapt sustained, inclusive
the transport systemand tosustainable economic As regards
climate change.
metropolitan governance the NUA talks about the need to take advantage of opportunities presented
by today’s and tomorrow’s sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth. In its vision cities
fulfil their territorial functions across administrative boundaries and act as hubs and drivers for
balanced, sustainable and integrated urban and territorial development at all levels.
The “Principles and commitments” chapter defines how the vision should be delivered through
shared approaches. Key to this is sustainability and a people-focused, integrated approach to
urban and territorial development by implementing policies, strategies and actions at all levels.
By promoting cooperation across all levels of administration, urban areas will grow in a sustainable
and integrated manner.
“Call for action” is the biggest chapter identifying how cities should work to be sustainable. So for
the purposes of this analysis the NUA’s approaches to actions have been grouped into three main pillars of
sustainable development. As described in the paradigm of sustainable development transport should be
socially acceptable, economically justified and environmentally safe. A closer look at the "Call for actions"
chapter shows that sustainable urban transport should meet the following requirements:
• social—exercising the right to an adequate standard of living, without discrimination, a common

and equal access to high quality mobility and transport infrastructure and services. Urban mobility
which is safe and accessible for all and efficient. Efficiency is to be achieved through integration
of subsystems and shaping transport behaviour, developing a well-organised, safe and functional
system of public transport and by promoting active forms of mobility such as walking and cycling.
If transport safety is to improve, legal changes will be required as well as new planning and
technology approaches to focus on road safety and vulnerable road users.
• economic—the ability to move people and goods using a fast, efficient and cheap transport is the
most important element of meeting the EU’s goals which is to combine a dynamic economy with
social cohesion. According to NUA guidelines urban mobility and transport should contribute to
an effective use of an area’s economic capacity going beyond the city’s administrative boundaries
and stimulate interaction and connectivity between urban and rural areas. The NUA includes a
number of political declarations designed to support the application of international and national
public finances to advance urban and territorial sustainable development.
• environment—the NUA puts emphasis on the need to minimise the human impact on the
environment through transport. To that end it encourages a change in transport behaviour,
new low-carbon and energy efficient technologies and optimisation of transport choices.
The document reflects the growing understanding of global threats, a result of climate change.
The NUA points out that more needs to be done to prevent further climate change.
Signatories to the NUA use the “Effective implementation” chapter to commit themselves to actions
for creating legal and financial frameworks at all levels of governance and working towards cooperation
and participation. The document promotes a clear division of competences of territorial units and
encourages cooperation between them while leaving cooperation principles to be defined and regulated by
national laws. Given the functional and spatial differences of metropolitan areas, the NUA encourages
the development of sustainable regional infrastructure to stimulate sustainable economic production,
promoting equitable growth of regions across the urban-rural continuum. The declarations refer to support
for integrated territorial planning to prevent unfavourable and uncontrolled urban development trends.
Spatial planning should follow the principles of compactness, polycentrism and multiple use of space
which will help to reduce the challenges, needs and costs of service delivery per capita and harness density
and economies of scale and agglomeration. There is a declaration for transport safety.
“Follow-up and review” includes incentives and declarations for a timely and active
implementation of the NUA and monitoring progress, evaluating the impacts and reporting regularly.
Described in the document, the urban vision talks about cities which fulfil their territorial
functions across administrative boundaries and act as hubs and drivers for balanced, sustainable
and integrated urban and territorial development at all levels. But the vision, commitments and
principles of implementing a sustainable transport system are primarily related to areas within cities
and concentrate on urban trips with a marginal interest in external trips, the basis for economic growth
and prosperity of metropolitan areas. These conclusions are a positive answer to the research question
one (RQ1).
3.2. Experience of Transport Operation and Management on Metropolitan Areas

Metropolisation is one of the key features of today’s development model. In the contemporary
world developed countriesa maintain
of implementing sustainable contacts between
transport system regionsrelated
are primarily through their
to areas metropolitan
within cities and areas with
concentrate
links that include transporton urban andtripsinstitutions.
with a marginalThere interestarein external
severaltrips, the in
cities basis for economic
Poland growthestablished a
that have
and prosperity of metropolitan areas. These conclusions are a positive answer to the research
presence on the European map of metropolitan cooperation such as the Tri-City’s seaport cities.
question one (RQ1).
In spatial terms a metropolitan area is a region consisting of a densely populated urban
core and its 3.2. Experience of Transport Operation and Management on Metropolitan Areas
less-populated surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure and housing.
Metropolitan areas Metropolisation
include one is oneorofmore
the key features
urban of today’s
areas, development
as well model.cities,
as satellite In the contemporary
towns and intervening
world developed countries maintain contacts between regions through their metropolitan areas with
rural areas (Figure
links that include transport and institutions. There are several cities in Poland that have establishedmeasured by
3) that are socioeconomically tied to the urban core, typically
commuting patterns.
a presence on Analysis
the European of Poland’s transformation
map of metropolitan cooperationprocesses suggests
such as the Tri-City’s thatcities.
seaport metropolises grow
In spatialthey
faster than the regions termsare a metropolitan
in. The gap area is a region consisting
between cities and of a densely populated urban core
their surroundings and
increases.
its less-populated surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure and housing.
With an Metropolitan
uneven level areasof development,
include metropolitan
one or more urban areas, as well areas are prone
as satellite to social
cities, towns inequalities in terms
and intervening
of employment, ruralincome
areas (Figure and 3) access
that areto socioeconomically
goods and services tied to [19]. When
the urban viewed
core, typicallyinmeasured
this context,
by transport
systems should commuting
encourage patterns. Analysis
active andof Poland’s
inclusive transformation
approaches processes
andsuggests
prevent that social
metropolises grow
exclusion. The right
faster than the regions they are in. The gap between cities and their surroundings increases.
to mobility should Withnot depend
an uneven levelonofsocial or financial
development, metropolitanstatus.
areasAnare affordable
prone to socialand good quality
inequalities in public
transport system
terms ofshould help income
employment, to deliver these
and access to objectives
goods and services[2]. Metropolitan
[19]. When viewed transport systems face an
in this context,
transport
additional social systems should
challenge whichencourage
is the rightactiveto and inclusive
clean air, approaches
a condition andwhich
prevent dense
social exclusion.
development and a
The right to mobility should not depend on social or financial status. An affordable and good quality
high concentration of travel
public transport system destinations
should help toto metropolitan
deliver these objectives cores put at a serious
[2]. Metropolitan transport risk. This should be
systems
addressed, especially in coresocial
face an additional areas,challenge
by swappingwhich isthe the car
rightfor
to public transport
clean air, a condition and using
which active forms of
dense
development and a high concentration of travel destinations to metropolitan cores put at a serious
mobility [19]. In surrounding territories, the priority is to ensure accessibility and mobility to prevent
risk. This should be addressed, especially in core areas, by swapping the car for public transport and
social exclusion.
usingBecause
active forms public transport
of mobility [19]. In services
surrounding in territories,
an extensive spatial
the priority is todevelopment
ensure accessibility pattern are not
as good as inand highly
mobilityurbanised
to prevent areas, non-public
social exclusion. Becausetransport and the
public transport car take
services centre stage
in an extensive spatial[39].
development pattern are not as good as in highly urbanised areas, non-public transport and the car
Metropolises attract new residents [40]. Population growth causes metropolises to expand their
take centre stage [39].
territories, a result of sub-urbanisation
Metropolises attract new residents mostly. The majority
[40]. Population of metropolises
growth causes metropolises tofollow a similar global
expand their
pattern as they grow. On the one hand a globalised construction industry offers everyone similar
territories, a result of sub-urbanisation mostly. The majority of metropolises follow a similar global
architectural pattern
patterns as they grow. On the one hand a globalised construction industry offers everyone similar
and on the other metropolises produce their own social structures and life styles.
architectural patterns and on the other metropolises produce their own social structures and life
Metropolisesstyles.
and Metropolises
their areasand differ
their in how
areas big
differ andbig
in how concentrated
and concentrated theytheyare andhow
are and how strong
strong the the mutual
links between urban areas are. (Figure 3) [41].
mutual links between urban areas are. (Figure 3) [41].
Figure for
Figure 3. Models 3. Models for spatial
spatial structures
structures of metropolitan areas.
of metropolitan Source:
areas. EdwardEdward
Source: Leman, Chreod
Leman,Ltd, Chreod Ltd,
2001 reproduced in Metropolitan Governance: A Framework for Capacity Assessment [17].
2001 reproduced in Metropolitan Governance: A Framework for Capacity Assessment [17].
As a settlement system metropolitan areas consist of a number of settlement units and highly
As a settlement system
urbanised areas. metropolitan
They areas consist
include zones significantly of abynumber
affected of settlement
daily impacts units and highly
(jobs and homes),
development
urbanised areas. Theyareas and a well-developed
include transport infrastructure.
zones significantly affected Some of the area
by daily becomes(jobs
impacts part ofand homes),
development areas and a well-developed transport infrastructure. Some of the area becomes part of
national and international links, cooperation and relations [20]. The result is a transport system which
provides access to the metropolitan area and by the same token, strengthens its capacity for better
metropolitan functions. As well as linear elements (a network of motorways and express roads, trunk
rail lines), the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T) supports the development of metropolitan
transport hubs of domestic and international significance which generate substantial passenger and
freight traffic. In the case of costal settlement patterns, transport hubs such as sea ports, airports, ferry
terminals and train stations help to further develop metropolitan public space. The majority are located
national and international links, cooperation and relations [20]. The result is a transport system which
provides access to the metropolitan area and by the same token, strengthens its capacity for better
metropolitan functions. As well as linear elements (a network of motorways and express roads, trunk
within the metropolitan core generating strong influences on its spatial structure and environment and
rail lines), the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T) supports the development of
contributing to
metropolitan transporttraffic
intense transit hubs of[42].
domestic and international significance which generate substantial
The morphological differences
passenger and freight traffic. Incarry
the casefunctional consequences
of costal settlement due to
patterns, transport different
hubs types
such as sea ports, of transport
airports, ferry terminals and train stations help to further develop metropolitan public space. The
links (Figure 4). Mono-centric metropolitan regions face traffic and transportation problems due to the
majority are located within the metropolitan core generating strong influences on its spatial structure
concentrationandof environment
the population in one core
and contributing city transit
to intense whiletraffic
poly-centric
[42]. metropolitan regions face necessity
of transport linksThebetween the centres
morphological differences[18].
carry With theconsequences
functional sprawlingdue nature of metropolises,
to different types of transport fragmented
links (Figure 4). Mono-centric metropolitan regions face traffic and transportation problems due to
space and separation of places of work, residence and services metropolitan populations tend to move
the concentration of the population in one core city while poly-centric metropolitan regions face
about more. This means
necessity having
of transport to between
links organise the an increasingly
centres [18]. With thecomplex
sprawlingsystem
nature ofof car traffic and public
metropolises,
transport [43]. In the last
fragmented spacedecade or soofwestern
and separation countries
places of work, residencehave seen their
and services metropolitan
metropolitan populationspopulations
tend to move about more. This means having to organise an increasingly complex system of car traffic
triple their mobility. Until not long ago a person living in a western metropolis would cover an average
and public transport [43]. In the last decade or so western countries have seen their metropolitan
of three kilometres daily
populations only
triple tomobility.
their see it soar
Untilto not10 [21].
long agoTrips forliving
a person work,in ashops
westernand culture
metropolis are now taking
would
longer. This calls
coverfor a new ofway
an average threetokilometres
managedaily the only
growing
to see itand
soar more complex
to 10 [21]. Trips forurban organisms
work, shops and and their
culture are now taking longer. This calls for a new way to manage the growing and more complex
hinterland [19].
urban organisms and their hinterland [19].
Figure 4. Morphological Poly-centricity

Figure 4. Morphological Poly-centricityversus Functional
versus Functional Poly-centricity.
Poly-centricity. Source [41].
Source [41].
Regional populations
Regional populations make dailymake daily
tripstrips withintheir
within their functional
functional areas and between
areas them (Figure
and between them (Figure 5).
5). Inner trips are highest in cities which are regional cores. Because they have a high concentration
Inner trips are highest in cities which are regional cores. Because they have a high concentration
of jobs, schools, services and leisure, cities like these generate a lot of traffic with people coming from
of
jobs, schools,outside
services andonleisure,
the cities cities like these generate a lot of traffic with people coming from
a daily basis.
outside the cities on a daily basis.
Figure 5. Figure
Main5.trip
Main trip directions in metropolitan areas. Source: own work.
directions in metropolitan areas. Source: own work.
The conditions determine people’s transport behaviour and there are major differences between
The conditions determine
how the those living in people’s transport
the metropolitan behaviour
core and and
those outside there [39].
it travel. are Metropolitan
major differences
core between
residents make more trips during the day, a result of better access to trip destinations
how the those living in the metropolitan core and those outside it travel. [39]. Metropolitan core such as shops,
restaurants and entertainment which are not far from where people work, live and learn. Areas
residents make more trips during the day, a result of better access to trip destinations such as shops,
outside the core have poorer accessibility with trips having to cover longer distances meaning more
restaurants and
timeentertainment
which eventually which are not
leads to fewer far from where people work, live and learn. Areas outside
trips.
With accessibility
the core have poorer lower population density
with tripsoutside
having metropolitan
to covercores,longerpublic transportmeaning
distances services aremore
less time which
developed for economic reasons. Poor access to public transport makes an area less attractive leading
eventually leads to fewer trips.
to fewer trips [43]. The specificity of metropolitan trips, that is, longer distances and longer travel
times, means that walking and cycling only represent a small proportion of all travels. This leaves
the car as the most common and easily available means of transport [39]. As a consequence, road
traffic is heightened on access roads to cities making inner city networks even more congested.
Running a metropolitan technical and social system requires new methods and institutional
setups. For years many countries have been working to establish governing bodies where
metropolitan areas can be managed regardless of legal and administrative divisions [21,44]. There is
an urgent requirement for all metropolitan areas to establish integrated urban transport planning
With lower population density outside metropolitan cores, public transport services are less
developed for economic reasons. Poor access to public transport makes an area less attractive leading
to fewer trips [43]. The specificity of metropolitan trips, that is, longer distances and longer travel
times, means that walking and cycling only represent a small proportion of all travels. This leaves the
car as the most common and easily available means of transport [39]. As a consequence, road traffic is
heightened on access roads to cities making inner city networks even more congested.
Running a metropolitan technical and social system requires new methods and institutional
setups. For years many countries have been working to establish governing bodies where metropolitan
areas can be managed regardless of legal and administrative divisions [21,44]. There is an urgent
requirement for all metropolitan areas to establish integrated urban transport planning authorities with
the target to overcome fragmented and often unfocused planning by the previous multilevel horizontal
and vertical authorities. Governance models seek regional solutions through horizontal, flexible and
coordinative mechanisms [16]. Faced with a lack of regulation, Polish cities and municipalities have
been working together on a voluntary basis aiming to deliver jointly specific communal functions.
Units of metropolitan areas sign agreements and establish inter-municipality associations to allow
them to deliver integrated services as set out in the local authority act. Organisational and financial
problems emerge, however, especially in conurbations comprising a number of municipalities of
varying size. The analysis carried out was an attempt to answer the research question two (RQ2).
3.3. Identification of Characteristic Features of the Metropolitan Transport System

The literature review helped to identify the characteristic features of how metropolitan
transport systems can grow in terms of spatial structure, infrastructure, management and social
and traffic conditions.
Metropolitan areas are typically home to supra-regional and international facilities and services
such as ports (sea ports and airports), industry and higher level functions, that is, economic, scientific
and cultural. The presence of metropolitan functions and functional and economic links requires
connectivity using air, rail and road transport. As they grow and develop metropolitan areas must
invest in access infrastructure.
Another feature of a metropolitan area is its varying intensity of development ranging from
highly developed cores to less densely developed surrounding areas. The core can be made up
of a single or multiple urban centres. The surroundings are usually less urbanised and populated
causing them to resemble suburban or rural areas. Transport priorities also differ from area to area.
Social and environmental aspects cause cores to change their modal split and put more emphasis on
public transport and active forms of mobility as suggested in the NUA. Where spatial development
is extensive the provision of public transport service cannot be as good as that in heavily urbanised
areas. As a result, transport infrastructure will follow different objectives and actions. As an example,
cycling in the core area will be promoted as a mode of transport while areas outside the core will aim
to increase the role of cycling in conjunction with regional means of public transport. Provision of
adequate infrastructure is the primary factor of ensuring transport services, safety, mobility and
prevention of social exclusion.
Considering the differences between core areas and surrounding areas in terms of their traffic,
social and infrastructural conditions, the authors formulate a thesis that while the NUA can be
successfully applied to metropolitan cores, it cannot be applied directly to outer areas. The conclusions
from this analysis are the answer to the third research question.
4. Identification and Analysis of Transport Problems in the Tri-City Metropolitan Area—Case Study
4.1. Tri-City Metropolitan Area (TMA)

With a mismatch between the territorial and administrative divisions and the actual spatial and
functional characteristics, conurbations and metropolitan areas have to come together to jointly resolve
their functional and development problems. Having that shared goal which is to ensure a harmonious
growth of the entire Tri-City metropolitan area, was the driving force behind the establishment of
an association of counties and municipalities. Set up in 2011, the organisation brings together the
authorities of some fifty local authority units, all part of the Tri-City Metropolitan Area. Under Poland’s
legislation such associations are voluntary because the law does not regulate metropolitan areas, their
formal and legal establishment, operation or funding.
Located in the north of Poland, the Tri-City Metropolitan Area (TMA) with the Tri-City (the cities
of Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot) (Figure 6) at its core is made up of eight counties and three county
capitals. The area has a population of 1.5 million. Its metropolitan transport functions are delivered
primarily by the TEN-T’s trans-European network infrastructure (sea ports, airport, rail, express roads
and motorway), national and regional roads and rail lines. The TMA’s internal transport services
between counties and municipalities are delivered by the remaining transport infrastructure.
Key to assessing the TMA’s spatial structure from the perspective of transport is the area’s
long-lasting process of sub-urbanisation, urban location of sea ports, their hinterland industries
and services and a strong presence within the TMA’s core of places of higher education and jobs.
According to the models for metropolitan area spatial structures proposed in Reference [17] the TMA
corresponds to the asymmetrically developing Multipolar structure (compare Figure 3).
As sub-urbanisation progresses, average trips take longer. The share of cars in TMA trips increases
as a result of infrastructure shortages, poor connectivity between transport modes, slow pace of adding
new transport hubs, insufficiently integrated ticketing systems, bicycles not sufficiently recognised as a
means for commuting to transport hubs, poor access to public transport in areas outside the core TMA
and poor quality of transport services operating between the Tri-City and the other TMA municipalities.
Figure 6. Tri-City Metropolitan Area. Source: [34].

Figure 6. Tri-City Metropolitan Area. Source: [34].
4.2. Strategy for Transport and Mobility for the TMA
The framework of cooperation for the area’s transport mobility issues is the TMA’s Strategy for
Transport and Mobility (STM TMA). Adopted in 2016, from the methodological standpoint the STM
TMA includes: a diagnosis of the existing transport system, a vision, development scenarios, strategic
goals and programmes for delivering those goals. With references to standards of strategy
development, the methodology can serve as good practice. The transport system’s diagnosis
addresses the following problem areas: determinants of trips and transport behaviour, identification
and assessment of transport infrastructure for its condition, cohesion and accessibility, a transport
safety assessment, especially that of road transport and the impact of transport on the environment
and the quality life of the people. A Complex Traffic Survey (CTS) was conducted designed to study
traffic volume and vehicle speeds, modal split of vehicles and freight, directions of passenger
4.2. Strategy for Transport and Mobility for the TMA

The framework of cooperation for the area’s transport mobility issues is the TMA’s Strategy
for Transport and Mobility (STM TMA). Adopted in 2016, from the methodological standpoint the
STM TMA includes: a diagnosis of the existing transport system, a vision, development scenarios,
strategic goals and programmes for delivering those goals. With references to standards of strategy
development, the methodology can serve as good practice. The transport system’s diagnosis addresses
the following problem areas: determinants of trips and transport behaviour, identification and
assessment of transport infrastructure for its condition, cohesion and accessibility, a transport safety
assessment, especially that of road transport and the impact of transport on the environment and the
quality life of the people. A Complex Traffic Survey (CTS) was conducted designed to study traffic
volume and vehicle speeds, modal split of vehicles and freight, directions of passenger transport and
means of transport, destinations, reasons why specific modes are used and others. The CTS’ main goal
was to build a traffic model for further use in planning to forecast changes in traffic for the different
transport policy scenarios [45].
Key to the methodology was to define strategy scenarios to reflect the STM’s different internal and
external factors (Table 1). Its sustainable transport and mobility option relies on a good socio-economic
situation as measured with GDP and promises prosperity for all and a highly effective transport policy.
As much as they are unfavourable, the other strategy scenarios sadly turned out to be realistic.
Table 1. Potential transport scenarios in the STM. Source [34].
Social and Economic Situation Measured with GDP

Factors Impacting on Scenarios
bad good
low Stagnation scenario Pro-motorization scenario
Effectiveness of transport policy
high Restrictive scenario Sustainable scenario
The TMA’s basic goal to be met through its transport system is to support the delivery of the
area’s social, economic and environmental objectives defined in the relevant regional and municipal
strategies. High quality standards are required if the transport system is to be competitive, support
social engagement and economic innovation, promote spatial order and sustainable urban mobility.
The STM’s actions and interventions are related to areas: external/surrounding area (A)
and internal/core area (B). External interventions (A) are designed to ensure the TMA’s external
connectivity to support its position as an international hub. There are two strategic objectives within
this area:
• A.1. Improve the TMA’s transport accessibility,

• A.2. Improve the quality of transport infrastructure to ensure access to the TEN-T’s sea ports
and airports.
Internal interventions (B) are designed to ensure the TMA’s internal (between municipalities)
connectivity to support its development as a functional area. There are three strategic objectives within
this area:
• B.1. Improve efficiency of TMA’s transport networks,

• B.2. Improve public transport and non-motorised services,
• B.3. Reduce adverse impacts of transport.
To ensure that the strategic objectives are delivered successfully, strategic interventions will be
part of programmes of joint and coordinated actions. Defined as joint, these actions will be taken by at
least two municipalities and involve organisations from outside the local authorities. There are six key
programmes of cooperation in the STM with each delivering their specific strategic goals (Figure 7)
through specific objectives.
• B.1. Improve efficiency of TMA’s transport networks,
• B.2. Improve public transport and non-motorised services,
• B.3. Reduce adverse impacts of transport.
To ensure that the strategic objectives are delivered successfully, strategic interventions will be
part of programmes of joint and coordinated actions. Defined as joint, these actions will be taken by
at least
Sustainability 2019, two municipalities and involve organisations from outside the local authorities. There are six
11, 813 12 of 21
key programmes of cooperation in the STM with each delivering their specific strategic goals (Figure
7) through specific objectives.
Areas of intervention, strategic objectives & cooperation programmess
Area of intervention A Area of intervention B

Transport service in external relations supporting the Transport service in internal connections (inter-municipality) supporting the development
development of TMA as an international transport hub of TMA as a functional area
Strategic goal A.1 Strategic goal A.2 Strategic goal B.1 Strategic goal B.2 Strategic goal B.3
Improving the transport Improvement of the quality of Improving the efficiency Improvement of TMA Reducing the negative
accessibility of TMA transport infrastructure of the transport network service by collective and effects of transport
improving the accessibility of in TMA non-motorized transport operations in TMA
sea and air ports in the TENT
network
Cooperation Cooperation programme Cooperation Cooperation Cooperation Cooperation

programme P.1 P.2 programme P.3 programme P.4 programme P.5 programme P.6
International and inter- Competitive infrastructure of Coherent and Efficient and effective Active mobility in TMA Safe transport and
metropolitan rank of the ports in the TENT network sustainable TMA transport management mobility in TMA
TMA transport network transport system system at TMA
Figure 7. Diagram of links between strategic goals and programmes of cooperation in the TMA until
Figure 7. Diagram of links between strategic goals and programmes of cooperation in the TMA until
2030. Source: [34].
2030. Source: [34].
4.3. Identification of Characteristic Features of the TMA Transportation System
4.3. Identification To
of illustrate
Characteristic Features
and quantify of the TMA
the defined Transportation
characteristics System transport systems
of how metropolitan
develop (section 3), the TMA was used as a case study along with data from Diagnosis, a document Commented [M5]: Please check
To illustrate and quantify the defined characteristics of how metropolitan transport systems
developed as part of the STM. The areas selected involve transport infrastructure, spatial structure,
citation, if so, please check if the
develop (Section
social 3), the TMA
conditions, waslevels
mobility, used as a case
of activity, study
length along
of trips with data
and transport from
system Diagnosis,
management in the a document
this manuscript.
developed asface of no
part oflegal
theorSTM.
financial
Theregulations to support involve
areas selected inter-municipality cooperation.
transport infrastructure, spatial structure,
social conditions, mobility,
4.3.1. Transport levels of activity, length of trips and transport system management in the
Infrastructure
face of no legal orIn financial
the case of regulations to external
the TMA, its key support inter-municipality
links include inter-regional,cooperation.
inter-metropolitan and
international routes primarily with TEN-T hubs such as the sea ports of Gdańsk and Gdynia and the
4.3.1. Transport Infrastructure
In the case of the TMA, its key external links include inter-regional, inter-metropolitan and
international routes primarily with TEN-T hubs such as the sea ports of Gdańsk and Gdynia and the
airport in Gda ńsk. The
Sustainability quality
2019, 11, 813 of their infrastructure is decisive for how accessible 13 of externally
23 the
TMA is which translates into how competitive the area is compared to other Polish and Baltic region’s
airport in Gdańsk. The quality of their infrastructure is decisive for how accessible externally the
metropolitanTMAareas. As well
is which as carrying
translates freight, the
into how competitive links
the area are alsotoimportant
is compared forBaltic
other Polish and the region’s
supra-local system
of rail, bus and air transport
metropolitan areas. As (Figure 8.). freight, the links are also important for the supra-local system
well as carrying
of rail, bus and air transport (Figure 8.).
Figure 8. Regional and inter-regional transport links within the TEN-T. Source: [34].
Figure 8. Regional and inter-regional transport links within the TEN-T. Source: [34].
As regards the TMA’s internal trips, the priorities for the transport infrastructure are as follows:
• Rail and bus network to operate inter-county links; in the model the system’s basic structure is
made up of rail lines connecting into shuttle bus services.
• Cycle network to operate on local links and provide access to B+R transport hubs.
At present, if the sub-systems are to grow and offer a good service, the road and rail
infrastructure must improve. This means having to plan for the necessary expenditure in
development programmes and financial plans.
As explained in the STM the metropolitan transport system should support metropolitan and
supra-metropolitan trips in conjunction with national, regional and county transport and road
authorities. Municipal trips, however, are part of the local authority remit. This puts TMA authorities
As regards the TMA’s internal trips, the priorities for the transport infrastructure are as follows:
• Rail and bus network to operate inter-county links; in the model the system’s basic structure is
made up of rail lines connecting into shuttle bus services.
• Cycle network to operate on local links and provide access to B+R transport hubs.
At present, if the sub-systems are to grow and offer a good service, the road and rail infrastructure
must improve. This means having to plan for the necessary expenditure in development programmes
and financial plans.
As explained in the STM the metropolitan transport system should support metropolitan and
supra-metropolitan trips in conjunction with national, regional and county transport and road
authorities. Municipal trips, however, are part of the local authority remit. This puts TMA authorities
in a position of limited power with joint efforts, setting standards and good practices as their only tool.
Metropolitan trips, the subject of the STM (inter-municipality trips within the TMA) in 2014 represented
24% of all TMA trips with supra-metropolitan trips at just 3% of all trips.
4.3.2. Trips within the Metropolitan Area

The case of the Gdańsk-Gdynia-Sopot Metropolitan Area confirms the transport behaviour and
traffic flows as presented in the previous sections. As regards trip destinations, it is clear from study
results that the majority of trips within the TMA are related to the core and smaller towns (Tczew,
L˛ebork, Malbork). The highest number of trips is made within the core. Given the specificity of the
TMA with its three cities aligned along a linear spatial system, trips within the core are longer on
average (10 km) compared to other metropolises that radiate from the centre (about 7 km) [34]. As we
know from a study of metropolitan trips, the core has a strong impact on trip distribution and is the
we know
main destination of from a study of metropolitan
inter-municipal trips, the coreof
trips regardless hasthe
a strong impact on(Figure
motivation trip distribution
9). and is
the main destination of inter-municipal trips regardless of the motivation (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Trip distribution in TMA on a typical day. Source: Own work.

Figure 9. Trip distribution in TMA on a typical day. Source: Own work. Commented [M6]: Please check i
The asymmetricity of the multipolar structure caused by the metropolitan core’s decentralised citation in this manuscript
The asymmetricity of the multipolar
location (the north-east structure
end of the region) makes caused bytothe
it difficult metropolitan
provide core’sfordecentralised
transport services
location (the travellers.
north-east As a result, access to the core from the other parts of the metropolis is constrained. A
end of the region) makes it difficult to provide transport services for travellers.
substantial part of the metropolis (about 30% of the area) is outside the core’s 60-minute travel
As a result, access to (Figure
perimeter the core10).from the other
This situation is aparts of the
challenge formetropolis is constrained.
planners whose aim is to developA substantial
the part
of the metropolis (about
metropolis 30% of
and prevent the
social area) which
exclusion is outside
may leadthe core’sand
to poverty 60-min travel perimeter (Figure 10).
depopulation.
This situation is a challenge for planners whose aim is to develop the metropolis and prevent social
exclusion which may lead to poverty and depopulation.
Modal split of metropolitan trips in TMA

70
65
60
55 Figure 10. Isochron of travel time to the Tri-City’s city centres. Source: own work.
50 10. Isochron of travel time to the Tri-City’s city centres. Source: own work.
Figure
Percentage of trips PT (%)
4.3.3.45
Modal Split
4.3.3. Modal Split40 Pedestrian
35
Set out in the STM, the transport infrastructure objectives suggest a need for a specific modal
30 Bicycle
split
Set out in theacross the metropolitan area with public transport and car trips each maintaining a specific
25 STM, the transport infrastructure objectives suggest aPublic need for a specific modal
transport
share. The size and intensity of spatial development translates into a varying share of public transport
split across the 20
metropolitan area with public transport and car trips each maintaining a specific share.
which 15differs from zone to zone and depends on trip length (Figure 13). The forecasted modal split
Private car
The size and intensity of spatial
10 change
will also development
as a result translates
of one of the scenarios intoinathe
envisaged varying
transportshare offorpublic
strategy the TMA.transport
If which
overall5 trips increase, public transport share will be the lowest in the pro-motorization scenario and
differs from zone 0to zone and depends on trip length (Figure 11). The forecasted modal split will also
the biggest in the sustainable scenario. On a metropolitan scale the divisions differ clearly from those
change as a result of one
in the TMA’s of the
2014
central citiesscenarios
(Figures 11 envisaged
Stagnation Car
Free
and
Free
car
12). in the transport
Restrictive Sustainable strategy for the TMA. If overall
trips increase, public transport share will be Scenario the lowest in the pro-motorization scenario and the biggest
in the sustainable scenario.
Figure 12. Existing Onand
(2014) a metropolitan
forecasted modal scale
splitthe divisions differ
of metropolitan clearly
trips across the from those
TMA in in the TMA’s
2030 for
Central zone of TMA - 2014 Central zone of TMA - 2030
the particular
central cities (Figures STM
12 development
and 13).
Existing data
scenarios. Source: [34]. Feasibility scenario
of trips TP (thous. trips/day)
Number of trips TP (thous. trips/day)
800 800
750 750
700 700
650 650
600
550 Modal split in central zone of TMA 600
550
500
450
70 500
400 65 450
400
350
300 60 350
300
250
200 55 250
200
(%)
150
100
50 150
Number
100
50
0
45 50
40 0 - 3 4 - 6 7 - 9 10 - 12 13 - 15 16 - 18 19
Percentage of trips PT
0
Pedestrian
0-3 4-6 10 - 12 13 - 15 16 - 18 19
35 Travel distance L (km) Travel distance L (km)
30 Pedestrian Bicycle Public transport Private car Pedestrian Bicycle BicyclePrivate car
Public transport
25
20 (a) (b) Public transport
15
10 Figure 11. Modal split of trips due to length of trips (a) in 2014, (b) in 2030. Source: [34].car
Private Commented [M7]: Please check
5
0 11 citation in this manuscript
2014 Stagnation Free
Car car
Free Restrictive Sustainable
Scenario
Figure
Figure 13. Existing
11. Existing (2014)
(2014) andand forecasted
forecasted modalsplit
modal splitof
oftrips
trips in
in the
the TMA’s
TMA’scentral
centralzone
zoneinin
2030 forfor the
2030
the particular STM development scenarios. Source:
particular STM development scenarios. Source: [34]. [34].
4.3.4. Mobility
Surveys of TMA residents’ transport behaviour show that more than 90% of the MA’s
population make at least one trip a day but mostly two trips. The reason for two trips is that an
overwhelming part of the population travel each day for work, school, university and so forth and
then return home. Some of the people make additional trips on their way back to do shopping or use
services which generates additional trips and increases the mobility rate.
The TMA’s average mobility rate is 2.36 [STM]. Those living in the core have a rate of 2.42 while
elsewhere in the area it is 2.30. The people of the Tri-City make more trips daily because passenger
transport services are good and the services are nearby which means that they do not have to limit
which differs from zone to zone and depends on trip length (Figure 13). The forecasted modal split
will also change as a result of one of the scenarios envisaged in the transport strategy for the TMA. If
overall trips increase, public transport share will be the lowest in the pro-motorization scenario and
the biggest in the sustainable scenario. On a metropolitan scale the divisions differ clearly from those
in the TMA’s central cities (Figures 11 and 12).
Central zone of TMA - 2014 Central zone of TMA - 2030

Existing data Feasibility scenario

800 800
750 750
700 700
650 650
600 600
550 550
500 500
450 450
400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0-3 4-6 7-9 10 - 12 13 - 15 16 - 18 19 0-3 4-6 10 - 12 13 - 15 16 - 18 19
Travel distance L (km) Travel distance L (km)
Pedestrian Bicycle Public transport Private car Pedestrian Bicycle Public transport Private car
(a) (b)
Figure12.
Figure 11. Modal
Modal split
split of trips due to
to length
length of
oftrips
trips(a)
(a)in
in2014,
2014,(b)
(b)inin2030.
2030.Source:
Source:[34].
[34]. Commented
Modal split of metropolitan trips in TMA 11 citation in

70
65
60
55
50
45
40 Pedestrian
35
30 Bicycle
25 Public transport
20
15 Private car
10
5
0
2014 Stagnation Car
FreeFree
car Restrictive Sustainable
Scenario
Figure 12.Existing
Figure13. Existing(2014)
(2014)and
and forecasted
forecasted modal split of
of metropolitan
metropolitantrips
tripsacross
acrossthe
theTMA
TMAinin2030
2030for
for
the
theparticular
particularSTM
STMdevelopment
developmentscenarios.
scenarios. Source: [34].
4.3.4. Mobility
Modal split in central zone of TMA
Surveys of 70
TMA residents’ transport behaviour show that more than 90% of the MA’s population
65
make at least one 60 trip a day but mostly two trips. The reason for two trips is that an overwhelming
55
part of the population travel each day for work, school, university and so forth and then return home.
50
45
Some of the people make additional trips on their way back to do shopping or use services which
40 Pedestrian
generates additional
35 trips and increases the mobility rate.
The TMA’s30 average mobility rate is 2.36 [STM]. Those living in the core have
25
Bicycle
a rate of 2.42 while
elsewhere in the20area it is 2.30. The people of the Tri-City make more trips daily Publicbecause
transport passenger
15
transport services10 are good and the services are nearby which means that they do
Private have
not car to limit their
5
trips. Another reason
0 for the different rates may be unemployment which is lower in the metropolitan
core and the share of post 2014working age people
Stagnation which
Free
Car Free is
car higher outside
Restrictive the core.
Sustainable
The people of the TMA usually travel within Scenariothe boundaries of their municipalities. Such trips
are made by 78% of Tri-City residents and 60% of other TMA residents [34]. The Tri-City rate is
Figure 13. Existing (2014) and forecasted modal split of trips in the TMA’s central zone in 2030 for
higherthebecause Gdańsk and Gdynia provide a huge labour market and education opportunities.
particular STM development scenarios. Source: [34].
This attracts residents from other municipalities who travel there to work and study. Tri-City residents
do not Mobility
4.3.4. have to travel outside their city because their jobs, schools and services are within the area.
County boundaries are crossed more often by TMA residents who do not live in the Tri-City. The results
Surveys of TMA residents’ transport behaviour show that more than 90% of the MA’s
of the analysis are the answer to the research question four (RQ4) and five (RQ5).
population make at least one trip a day but mostly two trips. The reason for two trips is that an
overwhelming part of the population travel each day for work, school, university and so forth and
then return home. Some of the people make additional trips on their way back to do shopping or use
services which generates additional trips and increases the mobility rate.
The TMA’s average mobility rate is 2.36 [STM]. Those living in the core have a rate of 2.42 while
elsewhere in the area it is 2.30. The people of the Tri-City make more trips daily because passenger
transport services are good and the services are nearby which means that they do not have to limit
their trips. Another reason for the different rates may be unemployment which is lower in the
metropolitan core and the share of post working age people which is higher outside the core.
5. Comparative Analysis of NUA and STM
5.1. Comparative Analysis of Consistency between STM and NUA

In line with EU guidelines, all of Poland’s transport strategy papers are based on principles of
non-discrimination and common access to mobility, transport services and infrastructure. In this
respect the TMA strategy is strongly aligned with the NUA declaration. While the strategy makes no
direct reference to the NUA, its vision, goals and planned steps and interventions are geared towards
the idea of sustainable transport, clear evidence of the linkages between the STM and NUA (Table 2).
Table 2. Comparing consistency between STM goals and programmes and NUA recommendations.
Pillars of Goals Programmes/Recommendations

Sustainable Sustainable Transport Challenges STM NUA STM NUA
Development (see chapter 5) (see ref. [2]) (see Figure 7) (see ref. [2])
Reduce the adverse impact of climate
change and adapt to climate change,
Environmental minimise the effects on the environment B.3. 13a, 13g, 13h P3, P4, P5, P6 54, 115
and transition to sustainable consumption
and production patterns.
The right to an adequate standard of living,
without discrimination, equal access to B.1.
36, 54, 66, 113,
Social high quality transport services, good B.2. 13a, 13f P3, P4, P5, P6
114, 115
infrastructure ensuring mobility for all, B.3.
improving road safety.
Stimulate sustainable economic growth,
strengthen the spatial relations of 15 ci, 32, 36, 50,
A.1.
Economic functional areas, proposing legal 13 e P1, P2, P3 54, 66, 116, 117,
A.2.
mechanisms and funding for work for an 118, 141
efficient and economically viable transport.
A comparison of the NUA and STM shows a number of similarities such as vision, policies,
objectives and actions although they were developed at different levels (Table 2, Table 3). The authors
point out the differences, a result of dissimilar spatial, transport or traffic conditions which both
documents address. The results of the analysis are the answer to the research question six (RQ6).
5.2. Comparative Analysis of Area of Interventions in STM and NUA

The authors conducted a comparative analysis of the NUA and STM for references the documents
make to areas of interventions which are key to how transport systems operate and grow (Table 3).
Table 3. Comparison between STM and NUA in terms of areas of intervention related to transport
system operation and development.
STM NUA
Area of Intervention
(see ref. [14]) (see ref. [2])
Reach of functional links
within the city *** ***
urban-rural * **
suburban *** -
regional, national, international *** -
transit *** -
Transport system functions
access—to sea ports and their industrial and service sites *** -
transport—supra-regional and international transport hubs *** -
transport—integration of transport subsystems *** *
integration—urban and rural areas * **
integration—residential areas with the rest of the urban tissue and the surrounding functional areas - *
social—preventing social exclusion - ***
environmental—promoting clean energy ** *
environmental—reducing and mitigating climate changes - *
environmental—sustainable patterns of consumption *** **
tourism—accessibility of tourism areas ** -
economic—stimulating sustainable economic productivity across the entire urban-rural continuum * *
stedgender
and to age and gender - walking- ** and cycling**
king
ling and cycling *** rail, air,
*** *road *
air, road *** integration
*** - transport- hubs
gration
port hubstransport hubs *** Mobility
*** - management -
bility
ement management monitoring people’s transport behaviour and preferences
nitoring people’s Sustainability
transport behaviour and11,
2019, 813
preferences education,
*** - promotion - of active forms of mobility 17 of 21
ple’s transport behaviour and preferences ***
cation,
otion ofpromotion
active forms of active forms of mobility
of mobility *** shaping*** -transport behaviour
-
ping transport behaviour
rt behaviour *** organisational,
*** * spatial
* and investment efforts to enable optimal transport choices
Cont.
Table 3. Transport offer
anisational, spatial and efforts
patial and investment investment efforts
to enable to enable
optimal optimal
transport transport choices ***
choices *** * *
nsport offer common (for all) STM NUA
Area of Intervention
no constraints for people (see ref. [14])
with disabilities (see ref. [2])
mon (for all)
ll) * * * *
Transport infrastructure
onstraints
r people withfor people withgreen
disabilities disabilities ** affordable
** * * - *
rdable open, efficient, innovative, safe (road traffic) - optional
- *for those non-motorised
* ** **
accessible (sea and land ports) using the most recent technologies*** to deliver joint
* mobility services
onal for those non-motorised
e non-motorised adjusted to age and gender *** *** * * - **
g the technologies
ecent most recent technologies
to deliver to and
joint
walking deliver
mobility joint
cycling mobility services
services *** Conditions
*** * of growth * *** *
ditions of growth
rowth
rail, air, road spatial, social, legal, planning *** -
integration transport hubs *** -
ial, social,
gal, planninglegal, planning Mobility management ** traffic, demographics,
** *** ***organisational
ic, demographics,
phics, organisational monitoring people’s transport behaviour and preferences
organisational *** Urban ***logistics
- - *** -
education, promotion of active forms of mobility support for economic growth *** -
an logistics shaping transport behaviour *** *
port
omicfor economic growth organisational, spatial and investment efforts to enable optimal *transportnot
growth affecting
* *
choices negatively
* living conditions
*** in the* city
affectingliving
gatively negatively livingin
conditions Transport
the cityoffer
conditions in the city * logistics
* *centres *
common (for all) * *
stics centres ** Managing
** - growth -
no constraints for people with disabilities ** *
naging
th growth affordable transparent, hierarchical management - structures*
optional for those non-motorised public participation *** *
sparent,
archical hierarchical
managementmanagement
structures structures * * *** ***
using the most recent technologies to deliver joint mobility services *** *
lic
ionparticipation Conditions of growth * implementation
* ** of policies
** and strategies
lementation
of policies and of policies
strategiesandspatial, social, legal, planning
strategies * implementation
* ** of programmes
** ** ***
traffic, demographics, organisational cooperation between all levels ***administration
of -
lementation
of programmes of programmes Urban logistics *** *** * *
peration
ween between
all levels all levelssupport
of administration
of administration for economic growth * consistency
* ** of sectoral ** policy goals
* across levels *
sistencypolicy
ectoral of sectoral
goals policy
not affecting negatively living conditions in the city
across goals
levelsacross levels *** sectoral policy taking**account of* functional areas
*** ** * according to national law
logistics centres ** -
oral policy
aking accounttaking account Managing
of functional ofareas
functional
accordingareas toaccording
national law to national law *** strengthens
*** * the capacity * of regional and local authorities to implement metropolita
growth
transparent, hierarchical management structures metropolitan level governance going beyond the
* administrative
*** boundaries and based on functio
ngthens
capacity the capacityand
of regional of regional
local and local
authorities toauthorities
implement tometropolitan
implement multi- multi-
public participation criteria, * **
el going
governance
beyond going beyond the administrative
the administrative boundaries and boundaries
based on and based on functional
functional *** *** * *
implementation of policies and strategies mechanisms of metropolitan *
funding, **
ria, implementation of programmes *** *
hanisms of metropolitan
metropolitan funding, funding,
cooperation between all levels of administration - strengthening
- ** the role
** of small and
* medium-sized ** cities and towns
ngthening the role of small consistency of sectoral policy goals across levels
and medium-sized
e role of small and medium-sized cities and towns cities and towns - mechanisms
- ** of inter-municipality
** *** cooperation ** to deliver metropolitan public servic
sectoral policy taking account of functional areas according to national law *** *
hanisms of inter-municipality
nter-municipality cooperation cooperation
to deliver to deliver
metropolitan metropolitan
public public
services, services,
** Spatial** planning **
** multi-level governance
strengthens the capacity of regional and local authorities to implement metropolitan
urban planning: moving functions, *** preventing *sub-urbanisation, denser developme
gtial planning going beyond the administrative boundaries and based on functional criteria,
mechanisms of metropolitan funding, compact structures - **
an planning:
moving movingpreventing
functions, functions, preventing
sub-urbanisation,
strengthening sub-urbanisation,
the role denser
of small denser development,
development,
and medium-sized cities and towns - **
** ** ***
regional planning: ***
polycentricism, concentration, multiple functions
pact structures
res mechanisms of inter-municipality cooperation to deliver metropolitan public services, ** **
onal planning: polycentricism,
g: polycentricism, Spatial
concentration, planning
concentration, multiple functions
multiple functions ** mitigate
** ** mobility challenges
** and needs
urban planning: moving functions, preventing sub-urbanisation, denserreducing development, compact
costs structures
of service ** per capita, ***
ygate mobilityand
challenges challenges
needs and needs
regional planning: polycentricism, concentration, multiple functions *** *** ** ** delivery ** **
ucing costs
f service of service
delivery perdelivery
capita, per mobility
mitigate capita, challenges and needs - integration
- * of spatial * planning with
*** transport planning
**
gration of spatial planningreducing
with costs of service
transport delivery per capita,
planning The
* *** results of*** -
the analysis *
are the answer to the research question s
atial planning with transport planning *
integration of spatial planning with transport planning * ***
sThe results
of the of the
analysis analysis
are the The are
answer the
to answer
the to
research the research
question question
seven seven
(RQ7). –: no(RQ7).incidental
–:
reference;no reference*:in the text; **: several references in the text; ***: sev
reference;
*:
results of the analysis are the answer to the research question seven (RQ7). –: no reference; *: incidental
incidentalinreference
reference the text; in
**:the text; references
several **:inseveral
reference references
the text;in the
**: text; in
several ***:the text;in***:
several
references the several
references references
text; ***:in the atext
several in the in
with
references text
description. thewith
text with a description.
Legend: Areas of Legend:
intervention with document c
a description.
ion. Legend: Legend: Areasof of
Areas of intervention
Areas intervention
with with
intervention with document
document consistency;
document consistency; NUA
NUA intervention
consistency; ofNUA
areas
areas requiring
of areas
intervention of recommendations;
requiring recommendations; STM areas of interventio
STM areas of intervention requiring recommendations.
intervention
on requiring recommendations;
requiring recommendations; STM areas STM areas of intervention
of intervention requiring recommendations.
requiring recommendations.
5.3. Discussion of the Results of Analysis
The chronology of the documents explains why the strategy makes no direct reference to the
NUA. But because its vision, goals and planned steps and interventions are geared towards the idea
of sustainable transport there is clear evidence of the linkages between the STM and NUA. The documents
also differ substantially on the subject and object. While the NUA refers to cities in general and urban
development in all spheres, the STM refers to a specific metropolis and the development of its transport
system. As a consequence, the NUA addresses primarily links within urban areas and urban-rural links.
The STM, however, looks at the reach of functional links up to the international level, a result of the
metropolitan functions.
When analysed in the context of the NUA, the TMA’s transport system displays some features
which are not sufficiently covered in the NUA. Because it is an extensive area it will typically have
some characteristics that are strategic and critical for ensuring a balanced development across the
metropolitan area. These include: the role of external and internal transport links in shaping the
metropolis’ transport system, modal split and trip length, transport safety, local authority cooperation
and transport preferences of the metropolis population.
The STM is a sectoral strategic paper that can use the NUA as a set of guidelines. Although largely
similar, the visions defined in both documents are to be accomplished using different tools. The NUA
contains a set of principles designed to achieve the goals including integrated approach to urban
and territorial development by implementing policies, strategies and actions across all levels and
promoting cooperation across all levels of administration. The STM’s vision is to be achieved by
setting strategic goals and programmes of cooperation which contain groups of selected external
and internal intervention areas (see Section 4.2). As regards effective implementation, the NUA
includes commitments to create legal and financial frameworks at all levels of governance and to
build conditions for cooperation and public participation. The STM, on the other hand, is a document
adopted by municipalities that cooperate within the TMA. It sets a framework for mutual efforts to
solve transport problems which spill over the administrative boundaries.
There are differences between the documents. The NUA covers directly the need to integrate
transport and spatial planning. The STM is a sectoral document which corresponds to other planning and
programming papers such as the Pomorskie Regional Spatial Development Plan, the Tri-City Metropolitan
Spatial Development Plan and the Gdańsk-Gdynia-Sopot Metropolitan Strategy until 2030. Because they
are consistent, the documents carry a single and clear message on how the Metropolitan Transport System
should develop, the transport needs and realistic ways of meeting those needs.
Because the NUA does not address the fact that metropolitan areas differ from urban areas, it can
only be partly applied to metropolitan transport policy-making. The marginal treatment of the common
development trends of the world’s metropolises in general is also noted by [46] by stating that the Habitat
III New Urban Agenda neither exhausts the debate on metropolitan issues nor provides sufficient guidance
to address key sustainable urbanization issues at metropolitan scale in rapid urbanisation contexts.
Presented in the NUA, the principles, actions and delivery mechanisms of transport systems have
some overlap with the STM. The differences are primarily caused by dissimilarities between urban
and metropolitan conditions in areas such as spatial development, legal conditions of governance,
funding infrastructure that crosses administrative boundaries and different transport characteristics
(number and length of trips, modal split). A full implementation of the NUA, however, is hindered by
failure to meet the NUA’s declarations, regarding coordination between stakeholders and a lack of
funding to support a territorially balanced transport system.
6. Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions.The studies have demonstrated the NUA’s utility for setting visions, main principles,
implementation and review at the metropolitan level. In the case of transport, however, there is no
correspondence or interventions which could be used to develop a metropolitan transport system.
There are three issues which cause potential limitations in applying NUA guidelines directly to
metropolitan transport system documents:
• failure to deliver what the NUA calls for, i.e. ensuring that the legal and financial frameworks are
right for the functional and spatial structures of metropolitan areas,
• characteristic conditions of how a transport system develops in metropolitan functional and spatial
structures (such as length of trips, possibilities to develop infrastructure and public transport
services, cooperation of entities, etc.),
• inconsistency and inadequacy of the political declaration which the NUA is with its ideas and
programmes and the goals set out in strategy papers such as the STM which draw on diagnoses,
data analyses and predictive modelling.
As regards the first issue, the NUA recommends to add the metropolitan level to the land
use system.
The other two issues are a result of the differences between urban transport systems and how they
operate and develop and mobility management at the metropolitan level. This is why by concentrating
on cities the NUA leaves out some of the characteristics of metropolitan areas. As a consequence,
although the NUA can work successfully for metropolitan cores, outer areas are not covered directly.
The article demonstrated that by comparing the NUA with the STM.
The differences between the STM and NUA in how they tackle selected areas of intervention
involving the operation and development of transport systems suggest that when these documents
are updated or delivered it would be worthwhile to complement the principles and actions with
new ones that reflect modern day development problems of urban and metropolitan areas. Based on
the research and analysis carried out, recommendations for NUA and STM were developed, which
provide answers to the practical question one (PQ1) and two (PQ2).
Recommendations for NUA. When implementing the NUA in developing metropolitan areas,
it is recommended to adapt the NUA principles to the specific conditions that prevail in the functional
areas. The spatial structure and the distribution of destinations and sources of traffic means that:
• trips are relatively long, sometimes impossible to be made walking or cycling,

• means of transport must be integrated to reflect different distances and a rail and bus passenger
system must be built (a shuttle service),
• the quality of rail and road infrastructure to be used by buses and transit traffic to TENT hubs
must be improved (sea ports, airports); this problem applies not only to emerging metropolises
which still carry a legacy of poor quality transport infrastructure.
In the context of the above problems and phenomena it is noted and recommended that successive
urban agendas should address problems specific to metropolitan areas such as:
• presence of transport hubs and logistic centres,

• presence of infrastructure to access transport hubs and logistics centres used by motor, rail and
inland water transport,
• tourist traffic services,
• a strong need to integrate transport sub-systems,
• institutionally and legally complex mobility management.
Recommendation for STM. It is recommended that the STM should in particular consider the
following areas of intervention proposed in NUA, that are part of transport management:
• prevent social exclusion,

• prevent and adapt to climate change,
• adapt the infrastructure to the age and gender of transport users,
• shape affordable transport tariffs,
• identify funding priorities for transport sub-systems,
• reduce transport costs per capita.
The above groups of intervention should complement the objectives of the STM and form part of
the efforts carried out by metropolitan entities.
Author Contributions: R.O.—wrote and edited the article, contributed to Chapters 1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3,4.3, 5.1, 5.2,5.3, 6;
K.J.—conceptualization, supervision and contribution to Chapter 2.1,2.1,2.3,4.2,4.3, 6; L.M.—contributed to Chapter 4,
6; J.Ż.—contributed to Chapter 3.3,4.2; K.G.—contributed to Chapter 1, 6; K.B.—data visualisation and contributed to
Chapter 3.2,4.1,4.2; Some authors were directly involved in the development of the Strategy for Transport and Mobility
for the TMA until 2030. K.J.—team leader, L.M.—main author, R.O., K.G. and K.B.—co-authors.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The STM TMA was developed for Partner in Business Strategies (PBS) commissioned by the
Gdansk-Gdynia-Sopot Metropolitan Area association. No funding was obtained in the project to cover the costs
of publication in Open Access.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funding sponsors had no role in the design of
the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript and in the decision
to publish the results.
References
1. Lerner, W. The Future of Urban Mobility. Towards Networked, Multimodal Cities of 2050; Arthur D Little Future
Lab: Brussels, Belgium, 2011.
2. United Nations. New Urban Agenda; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2017.
3. United Nations. Sustainable Development Goals | UNDP; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2015.
4. Cohen, M.; Habron, G. How Does the New Urban Agenda Align with Comprehensive Planning in U.S.
Cities? A Case Study of Asheville, North Carolina. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4590. [CrossRef]
5. Müller, B.; Shimizu, H.; Otto, A. The Transition towards Sustainable and Resilient Cities—Urban Challenges
and Solutions in Germany and Japan. In Towards the Implementation of the New Urban Agenda; Springer
International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 1–20.
6. Jordán, R.; Indvik, K.; Winchester, L.; Devin, S. Subregional Action Plan for the implementation of the New Urban
Agenda in the Caribbean; United Nations publication: Santiago, Chile, 2017; pp. 1–36.
7. EU Ministers Responsible for Urban Matters. Urban Agenda for the EU: Pact of Amsterdam; European Union
(EU): Brussels, Belgium, 2016.
8. OECD. The State of National Urban Policy in OECD Countries; A Special Report Prepared for the United Nations
Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III); OECD: Paris, France, 2016.
9. Wefering, F.; Rupprecht, S.; Bührmann, S.; Böhler-Baedeker, S. Developing and Implementing a Sustainable
Urban Mobility Plan Guidelines; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2014.
10. Bernciak, A. The New Urban Agenda—A Challenge or an Opportunity for Polish Cities? Econ. Environ. Stud.
2017, 17, 879–892. [CrossRef]
11. Okraszewska, R.; Romanowska, A.; Wołek, M.; Oskarbski, J.; Birr, K.; Jamroz, K. Integration of a Multilevel
Transport System Model into Sustainable Urban Mobility Planning. Sustainability 2018, 10, 479. [CrossRef]
12. Orcholska, K. Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan for Gdańsk; Grafpol: Wrocław, Poland, 2018.
13. Wołek, M.; Czapnik, M.; Czermański, E.; Franek, Ł.; Furkal, J.; Hebel, K.; Jagiełło, A.; Kaszubowski, D.;
Kuropatwiński, P.; Lewandowski, K.; Majewski, P.; et al. Gdynia’s Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan
(SUMP) and Its Development. Gdynia, Poland, 2016. Available online: https://drive.google.com/file/d/
0B5EayIa4PrsqV0lEU2pWMWtnM3M/view (accessed on 30 November 2016).
14. Kulwant, S. Contribution on Smart Urban Mobility for Safe, Inclusive, Resilient and Sustainable Cities—EcoMobility;
IRU: Geneve, Switzerland, 2016.
15. Ahrend, R.; Schumann, A. Approaches to Metropolitan Area Governance: A Country Overview. OECD Reg.
Dev. Work. Pap. 2014, 3, 0_1.
16. Nelles, J. Comparative Metropolitan Policy: Governing beyond Local Boundaries in the Imagined Metropolis;
Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2012.
17. Pearson, J. Metropolitan Governance: A Framework for Capacity Assessment; Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit, GmbH: Bonn, Germany, 2016.
18. Knieling, J. Metropolitan Regions. Definitions, Typologies and Recommendations for Development Cooperation.
Metropolitan Regions as Governance Systems; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, GmbH:
Bonn, Germany, 2014.
19. Danielewicz, J. Management of Metropolitan Areas in the Presence of Global Urbanization Processes; Wydawnictwo
Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego: Łódź, Poland, 2013. (In Polish)
20. Markowski, T.; Marszał, T. Metropolises, Metropolitan Areas, Metropolization: Problems and Basic Concepts; Polska
Akademia Nauk, Komitet Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania Kraju: Warszawa, Poland, 2006. (In Polish)
21. Smetkowski, M.; Jałowiecki, B.; Gorzelak, G. Metropolitan areas in Poland: development and delimitation problems;
Centrum Europejskich Studiów Regionalnych i Lokalnych EUROREG: Warszawa, Poland, 2009. (In Polish)
22. Göddecke-Stellmann, J. Metropolitan areas in Europe, Federal Institute for Research on Building; Urban Affairs
and Spatial Development (BBSR): Bonn, Germany, 2011.
23. Barcelona Centre for International Affairs. The Role of Metropolitan Areas in the Governance of Development Challenges:
Towards the European Urban Agenda; Barcelona Centre for International Affairs: Barcelona, Spain, 2016.
24. Ciegis, R.; Ramanauskiene, J.; Martinkus, B. The Concept of Sustainable Development and its Use for
Sustainability Scenarios. Eng. Econ. 2015, 62. [CrossRef]
25. Banister, D. The sustainable mobility paradigm. Transp. Policy 2008, 15, 73–80. [CrossRef]
26. UITP. Public Transport for Sustainable Mobility. UITP, 2002. Available online: https://www.uitp.org/
sites/default/files/cck-focus-papers-files/PUBLIC%20TRANSPORT%20FOR%20SUSTAINABLE%
20MOBILITY.pdf (accessed on 23 January 2019).
27. Gillis, D.; Semanjski, I.; Lauwers, D. How to Monitor Sustainable Mobility in Cities? Literature Review in
the Frame of Creating a Set of Sustainable Mobility Indicators. Sustainability 2015, 8, 29. [CrossRef]
28. WBCSD. Methodology and Indicator Calculation Method for Sustainable Urban Mobility; WBCSD: Geneva,
Switzerland, 2015.
29. Andersdotter Fabre, E. Local implementation of the SDGs and the New Urban Agenda. Towards a Swedish National
Urban Policy, Global Utmaning; Global Utmaning: Stockholm, Sweden, 2017.
30. Mobilise Your City, 100 Cities and 20 National Governments Engaged in Sustainable Urban Mobility, Brussels.
2017. Available online: http://mobiliseyourcity.net/resources/mobiliseyourcity-publications/ (accessed on
23 January 2019).
31. Habitat III. The Montréal Declaration on Metropolitan Areas. Fostering metropolitan cooperation
for sustainable urban development. Thematic Meeting, Montreal, 6–7 October 2015. 2015.
Available online: http://www.urbangateway.org/system/files/documents/urbangateway/habitat_
declarationmontreal-en.pdf (accessed on 23 January 2019).
32. Worth, L. Urbanism as a way of life (Wirth; 1938).pdf. Am. J. Sociol. 1938, 44, 97–104. [CrossRef]
33. Pietruszewski, J. Spatial Development Plan for Tricity Metropolitan Area 2030; Pomorskie Biuro Planowania
Regionalnego: Gdańsk, Poland, 2015; p. 194. (In Polish)
34. Michalski, L.; Jamroz, K.; Grzelec, K.; Grulkowski, S.; Kaszubowski, D.; Okraszewska, R.; Birr, K.; Kustra, W.
Strategy for Transport and Mobility for Tricity Metropolitan Area 2030; Partner in Business Strategies: Gdańsk,
Poland, 2015; p. 104. (In Polish)
35. Rojas, M.B.; Sadeghvaziri, E.; Jin, X. Comprehensive Review of Travel Behavior and Mobility Pattern Studies
That Used Mobile Phone Data. Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board. 2016, 2563, 71–79. [CrossRef]
36. Bożek, M.; Chastek, K.; Krzynowek_Franek, A.; Sapoń, P.; Szpórnóg, M.; Wiertel, B. Gdansk travel studies,
VIA VISTULA. Available online: https://www.brg.gda.pl/attachments/article/243/wyniki-gdanskich-
badan-ruchu-2016-broszura.pdf (accessed on 3 February 2019).
37. P.A. Group. PTV Visum17 Manual; P.A. Group: Karlsruhe, Germany, 2017.
38. Domencich, T.A.; McFadden, D. Urban Travel Demand: A Behavioral Analysis: A Charles River Associates
Research Study; Charles River Associates, North-Holland Pub. Co.: Amsterdam, Holland, 1975.
39. Cebollada, A.; Riera, P. Daily mobility in the Comarques Centrals. 2008. Available online:
http://www.academia.edu/716883/La_mobilitat_quotidiana_a_les_Comarques_Centrals_Daily_
mobility_in_the_Comarques_Centrals (accessed on 3 February 2019).
40. Castells, M. The Rise of the Network Society; Blackwell Publishers: Cambridge, CA, USA, 2000.
41. Burger, M.; Meijers, E. Form Follows Function? Linking Morphological and Functional Polycentricity.
Urban Stud. 2012, 49, 1127–1149. [CrossRef]
42. Merk, O. The Competitiveness of Global Port-Cities: Synthesis Report. 2013. [CrossRef]
43. Pucher, J.; Renne, J.L. Rural mobility and mode choice: Evidence from the 2001 National Household Travel
Survey. Transportation (Amst) 2005, 32, 165–186. [CrossRef]
44. Hulst, R.; van Montfort, A. Inter-Municipal Cooperation: A Widespread Phenomenon. In Inter-Municipal
Coop. Eur.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2007; pp. 1–21. [CrossRef]
45. Oskarbski, J.; Kaszubowski, D.; Oskarbski, J.; Kaszubowski, D. Applying a Mesoscopic Transport Model
to Analyse the Effects of Urban Freight Regulatory Measures on Transport Emissions—An Assessment.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 2515. [CrossRef]
46. The International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth, A New Urban Paradigm: Pathways to Sustainable
Development, (2013) 83278. Available online: https://www.ipc-undp.org/pub/eng/PIF37_A_new_urban_
paradigm_pathways_to_sustainable_development.pdf (accessed on 22 October 2018).
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Sustainability 11 00813 v2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Sustainability 11 00813 v2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sustainability 11 00813 v2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 813; doi:10.3390/su11030813 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2.1. Study Method

2.2. Achieving the Scientific Objectives citation in this manuscript

• PQ1. Which of the

3.1. Transport3.and Mobilityand

• social—exercising the right to an adequate standard of living, without discrimination, a common

3.2. Experience of Transport Operation and Management on Metropolitan Areas

Figure 4. Morphological Poly-centricity

3.3. Identification of Characteristic Features of the Metropolitan Transport System

4.1. Tri-City Metropolitan Area (TMA)

Figure 6. Tri-City Metropolitan Area. Source: [34].

4.2. Strategy for Transport and Mobility for the TMA

Table 1. Potential transport scenarios in the STM. Source [34].

Social and Economic Situation Measured with GDP

• A.1. Improve the TMA’s transport accessibility,

• B.1. Improve efficiency of TMA’s transport networks,

Areas of intervention, strategic objectives & cooperation programmess

Area of intervention A Area of intervention B

Cooperation Cooperation programme Cooperation Cooperation Cooperation Cooperation

4.3.2. Trips within the Metropolitan Area

Figure 9. Trip distribution in TMA on a typical day. Source: Own work.

Sustainability 2019, 11, 813 16 of 23

Modal split of metropolitan trips in TMA

Number of trips TP (thous. trips/day)

Central zone of TMA - 2014 Central zone of TMA - 2030

Number of trips TP (thous. trips/day)

Modal split of metropolitan trips in TMA 11 citation in

5. Comparative Analysis of NUA and STM

5.1. Comparative Analysis of Consistency between STM and NUA

Pillars of Goals Programmes/Recommendations

5.2. Comparative Analysis of Area of Interventions in STM and NUA

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

• trips are relatively long, sometimes impossible to be made walking or cycling,

• presence of transport hubs and logistic centres,

• prevent social exclusion,

You might also like