Materials and Design 46 (2013) 106–111

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Materials and Design

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Technical Report

Use of calcium carbide residue and bagasse ash mixtures as a new

cementitious material in concrete
Chaiyanunt Rattanashotinunt, Pongsiri Thairit, Weerachart Tangchirapat ⇑, Chai Jaturapitakkul
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), Bangkok 10140, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Calcium carbide residue (CCR) is a by-product of the acetylene gas production and bagasse ash (BA) is a
Received 13 July 2012 by-product obtained from the burning of bagasse for electricity generation in the sugar industry. The
Accepted 19 October 2012 mixture between CCR contains a high proportion of calcium hydroxide, while BA is a pozzolanic material,
Available online 29 October 2012
can produce a pozzolanic reaction, resulting in the products similar to those obtained from the cement
hydration process. Thus, it is possible to use a mixture of CCR and BA as a cementitious material to sub-
stitute for Portland cement in concrete. The results indicated that concrete made with CCR and BA mix-
tures and containing 90 kg/m3 of Portland cement gave the compressive strength of 32.7 MPa at 28 days.
These results suggested that the use of ground CCR and ground BA mixtures as a binder could reduce
Portland cement consumption by up to 70% compared to conventional concrete that requires 300 kg/
m3 of Portland cement to achieve the same compressive strength. In addition, the mechanical properties
of the alternative concrete including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and elastic modulus
were similar to that of conventional concrete.
Crown Copyright Ó 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), with certain pozzolans, which have

Many construction projects around the world today use
Portland cement as a primary concrete binder. The production pro-
cess for Portland cement requires large amounts of energy to burn
the raw material at temperatures of up to 1500 °C. Moreover, the
production of 1 ton of Portland cement releases as much as
900 kg of CO2 into the atmosphere [1]. As a result, Portland cement
contributes to environmental problems such as dust pollution and
thinning of the ozone layer, which contributes to global warming.
To reduce CO2 emissions, cement manufacturers have attempted
to reduce Portland cement consumption through the use of supple-
mentary cementitious materials, such as fly ash and natural pozzo-
lans, to partially replace Portland cement in concrete [2–5].
However, Portland cement remains the most plentiful cementi-
tious material in concrete.
As much as 12,000 tons of calcium carbide residue, a by-product
of acetylene gas production, is generated per year in Thailand, and
this amount tends to increase every year. Most of this residue is
disposed as waste in landfills, leading to environmental problems
because there are so few possibilities for its use in other applica-
tions. Consequently, attempts have been made to put calcium car-
bide residue to better use, especially in concrete applications. It
was found that mixing calcium carbide residue, which is rich in
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 2 470 9142; fax: +66 2 427 9063.
E-mail address: weerachart.tan@kmutt.ac.th (W. Tangchirapat).
high silicon dioxide (SiO2) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) content,
produces a pozzolanic reaction, resulting in end products similar
to those obtained from the cement hydration process. Krammart
et al. [6] reported that mortar made from a calcium carbide residue
and fly ash mixture had a compressive strength of 20.9 MPa at
90 days. The optimum ratio of calcium carbide residue to fly ash
was 30:70 by weight. Jaturapitakkul and Roongreung [7] studied
mortar containing calcium carbide residue and rice husk ash. They
found that the optimum ratio of calcium carbide residue to rice
husk ash to achieve the highest possible compressive strength
was 50:50 by weight. The compressive strength of the mortar
was 15.6 MPa at 28 days and increased to 19.1 MPa at 180 days.
Bagasse ash, which is a by-product obtained from the burning of
bagasse for electricity generation in Central Thailand’s sugar indus-
try, has recently been accepted as a pozzolanic material and can be
used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete [8–12].
Although it is a pozzolanic material, much of this ash is still dis-
posed in landfills every day, leading to environmental problems
in the region. Since the received bagasse ash from the sugar indus-
try has large particle size and high porosity, so it needs more water
content in the concrete mixture and thus results in a lower com-
pressive strength of concrete. However, when bagasse ash is
ground into small particles, the compressive strength of the con-
crete containing ground bagasse ash improves significantly [13].
Chusilp et al. [14] found that ground bagasse ash can be used to
replace up to 30% of Portland cement by weight of the binder,

0261-3069/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright Ó 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.10.028
 C. Rattanashotinunt et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 106–111 107

and the 28 and 90 days compressive strengths of the resulting con-

crete may be higher than that of concrete without bagasse ash.
Previous research shows that bagasse ash is a good pozzolanic
material, while calcium carbide residue contains a high proportion
of calcium hydroxide. Thus, it is possible to use a mixture of cal-
cium carbide residue and bagasse ash as a new binder to substitute
for Portland cement in concrete work. This new concrete can not
only reduce concrete’s CO2 emissions by requiring very little or
no Portland cement, but also increase the value of waste materials
by not sending them to landfills. Therefore, the objective of this
research is to evaluate a mixture of two types of waste, calcium
carbide residue and bagasse ash, as a new cementitious material
for concrete. The resulting concrete’s mechanical properties such
as compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and elastic
modulus were investigated and compared to that of Portland ce-
ment concrete. The results obtained from this study will help edu- (1a) Ground bagasse ash
cate others on the effective use of this binder.

2. Experimental program

2.1. Bagasse ash

Bagasse ash (BA) used in this study was obtained from the Thai
sugar industry, where it was burned to generate electricity at a
temperature of approximately 600–800 °C. The original BA was
not suitable for use as a pozzolanic material in concrete due to
its large particle size and high porosity. Kiattikomol et al. [15], Isaia
et al. [16], and Vazquez et al. [17] found that the pozzolanic activity
and the filler effect of industrial ash depends on its particle size
and fineness; thus, the original BA was ground by using grinding
machine until the particles retained on a 45 lm sieve (No. 325)
were less than 3% by weight. (1b) Ground calcium carbide residue
The physical properties of ground BA are shown in Table 1. Fig. 1. Particle images of ground bagasse ash and ground calcium carbide residue.
Ground BA has a specific gravity of 2.27 and median particle size
of 5.7 lm. The percentage of particles retained on a 45 lm sieve
(No. 325) is 0.5% by weight. Fig. 1a. shows the particle image of Table 2
ground BA which is in irregular particles with a crushed shape. Chemical compositions of the materials.
The chemical compositions of ground BA are shown in Table 2. Chemical composition (%) OPC Ground BA Ground CCR
Its major component was 55.0% of SiO2, and the total amount of Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 20.9 55.0 4.3
SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 was 64.2%, while the amounts of LOI and Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 4.7 5.1 0.4
SO3 were 19.6% and 2.2%, respectively. It was noted that the LOI Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 3.4 4.1 0.9
of the ground BA was higher than the limited value specified by Calcium oxide (CaO) 65.4 11.0 56.5
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.2 0.9 1.7
ASTM: C618 for a class N pozzolan. Results from previous
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.2 0.2 0.0
researches [11–14], however, suggested that ground BA had a Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.3 1.2 0.0
highly pozzolanic composition and could be used as a cement Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 2.7 2.2 0.1
replacement in mortar or concrete despite its LOI being higher than Loss on Ignition (LOI) 0.9 19.6 36.1
10%.

2.2. Calcium carbide residue

chine until the particles retained on a 45 lm sieve (No. 325) were
Calcium carbide residue (CCR) is a by-product of the acetylene less than 3% by weight.
gas production process. It has high water content and must be The physical properties of ground CCR are shown in Table 1.
dried for approximately 3–4 days to reduce its moisture content Ground CCR has a specific gravity of 2.42 and median particle size
to approximately 1–2%. The CCR was ground by using grinding ma- of 4.4 lm. The percentage of particles retained on a 45 lm sieve
(No. 325) is 2.1% by weight. After grinding, the ground CCR has
irregular particles with a crushed shape, as shown in Fig. 1b.
The chemical compositions of ground CCR are reported in Table
Table 1 2. The major chemical composition of ground CCR was 56.5% of
Physical properties of the materials.
CaO. In addition, the loss on ignition (LOI) of the ground CCR was
Sample Specific gravity Retained on a Median particle 36.1%, which is very high. The results also conformed to the
45 lm sieve size, d50 (lm) research of Krammart and Tangtermsirikul [18], who reported an
(No. 325) (%)
LOI of 31.7%. The LOI of the ground CCR was that high because it
OPC 3.15 13.5 14.6 was measured at a temperature of 950–1000 °C, but the material
Ground BA 2.27 0.5 5.7
mainly consists of Ca(OH)2 that decomposes into CaO and H2O
Ground CCR 2.42 2.1 4.4
(gas) at approximately 550 °C [7].
108
2.3. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement type I (OPC) used in this study was
introduced only as an accelerator, at rates of 10% and 20% by
weight of the binder (CCR + BA + OPC), to promote the reaction
between ground CCR and ground BA. Its physical and chemical
properties are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
2.4. Aggregates
The coarse aggregate used in this study was crushed limestone
with a maximum size of 19 mm, a specific gravity of 2.7, a fineness
modulus of 7.2, and water absorption of 0.4%. The fine aggregate
was local river sand with a specific gravity of 2.6, a fineness mod-
ulus of 3.2, and water absorption of 0.8%.
2.5. Optimum proportions of ground CCR and ground BA
To determine the optimum proportions of ground CCR and
ground BA in the mixture, mortar cube specimens of
50  50  50 mm3 were used. A binder to sand ratio of mortar
was set at a constant of 1:2.75 by weight as specified by ASTM:
C109/C109M. The mortar flow was maintained within the range
of 105 to 115% by adjusting the water content in the mortar mix-
ture. The mortar binder was a mixture of ground CCR and ground
BA. The ground CCR was replaced by the ground BA at rates of
30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% by weight of the binder (CCR + BA).
All mortar specimens were cast and removed from the molds after
24 h and then cured in saturated lime water until the testing age.
The average of compressive strength of mortar for each age was
obtained from five specimens.
Fig. 2. presents the relationship between the compressive
strength and the replacement of ground CCR with ground BA at
the rates of 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% by weight of the binder.
It was shown that the mortar had a compressive strength ranging
from 2.8 to 4.9 MPa at 7 days, and the compressive strength
increased to between 8.1 and 12.5 MPa at 28 days. The optimal ra-
tio of ground CCR to ground BA was declared to be 50:50 by weight
because this ratio yielded the highest compressive strengths of
4.9 MPa at 7 days and 12.5 MPa at 28 days.
2.6. Mix proportions for concrete and test specimens
The mix proportions for the concretes in this study are summa-
rized in Table 3. The conventional concrete (CON) used 300 kg/m3
of ordinary Portland cement type I as a binder and had a target
28 day compressive strength of 30 MPa. For CB concrete mixtures,
16
14
Compressive Strength (MPa)
12
10
8 at 60 and 90 days, respectively. The compressive strength of CB0
6
4 90 days, CB0 concrete had compressive strength of 30.6 MPa or
2
0 strengths of concrete by approximately 18–26% compared to CON
20 30 40 50
Replacement by Ground Bagasse Ash (%)
Fig. 2. Relationship between compressive strength of mortar and replacement of
ground BA in ground CCR and ground BA mixture.
C. Rattanashotinunt et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 106–111
the optimum 50:50 mixture of ground CCR and ground BA by
weight was used as a binder for casting the concrete. CB concretes
contained a binder content of 450 kg/m3 and had a ratio of fine to
coarse aggregates of 45:55 by volume. Water to binder ratio (W/B)
of 0.40 was maintained in CB concretes, and a type F superplasti-
cizer was employed to maintain the slump of fresh concrete be-
tween 50 and 100 mm. In addition, ordinary Portland cement
type I was used to replace the binder of the CB concrete at rates
of 0%, 10%, and 20% by total weight of the binder (CCR + BA + OPC)
and were denoted as CB0, CB10, and CB20, respectively.
In this study, the fresh CB concrete was prepared using a rotat-
ing drum type mixer for 15 min. Cylindrical concrete samples with
a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm were cast and com-
pacted using a tamping rod. After casting, the specimens were al-
lowed to set for 24 h, after which they were removed from the
molds and cured in water. The concretes were tested at 7, 28, 60,
and 90 days for compressive strength. The splitting tensile strength
and modulus of elasticity of all the concrete samples were also
determined at 28, 60, and 90 days. The mechanical properties of
CB concretes were investigated and compared to that of CON con-
crete in which 300 kg/m3 of Portland cement was used as a binder.
The average of three concrete specimens were used to represent
the mechanical properties of concretes.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Workability
The results of initial slump test for all concrete mixtures are
shown in Table 3. A type F superplasticizer was added to maintain
the slump of fresh concrete between 50 and 100 mm. It was found
that samples CB0, CB10, and CB20 required 17.2, 16.7, and 16.2 kg/
m3, respectively, of superplasticizer. The particle sizes of ground
CCR and ground BA were finer than that of Portland cement; there-
fore, they absorbed more water. For this reason, CB concrete
mixtures required more superplasticizer than CON concrete. In
addition, the high LOI of two materials, ground BA and ground
CCR, caused increase in superplasticizer requirement in the mix-
ture [7,14,18]. Moreover, the particles of ground BA were angular,
irregularly shaped, and characterized by a high porosity, like palm
oil fuel ash [3] and rice husk ash [5], ground BA required more
superplasticizer for lubrication to maintain the same workability
as the CON concrete. The results also conformed to the study of
Jaturapitakkul and Roonreung [7], who reported that mortar made
from the mixture of ground calcium carbide residue and ground
rice husk ash as a binder needed more superplasticizer in the mix-
ture to maintain the same value of flow as compared to control
mortar.
3.2. Compressive strength
Fig. 3. shows the compressive strength development of CB con-
cretes compared to CON concrete. CON concrete had a compressive
strength of 30.9 MPa at 28 days and increased to 36.2 and 37.1 MPa
concrete was 22.9 MPa or 74% of CON concrete at 28 days and
developed to 27.8 MPa or 77% of CON concrete at 60 days. At
28 days
82% of CON concrete. The results indicated that the use of ground
7 days CCR and ground BA mixtures as a binder reduced the compressive
60 70 80
concrete. This could be attributed that the mix proportion of the
CB0 concrete contained no Portland cement, and the compressive
strength of the concrete was derived solely from the pozzolanic
reaction between ground CCR and ground BA, similar results were
 C. Rattanashotinunt et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 106–111 109

Table 3
Mix proportions of concretes.

Concrete Mix proportions (kg/m3) W/B Slump (mm)

OPC BA CCR Sand Limestone Super P. Water
CON 300 – – 810 1035 – 210 0.70 75
CB0 – 225 225 735 942 17.2 180 0.40 80
CB10 45 202.5 202.5 741 949 16.7 180 0.40 90
CB20 90 180 180 747 956 16.2 180 0.40 80

50 50

Compressive Strength (MPa)

40
Compressive Strength (MPa)

40

30 30

20 20
CB20 90 days

CON 60 days
10 10 28 days
CB10
CB 0 7 days
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 CON 0 10 20 30

Age (days) Replacement Level of Cement in CB Mixtures (% by weight)

Fig. 3. Relationship between compressive strength of concrete and age. Fig. 4. Relationship between compressive strength of concrete and level of cement
replacement in ground CCR and ground BA mixture.

found by Krammart et al. [6] and Jaturapitakkul and Roonreung [7].

It should be noted that CB0 concrete gave compressive strength at
90 days more than 80% of CON concrete although the CB0 concrete
did not contain Portland cement. This result indicated that ground
BA is a good pozzolanic material and high silica content in BA is
very reactive, which supports the finding of many researchers
[11–14]. The compressive strength of CB10 and CB20 concretes
at 28 and 90 days was 26.7, 32.7 and 35.6, 39.2 MPa or about
86%, 106% and 96%, 106% of CON concrete. CB10 concrete had low-
er compressive strengths than CON concrete. At the mixture of
ground CCR and ground BA replacement by Portland cement of
20%, the compressive strength of CB20 concrete was higher than
that of CON concrete at all of the testing age. Furthermore, the
compressive strengths of CB concretes tended to increase at the
later age. This result agreed with that of Jaturapitakkul and
Roongreung [7], who reported that the compressive strength of
mortar using a binder from a mixture of calcium carbide residue
and rice husk ash tended to increase with curing age in a manner
similar to the compressive strength development of Portland
cement mortar.
Relationship between compressive strength and percent
replacement of Portland cement in concrete made from ground
CCR and ground BA mixture is shown in Fig. 4. It was found that
at 28 days, CB20 concrete using 90 kg/m3 of Portland cement as
an accelerator had compressive strength of 32.7 MPa or 106% of
CON concrete and increased to 39.2 MPa or 106% of CON concrete,
at 90 days. Generally, a higher quantity of Portland cement pro-
vides more calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2), leading to better hydration and pozzolanic reaction. As a
result, the compressive strength of concrete develops faster with
higher Portland cement content. The results also suggested that
the use of ground CCR and ground BA mixture as a concrete binder
could reduce Portland cement consumption by 70% compared to
conventional concrete (CON), which requires as much as 300 kg/
m3 of Portland cement to achieve the same compressive strength.
In comparison to the concrete incorporating ground bagasse ash;
replacing 10–20% of the Portland cement proved optimal [11–
12], it was found that the use of ground CCR and ground BA
mixture as a concrete binder could reduce Portland cement con-
sumption by 3 times when the compressive strengths of both con-
cretes were approximately the same.
3.3. Splitting tensile strength
The splitting tensile strength of CB concretes tended to increase
with the increased of compressive strength. This result shows that
the splitting tensile strength is related to the concrete’s compres-
sive strength. At 28 days, the splitting tensile strengths of CB0,
CB10, and CB20 concretes were 3.1, 3.4, and 3.4 MPa, respectively,
and their compressive strengths were 22.9, 26.7, and 32.7 MPa,
respectively. At 60 and 90 days, CB0, CB10, and CB20 concretes
had splitting tensile strengths of 3.4, 3.5, 3.8 and 3.4, 3.6,
3.9 MPa, respectively. Furthermore, the splitting tensile strength
of CB concretes tended to increase with curing age.
The splitting tensile strength as a percentage of compressive
strength for CB concretes is shown in Fig. 5. This percentage ranged
from 10% to 13% in CB concretes, which was similar to that of CON
concrete. Ganesan et al. [11] reported that the percentage of split-
ting tensile strength of concrete incorporating ground bagasse ash
were in the range of 10–12%. The result also supported the previ-
ous researches indicating that the splitting tensile strength of plain
concrete was approximately 10% of its compressive strength [19–
20]. The study shows that the higher is the compressive strength
of concrete; the lower is the splitting tensile strength as a percent-
age of compressive strength, a result that is consistent with other
researches on conventional concrete [21–22].
3.4. Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of CON concrete at 28 and 90 days
was 28.3 and 35.5 GPa, respectively. For CB concretes, the modulus
of elasticity of CB0, CB10, and CB20 concretes were 23.6, 25.6, and
28.2 GPa, respectively, at 28 days, and were 26.1, 28.5, and
28.7 GPa, respectively, at 60 days. At the age of 90 days, the CB0,
CB10, and CB20 concretes had elastic modulus of 27.1, 30.8, and
110
20
Percentage of Spliting Tensile Strength
to Compressive Strength (%)
15
10
5
0
15 20 25 30
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Fig. 5. Relationship between splitting tensile strength as a percentage of compres-
sive strength and compressive strength of concrete.
31.9 GPa, respectively. These results indicated that the modulus of
elasticity of CB concretes tended to increase with curing age. These
results agreed with that of Nassif et al. [23] and Sata et al. [24], who
reported that the modulus of elasticity of concretes containing
pozzolanic materials, such as fly ash and natural pozzolans tended
to increase with curing age in a manner similar to the modulus of
elasticity development of conventional concrete.
The modulus of elasticity of concretes versus the compressive
strengths at 28, 60, and 90 days is shown in Fig. 6. The modulus
of elasticity of CB concretes ranged from 23.6 to 31.9 GPa while
that of CON concrete varied between 28.3 and 35.5 GPa, depending
on the compressive strength of concrete. Considering the same
compressive strength, the use of ground CCR and ground BA mix-
tures as a binder did not significantly affect the modulus of elastic-
ity of concrete compared to that of CON concrete. For example,
CON and CB20 concretes had compressive strengths at 28 days of
28.3 and 28.2 MPa, and their modulus of elasticity values were
30.9 and 32.7 GPa, respectively. Similar results were found for
the concretes containing pozzolanic materials such fly ash, palm
oil fuel ash, and rice husk bark ash [23,24]. Moreover, Neville
[25] and Beshr et al. [26] reported that the modulus of elasticity
of concrete was typically related to the strength of the aggregates
rather than the strength of the cement paste.
Eq. (1) was used to predict the modulus of elasticity of concrete.
The coefficient of correlation for the relationship between square
root of compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of CB con-
cretes was 0.75. The results indicated that the modulus of elasticity
of CB concretes were similar to that of CON concrete: they
increased with the increased of compressive strength [25,27].
50
This study : E CB = 5.052
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)
40
30
20
10
0 Cem Concr Res 2000;30(9):1485–8.
4 5
f c' (MPa)
Fig. 6. Relationship between modulus of elasticity and square root of the
compressive strength of concrete.
C. Rattanashotinunt et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 106–111
qffiffiffiffi
ECB ¼ 5:052 fc0  0:462 ð1Þ
where ECB is the modulus of elasticity (GPa) and fc0 is the compres-
sive strength (MPa).
4. Conclusions
Based on the experimental results, the conclusions can be
CB concretes drawn as follows:
CON concrete
(1) The compressive strength of CB concrete samples ranged
35 40 45 from 22.9 to 32.7 MPa at 28 days, and the compressive
strength development of CB concretes increased with curing
age. The compressive strength of CB20 concrete (using
90 kg/m3 of Portland cement) was 32.7 and 39.2 MPa, or
106% and 106% of CON concrete (using 300 kg/m3 of
Portland cement) at 28 and 90 days, respectively.
(2) CB concretes with and without ordinary Portland cement
type I had mechanical properties similar to that of CON con-
crete, i.e., the compressive strength increased with curing
age, and the modulus of elasticity and splitting tensile
strength increased with the increased of compressive
strength of concrete. In addition, the use of 10–20% of ordin-
ary Portland cement type I produced an increase in the com-
pressive strength of concrete, depending on the replacement
level.
(3) A mixture of ground CCR and ground BA in this study could
be used as a new cementitious material to replace Portland
cement in concrete work and could not only reduce CO2
emissions due to the reduction in cement production but
also increase the value of waste materials rather than the
alternative of sending them to landfills.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from
the Thailand Research Fund (TRF) under TRF Senior Research Scho-
lar, Grant No. RTA5380002 and King Mongkut’s University of Tech-
nology Thonburi under the National Research University (NRU).
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