 1

CHAPTER-2 : SOLUTIONS
INTRODUCTION:
When two or more chemically non-reacting substances are mixed together forming homogeneous
mixture the mixture is called solution.
For binary solution : Solution = solute + solvent
• Generally the component present in lesser amount than, other component in solution, is called
solute.
• Generally, the component present in greater amount than all other components, is called the
solvent.
 CONCENTRATION TERMS
(a) Molarity (M)
The number of moles of solute present in one litre solution is called its molarity(M).

 =
 

(b) Molality (m)

The number of moles of solute present in 1000 gram of the solvent is called molality of the
solution.

Molality of a solution = =
   
(c) Concentration in terms of percentage
(i) Percent By Mass (w/W)
Mass of solute (in g) present in 100 g of solution (g) is called mass percent of the solute.
Where 'w' gram of solute is dissolved in W gram of solvent.
  
 
  

Mass percent is independent of temperature.

(ii) Percent By Volume (v/V)
This method is used for solutions of liquid in a liquid. The volume of liquid (solute) in mL
present in 100 mL of solution in is called volume percent.

Volume percent =

(iii) Percent by strength /percentage mass by volume  

 : Mass of solute (in g) present in
 
100 mL solution is called mass by volume.
 
%    
   

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(d) Parts Per Million (ppm)
This method is used for expressing the concentration of very dilute solutions such as hardness
of water, air pollution etc.
 
ppm of substance (by mass) =


ppm (by volume) =

 
ppm  
 
   
(e) Mole Fraction
The ratio of the number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of all the
components present in the solution, is called the mole fraction of that component.
 
Mole fraction of solute XB =
   
 
Mole fraction of solvent XA =
   

Illustration 1. The number of moles present in 2 litre of 0.5 M NaOH is:

(1) 0.5 (2) 0.1 (3) 1 (4) 2
Solution. Ans. (3)
Illustration 2. Which of the following is dependent on temperature?
(1) Molarity (2) Mole fraction (3) Weight percentage (4) Molality
Solution. Ans. (1)

 SOLUBILITY
Maximum amount of solute which can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent at constant
temperature is solubility. Solubility is affected by nature of solute and solvent as well as by
temperature and pressure.
(a) Solubility of Solid in Liquid
Polar solutes are soluble in polar solvent and non polar solutes are soluble in non polar solvent
due to similar intermolecular forces.
When solid solutes are dissolved in solvent then following equilibrium exists.
Dissolution
Solute + Solvent Crystallization Solution
Solubility of solids is affected by temperature and pressure according to Le-chatlier's
principle. If dissolution is exothermic then solubility decreases with increase in temperature and
if endothermic then solubility increases with increase in temperature.
Solubility of solids is not affected by pressure significantly since solids are highly
incompressible.

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(b) Solubility of Gases in Liquid
Certain gases are highly soluble in water like NH3, HCl etc. and certain gases are less soluble in
water like O2, N2, He etc. Solubility of gases is affected by pressure and temperature. Increasing
pressure increases solubility and increase in temperature decreases solubility. During dissolution
of gas pressure of gas decrease and dissolution of gas is exothermic in nature.
HENRY'S LAW
It can be stated as at constant temperature the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas present above the surface of liquid or solution.
or
Mole fraction of gas in the solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the
solution.
or
The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (P) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas
(X) in the solution. (This is most common definition)
P = KHX KH = Henry's Constant
Henry's Constant is not a universal constant. It depends on nature of gas and temperature. K H
increases with increase in temperature therefore solubility of gas decreases.

Illustration 3. The statement “ The mass of a gas dissolved in a given mass of a solvent at any
temperature is proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solvent” is –
(1) Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures (2) Law of Mass Action
(3) Henry’s Law (4) None of these
Solution. Ans. (3)
Illustration 4. Which is correct about Henry’s law –
(1) The gas in contact with the liquid should behave as an ideal gas
(2) There should not be any chemical interaction between the gas and liquid
(3) The pressure applied should be high
(4) All of these
Solution. Ans. (2)

 VAPOUR PRESSURE
At a constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid on its surface when
they (liquid and its vapours) are in equilibrium, is known as vapour pressure.
Factor affecting vapour pressure :
(a) Nature of liquid (b) Temperature
Raoult's Law
For liquid-liquid system : For a solution of volatile liquids the partial vapour pressure of any
component at constant temperature is equal to vapour pressure of pure component multiplied by
mole fraction of that component in the solution.

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Liquid (B) Liquid (A)
Vapour pressure in pure state PB0 PA0
Partial vapour pressure PB PA
Mole fraction in solution XB XA
Moles n moles N moles
Mass wg Wg
Molar mass m M
  ...(i)
  ...(ii)
At constant temperature partial vapour pressure of component is directly proportional to mole
fraction of component in solution.
According to Dalton's law given below :
Ptotal = PA + PB + .....
  ; XA + XB =1

PS = (1–XB) PA0 + XBP0B

PS = P0A –XBPA0 + XBP0B
PS = P0A+XB(PB0–P0A)

   

• Dalton's Law
Partial pressure of gas = mole fraction × total pressure of gas
PA =YAPT
PB=YBPT
PA + PB = PT
 YA and YB gives mole fraction in vapour phase
 XA and XB gives mole fraction in liquid phase.

Illustration 5. The vapour pressure of a solution having solid as solute and liquid as solvent is :
(1) Directly proportional to mole fraction of the solvent
(2) Inversely proportional to mole fraction of the solvent
(3) Directly proportional to mole fraction of the solute
(4) Inversely proportional to mole fraction of the solute
Solution. Ans. (1)
Illustration 6. Which one of the following is the incorrect form of Raoult's law ?

(1)  (2)   (3)  (4) 
   

Solution. Ans. (3)



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 IDEAL SOLUTIONS (mixture of two liquids A and B)
• A solution which obeys Raoult's law exactly at all concentrations and at all temperatures is
called an ideal solution.
• For ideal solutions; A-A interactions = B-B interactions = A-B interactions.
An ideal solution possesses the following characteristics :





Volume change on mixing should be zero. Vmix = 0, i.e., (Vsolute + Vsolvent = Vsolution)
• Heat change on mixing should be zero. Hmix = 0 (Heat is neither absorbed nor evolved)
• There should be no chemical reaction between liquid A and liquid B.
• Ideal solution must obey Raoult's law at all concentrations.
 , 
• observed VP = calculated VP
• observed BP = calculated BP
• Smix > 0
• G < 0
Example
(i) Benzene and toluene (ii) CCl4 and SiCl4 (iii) n-hexane and n-heptane
(iv) C2H5Br and C2H5Cl (v) PhCl and PhBr (vi) n-butylchloride and n-butylbromide

 NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS
• For non ideal solutions ; A–A interactions or B-B interactions  A-B interactions.
• Those solutions which do not obey Raoult's law are called non-ideal solutions.
• For such solutions ;  ; 
• Non ideal solutions are formed when the components differ much in their structures and
polarities.
So  0 and  0

• Non ideal solutions show either positive or negative deviations from Raoult's law.

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(a) Non ideal solutions having positive deviation from Raoult's law.

• In these solutions A-B interactions are less than A-A and B-B molecular interactions.


• The total vapour pressure of the solution will be greater than the corresponding vapour
pressure expected in case of an ideal solution of same composition. i.e.
 

•  Hmix > 0 ; endothermic dissolution ; heat is absorbed.

• Vmix >0. ; volume increases after dissolution, i.e., (Vsolute + Vsolvent < Vsolution).
• 'A' and 'B' escape easily showing higher vapour pressure than the expected value.
(B.P.)th > (B.P.)exp
• (S)mix = +ve , G = –ve
Entropy change in mixing is positive.

Examples :
(i) Ethanol and cyclohexane (v) CCl4 and Benzene (ix) Benzene and Acetone
(ii) Ethanol and Water (vi) CCl4 and Toluene (x) CS2 and Acetone
(iii) Ethanol and Acetone (vii) CCl4 and CHCl3 (xi) CS2 and Acetaldehyde
(iv) Methanol and H2O (viii) CCl4 and Methanol
(b) Non ideal solutions having negative deviation from Raoult's Law

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• In these solutions the AB interactions are stronger than the AA and BB molecular
interactions.
 ; 

• Total vapour pressure is less than sum of individual vapour pressure.

•  Hmix < 0 ; exothermic dissolution heat is evolved.
•  Vmix < 0 ; volume decreases during dissolution, i.e., (Vsolute + Vsolvent > Vsolution).
• Escaping tendency of both components 'A' and 'B' is lowered showing lower vapour pressure
than expected ideally.
Examples:
(i) CHCl3 and CH3COCH3 (vi) H2O and HCl (ii) CHCl3 and C6H6
(vii) H2O and HNO3 (iii) CHCl3 and C2H5OC2H5 (viii) CH3COOH and CH3OH
(iv) CHCl3 and HNO3 (ix) CH3COOH and C5H5N (v) CHCl3 and CH3COOH
(x) CH3COCH3 and Aniline

 AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES :
Some liquids on mixing, form azeotropes which are binary mixtures having the same
composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at a constant temperature, the liquid and vapour
have the same composition, and no further separation occurs.
Components form azeotrope can't be separated by fractional distillation but can be separated by
azeotropic distillation.
Solutions showing Positive deviation form minimum boiling azeotrope and solutions showing
negative deviation form maximum boiling azeotrope.
 There are two types of azeotropes :
(a) Minimum boiling azeotrope (b) Maximum boiling azeotrope
(a) The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling
azeotrope at a specific composition. For example, ethanol-water mixture (obtained by
fermentation of sugars) on fractional distillation gives a solution containing approximately
95.57% v/v ethanol.
(b)The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s law form maximum boiling
azeotrope at a specific composition. Nitric acid and water is an example of this class of
azeotrope. This azeotrope has the approximate composition, 68% nitric acid and 32% water by
mass, with a boiling point of 393.5 K.

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Illustration 7. The mixture which shows positive deviation from Raoult's law is :-
(1) Chloroethane + Bromoethane (2) Ethanol + Acetone
(3) Benzene + Toluene (4) Acetone + Chloroform
Solution. Ans. (2)
Illustration 8. Which of the following statements is correct regarding a solution of two compounds
A and B exhibiting positive deviation from ideal behaviour?
(1)Intermolecular attractive forces between A-A and B-B are stronger than those
between A-B.
(2)mix H = 0 at constant T and P
(3)mix V = 0 at constant T and P
(4)Intermolecular attractive forces between A-A and B-B are equal to those between
A-B.
Solution. Ans. (1)
Illustration 9. An ideal solution is that which –
(1) Shows positive deviation from Raoult's law
(2) Shows negative deviation from Raoult's law
(3) Has no connection with Raoult's law
(4) Obeys Raoult's law
Solution. Ans. (4)
Illustration 10. Which one of the following mixtures can be separated into pure components by
fractional distillation?
(1) Benzene – toluene (2) Water – ethyl alcohol
(3) Water – nitric acid (4) Water – hydrochloric acid
Solution. Ans. (1)

 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS (CP)

Those physical properties of a solution which depends upon the relative number of particles of
solute and do not depend on nature of solute particles are called colligative properties.
CP  Number of solute particles
 Number of molecules ( in the solution of non electrolyte)
 Number of ions (in the solution of electrolytes)
 Number of moles of solute
 Mole fraction of solute
The following four properties are CP :
(a) Relative lowering in vapour pressure of solvent
(b)Elevation in boiling point (Tb) of solvent
(c) Depression in freezing point (Tf) of solvent
(d)Osmotic pressure ( or P) of solution

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(a)Relative Lowering in Vapour Pressure
• When a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in a pure solvent, the vapour pressure of the solvent is
lowered i.e. the vapour pressure of a solution is always lower than that of pure solvent,
because the escaping tendency of solvent molecules decreases (due to lesser solvent molecules
per unit surface area).
If at a certain temperature P° is the vapour pressure of pure solvent, and P s is the vapour
pressure of solution then
According to Raoult's law : 


Relating lowering in vapour pressure = 



For a dilute solution nB << nA   so  

• Relative lowering depends upon relative number of solute particles. Therefore it is called
colligative properties.

(b) Elevation in Boiling Point



1.013 bar
 or 1 Atm

t
lv en
So n
Vapour pressure

P0 lu tio
So
PS

 Tb
Tb0
Tb
Temperature (K)
Tb = Boiling point of solution
  Tb0 = Boiling point of solution
  The vapour pressure curve for solution
lies below the curve for pure water.
The diagram shows that Tb denotes
    the elevation of boiling point of a
solvent in solution.
  

    

    

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where K = elevation constant
if = 1 mole and WA = 1 g

then Tb = K (Elevation constant or molecular elevation constant)

if = 1 and WA = 1000 gram; Then Tb = Kb(molal elevation constant)

  ( molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant)

 
  ;    


   Tb  molality

hence elevation in boiling point (Tb) is a colligative property.

• Kb depends only on nature of solvent which can be explained by thermodynamic relation.
2 2
RTb0 M w RTb0
Kb  
1000 L v 1000H vap

Where Tb0 = Boiling point of solvent.

Mw = Molar mass of solvent.
  Hvap = Enthalpy of vapoursation per mole of solvent
Lv = Latent heat of vapourisation per gram of solvent
(c) Depression in Freezing Point
 The freezing point of a liquid is that
temperature at which the liquid and its solid
state exist in equilibrium with each other. en
t
olv
 It may be defined as the temperature at qu
id
s
Li
which the liquid and solid states of a ion
nt lut
substance have the same vapour e S o
Vapour pressure

v
sol
pressure. Fro
zen

 When a non-volatile is dissolved in a pure

solvent the vapour pressure of the solvent is Tf
lowered. Tf Tf0
0
 If T f is the freezing point of pure solvent Temperature (K)
and Tf is the freezing point of its solution
then, Tf < T0f
• The difference in the freezing point of pure solvent and solution is called depression of
freezing point (Tf)
Tf = T0f  Tf ; the depression in freezing point is directly proportional to lowering in vapour
pressure (P)
   ;   so   

Kf = molal depression constant or Cryoscopic constant.

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• Kf depends only on nature of solvent which can be explained by thermodynamic relation
RTf0 2 RTf0 2 M w
Kf  
1000 L f 1000 H f
Where T0f = Freezing point of solvent
Mw = Molar mass of solvent
Hf = Enthalpy of fusion per mole of solvent
Lf = latent heat of fusion per gram of solvent
(d) Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis: Osmosis is defined as the spontaneous net flow of solvent molecules through
semipermeable membrane from a solvent to a solution or from a dilute solution to a
concentrated solution.
p

h  = hdg

Solvent

Solution

Semipermeable
membrane
Level of solution rises in the thistle
funnel due to osmosis of solvent
Osmotic Pressure (p or )
• The external pressure which must be applied on the solution in order to stop the flow of
solvent into the solution through semipermeable membrane is equal to osmotic pressure
or
• Hydrostatic pressure developed in a vertical column when solution and solvent are separated
by SPM.
Osmotic pressure = hydrostatic pressure  
where h = increase in level in the tube of unit cross section
d = density of solution
g = acceleration due to gravity
Reverse Osmosis
If external pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied, the flow of solvent molecules can be
made to proceed from solution towards pure solvent, i.e., in reverse direction of the ordinary
osmosis. Reverse osmosis is used for the desalination of sea water for getting fresh drinking
water.
Piston
(P) Pressure > 

Fresh water Salt water

Water
outlet
SPM

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Illustration 11. Which is not a colligative property ?

(1) Osmotic pressure (2) Relative lowering in vapour pressure
(3) Depression in freezing point (4) Refractive index
Solution. Ans. (4)
Illustration 12. In cold countries, ethylene glycol is added to water in the radiators of cars during
winters. It result in reducing –
(1) viscoity (2) specific heat
(3) freezing point (4) boiling point
Solution. Ans. (3)
Illustration 13. Which of the following aqueous molal solution have highest freezing point ?
(1) Urea (2) Barium chloride
(3) Potassium bromide (4) Aluminium sulphate
Solution. Ans. (1)
Illustration 14. The best colligative property used for the determination of molecular masses of
polymers is :
(1) Relative lowering in vapour pressure (2) Osmotic pressure
(3) Elevation in boiling point (4) Depression in freezing point
Solution. Ans. (2)
Illustration 15. Isotonic solutions have same –
(1) vapour pressure (2) freezing temperature
(3) osmotic pressure (4) boiling temperature
Solution. Ans. (3)

 ABNORMAL COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

It has been observed that difference in the observed and calculated molecular masses of solute is
due to association or dissociation of solute molecules in solution. It results in a change in the
number of particles in solution.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
PASSAGE
Henry was the first to give a quantitative relation between pressure and solubility of a gas in a
solvent which is known as Henry’s law. The law states that at a constant temperature, the
solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas. Dalton, a
contemporary of Henry, also concluded independently that the solubility of a gas in a liquid
solution is a function of partial pressure of the gas. If we use the mole fraction of a gas in the
solution as a measure of its solubility, then it can be said that the mole fraction of gas in the
solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution. The most commonly
used form of Henry’s law states that “the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution” and is expressed as: p = KHx
(a) “The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the
gas (x) in the solution” is
(1) Raoult’s law (2) Dalton’s law (3) Henry’s law (4) None of these
(b) Value of Henry’s constant KH ____________.
(1) increases with increase in temperature. (2) decreases with increase in temperature.
(3) remains constant. (4) first increases then decreases.
(c) The value of Henry’s constant KH is _____________.
(1) greater for gases with higher solubility. (2) greater for gases with lower solubility.
(3) constant for all gases. (4) not related to the solubility of gases.
(d) KH value for Ar(g), CO2(g), HCHO (g) and CH4(g) are 40.39, 1.67, 1.83 × 10–5 and 0.413
respectively. Arrange these gases in the order of their increasing solubility :-
(1) HCHO < CH4 < CO2 < Ar (2) HCHO < CO2 < CH4 < Ar
(3) Ar < CO2 < CH4 < HCHO (4) Ar < CH4 < CO2 < HCHO
OR
What do we do to avoid the bend in scuba divers kit :-
(1) air is diluted with He (2) air is diluted with N2
(3) increase the concentration of O2 (4) decrease the concentration of O2
Type 2 : Assertion and Reason :-
Question 2 to 6:-Note:- In the following questions an Assertion (A) is followed by a corresponding
Reason (R). Use the following keys to choose the appropriate answer.
(1) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(2) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(3) (A) is correct; (R) is incorrect.
(4) (A) is incorrect; (R) is correct

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2. Assertion : Molarity of a solution in liquid state changes with temperature.
Reason : The volume of a solution changes with change in temperature.
3. Assertion : When methyl alcohol is added to water, the boiling point of water decreases.
Reason : When a volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent elevation in the boiling point is
observed.
4. Assertion : When NaCl is added to water a depression in freezing point is observed.
Reason : The lowering of vapour pressure of a solution causes depression in the freezing point.
5. Assertion : When a solution is separated from the pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane,
the solvent molecules pass through it from pure solvent side to the solution side.
Reason : Diffusion of solvent occurs from a region of high concentration solution to a region of
low concentration solution.
6. Assertion : Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high
altitude suffer from anoxia
Reason : due to low atmospheric pressure
Type 3 : Multiple choice equation (one correct answer) (Questions 7 to 16):-
7. On dissolving sugar in water at room temperature solution feels cool to touch. Under which of
the following cases dissolution of sugar will be most rapid?
(1) Sugar crystals in cold water. (2) Sugar crystals in hot water.
(3) Powdered sugar in cold water. (4) Powdered sugar in hot water.
8. At equilibrium the rate of dissolution of a solid solute in a volatile liquid solvent is __________.
(1) less than the rate of crystallisation (2) greater than the rate of crystallisation
(3) equal to the rate of crystallization (4) zero
9. A beaker contains a solution of substance ‘A’. Precipitation of substance ‘A’ takes place when
small amount of ‘A’ is added to the solution. The solution is _________.
(1) Saturated (2) supersaturated (3) unsaturated (4) concentrated
10. Maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of a given liquid
solvent does not depend upon ____________.
(1) Temperature (2) Nature of solute (3) Pressure (4) Nature of solvent
11. Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitude is due to
____________.
(1) low temperature
(2) low atmospheric pressure
(3) high atmospheric pressure
(4) both low temperature and high atmospheric pressure
12. Considering the formation, breaking and strength of hydrogen bond, predict which of the
following mixtures will show a positive deviation from Raoult’s law?
(1) Methanol and acetone. (2) Chloroform and acetone.
(3) Nitric acid and water. (4) Phenol and aniline.

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13. Colligative properties depend on ____________.
(1) the nature of the solute particles dissolved in solution.
(2) the number of solute particles in solution.
(3) the physical properties of the solute particles dissolved in solution.
(4) the nature of solvent particles.
14. The unit of ebulioscopic constant is _______________.
(1) K kg mol–1 or K (molality)–1 (2) mol kg K–1 or K–1(molality)
(3) kg mol–1 K–1 or K–1(molality)–1 (4) K mol kg–1 or K (molality)
15. An unripe mango placed in a concentrated salt solution to prepare pickle, shrivels because
_____________.
(1) it gains water due to osmosis. (2) it loses water due to reverse osmosis.
(3) it gains water due to reverse osmosis. (4) it loses water due to osmosis.
16. If two liquids A and B form minimum boiling azeotrope at some specific composition then
_______________.
(1) A–B interactions are stronger than those between A–A or B–B.
(2) vapour pressure of solution increases because more number of molecules of liquids A and
B can escape from the solution.
(3) vapour pressure of solution decreases because less number of molecules of only one of the
liquid
(4) A–B interactions are weaker than those between A–A or B–B.

ANSWER KEY
Q. No. 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. 3 1 2 3 or 1 1 3 1 2 1 4 3
Q. No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 2 3 2 1 2 1 4 1

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ASSIGNMENT-1
(Introduction, Types of solutions, concentration terms)

1. 8 g NaOH is dissolved in one litre of solution, its molarity is :

(1) 0.8 M (2) 0.4 M (3) 0.2 M (4) 0.1 M
2. If 18 g of glucose is present in 1000 g of solvent, the solution is said to be :
(1) 1 molar (2) 0.1 molar (3) 0.5 molar (4) 0.1 molal
3. The molarity of pure water is :
(1) 100 M (2) 55.5 M (3) 50 M (4) 18M
4. The mole fraction of oxygen in a mixture of 7g of nitrogen and 8g of oxygen is :
(1) (2) 0.5 (3) 0.25 (4) 1.0

5. An example of liquid in solid is:

(1) Bronze (2) Alchol solution (3) Sugar Solution (4) Amalgam

ANSWER KEY
1. (3) 2. (4) 3. (2) 4. (2) 5. (4)

ASSIGNMENT-2
(Solubility, Henry's Law)

1. Which of the following gas will have most solubility in water ?

(1) NH3 (2) H2 (3) O2 (4) He
2. Value of Henry’s constant KH ____________.
(1) increases with increase in temperature. (2) decreases with increase in temperature.
(3) remains constant. (4) first increases then decreases.
3. Increase in temperature solubility of H2 gas in water:
(1) Increase (2) Decrease (3) Remain unchanged (4)None of these
4. Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitude is due to
____________.
(1) low temperature
(2) low atmospheric pressure
(3) high atmospheric pressure
(4) both low temperature and high atmospheric pressure
5. Maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of a given liquid
solvent does not depend upon ____________.
(1) Temperature (2) Nature of solute (3) Pressure (4) Nature of solvent

ANSWER KEY
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. (2) 5. (3)

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ASSIGNMENT-3
(Vapour Pressure, Raoult's law, Ideal-Non ideal Solutions)
1. Which condition is not satisfied by an ideal solution?
(1) H mixing = 0 (2) V mixing = 0
(3) S mixing = 0 (4) Obeyance of Raoult's law
2. Among the following, that does not form an ideal solution is :
(1) C6H6 and C6H5CH3 (2) C2H5Cl and C6H5OH
(3) C6H5Cl and C6H5Br (4) C2H5Br and C2H5I
3. An azeotropic mixture of two liquids has b.p. lower than either of them when it :-
(1) shows a (+ve) deviation from Raoult's law (2) shows no deviation from Raoult's law
(3) shows (+ve) deviation from Henry's law (4) shows (–ve) deviation from Henry's law
4. The mixture that forms maximum boiling azeotrope is :
(1) Water + Nitric acid (2) Ethanol + Water
(3) Acetone + Carbon disulphide (4) Heptane + Octane
5. For a solution of volatile liquids the partial vapour pressure of each component in solution is
directly proportional to –
(1) Molarity (2) Mole fraction (3) Molality (4) Normality

ANSWER KEY
1. (3) 2. (2) 3. (1) 4. (1) 5. (2)

ASSIGNMENT-4
(Colligative Properties: (a) RLVP (b) Elevation of Boiling points (c) Depression in Freezing Point)
1. Which of the following compounds can be used as antifreeze in automobile radiators ?
(1) Nitrophenol (2) Ethyl alcohol (3) Methyl alcohol (4) Glycol
2. The relative lowering of vapour pressure is equal to the mole fraction of the nonvolatile solute,
This statement was given by :
(1) Raoult (2) Henry (3) Joule (4) Dalton
3. The unit of ebulioscopic constant is _______________.
(1) K kg mol–1 or K (molality)–1 (2) mol kg K–1 or K–1(molality)
(3) kg mol–1 K–1 or K–1(molality)–1 (4) K mol kg–1 or K (molality)
4. Pressure cooker reduces cooking time for food –
(1) Heat is more evenly distributed in the cooking space
(2) Boiling point of water involved in cooking is increased
(3) The higher pressure inside the cooker crushes the food material
(4) Cooking involves chemical changes helped by a rise in temperature
5. The molal elevation constant is the ratio of the elevation in B.P. to –
(1) Molarity (2) Molality
(3) Mole fraction of solute (4) Mole fraction of solvent

ANSWER KEY
1. (4) 2. (1) 3. (1) 4. (2) 5. (2)

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ASSIGNMENT-5
(Osmotic Pressure)
1. At constant temperature the osmotic pressure of a solution is :
(1) Directly proportional to the concentration
(2) Inversely proportional to the concentration
(3) Directly proportional to the square of concentration
(4) Directly proportional to the square root of concentration
2. Which inorganic precipitate acts as semipermeable membrane ?
(1) Calcium sulphate (2) Barium oxalate
(3) Nickel phosphate (4) Copper ferrocyanide
3. If mole fraction of the solvent in solution decreases then :
(1) Vapour pressure of solution increases (2) B. P. decreases
(3) Osmotic pressure increases (4) All are correct
4. The osmotic pressure of a solution increases if :
(1) Temperature is lowered (2) Volume is increased
(3) Number of solute molecules is increased (4) None
5. In osmosis –
(1) Solvent molecules move from higher concentration to lower concentration
(2) Solvent molecules move from lower to higher concentration
(3) Solute molecules move from higher to lower concentration
(4) Solute molecules move from lower to higher concentration

ANSWER KEY
1. (1) 2. (4) 3. (3) 4. (3) 5. (2)

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EXERCISE-1
(Introduction, Types of solutions, concentration terms)

1. Molarity is expressed as :

(1) Gram/litre (2) Moles/litre (3) Litre/mole (4) Moles/1000 gms

2. When a solute is present in trace quantities the following expression is used –

(1) Gram per million (2) Milligram percent (3) Microgram percent (4) Nano gram percent
(5) Parts per million

3. When the concentration is expressed as the number of moles of a solute per litre of solution it
known as –
(1) Normality (2) Molarity (3) Mole fraction (4) Mass percentage
(5) Molality

4. With increase of temperature, which of these changes ?

(1) Molality (2) Weight fraction of solute
(3) Fraction of solute present in water (4) Mole fraction
5. The number of moles present in 2 litre of 0.5 M NaOH is :
(1) 0.5 (2) 0.1 (3) 1 (4) 2
6. Which of the following modes of expressing concentration is independent of temperature?
(1) Molarity (2) Molality (3) Formality (4) Normality
7. The molality of a solution is : -
(1) Number of moles of solute per 1000 ml of the solvent

(2) Number of moles of solute per 1000 gm of the solvent

(3) Number of moles of solute per 1000 ml of the solution

(4) Number of gram equivalents of solute per 1000 ml of the solution

8. The number of moles of a solute in its solution is 20 and total number of moles are 80. The mole
fraction of solute is :
(1) 2.5 (2) 0.25 (3) 1 (4) 0.75

ANSWER KEY

1. (2) 2. (5) 3. (2) 4. (3) 5. (3) 6. (2) 7. (2) 8. (2)

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(Solubility, Henry's Law)

1. The solubility of a gas in water depends on –

(1) Nature of the gas (2) Temperature (3) Pressure of the gas (4) All of the above
2. A solution in which more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature?
(1) Saturated solution (2) Unsaturated solution (3) Dissolution (4) Crystallization
3. What happens to the solubility of substance with the rise in temperature, if the dissolution
process is endothermic?
(1) Increase
(2) Decreases
(3) Increases or decreases depend on nature of substance
(4) No effect of temperature on
4. It is the dissolved ...A... which sustains all aquatic life. Here, A refers to –
(1) nitrogen (2) hydrogen (3) oxygen (4) helium

5. Identify the correct statement regarding Henry's law:

(1) Mole fraction of gas in the solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the
solution
(2) The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of gas present
above the surface of liquid or solution
(3) Both (1) and (2)
(4) None of the above
6. Why aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water rather than in warm water?
(1) Aquatic species feel hot in cold water rather than in warm water
(2) Solubility of gas increases with decrease in temperature
(3) Solubility of gas decreases with decrease in temperature
(4) No statement is the correct explanation of the above question

ANSWER KEY

1. (4) 2. (2) 3. (1) 4. (3) 5. (3) 6. (2)

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  21
(Vapour Pressure, Raoult's law, Ideal-Non ideal Solutions)
1. “The relative lowering of the vapour pressure is equal to the mole fraction of the solute.” This
law is called –
(1) Henry's law (2) Raoult's law (3) Ostwald's law (4) Arrhenius's law
2. Vapour pressure of a solution is :
(1) Directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent
(2) Inversely proportional to the mole fraction of the solute
(3) Inversely proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent
(4) Directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solute
3. When a substance is dissolved in a solvent the vapour pressure of the solvent is decreased. This
results in –
(1) An increase in the b.p. of the solution
(2) A decrease in the b.p. of the solvent
(3) The solution having a higher freezing point than the solvent
(4) The solution having a lower osmotic pressure than the solvent
4. According to Raoult's law the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution of volatile
substance is equal to –
(1) Mole fraction of the solvent (2) Mole fraction of the solute
(3) Weight percentage of a solute (4) Weight percentage of a solvent
5. Which of the following liquid pairs shows a positive deviation from Raoult's law ?
(1) Water-nitric acid (2) Benzene-methanol
(3) Water-hydrochloric acid (4) Acetone-chloroform
6. Which one of the following is non-ideal solution ?
(1) Benzene + toluene (2) n -hexane + n -heptane
(3) Ethyl bromide + ethyl iodide (4) CCl 4  CHCl 3
7. Which property is shown by an ideal solution ?
(1) It follows Raoult's law (2) H mix  0 (3) Vmix  0 (4) All of these
8. An azeotropic solution of two liquids has boiling point lower than either when it –
(1) Shows a negative deviation from Raoult's law
(2) Shows no deviation from Raoult's law
(3) Shows positive deviation from Raoult's law
(4) Is saturated
9. Azeotropic mixture are :
(1) Constant temperature boiling mixtures (2) Those which boils at different temperatures
(3) Mixture of two solids (4) None of the above

ANSWER KEY
1. (2) 2. (1) 3. (1) 4. (2) 5. (2) 6. (4) 7. (4) 8. (4)
9. (1)

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(Colligative Properties: (a) RLVP (b) Elevation of Boiling points
(c) Depression in Freezing Point)
1. At higher altitudes the boiling point of water lowers because
(1) Atmospheric pressure is low (2) Temperature is low
(3) Atmospheric pressure is high (4) None of these
2. Solute when dissolved in water –
(1) Increases the vapour pressure of water (2) Decreases the boiling point of water
(3) Decreases the freezing point of water (4) All of the above
3. Which of the following is/are the colligative properties(s)?
(1) Relative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent
(2) Depression of freezing point and elevation of boiling point of the solvent
(3) Osmotic pressure of the solution
(4) All of the above
4. Reduction in the vapour pressure of solvent is/are represented by –

(1) p1 (2) p1° – p1 (3) p1° (4) Both (1) and (2)
 
 
5. Equation 
 is modified into 
 , for (where 1  solute and 2 


solvent)
(1) dilute solution (2) concentrated solution (3) any solution (4) All of these

6. Tb = Kb m; Kb is :
(1) boiling point elevation constant (2) molal elevation constant
(3) ebullioscopic constant (4) All of these above

7. Tf is :–
(1) freezing point of the solution (2) elevation in the freezing point of the solution
(3) depression in the freezing point (4) freezing point of the above

ANSWER KEY
1. (1) 2. (3) 3. (4) 4. (4) 5. (1) 6. (4) 7. (3)

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  23
(Osmotic Pressure)
1. Semipermeable membrane is that which permits the passage of –
(1) Solute molecules only (2) Solvent molecules only
(3) Solute and solvent molecules both (4) Neither solute nor solvent molecules
2. Two solutions A and B are separated by semi- permeable membrane. If liquid flows form A to B
then –
(1) A is less concentrated than B (2) A is more concentrated than B
(3) Both have same concentration (4) None of these
3. Which of the following colligative properties can provide molar mass of proteins (or polymers or
colloids) with greater precision ?
(1) Relative lowering of vapour pressure (2) Elevation of boiling point
(3) Depression in freezing point (4) Osmotic pressure
(5) Rast's method
4. Blood is isotonic with –
(1) 0.16 M NaCl (2) Conc. NaCl (3) 50 % NaCl (4) 30 % NaCl
5. The solution in which the blood cells retain their normal form are with regard to the blood –
(1) Isotonic (2) Isomotic (3) Hypertonic (4) Equinormal
6. The osmotic pressure of a solution is given by the relation –
RT CT RC P
(1) P (2) P (3) P (4)  RT
C R T C

7. The osmotic pressure of a solution is directly proportional to –

(1) The molecular concentration of solute
(2) The absolute temperature at a given concentration
(3) The lowering of vapour pressure
(4) All of the above
8. What would happen if a thin slice of sugar beet is placed in a concentrated solution of NaCl ?

(1) Sugar beet will lose water from its cells

(2) Sugar beet will absorb water from solution
(3) Sugar beet will neither absorb nor lose water
(4) Sugar beet will dissolve in solution
9. Isotonic solutions have : –
(1) Equal temperature (2) Equal osmotic pressure
(3) Equal volume (4) Equal amount of solute
10. Isotonic solution have the same
(1) Density (2) Molar concentration (3) Normality (4) None of these

ANSWER KEY
1. (2) 2. (1) 3. (4) 4. (1) 5. (1) 6. (4) 7. (4) 8. (1)
9. (2) 10. (2)

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CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

PASSAGE
The osmotic pressure of a solution is the excess pressure that must be applied to a solution to
prevent osmosis. It is a colligative property as it depends upon the number of solute molecules
and not on their nature. Osmotic pressure is proportional to the molarity (C) of the solution at a
given temperature (T). Measurement of osmotic pressure provides another method of
determining molar masses of solutes. This is widely used to determine molar masses of proteins,
polymers and other macromolecules.

1. Osmotic pressure is proportional to –

(1) molarity of solution (2) molality of solution
(3) normality of solution (4) formality of solution

2. Osmotic pressure determine the molar mass(es) of –

(1) proteins (2) polymers (3) macromolecules (4) All of the above

3. Osmotic pressure present in the fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to –
(1) 0.9% (m/v) NaCl solution (2) less than 0.9% (m/v) NaCl solution
(3) more than 0.9% (m/v) NaCl solution (4) 0.9% (m/v) Na2SO4 solution

4. Which colligative properties is responsible for raw mango to shrivel into pickle when it is placed
in concentration salt solution?
(1) Relative lowering of vapour pressure (2) Elevation in boiling point
(3) Depression in freezing point (4) Osmosis

ANSWER KEY
1. (1) 2. (4) 3. (1) 4. (4)

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  25

ASSERTION AND REASON

Directions (Q. Nos. 1-8)
In the following questions an Assertion (A) is followed by a corresponding Reason (R). Use the
following keys to choose the appropriate answer.
(1) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(2) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(3) (A) is correct; (R) is incorrect.
(4) (A) is incorrect; (R) is correct
1. Assertion (A) Polar solute dissolves in polar solvents and non-polar solute dissolves in non-polar
solvents.
Reason (R) Like dissolves like.
2. Assertion (A) When scuba divers come towards surface, their capillaries get blocked which is
painful and dangerous to life.
Reason (R) There occurred release of dissolved gases as the pressure decreases and leads to the
formation of bubbles of nitrogen in the blood.
3. Assertion (A) Freezing point of solvent is more than that of solution.
Reason (R) When non-volatile solid is added to the solvent, its vapour pressure increases and
become equal to solid solvent at the lower temperature.
4. Assertion (A) Experimentally determined molar mass is always higher than the true value.
Reason (R) Lower molar mass is due to dissociation of solute into ions.
5. Assertion (A) Ethanol and acetone show positive deviation from Raoult's law.
Reason (R) Pure ethanol molecule show hydrogen bond and on adding acetone hydrogen bond
between ethanol molecules breaks.
6. Assertion (A) The vapour pressure of 0.lM sugar solution is less than that of 0.lM potassium
chloride solution.
Reason (R) Lowering of vapour pressure is directly proportional to the number of species
present in the solution.
7. Assertion (A) One molar aqueous solution has always higher concentration than one molal.
Reason (R) The molality of a solution depends upon the density of the solution whereas molarity
does not.
8. Assertion (A) NaCl in water and organic acids in benzene show abnormal molecular mass.
Reason (R) Abnormal molecular mass is obtained when the substance in the solution undergoes
dissociation or association.

ANSWER KEY
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (3) 4. (4) 5. (1) 6. (4) 7. (2) 8. (1)

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EXERCISE-2

1. The number of moles of solute per kg of a solvent is called its :

(1) Molarity (2) Normality (3) Molar fraction (4) Molality
2. The molality of 90% H 2SO4 solution is :
[density=1.8 gm/ml]
(1) 1.8 (2) 48.4 (3) 9.18 (4) 94.6
3. Colligative properties are used for the determination of –
(1) Molar Mass (2) Equivalent weight
(3) Arrangement of molecules (4) Melting point and boiling point
4. When a substance is dissolved in a solvent, the vapour pressure of the solvent is decreased. This
results in –
(1) An increase in the boiling point of the solution
(2) A decrease in the boiling point of solvent
(3) The solution having a higher freezing point than the solvent
(4) The solution having a lower osmotic pressure than the solvent
5. The vapour pressure of a liquid depends on –
(1) Temperature but not on volume (2) Volume but not on temperature
(3) Temperature and volume (4) Neither on temperature nor on volume
6. Lowering of vapour pressure is highest for –
(1) Urea (2) 0.1M glucose (3) 0.1 M MgSO 4 (4) 0.1 M BaCl 2
7. Which one of the following is the expression of Raoult's law ?
p  ps n ps  p N p  ps N ps  p N  n
(1)  (2)  (3)  (4) 
p n N p N n ps N n ps N

p  vapour pressure of pure solvent

p s  vapour pressure of the solution
n  number of moles of the solute
N  number of moles of the solvent
8. An example of near ideal solution is :
(1) n -heptane and n -hexane (2) CH 3 COOH  C5 H 5 N

(3) CHCl 3  (C 2 H 5 ) 2 O (4) H 2 O  HNO 3

9. A mixture of liquid showing positive deviation in Raoult's law is

(1) (CH 3 )2 CO  C2 H 5 OH (2) (CH 3 )2 CO  CHCl 3
(3) (C 2 H 5 ) 2 O  CHCl 3 (4) (CH 3 ) 2 CO  C6 H 5 NH 2

10. When acetone is added to chloroform, then hydrogen bond is formed between them.These liquids
show
(1) Positive deviation from Raoult's law (2) Negative deviation from Raoult's law
(3) No deviation from Raoult's law (4) Volume is slightly increased

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Assertion & Reason (11 to 15)

In the following questions an Assertion (A) is followed by a corresponding Reason (R). Use the
following keys to choose the appropriate answer.
(1) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(2) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(3) (A) is correct; (R) is incorrect.
(4) (A) is incorrect; (R) is correct

11. Assertion : One molal aqueous solution of urea contains 60g of urea in 1kg (1000 g ) water.
Reason : Solution containing one mole of solute in 1000 g solvent is called as one molal solution.
12. Assertion : Azeotropic mixtures are formed only by non-ideal solutions and they may have
boiling points either greater than both the components or less than both the components.
Reason: The composition of the vapour phase is same as that of the liquid phase of an azeotropic
mixture.
13. Assertion : Molecular mass of polymers cannot be calculated using boiling point or freezing
point method.
Reason : Polymers solutions do not possess a constant boiling point or freezing point.
14. Assertion : Reverse osmosis is used in the desalination of sea water.
Reason : When pressure more than osmotic pressure is applied, pure water is squeezed out of the
sea water through the membrane.
15. Assertion : Elevation in boiling point and depression in freezing point are colligative properties.
Reason : All colligative properties are used for the calculation of molecular masses.

ANSWER KEY
1. (4) 2. (3) 3. (1) 4. (1) 5. (1) 6. (4) 7. (1) 8. (1)
9. (1) 10. (3) 11. (1) 12. (2) 13. (3) 14. (1) 15. (2)