Wind Design Manual Based On The 2018 IBC and ASCE-7-16

WIND DESIGN
MANUAL
BASED ON THE 2018/BC@AND ASCE/SE/7-16
Examples for Wind Forces on Buildings and
Solar Photovoltaic Systems
L.________;:_______J
A NCSEA i~
Nrl"-=1 Count I o( Strvctvr• l £ngn"'' ' AIYXJrdon1 INTERNATIONAL
CODE CDU II CIL•
Copyright
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iii Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16
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Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 iii
Table of Contents
Preface to lhc Wind Design Manual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
How to Usc This Document. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Design E.xamplc 1
E nclosure Classification . .. .. .. .. .. ........ ... . .. . . ..... . . ... . . .. . . .... ... .... .
Design Example 2
Topographic Effcc~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "I I
Design Example 3A
Exposure Category/Surface Roughness Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Design Example 3B
Determination of an Intermediate Expos ure at a Transit1on Zone 41
Design Example 4
·Gust Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Design Example. 5
Tornado Ston11 Shelter... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Design Example 6
High Winds Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
De.o;ign Example 7A
Wind Forces on a Simple Diaphragm Building- Part 2 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Il l
Design Example 78
Wind Forces on a Simple Diaphragm Building - Part I Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Design Example 8A
Wind Forces on a Three-Story. L-Shaped Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Wlnd Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/ SEI?-16 V

Design Example 8B
Components and Cladding Wind Forces on o nuce-Story, L-Sbapcd Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Design Example 9
Design Wind Forces for a 14-Story Orficc Building. .......... ... ....... . .. . . . . . . . . . . 179
Design Example 10
Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings o f All Heights with Flat Roofs or Gable
or H ip Roofs witb Slopes Less Than 7 Degrees - Smull Commercial Building. . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Design Example 11
Rooftop Solar Panels of All Heights with F lat or Gable or Hip Roofs with
Slupc-" Less Than 7 Degree.<: - Large Commercial Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Design Example 12
Roofcop Solar Pauelt; Parallel to the Roof Surface on Buildings of All Heights
and Roof Slopes - Si.ngle Family Residence . ........ . .. ...... .. .. ........ .. . .. .... 231
Dt>s ign Example 13

Rooftop Solar Panels Paral lel to Roof Surface on Buildings of All Heights
and Roof Slopes - Sports Complex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Design E'Xamplc 14
Seismic Design of a Low-P rofi le Uuuuached Solar PY System ou a Low-Slope Roof . . . . . . . 275
Design Example 15
Consideration of Gravity Loads on Existing Roofs Supponi.ng Solar PY Arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . 283
D ('Sign Example 16
Carport Solar PY Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I 9
vi Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 iBC and ASCEJSEi7·16

Preface to the
Wind Design Manual
The 2016 editiou of ASCE 7 (Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildir1gs and Other
Structures) provisions includes refinements to gravity loading, wind, and seismic provisions and an
introduction ofspcdfic provhions related to ~olar PV systems. A dedicated design munual related to wi nd
wiD be of great assist:ruH.:e to Lhe structural engineering profes!:ion. The SEAOC Wind Committee appointed
a Wind Design Manual (WDM) subcommittee w explore the development of a wind design manual. The
recommendation was made and approved by the SEAOC Board to develop this Wind Des ign Manual bused
on provisioru in the 2018 IBC and ASCE 7- 16.
l b js Design Mam.wl provides examples on wind force design to illustnue practical requirements of
!Provisions in ASCE 7-1 6. The examples iUustrntc code-complia nt cks igns engineere-d lo uchievc good
perfonnance under wind loading. The Design Marwal complements SEAOC white papers on solar PV
systems PV-1, PV-2, and PV-3 related to seismk, wind, and gravity loading. As such, the Design Manual
covers seismic and gravity loading in addition to the primary .subject on wind engi neering. Authors
and reviewers practice in ditrerent parts of the United States. The Design Manual provides succim:t
interpretation of ASCE 7 provisions by each author inclividually. Several of the examples extend to multiple
sources to better illustrate requirements in ASCE 7. In one example, specifically Design Example 5 on
storm shelters, JCC-500-14 together with ASCE 7-10 have been used for illustration.
The Design Manual is intended for usc by practicing structural cngjnecrs and u·aincd designers, building
department engineers. other plan review agencies. academia, and structural engineering students. Although
me approach in tbese examples may be considered as guidance for structural design, the methods used do
not exclude other approaches or solutions. Although the examples may demonstrate more than one method
of design or analysis, no intent is made to favor one method over another. This Design Manual should not
be construed as the SEAOC solution or the consensus opinion of the WDM Subcommitree or the SEAOC
Wind Conm1h1ee.
The Design Manual includes example problems for a balance of geographic areas and is intended for use
nationwide. Example problems include a wide range of topics.
General topics 4 examples

Special topics 2 examples
BuiJdings 3 examples
Solar PV systems 7 examples
The Desig11 Manual is intended to complement, where applkable, other related publications such as the
ASCE Guide 10 the Wind Lond Provisions ofASCE 7_
James S. Lai, SE, F. SEAOC, F. ASCE

Past Chair. SEAOC Wind Committee
Chair. WDM Subcommittee
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 vii
Acknowledgments
The Wind Design Manual was managed by the \VOM Subcommi.ttce under the oversight of the SEAOC
Wind Committee. Authors of example problems include highl y quali fi ed engineers. chosen for their
knowledge and experience iJ1 suucmral engineering and wind design practice. The WDM Subcommittee
includes
Emily Guglielmo, PE, SE, earned her Bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering fro m UCLA and her
Muster's degree in Structural Engineering from UC Berkeley. Emily is currently a Principttl with Man in/
Martin, Inc .. managing their San Fruncisco Buy Area oftln~. She has lectured on wind provisions across
tlte nation. Emily is Lhe secretary of the NCSEA Wind Engineering Comminee and serves on the ASCE
7 Seismic as well as Wind subcommittee. A licensed stmcmral engineer, Emily bas received a number of
nwnrds, including SEI Fellow and the Susan M . Frey NCSEA Educator Award, for effective instruction for
practicing sln.lctural engineers.
Stephen Kerr, SE, is a licensed s u-uctural engineer with over 22 years of experience in designing and
investigating various types o f structures. Currently he is a Senior Associate Engineer with Lhe San Diego-
based firm of Josephson"Werdowmz and Associates. Inc. S teve has a Bachelor's of Science degree in
Architectural Engineering from Cal Poly San Luis Obispo. He has been involved with the SEAOC
convention planning for over 10 years, serving a.s the 2009 and 2017 SEAOC Convention Chair. and has
been involved in the Wind and General E ngi neering (Code) committees. both with SEAOC and NCSEA.
and bas just completed a temJ as a director fo r SEAOSD.
James S. Lai, SE, F. SEAOC, F.AO, F.ASCE (Chair), is a retired structurul engineer having completed
over 4 5 years of consulting strucntral engineering practice. nwoughout his career, he has been active
in code development, participating in vnrious techn ical committees as a member and chai r of SEAOC
Gener-al Engineering. Seismology. and Wind committees. He has served on the Board of Directors of
[he Structural Engineers Association of California. the Applied Technology Council. and the StnJctural
E ngineers Association of Southern California. He has served as n member of the ASCE 7 Main and Seismic
com mittees as well as the Wind Subcommittee.
Kenneth A. Luttrell, SE, Co-Owner and Vice President of C YS S t111ctural Engineering, Inc., bas
practiced structural engine.ering since 1964. Ken has been very active in the Structum l Engineers
Association of Central California (SEAOCC) and SEAOC. serving as President of both organizations.
Ken bas served as a member and chair of the SEAOC Wind Commjttee and inilinted the SEAOC Ad H oc
Wind Code Committee that developed the S implified Wind Design Procedure in the 20 15 edition of the
Jn temationa! Building Code. He has also been active as member and chair on the SEAOC Seismology
Cmnrninee ">ince 1979 and has se1·ved con6nuously for over 2'i years on the ~F.AOC Existing Ruildings
Committee.
Nor man S cheel, SE, F. SEAOC, F. ASCE is a practicing structural engineer wilh 45 years of experience.
He has served as SEAOC Stute President, Code Committee C huir, Wind Committee member, nnd NCSEA
Delegate. At CSEA, he bas served as General Engineering Committee Chair and has received the
NCSEA Distinguished Service Award . He has been actively involved in NCSEA for 25 years. Norm has
been actively representing engineers in the code development process and bus served on the /nJemarional
Building Code Structural Committee.
Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI 7· 16 ix

The dist.inguished authors of the Wtnd Design Manual include
Owen Bower, SE, is an Associate Principal and Purtner at Lund Opsahl in Seattle, Washington. Licensed
as a lTUcturuJ engineer in California and Washington, Owen has been dc.~igning structures in the Pacific
N onhwest and nationwide ~ ince 2007. Active ill the Structural Engineers Ass ociation ofWasbi.ngton
(SE.AW), he serves us President of the Southwest Chapter and sit~ on the SEAW Wind Engi neering
Committee.
Jennifer Care:y, PE, is a structural engineer witb over six years of experience in tbe solar industry. She
graduated from the Universi ty of ILlinois at Urbana-Champaign with her Bachelor of Science degree in
Civll Engineering. In addition to her work on the Wind Design Manual. Jennifer is a co- author of the
example problems in the report SEAOC PY2-2017, Wind Dc...'\ign for So.lur Arrays.
R. Scott Dong]a.s PE, SE, Owner. Douglas Engineering. is a licensed Strucmral Engineer in the stare of
Wasblngwn. Scott has over 45 years of experience as u structural engineer on a wide variety of projects
in states along the Pacific coast and Alaska. He has participated in earthquake damage assessment teams
a fter the seis mic eve nts in Haili and Nepal. Stott is past-pres ident of the Seattle Chapter or SEAW and an
acti ve membe r on the ANSI Speci!icmions and Standards AlSI Committees. He is current.ly chair and has
participated in SEAW's Wind Engineering Committee over the past ten ycurs, interrupted by three ycurs
s erving wil.b l.be US Anny Corps of Engineers in Afghanistan.
Emily Guglielmo, PE, SE, earned her Bachelor's degree i n Civj J Engineering from UCLA, und her
Master' s degree in Structural Engineering from UC Berkeley. Emily is currently a Principal with Martin/
Martin. lnc .• managing their San Francisto Bay Area oftice . She has lectured on wind provisions across
the nation. Emily is the secretary of the NCSEA Wind Engineering Committee and serves on the ASCE
7 seismic as well as wind subcommittee. A licensed structuml engineer, Emily has received a number of
awards. including SEI Fellow and the Susan M. Frey NCSEA Educator Award. for effective instruction for
p racticing s1rucrural engineers .
John T. Hutton, PE.• SE, Principal. Uzun-rCase. LLC. Georgia. has over 35 years of experiente in the
design of commercial . institutional. and industrial s tructures. He is a past-president of the Stnlctural
Engineers Association of Georgia and is a member of the Georgia Department of Community Affairs'
State Codes Advisory Committee. John serves on NCSEA's General Engi neering and Wind Code Advisory
Committees and is a cotlmlinee member ofthe ICC-500 Standard for the Design and Consouction of Stom1
Shelters.
Thomas J. Had.zor, PE, SE, Project Manager. LBYD Engineers. Birmingham. Alabama. has 7 years
of s tructur.uJ engineering experience io the analysis, design, and review of bui lding s tructures in the
educationaL mllllicipal, commercial, indw;trial, federal, and healthcare sectors in the southeast United
States. He !has been involved with multiple projects dealing with rhe design of stom1 shelters in K-12 and
higher education projects . Tom has a BSE from Duke University in Dw-harn, NC, and an MSE from Auburn
University in Auburn, AL, where his thesis focused on non-destructive testing of prestressed concrete
beams.
Anurng Jain, PhD, PE, Senior Pri.ncipal, Thornton Tomasetti, is known for his knowledge of wind
engineering. Anurag has performed wind analyses of many structures, including high-rise bui ldings.
airpo11S, hotels, medical facili ties, and stadiums. Anurag has been an active member of the SEAOC Wind
Committee and also a member of the ASCE. 7 Wind committee.
X Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

Rnsscll Larsen, PE, SE, is a Se11ior As sociate wirh Magnusson Kl emencic Associates. Seattle.
Washington. Russell has worked on oftice and housing projects throughout the U.S., often in regions with
high seismicity. He leads both MKA's Wind and Analysis Specialist Teams and is also u key member of
the firm' BTh1. Concrete. and Steel Specialist Teams. Russell is a Task Force Member of lhe Applied
Technology Coundl (ATC) 58 project, wbere he is part of a committee developing guidelines for seismic
pcrfomumcc as~cssmcnt of buildings und perfom1uncc-buscd seismic design.
Brian K . Pietras, PE, Project Stn1cmral Engineer, Rickborn & Associates, LLC. Brian has over 17 years
of experience in the nnalysis, design, investigation, and repair of building structures in high-risk arens for
wind, fl ood. and seismic-rel.ated cvent.s. He is a past presidcnt of the Structural Engineer.; Association of
South Carolina (SEA of SC) and has alt;o served as Chair of rhe SEA of SC Code Advisory Comm ittee.
Timothy W. Rickborn, MS, PE, SECB, Senior Structuml Engineer. Rickborn & Associates, LLC. Tim
has over 25 years of experience in the anaJysis. design. retrofit. and review of low-rise building strucrures
of wood, steel, concrete, and masonry corrstruction in high wind areas. He has been involved in the
inve.<>tigation and rerair of numerous building structures followi ng 1.Topical storms and hurricanes along the
South Carolina coast. He is a founding member of SEA of South Carolina and has served on the Building
Code Advisory Committee for SEA of SC.
Donald R. Scott, SE, F SEI, F ASCE, is the Vice Pre.sident and Director of Engineering at PCS Structural
Solutions and bas been a Principal of the tirrn since 1986. He has led many of the fiml's educarional,
commercial , institutional, and privute projects for new and rcnovntcd construction. Don is proficient i.n
high-end structural analysis. He has been a member of the ASCE 7 Wind Load Commillce since 1996.
shaping future International Building Code provisions for wind d~ ign and curremly serves as Chairman.
He is also a member of the ASCE 7 General Provisions committee, a member of the ASCE 7 Steering
Committee, Chairman of lhe NCSEA Wind Committee. and a former Chair of the SEAW Wind Load
Commjrtee.
Karl Tellecn, SE, is a Senior Engineer wilh Mufl"ci Structural Engineering in San Francisco. He has 13
years of profe.ssional experience. including a wide range of project types such as design of new steel and
concrete structures, seismic evaluation and retrofit of existing bui ldings. sei mic peer review of high-rise
buildings, and design and analysis of solar UITIIys subjected to wind und seismic forces. He contributed
w design guidelines and analysis approaches for solar arrays. including lhe SEAOC Solar Photovoltaic
Systems Comminee documems SEAOC PV I (seismic design) and SEAOC PV2 (wind design). He has
worked with manufacturers on product development of solar support structures, and he has perfom1ed
Gechnical investigations into wind-related fai lures. Karl served on the Board of Directors of SEAONC from
2015- 2017 and as Treasurer in 2016-2017.
Sba un Walters, SE, Associate. KPFF Consulting Engineers, received a BSCE from San Diego Stnte
Universily and a MS in Su-uctural Engineering from the Universi ty of California. San Diego. He is a
registered Strucmral Engineer in the State of Caw·ornia and bas been involved in tbe des ign of over 300
solar projects across 32 states and 4 count-ric.<>. In addition to overseeing many solar projects, Mr. Walters
has received awards for his work on the 16-srory Sempra Energy Headquarters office building in San Diego
and for his work on Hotel Churchill, tbe first historic buildi ng ren·ofit iJ1 San Diego using Fluid Viscous
Dumpers. His ~pcciallics include solar structures, concrete construction, and pcrfonnrmcc-bascd seismic
design.
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 xi

John WoU'e, SE, is a founding parmer of Mar Smtctura1 Design. In addicion to leading numerous
building design projects, John bas a special interest in the structural support of solar arrayl\. He was the
lead structural consultant for California's Solar Pem1itting Guidebook, and is the principal a uthor of Lhe
Stmctural Criteria for Residential R ot-?ftop Solar Enerr:y lnstallations. the Structur[L] Technical Appendix
for Residential Roonop Solar lnstallations, and the Slrt.tclurcrl Commemm·y for 1he Nmiona/ Simplified
Re:>idenJi.al Roof ?hotovoltair. Array Permit Guidelines, which have become key references for the
engineering community and solar iodustry. He is a structural consu1tant to several solar support-component
manufacturers, helping those tirms to develop and test innovative products and navigate the complex world
of codes and standards.
Additionally, a number of SEAOC members and other smtctw·al engineers helped reviewed the examples
i n this volume. During its development, drufts of the examples were sent to thc,sc individuals . Their help
W'.dS .sought in review of code interpretations as wdl us detailed checking of the numerical computations. In
addition to members ofWDM Sobcornrnirtee. the reviewers include rhe following:
Annlka Chase, C hrislophc.r Kamp, Scott Douglas, SK G hosh. Kari Klaboe, Kevin Moore, Scott Mulligan,
and Mason \Valters.
A spocial thanks to Sandra Hyde of the International Code Council for her painstaking review of general
format and editing. and to SK Ghosh and his colleagues for their technical review of the manuscript.
Production and art was provided by tbe International Code CounciL
x ii Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI 7-16

How to Use This Document
Equation numbers in the right-hnnd mnrgln refer to one of the standards (e.g. ASCE 7, fBC orNDS). The
default standard is given in the heading of each section of each example: equation numbers in that section
refer to th at s tandard unless anothe1· standard is explicitJy cited.
The following abbreviations are used within the references:
§ - Section
T - Table
F - Figure
Eq - Equation
Symbols
R efer 10 ASCE 7 Standards and References Cited for symbols unless other\vise described under each
example.
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7-1 6 xiii

References
Standards
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (20 I 6). Minimum Design wads for Buildings and Associmed
Crileria for Other Stntclures, ASCEISEl 7-1 6, ASCE. Reston, VA.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (20 I0). Minimum Design wads for Buildings and Other
Structures. ASCEISBI 7-10, ASCE, Reston, VA.
American Society of CiviJ Engineers (ASCE) (20 13), Seismic Evalumion and Retrofit of Et·isting Buildings,
ASCE 41-1 3, ASCE, Reston , VA
International Code Council (ICC) (20 17). International Building Code (1BC), August 20 17, Country C lub
Hills,IL
Other References
Google (20 I 5), Google Earrh, Google Inc., ] 600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountai.n View, CA
ICC 500--2014. ICCJNSSA Standard for the De.sign and ConsLTUction of Storm Shelters. International Code
Council and National Storm Shelter Assoc.iarion, ICC 500, Country Club Hill~. IL
SEAOC PVt. 2012, Stntctllral Seismic Requiremeflls and Commentary for Rooftop Solar Plwtovoltaic
A rrays. St:rocrural Engineers Association of California, Sacramento, CA
SEAOC PV2. 2017. Wind Design for Solar AnY1ys. Structural Engi nccrs Association of California.
Sacramemo. CA
SEAOC PV3. 2018, Gravity Lnadsfor Rooftop Solar Plwtovoltaic Am1ys. (this publication is in fin al
draft). Strucrural Engineers Association of California. Sacramento. CA
Additional refcrenccs are a lso cited by authors in the Dcsign Examplcs and not repented here. SEAOC
publications are available at www.seaoc.org.
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 XV

Design Example 1
Enclosure Classification
OVERVIEW
An enclosure clnss:ificution is a way of assigning a clussineatioo to a building to determine the appropri;:ttc

amount of internal pressure generated. Internal pressure is n significant phenomenon that can easily be
understood by drawing para!Jels iu everyday events. The inflation of a balloon or an air munress is a good
example.
When an air mattress is infiated. a pump is usually attached to an opening on one end of the mattress.
Assuming there are no other valves open, the air mattress quickly inflates when the pump is turned on. Thls
action matches that of n panially enclosed building, where very large prcs~ures arc exerted on the inside of
the structure.
However, if the air mattress has a hole or a release valve on one of the other sides of the mattress and
~he pump is turned on, air will go into the mattress but will flow out the other sidt:. While some internal
pressures ittflate the air mattress, most of the air is able to escape . thus not fully inflating the martress. This
phenomenon closely matches that of nn enclosed lmil£1ing: the nir is able w get into the building but also
able to escape so that lower internal pressures are generated.
lf the air mattress has . igniticant holes on all sides (exceeding 80 percent of the air mnttress) it is easy to
imagine that there would be no inflation u~ the air would escape as quickly as it could be pumped into the
mattreSs. This phenomenon represents the open building classification.
Wlnd Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/ SEI?-16 1

Design Example 1 • Enclosure Clesslllcatlon
OUTLINE
1. Enl'losure Oassiftcalions
2. Design Exnmplc Problem 1n
3. Design Example Problem lb
4. Additional Informati on
Definitions ASCE7
OPEN BUILDING: A building that has each wuJI at lcu.st 80 percent open.
This condition is expres. ed for each wall by the equation
§26.2. Table 26.13-1

Au = LOtal area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure, in frZ
Ag = the gross area of Lhat wall in which A, is identified, in fl 2
PARTIALLY ENCLOSED BVJLDING: A building that complies with both of the fo llowi ng conditions:
1. l11e total area of openings i11 a wall rhat receives positive external pressure exceeds the sum
of the areas of opcmngs in the balance of tbc building envelope (waJls and roof) by more than
10 perccnL
2a. The total area of openi ngs in a wall that receives positi,re external pressure exceeds 4 ft2 or
1 percent of the arcn of that wall, whichever is smaller, und
2 b. TI1e pe rcentage of openings in the balance of the building envelope does not exceed
20 percent.
These conditions are expressed by the following equations:
A,., > 1.10A01 §26.2, Table 26.13- 1

A > 4 rt2 or> O.Ol As (whichever is smaller)
0
A0 ;= sum of lbe areas of openings in the bui lding envelope (walls nnd roof) not including A in ft20
,
A~1 = sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls and roof) not including A~. in ft
2
E NCLOSED BUILDING: A building that has the total area of openings in each wall. that receives positive
external pressure. less than or equal to 4 ft2 or 1 percent of Lhe area of that wall. whichever is smaller.
2 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

Design Example 1 • EnC/os(lre CI.'ISSIIICJillfon
n us condiliou is expressed for each wall by the following equation:
An< 0.01.4.~, or 4 ft:!: (whichever is s mullcr) §26.2. Tnblc 26. 1:1-l
PARTIALLY OPEN BUILDING: A build ing tlutt docs not comply with the requirements for nn open
building, partially enclosed building, or enclosed building.
1. Enclosure Classifications
The porosity for an enclosed building is such that there arc not suflicicnt openings in the exterior building
e nve.lope to allow significan t air flow into the bui lding. The porosi ty of n partially enclosed building is suc h
[hat tllere are sufficient openings in the building e nvelope wi11dward wall to allow for wind to enter the
building; however, there are not sufficient openings in the remaining portions of tbe building envelope to
allow air fl ow out of the bui ~di ng without a buiJdup of internal pressure. The poros ity for a partially open
building is _uch that there exist sufficient openings in the building envelope windward wall to allow for
air flow i nto the building, arnd surticient openings ex is t in the remaining portions or the building envelope
do allow for some air flow out of the buildi ng but with some buildup of internal pressure. TI1c porosity for
the open building is s uch th at air can enter and exit the building without a significant buildup of internal
pressure. T he classification of a partially open building has been added to the ASCE 7-16 standard to help
the user undcrstnnd that a building with openings and signi tk unt porosity (such as un open parking gumgc ,
for examplt:) that fails to meet the requireme n l~ of the partially enclosed building clas.":oification doc.s not
automatically classify [he building as an open building. O nce the e uclosure classification is known. the
designer refers to Table 26.13- 1 to select the appropriate internal pressure coeflicient.
ASCE 7 Table 26.13-1. Ma in Wind Force Resis ling System and Components
and Cladding (All Heights): Internal Pressure Coefficient, (GCP;),for Enclosed,
Partially Enclosed. Partially Open. and Open Buildings ( Walls and Roof)
E nclosure Inte rna l Interna l P ressure

Classifica tion Criteria for E nclosure CJassificatioo Press ure Coefficient, (GCP1)
A0 is less them the s maller of 0.01 A8 or +0.18

E nclosed buildings 4 sq. ft. a ud A 0 /Ai', :::::: 0.2 Modemtc
-0. 18
Partially enclosed Ao > 1.1A0 ; and A,> the lesser of O.O l A ~ + 0.55
buildings or 4 sq. ft. and A n/A~,. :5 0.2 High
- 0.55
A building that does not comply with +0.18
Partially open bui ldings EnclosecL Partially E nclosed, or Open Moderate
-0.18
classifications
O p·en buildings Each wall is at least 80 percent open Negligible 0.00

Notes
1. Plus and minus s igns signify pressures acting toward and away from the internal sur faces, respectively.
2. Values of (GCp;) shall be used with q= or q" as specified.
3. l\vo cases shall be considered to determine the critical load requirements for the appropriate condition:
a. A positive value of (GC,,) applied to all internal surfaces. or
b. A negative value of ( GCP;) applied to all internal surfaces.
VVInd Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/ SEI?-16 3

Design Example 1 • Enclosure Classi!Jcatlon
1 .1 DEFINITIONS OF OPENINGS
In order to determine an e nclosure clussificalion, a de temunalion must be m ade on the numbe r of openings
in (he IJ.uilding envelope.
Openings a re dd1ned as apertures or holes in the bui lding envelope that allow air to flow through the
building envelope and Lbat are designed as open dw-ing desigu winds. Examples include door.~ . operable
windows, air intake exhausts for air conditioning or ventilation systems, gaps around doors, deliberate gaps
i n cladding, and flexible and operuble louvers.
N on-operable glazing in hurricane zones generally need not be considered an opening due to the
requirement<; for impact-rcsistnnt glazing. Sec Design Exnmplc 6 for u discussion of the~c requirements for
high- wind regions.
1 .2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
This example show the application of enclosure classi ftcations, including distinction becween open
buildiJigs, enclosed buildings, partially open buildings, and panially enclosed buildings.
2. Design Example Problem 1a
Enclosure class.i ficalion on an agricultural building willllarge openings.
This agriculmral bui lcling has s everal large openings in the building envelope. O n lhe w indward wall. there
is a large 200-foot-wide by 25-foot-tall opening. On w e cwo side walls, lhere are matchi11g 100-foot-wide
by 30-foot-tall openings. Tbt: lt:cward wall and roof have no openings.
Es this bujlding an enclosed building, partially enclosed building, partially open building, or open building?
4 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/ SEI 7-16
Design Example 1 • Enclos11re Class//IC£1/fon
2.1 DETERMINATION OF ENCLOSURE
Step 1: Identify lhc openings
Opening Size, A.,

2
Windward wnll 200' X 25' = 5,000 ft
Side walls (2) 2 X (100' X 30') = 6,000 ft 2

Leeward wall OfY
Roof 0 ft2
For simpli.tication, the pitch of the roof is not considered in tbis problem and is approximated using a single
height; aJso, the structural member sizes are ignored.
Step 2: Check Open Building Requ irements
An open building is one in which each wall js at least 80 percent open.
Percentage
of Wall 80%
Opening Size, A.. Gross Area, A ~ Open, A,/A! Open?
Windward wall 200' X 25 ' = 5,000 f! 2 200' X 25' = 5,000 f~ 100 Yes
Side walls (2) 2 X (100' X 30' ) = 6,000 if 2 X (1 00' X 30') = 6,000 Fr 100 Yes
Leeward wall orr 200' X 25' = 5,000 ft 0 No
ln order to check this ~oudition, we should compare the percentage of openings in each wall. However, ir
is immediately clear that the leeward wall does not meet this requirement, as it has no openings. nms, this
building cannot be classified as an open building. In other words, this building will generate some internal
pressures. We must now determine if those internal pressures are "moderate" or "high" as defined by
Table 26.13-I.
Step 3: Check Partially Enclosed Building Requirements
A partially enclosed building has a three-part definition. The buiJding must comply with both of the
following conditions:
1. The lotal area of openings io a wal.l must exceed tbe sum of tbe areas in the balance of d1e
building envelope by more than I 0 percent.
2a. The total area of openings in a wall must exceed the lesser of
a. I percent of the area of the wall.
b. 4 square feel
2b. The percentage of openings in lhe balance of the bui lding e nvelope docs not exceed 20
percent.
Wlnd Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 5

Design Example 1 • Enc/os(lre Classification
]n order to check the first requirenlenl. we nlusr compare the windward waU openings with the sum of the
remainder of the openings.
Equation: Windward wall openings > 1.1 0 X l)eeward wall openings + side wall openings + side wall
openings + 1100f opening )
]n tills case, tbc openings in the windw!lfd wall do not exceed the balance of the building by 10 percent. As
u result, this building cannot be cl assified as a parlially enclosed building.
We arc not required to check condition 2a or 2b, as a partially enclosed building clnssi ticnrion must meet
bolh condition l and conditions 2u and 2b. Sec problem l b for a check of conditions 2a and 2b.
Step 4: Check E nclosed Building Requirements
ln previous versions of ASCE 7. the deiinition for an enclosed bui lding was one that did not comply with
char of an open building or a partial ly enclosed build ing. In ASCE 7- 16, there is a more explicit defi nition:
Enclose.d Building: A building lhat bas lhe total area of openings in each wall that receives positive external
pressure less rhan or equal to 4 square feet or I percent of the area of that wall , whichever is smaller.
Percentage < 4rr

of Wall or 1%
Optning Size Gross Area, AA. Open of Wall ?
Windward wall 200' X 25' = 5,000 ft? 200' X 25' = 5,000 ft2 100 No
2 2
Side walls (2) 2 X (100' X 30') = 6,000 ft 2 X ( 100' X 30' ) = 6,000ft 100 No
2 2
Lccv,:ard wall 0 ft 200' X 25 ' = 5,000 l't 0 Yes
Due to Lhe large openings in Lhe windward and side walls, this building does not classify as an enclosed
building or partially enclosed building.
Step 5: Check Partially Open B uililing Req11irements
New to ASCE 7-16 is the partially open building dussi.fication. It is defi ned as a building which does not
comply with open building, partially enclosed building, or enclosed building guidelines.
2.2 SUMMARY
Because £his structure doesn't fall under rhe classilication of an open building, partially enclosed building,
or enclosed building. this building would be classilied as a partially open building. using an internal
pressure coefficient of GC1, , = :!:::0.18.

Design Example 1 • Enclos"re Class/1/Cf:lllon
3. Design Example Problem 1b
Thi agriculrural building matches that of Problem I a. but the opening sizes on the side walls are reduced
1075 feet wide by 30 feet tall. The remainder of the openings remain the sume. Is this building an enclosed
building. partially enclosed building, partially open building, or open building?
3.1 DETERMINATION OF ENCLOSURE
Step 1: Identify the openings
Opening Size, A"
Windward wall 200' X 25' = 5,000 ft2

Side walls (2) 2 X (75' X 30') = 4,500 fr
Leeward wal l orr
Roof orr
For simpWJcation, the pitch of the roof is not considered in this problem and is approx.imutcd using a single
height; also. the structural member sizes are ignored.
Step 2: Check Open Building Requjrements
An open building is one in which each wall is at least 80 percent open.
Percentage
of Wall 80%
Opening Size, A, Gross Area, A.f Open,A/Ar. Open?
Windward wall 200' X 25' = 5,000 ft2 200' X 25' = 5 ,000 ttl 100 Yes
Side walls (2) 2 X (75 ' X 30') = 4,500 ttl 2 X (75' X 30') = 4,500 ttl 100 Yes
Leeward wall Of~ 200' X 25' = 5 ,000 tr 0 No
Similar to Problem la. this building will sliU not qualify for tbe ope n building classification. We must now
detcm1ine if those internal pressures arc " moderate'' or ''high'' as defined by Table 26. 13-1.
VVInd Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/ SEI?-16 7

Design Example 1 • Enclosure Classi!Jcatlon
S tep 3: Check Partia/Jy Encl.osed Building Requirements
In order to cbeck the first requirement, we must compure the windward wull opcnjngs with the sum of the
remaindet" of the openings.
Equut:ion: Windward wall openi ngs > 1.1 0 X (lecwurd wall openings + side wnll openings + side wnll
openings + roof openings)
5,000 ft2 > 1.10 (2,250 ft? + 2,250 f~) = 4,950 ft2
rn this case, lbe openings in the windward wall do exceed lhe balance of the building by I 0 percent We
most now check the second pnrt of the definition:
Check 1: The tol.al area o.f openings in a wall must exceed the lesser of
a. 1 percent of tbc arc.u of the wnH
b. 4 square feet.
This requirement is cnsily met for the windward wall (100 percent open, area of opening~= 5,000 ft\
Check 2 : The percentage of openings in the balance of the building envelope does not exceed 20
percent.
The balance of the buildjng envelope includes the olher three (3) wall~ and the roof:
Percentage
Opening Size, A 0 Total Area of Wall/Roof. Ac Open, A ./A.f
Side waJlg (2) 2 X (75' X 30') = 4,500 ft2 4.500 ft
2
100
Leeward wall 0 ft2 5.ooo fr 0
Roof ortl 2ooft x 75 ft = 15.ooo rr 0
Balance of btlilding envelope 4.500 rt2 24.500 If 18
Because me percentage of openings in the balance of the building envelope is less than 20 percent. thi
building complies with the requirements of a parrially enclosed building.
3.2 SUMMARY
As a result of the partially enclosed classification, this building would be classified as a partially enclosed
building. using the "high" classificati.on of internal pressure coefficient of GC1,1 = ::!:0.55 per Table 26.13-1.
4. Additional Information
As discussed in this problem, the class ificalion of partially open building is new. After an enclosure
classification and inlernal pressure coeffi cient is defined (per above problem). the designer musl then
choose which method will be used to evaluate the wind forces on the strucrure. Chapters 27, 28, and 29 are
oscd for Main \Vind Force Resisting designs and Chapter 30 is used for Components and C ladding.
8 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7· 16

Design Example 1 • Enclos"re Clnss/1/c.allon
ASCE 7• J 6 does uot provide the des.iguer clear direction on which wetllods are ;wailnble for use wllen a
building is classified as a partially open building. For example, Chapter 27 reuds:
"27. 1. 1: Building JYpc:>. This chapter applies to the detc:mlination of main wind force resisting system
{MWFRS) wind load on encl osed, partially enclosed, and open bui !dings of all heights using the
Dircctionul Procedure."
The authors of this Manual believe the intent is for pm-tiL111)' open b11ilding clas sifications ro foiJow the
procedures available to enclosed building clas.sificatioos, as lhcy arc assigned the same internal pressure
coefficients.
Wlnd Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/ SEI?-16 9

Design Example 2
Topographic Effects
OVERVIEW
Bouodary layer flow over s ubstantial terrain features creates surface layer speed-up of wind s peeds tbat
can be relevant to muin wind force resisti ng system (MWFRS) de.sign pressures as well us to component
and dadding (C&C) design pressures. Not aU temiin features require topographic speed-up adjustment of
wind pressures; only the pecinc fonnutions desc1ibed in Sect·ion 26.8.1. Topogruphic speed-up dissipates
with elevation, and for this rcnson the designer should detcmune K~, nt un dcvution above ground z ns
appropriate for the use of Velocity Pressure q~ described in Section 26. J0.2.
OUTLINE
This problem Jwws several examples of K!, determination at isolated hills, ridges, and escarpments. TI1e
problem is presented io four parts:
a. Escarpment problem
b. Effect of Structure Location Rdutivc to Hill Feature for K 11
c. 3-D Asymmetrical Hlll problem
d. Direction-specific Topographic Speed-up
Problem 2a - Escarpment- San Francisco Helmet Rock
The example site shown in Figure 2-1 is IOL:ated near Helmet Rock on the west edge of the San Francisco
peninsula (37.80237N. 122.47656W, Be;uing 90 degrees). The site is at the top of a sens.ide cliff
(escarpment). Google Earth is used to draw a measurement line through the site ut the steepest escarpment
facing the ocean. Saving the measurement line followed by right clicking the measurement line in Google
Earth cremes the ropographi.c section shown i n Figure 2- 2. The Google-Earth generated section cut is used
GO find tbe ASCE7 terms L,, and H.
Before further consideration of topographic effects. the five conditions required by Section 26.8.1 must be
checked. Failure lO satisfy any one of the five conditions means t11ut topographic effecrs are nor required.
Condition 1: "The hill, ridge. or escarpment is isolated and unobstructed upwind by other similar
topographic features of comparable height for I 00 times the height of the topographic fearure ( I OOH)
or 2 miles (3.22 km), whichever is less. The distance shall be measured horizontaUy from the point
at which the height H of the hill. ridge. or escarpment is determined." In this example Condition l is
satisfied. Continue to Condition 2.
Condition 2: ''The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the height of upwind terrain features
within a 2-mile radius in any quadrant by a factor of2 or more." In this example the sea-facing
quadrant is flat, so Condition 2 is satisfied; see Figures 2- 1 and 2- 2. Continue to Colldilion 3.
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 tBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 11

Design Example 2 • Topographic Effects
Figure 2-1. £mmple site near He/mel Rock. San Francisco (Image by Google Earth)
Sea Level
---------,-
640 teet
Figure 2- 2. Google Earlh lopographic sec/ion wilh 1/0/alions added (Image by Goog/e Earilt)
Condition 3: ''Tile builcliug or other structure is located as shown in Figure 26.8-1 in the upper one-
half of the hill or ridge or nen.r the crest of an es carpment:· In this example the structure is located
mod~:stly downwind of the escarpment crest, so Condition 3 is sutisfi~d; sec Figure 2- 3. Conti nue to
Condition 4.
Condition 4: "HIL~r; ~ 0.2." HIL,1 = 266/320 = 0.83, sec Figure 2-3. Condition 4 is satisfied, continue
to Condition 5.
Condition 5: 'B is greater than or equal to 15 feet (4.5 m) for Exposure C and D a.nd 60 feet (18 m)
for Exposure B." ln this example lhe term H is 266 feet. and the sea-facing exposure is D, so
Condition 5 is _atisfied.
12 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI 7-16

Design Example 2 • Topogmplllc Effects
Couditions I to 5 ate all satwsfied. so K, will be determined. Figw-e 2-3 provides the ASCE 7 idealized
escarpment geometry.
Not to scale~ z
33ft
.t
Ic.o
c.o
N
I~ Lh. ·~
I 320ft ~
100ft
Figure 2- 3. /dealiullion of2D escaqnnent according to Figure 26.8-1
DETERMINATION OF TOPOGRAPHIC EFFECT BY SECTION 26.8
Step l) HIL11 = 266/320 = 0.83

Step 2) By Footnote b of Figure 26.8-1 when H!Lit > 0.5. assume HIL11 = 0.5 for evaluating K1• and
substitute 2H or L,, for evaluating K 2 and K 3.
Step 3) K 1 HIL" = 0.5 so K 1 = 0.43
Step 4) K 2: (x = I 00 ftl2(H =266ft)) = 0.188 By interpolat:ion, K 1 = 0.95

Step 5) :: = 33 feet. K 3 is then: (z= 33 ft/2(H = 266 fl)) = 0.06 By interpolation. K~ = 0.86
Alternatively. the equations provided in Fig11re 26.8- l can be used to directly compute K 1• K2• K3, and K:J.
Determination of K 1 using the specific equations is recommended because this site is Exposure D, which
leads to a slightly larger K 1 term than the pre-supplied K 1 from I he table in Figure 26.8- 1.
H 266 '\
K 1 = 0.95 - = - = 0.83 -7 0.5 (Footnote b))I = 0.95 ~ 0_5 = 0.475
( L}, 320
K2 =(l-li=1- ).IL
0
IIOOI
4 ~ (532)
]=0.95
K3 -- e - ·r:J I-. -- - 0.<85
e - 2s •J.1!$J2 -
K 3 =(I + K 1K 2 KJ = (I +0.475'~ 0.95* 0.85) 1

= 1.93
Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 13

Design Example 2 • Topograp/1/c Effects
Figure 2-4 provides K:r for z between 0 and 200 feet elevation ar this site. Observe lhat K 1 is a function of z
and decreased with elevation, approucbing J .00 as z increases.
200 --------~---------,-------
180 -------- ~--------- ~ --------- L -------- ~--------- ~

I I I I
I I I
160 --------~---------2------- 1--------~---------J
-cu
cu
...., 140
I I
--------~---------,---------,--------~---------,
I I
- 100
'+-
N
s:::::
120 -------- ~ ---------~---------~-
--------~---------J
I
I
_________ L __
------~---------~
I
-----~---------J
I
I
0
-.,::; I I
ru 80 ---------------------------------
1 I --------------I
I I I
> I I
cu I I I I
w 60 --------~---------~---------~----- ·-- ~---------~
40 --------~---------J---------L-------
I
20 -------------------------------------
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
Figure 2-4. Example 2a K:t fo r site 100 feet downwind of escarpment
Finally. differing values of K:J may be used for the orthogonal directions of the MWFRS. Example Problem
2d shows several examples of detem1ining K:J where the topographic feature changes with direct ion.
Problem 2b- Effect of Structure Location Relative to Hill Feature for Kzr
The magnit11de of lopogTaphic s peed-up effect (K) is dependent on tbe location of the strucrure relative to
tbc hliJ or escarpment. This relationship spccificaUy results from x tcm1 of K 2 in conjunction with variation
of !l constant within Figure 26.8-1. For example. if the building structure of Problem 2a were varied upwind
or downwind of the escarpment crest. the K=, pro files of Figure 2- 5 would result.

Design Example 2 • Topogrspl!lc Effects
500
400
1: •
II
\
p .
••••
••
••••
•••
l \
II
p
- 300 It Upwind
- - lSOft Upwind
- - o ftOownwlnd
'
~ 300
~
II
II
1\
_\
'
I t
' '•
'
h
I
\
• • • • 150ft Downwind
300ft Downwind
c
..,0
g
y.. 2.18 2. l 1.86 1.71 .57
- 4 5 0 f t Downwind
v
200 GOO ft Downwind
t!l
100 v 1:39 I
EscmpmcntGeomatry
Lb o 320 feet
H= 266 feet
0 L/1
·600 -<100
I
·200 0 200 1100

-
GOO 800
Exposure D
Ground surface K,,

Structur e Olst<~noo X Up111lnd of Crost {f9ot )
noted at each profile
Figure 2-5. Variation of K~, with s/ntc/ure localion
Within Figure 2-5. the K~, at ground surface is noted at each profile. Ma,ximum speed-up is observed at the
crest of rhe escarpment followed by di'ffering rates of decay in upwind and downw ind directions.
It js not the direct intent of Chapter 26 to vary the K~, term within a structure in the upwind to downwind
direction iflbe structure covers a siguificant horizontal clisrancc.I.ns tead. the designer is advised ro compute
K" at the u pwind position of the roof height relative to the topographic feature.
Wind runnel topographic investigation is suggested if the designer d esires more specific ity in evaluating
rapjd topographic changes by which speed-up could meaningfully vary within a project site, or where site
climate and direction-specific speed measurement is desired. Such studies arc relatively uncommon beyond
locations such as Hong Kong with its rapidly varying bui lt up topography.
Problem 2c - 30 Axisymmetric Hill - Amity, Oregon
The follO\ving example site is located northc~ISl of Amity. Oregon. in the footh ills of the Oregon Coast
Range \45.l30N. 123.196W. Bearing 340 degrees). The example considers topographic effects a£ lbe top
of a 3D a:<isymmetric hiiJ. G oog1e Earth is used to dra\>,: a measurement line rhrough the site from south to
north, through the steepest part of the hill section where noted in Figure 2-6. Saving the measurement line
followed by right clicking o n the measurement line in Google Earth creates the topographic scclion shown
in Figure 2- 7. ll1is section is used to find the terms L11 and H. The ground plane elevation of 170 fee t is
chosen based on the average elevation of the nearby flat land 1.
1
More specifically. in the section defined by the Google Earth cut through the hilL the elevation of
surrounding land is at roughly 170 feet above sea level (L,\) upwind of the hill. Thus the wind is assumed to
be organized about a ground plane of 170 feet , then disrupted and accelerated by the presence of the bill.
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI 7-16 15

Design Example 2 • Topogrspltlc Effects
Figure 2-6. Example sire near Amiry, Oregon
tI
~,c=-----~··----.---~·1
~
$ I
..=.::.=~~:=.o --.at-------------·-·""-~...___,_ _ _1~--
Figure 2- 7. Topographic section provided by Google Earth with notations added
Before further consideraLion of topographic effects. t.he five conditions required by Scction 26.8. 1 are
c hecked. Failure eo satisfy any one of the fi ve conditions means that topographic effects are not required.
C ondition 1: "The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and unobs tructed upwind by othcr similar
topographic fearures of comparable height for 100 times the height of the topographic fea rure (lOOH)
or 2 ml!es (3.22 1-.'111), whichever is Jess. T he dis tance shall be measured horizontally from the point at
which the height H of the hill, ridge, or cscarpmcnt is determined." ln this example Lhe surrounding
countryside is relatively flat, so Condition I is satisfied. Continue to Condition 2.
Condition 2: ·The hill, ridge, or escarpment protru des above the heigh t of upwind terrain features
within a 2-miJe radius in any quadrant by a factor of2 or more." In this example the nearby land is
nearly fiat , so Condition 2 is satisfied. Continue to Condition 3.
16 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 20181BC and ASCEISEI 7-16

Condition 3 : ''Tile building or ocher structme is located as ~hown in Figure 26.8- 1 in !be upper one-
half of the l1LU or ridge or near rhe crest of an escarpment'' In tltis example the stn1cl11re is located at
Lhc top of the. hill (see Figure 2- 8), so Condition 3 is sutisfied. Continue to Condition 4.
Condition 4 : "HIL11 ::: 0 .2.'' Figure 2- H provides the ideali zed hill geometry. The uorth (right) side
uppronch to the hill is somcwhnt steeper thnn the south (left) side. For this cxumple, the hill geometry
will be based ontbe south approach resulLing in H/L 11 = 660/2.1 00 = 0.31. In this example Condition 4
is atisfied. Contiuue w Condition 5.
Condition 5: "His greater than or equal to I 5 feet (4 .5 m) for Exposure C and D and 60 feet (I 8 m)
for Exposme B.'' In thi~ example the term His 660 feet and the land surrounding the site is Exposure
C, so Condition 5 is satisfied.
Conditions I to 5 are all _atisfied. so K:.J will be determined. Figure 2-8 provides Ule ASCE 7 idealized 3D
A;"<:isymrnetric Hill geometry.
NORTH SOUTH ...

~
!~
~1
IM 0
yC'0 .t::
~~ -------- i i IO
co
co
I IC'0 , I
----~-M~-~--- ----L
1
_____________ l I
____ ~
- ---------
I I
Lh Lh
2400 ft -·--=---:---=-=--~
21 00 ft · 1
I I
1-----=----=-=-::--::---l
I I
Figure 2-8. Idealization of 2D luisymmetric hill according to Figure 26.8-1
DETERMINATION OF TOPOGRAPHIC EFFECT BY SECTION 26.8
Step I) HIL11 = 660/2,100 = 0.31
Step 2) HI L 11 < 0 .50, so the exception by Footnote b of Figure 26.8-1 when H!L 11 > 0.5 docs not apply.
Step 3) K 1: H! L,1 = 0.31 so K 1 = 0.33

Step 4) K2: (x = 0 ft)/(Lh = 2,100 f1) = 0.00, K 2 = 1.00
Step 5) z = 33 feet. K3 is lhen: (z = 33 ft/(L1 = 2, I 00 ft)) = 0 .016 By interpolaLion. K 3 = 0.95
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 17

AlterualiveJy. rile equation~ provided iu Figure 26.8- l can be used to directly compute K1• K1 • K 1• <Uld K 1 •
660
K1 = J.os(!!_ = = 0.314) = o.33
LJt 2,100
K2 =(1-Ji= ~-i.
I- [o[
J.S -+(2,100)
l=1.00
K:~ = e - ·r:r'-1. = e -l' _lJ.•2JOO = 0.94

2
K J = (I + KIK2K,) = (I +0.33"1.00~ 0.94) = 1.72
2
Note lhe rninor difference in K3 using the K~ equation relative to KJ fou nd by interpolation.
200
180 \
160 \
... 140
- \
Q.l
-s::
J:! 120 \
N
100 ~
0
-~
~ 80 \
>
Q.l
Uj
60 \
40 \
20 \
0 \
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Figure 2-9. Example 2b K:Jfor site locared at peak of 3D axisysmmetric hill
18 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI7·16

Design Example 2 • Topogrsplllc Effects
Problem 2d - Direction-specific Topographic S1

p eed-up
In many cases the specitk topography of a site will not immcdiutd y resemble the idealized forms expressed
in Section 26.8.1. When this occurs. the designer must use judgment in conjunction with his or her
knowledge of the surrounding lerruin and the Likely effect of that temin on near-surfnce wind flow. The
following ofl'ers several examples of the interpretation of topography for the purpose of Kv determination.
Using the H elrnet Rock exam ple location of Problem 2a, Figure 2- 10 presems the exposure categories
npplicnble lO the st:ruc turc2 . T he primary building axes (1 a nd 2) lie roughly in the easterly nnd northerly
directions respectively.
I MARIN PENINSULA I
Figure 2- 10. Direction-specific exposure and topographic effects
2
M ore specific exposure classification is possible, particularly in the uon herly direction given the prox.imity
of the Marin Pe ninsula. Sec the D esign Example 3b calculation of exposure category in this document.

Figures 2-R lA lhroug.b 2-11 D illustrate topographic sections cur through the build.itlg site at clockwise
45-degree azimuth intervals relative to north. T he type of terrain (20 Escarpmem or 20 Ridge) assigned are
also noted. ProfiJcs of the ASCE 7 hi ll geometry urc chosen by ohscrvution of the hill geometry and likely
relevant flow of wind over the hill feutureJ. The selection of hill geometry and hill type can be subjective in
complex terrain areas. In this exampl e. the tined bill shapes attempt to recog11 ize the upwind .. predominate
land features redirecting the wind. It is for this rcm;on thut some azimuth directions usc differing hill
beights: it is also possible w have diJiering bouom of hill elevations a.~ influem.:ed by the upwind elevation
at a particular site. In short, when choosing Ltill geomeiJy, it is reasonable to apply some level of terrain
s moothing given tbc ASCE 7 objective of conside.ring the large-scale lund features and their influence on
the local wind environment. Such smoothing can consider the Section 26.8. 1 guidance for minimum feature
height and hLU height-to-length ratio as well.
Table 2- 1 provides the relevant hiU geometry from each direction as well as the Exposure Category and
resulting K 1• K 2• KJ. and K" compmed at an elevation of 33 feeL ln ea..:h case the H/L11 > 0.2 stipulation of
S ection 26. 8.1 condition 4 is satis-fied.
___
WIND
FROM 180',,._
WIND
FROio\0'
en
w
(/) w
w a:
w t:!l
a:
<!)
w
0
w lJ)
0 N
N
0
0
2D RIDGE 2D RIDGE
NO FEATURE 2D ESCARPMENT
AGURE 2·11 A FIGURE 2· 11 B
WIND WIND WIND WIND

FROM 270' FROM 90' FROM 315• FROM 135•
- 10011
'Cill
w
w
0::
<!)
z::
:" I '"~" l en
w
w
a:
t:!l
w
~ ~I
w 0
0 a:> lJ)
w
....
0
N
N <;
0 ~
a>
ZD RIOOE 2D RIDGE 2D ESCARPMENT NO FEATURE
FIGURE 2-11 C FIGURE 2-11 D
Figure 2- 11. Hill geometry at 45-degree azimuth sections
~The vertical and horizontal scales of the sections do not necessarily match. This is a result of the plolting
method within Googlc Earth. The nolcd dimensions nrc found using the cursor display of Googlc Earll1.
20 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 201 8IBC and ASCEJSEI 7-16

Design Example 2 • Topogrsplllc Effects
Tablf! 2-1. Hill geometry parameters
Din:ction II (feet) L,1 (feet) x(fl:ct) Hill Type Ellpo.!UTO KI Kl KJ K"(.H rt)
0 260 1.0!>0 850 RIDGE D 0.]8 0.<16 1.00 1.35
J5 230 9(1() 90(1 RIDGE c 0 _17 0.33 1.00 1.2:l
90 220 950 ).700 ESCARP n 0.17 0.55 1.00 1.1 8
135 - - - NONE B - - - 1.00
IW - - NONE n - - - 1.00
225 280 1.050 600 RIDGE B 0.35 0.62 1.00 1.43
270 266 320 100 ESCARP D 0.48 0.95 1.00 1.93
315 266 2.ll0 SBO RIDGE D 0.78 0.27 1.00 138
The values ofTable 2- 1 are ploned in Figure 2- 12. From Figure 2- 12, the critical wind directions and
4
hence grcntest loads can be identified for both MWFRS and C&C effects according to the requirements
of Section 26.7.4. Table 2-2 illustrates the four available Wind Des ign Procedures and the critical wind
design directions. It is permissible to consider separate MWFRS design forces in 1he proj ect axis positive
and negative directions if u~.ing the Chapter 27 Dircc1ional Procedure for enclosed and partiaiJy enclosed
buildings or if using the Chapter 29 Directional Procedure. Otherwise Section 26.7 .4 culls for wind efrcw:
based ou the K;J and K: of winds from the westerly direction (270°).
Table 2-2. Summary af the critical wind tiffec/ direclions by design procedure
Governing Wind Direction
Wind Design ASCE 7-16 MWFRS MWFRS

Procedure Referenoe For Use With Axis I Axis 2 C&C
Otapter27
Enclosed and Partially 135° & 45° 315° & 225° -
Directional Enclosed Buildings
26.7.4.1
procedure
Chapter 27
270° 270° -
Open Buildings
Envelope Chapter 28
26.7.4.2 270° 270° -
procedure
I Low-Rise Buildings
Directional 01apter 29
26.7.3 According to direction
procedure Appurtenances
Chapter 30
C&C 26.7.4 - - 270°
Components & Cladding
~In this case the Gust and CP factors arc assumed to be equal in all directions.

- j _
- - - - KZ "KZl
/
..,.....,...-- -- -- ............
'- /
45°
'
I /
.,- . .- ..... .
" \
. ~ / ---
/
I
I
. '/ /
/ ,;
-- - ... ; '\.
\
2.~
2.~
\
I /. J /
/
I
t5
\ \ \
I I t I /
\ I I
I I I
270°_) I I rgoo
I
I I
I I I
\ . .._. . ...- I I I
\ \ /
/
\ '\.
- - - /
I
I
'\.
/ ".
"'
-- - - - /
/
"
-
225° ........ 135°
/
-
.........
/
Figure 2-12. Problem 2d azinurth plot of Kl" K~. and Kv *' K,. at elevation 33 feet
Summary
S elect topogn1phic features such as hjJls, escarpments, and ridges can create wind velocity speed-up, which
in the correct circumstances must be evaluated. Wind speed-up reduces with elevation above the ground
s urface. and speed-up changes in magnirude depending if the building site is near the 1.."Tesl of the fearure.
Topographic effects must be a pplied to tbe MWFRS and C&C design pressures and may be determined
on a per-direction basis. Unless the designer opts to apply a conservative value of K[J' determination of the
most severe \te)ocity pressure should consider the product of Kj(,-
Additional Information
G oogle Earth may be download from https://www.google.com/earth/ and is a product of Alphabet/Google Inc.
22 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 tBC and ASCEISEI 7-16

Design Example 3A
Exposure Category/Surface Roughness Category
-=--- - - - -
OVERVIEW
The upwind exposure category for computing wind forces oo n building strucrure is dependent on the
direction under considerution. Section 26.7 .1 of ASCE 7- 16 requires thut for each selected wind direction
at which wind loads are to be detenniued. Lhe exposure of Lhe builcling structure shall be determined for the
IWO upwind _ectors extending 45 degrees on either ide of the selected wind direcrion.
In Lhis example. rhe Surface Roughness for each upwind sector is determined using the more concise
method of evaluation offered in the CommeutaJ}' to C11apter 26. Considerarion is given for open patches
within the upwind sectors, a nd an exposure category for each sector is determined for usc in calculating the
wind forces for each direction of loading.
y North Northeast
7
East
Buillding or Other Structure

6
Figure 3A-l. ASCE 7 Figu re C26. 7-8

Detemiination of wind loads from d(fferent directions
OUTLINE
1. Exposure and Surface Roughness Categories
2. Exposure Category/Surface Roughness Category
3. Exposure Requirements

Design Example 3A • Exposure Category/Surface Rouglmess C.atagoty
1. Exposure and Surface Roughness Categories ASCE7
1.1 WIND DIRECTION AND SECTORS §26.7.1
Section 26.7 .1 requires that for each selected wind direction at which the wind londs are to be determined,
the exposure of the building or structu re shu II be determined for the two upwind sectors extending 45
degrees orl either side of the selected \Vind direction. and the exposure that would resull in the highest wind
loads shaH be used w represent the winds from that direction.
An aerial map should be used in lhe determination of surface roughness. In this example. Google Earth is
tJsed to draw wind direction ~ect ors per 26.7.1 u"ing the measurement line tool. Saving lhe measurement
line followed by right clicking the mcnsurcmcnt Unc in Googlc Earth not only cremes u topographic section
through the line but also hu.s the benefit of locating areas of interest along Lhe section. An exumpk of the
G oogle Eartb image is shown in Figure 3A-2.
Cautjon should be exercised when using irrformation obt11incd on the web because topogrnphical features
may have Ghanged through adjacent site development or d earing. The engineer should verify the
acccptahiJity of the aerial assumptiorns \Vitb the local authority having jurisdktion.
Figure 3A-2. Site in Tracy. CA (Image by Google Eanh)

Design Example 3A • cxpos(Jfe C8tegoty!SuriHce Roughness CIJiegoty
1.2 SURFACE ROUGHNESS CATEGORY §26.7'. 2
N~xt, a ground surfucc roughness musl be determined withi.n each .sector identified above. The surfnce
roughness categories defined in Section 26.7.2 gener.tlly identify surface roughness for typical conditions
encountered in de, igu . A more concise method of evaluating surface roughness is documented in the
comrn~ntary. Specifically, the roughness length pururneter Zn is defined for a terrain and can be estimated by
Equation C26.7-1 and Table C26.7-l to determine a more accurate exposure category for eacll sector.
Surface Roughness B: U rban and suburban arcus, wooded areas, or other terrain with nurncrolls,
closely spaced obstructions that have the size of single-family dwellings or lur-ger.
Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scnt1crcd obstructions that huvc heights general ly less thun
30 feet (9.1 m). This category includes flat. open country and grasslands.
Surf<1ce Roughness D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category includes smooth
mud flats. suit flat~. and unbroken ice.
Table C26.7-1 Range of z 0 by Exposure Category
Typical z. lnhonmt in
Exposure Lower Umlt Value of Upper Limit Tabulmed K, Values
Category of z..
ft (m) z.,ft (m) of z.,
ft (m) in Tablo 26.1 0.1 , ft (m)
A 2.3 (0.7) $ ;\) 6.6 (2)

B 0.5 (0.15):::; Zu 1.0 (0.3) <u < 2.3 (0.7) 0.66 (0.20)
c 0.033 (0.0 1) :::; z" 0.066 Zu< 0.5 0.066 (0.02)
(0.02) (0.15)
D 0.016 <,;,< 0.033 0.016 (0.005)
(0.005) (0.0 1)
Figure 3A- 3. ASCE 7 Table C26. 7-1
As seen in Table C26.7 -1 , there is an inherent value of surface roughness considered for the exposure
categories listed. When dete rmining the surface roughness for each sector. the roughness length parnmeler
Zo should be added l O the inherent value to obtain the site-specific sector surface roughness.

Deslgn Example 3A • Exposure Category/Surface Rougllness C8teg01y
. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----, Building or
Wind For h JO f~.t/1
Far 11 > 30 n. J,
I SOO 0
P~="'C7 of 2.600 nor Wh Other Structure
~----------------~
Any Roughnosu
tl,
FIGURE C26.7·1 Upwind Surf:sco Roughno!ls Conditions Roqulrod for Exposuro B
Building or
Wind Other Structure
/
Any Roughness Roughn<>ss D
TA
(a)
d 1 t:n::lk<r of 5,000 fl or lJJ.~. JJIU
Building or
Wind tl, !!tC.I.I.:.r or .'i,OOO it <Jr 20.1-.
t/1 greucr of 600 f1 or 20h
~nu
Other Structure
/
Any Roughnasa Roughness D
J,
(b)
AGURE C26.7-2 Upwind Surface Roughness Conditions Required for Exposure D, for the Cases with (a) Surface Roughness D
I mmediately Upwind of the Building, and (b) Surface Roughness Band/or C Immediately Upwind or the Building
Figure 3A-4. ASCE 7 Figure C26. 7·2
Open patches '''ithin the upwind sectors can have a signi ficant effect on the exposure category
detcm1ination. The commentary in C26.7 defines an open patch as a function of size and proximity to the
building slructure: sec Figures C26.7-3 and C26.7-4.
'Where tbe upwind sectors encompass areas of large, open patches in an otherwise unifom1 surface
roughness, the designer is advist"d to consider their effect and adjust the roughness accord ingly.
26 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 201 8 IBC and ASCEISEl 7-16

Design Example 3A • E'xposwe C8tegoty!Sw1nce Roughness Ctltegoty
Notes
I. For each selected wind direction at which the wind loads are to be
determined. the exposure of the building or structure shall be detcr-
rnirled for the two upwind sectors extendil1g 45• either side of the
selected wind direction.
2. Consider open patches of sizes equal to or greater than the areas given
in Figure C26.7-4 per Commentary Section C26.7.
3. Determine the proportion of open patches in any 45-degree sector
within radii of 500ft, 1,500 ft, or the greater of 2,600 ft or 20 times
the height of the strucntre.
4. If the proportion of open p atch within any of the three radii above is
Jess than 25% of the sector area. the sector is considered £O meet the
requirements for Exposure B. Where the proportion within any of the
three raclii above exceeds 25% of the sector area but is not greater than
50%, rhe values of K.. are taken as the average of the Exposure B and C
values within 100ft heigbr above grade. Above 100 ft, Exposure B
values shall still apply. Where the proportion of open patches within
any of the three radii of the structure exceeds 50%. the values of K.,_
shalJ be based on Exposure C.
5. Apply the exposure requirements of Section 26.7.4 once the direction-
al exposures are determined for each sector. See Commentary
Section C26.7.4.
FIGURE C26.7-3 Exposure B with Upwind Open Patches

Sector Analysis
Figure 3A-5. ASCE 7 Figure C26.7-3

Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7-16 27
Design Example 3A • Expos"re Category/Surface Ro(lg/?ness C8tegoty
Minimum Area of Significant Patch versus

Distance from the Structure
420000 j_
·- - - - 1- - - ·-r-
400000 I
380000 v
I
360000 I
340000 I I
-I- - - - -
320000 ~
- 300000
I
p:
Patches of the minimum
I
I
t--
-
N
I
..::= 280000 v
1-r area and greater are
-
.c
(,)
(13
260000 1- r considered
c. 240000
c: I
II
I
c. 220000
Q)
-
0
0
(13
Q)
200000
180000 I
v
~
~ 160000 I
140000 I
120000 I
100000 v Patches less than the .-
minimum area can be ignored -
80000 I -
I
60000 v
40000 v
If
20000
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Distance from Structure (ft.)
FIGURE C26.7-4 Minimum Area of Individual Open Patches

Affecting Qualification of Exposure B
Figure 3A- 6. ASCE 7 Figure C26.7-4

Design Example 3A • Exposute C8togoty!SurfHce Roughness CJJtegoty
2. Design Example 3a - Exposure Category/Surface Roughness Category
2.1 EXPOSURE CATEGORY/SURFACE ROUGHNESS CATEGORY-

DISTRIBUTION WAREHOUSE
The following example site is located in Trncy, a city of 85,000 residents located 26 miles south of
Stockton and 35 rnile.s west of Modesto. The example project i!l an industrial building used as a distribulio n
warehouse and consists of a till-up concrete panels wirh steel joist framed roof. Bui lding dimensions are
400 feet in the East- West direction, 2,000 feet in the North-South direction, and the mean roof height is
36 feel. See Figure 3A-7 on the next page.
Sector 1
Consists of warehouse buildings with large arcns of parking and fields: Surface Roughne$s C implied.
lnhercnt value of z,l = 0.066 ft
Large warehow;es:
Average obsu·uctioo height, H01, = 35 ft
2
Aventge frontal aren obstruction, S,,t, = 56,000 ft
Avel<l.ge area of grouud occlilpied by obstruclion. A 011 "" 7.000,000 tf
z0 = 0.5 X l-lr.-o (Snr.IA",) = 0.140 ft + 0.066 ft

- 0.206 f£ (Category C)
Small warehouses:
Average ob trucLion height. H00 30ft
Average frontal area obstruction, Stlb = 9,750 ft2
2
Avcrngc area of ground occupied by obslruclion, A,u = 240,000 ft
Zo = 0.5 X H,,o (Sor/A,w) = 0.61 ft + 0.066 ft

= 0.676 ft (Category B)
. bed .
We1g t avemgez0 =(2)(0.206ft)+(4)(0.676ft)
6to1al
=0 ·519ft (Category B)
Recommendation: ExposUJrc Category B
Sector 2
Consists of warehouse buildings with large arcus of parking and fields: Surface Roughness C implied.
Inherent value of z0 = 0.066 ft

Large warehouses:
Average obstruction heighr, Hof, = 35 ft
Average frontal area obstruction, S,,t, = 21,000 ft 2
Average area of ground occupied by obstruction. A a~~ = 2,520.000 f~
z0 = 0.5 X Hq~, (Sob/A"._,) = 0.146 ft + 0.066 f1

= 0.212 ft (Category C)

Design Example 3A • Exposure Category/Surface Rougllness C8tagoty
Small warehouses:
Average obstruction height, Hor• = 30 fr
Average frontal area obstruction, S.,;, = 13.500 ft2
Average area of ground occupied by obslrtlcLion. A,,b ~ l l ,000.000 fl 2
l.JJ = 0.5 X Ha;, (S,.1,/A",) = 0.018 ft + 0.066 ft

0.084 fl (Category C)
" . I ed (~)(0.212tl)+(3)(0.084)
\ '"'etg lt aver.,ge=0 = = O.148 ft (Category C)
6totnl
R t'Commendation: E~rposurc Category C
Figure 3A- 7. Secror.f 1 and 2
30 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 20 18 IBC and ASCEJSEI 7-16

Design Example 3A • E:xposwe C8tegoty!Surface Roughness Clltegoty
Scctor3
Consists of warehouse buildings with large areas of parking and tleids; Smfnce Roughness C implied. See
Figure 3A-8 on the next page.
Inherent value of zil = 0.066 ft

Large warehouses:
Average ob_li'Uction height, H 01; = 35 ft
Average frontal area o~truction, Soo = 2 1,000 tY
Avemge area of ground occupied by obstruction. A,,~ = 2.520.000 frl
Zn = 0.5 X H,., (S~ 1/An~o) = 0. 146 fl + 0.066 ft

= 0.212 n (Category C)
Smull wareboul'cs:
Aver.tge obstruction height. 11, 6 = 30 H
Average fl'Ontal area ob-struction. Suit 13.500 ft
2
=
Average area of ground occupied by obstruction, A01, = J 1,000,000 1\2
.:o 0.5 X Hob (Sob/A&) 0.018 ft + 0.066 ft
= 0.084 ft (Category C)
. h ed (1)(0.2 12ft)+(3)(0.084) 0 116ft

Wct_g t nvcmgc z'() :!!!!: !!!!: • (Category C)
4 total
Recommendation: Exposll!rc Category C
Sector 4
Consists of warehouse buildings with large areas of parking and fields; Surface Roughness C implied.
Inherent value of Zo = 0.066 ft

Small warehouse:
Average obsli'Uction height. HoiJ 30 f[ =
Average frontal area ob-struction, S-Ao = 15,000 tY
Avc.rage area of ground occupied by obstruction, A00 = 375,000 ft 2
z0 = 0.5 X Hq~o (Sor/A,>!>) = 0.60 f£ + 0.066 ft
Recommendation: Exposure Category B

Design Example 3A • Exposure Category/Surface Rouglmess Gategoty
Figure 3A- 8. Sectors 3 and 4
Sector 5
Consists of several small warehouses. areas of open field and single-fam ily homes: Surface Roughness B
implied. See Figure 3A- 9 on page 34.
Inherent value of z0 = 0.66 ft

Small \Varehouse-c;:
Average obstruction height. Ha~ = 30 fl
Average frontal area obstruction. Sob = 4,500 ft2
Average area of ground occupied by obsLrucLion, A", = 200,000 ft2
z0 = 0.5 X Hob (S r/A,_,) = 0.34 fl + 0.66 fl

0
= 1.0 ft. (Category B)

Design Example 3A • ExposU/e C8tegoty!Sur1ace Roughness Clltegoty
Si.tlgle-fanuJy homes:
located roughly 3 ,500 feet on average from project
Averngc obstruction height, HnC• = 20 ft
Aver..tge frontal area obstruction. Stil> "" 1.000 ft1
Avernge area of ground occupied by obsm1crion, A.,r. = 8,000 ft2
z0 = 0.5 X H,;,\ (500 /A,.t,) = 1.25 fl + 0.66 fl

= 1.91 ft (Category B )
Sirlgle-fami ly homes are grouped densely in t.he Western half of Sector 5.
Recommendation: Exposure Category B
Sector 6
Prcdomjnantly sjnglc family homes wjth open putcbcs and a smulJ warehouse adjuceot to tbc project ;
Surface Roughness B implied.
Inherent value of Zn = 0.66 ft
SmaU warehouse:
Average obstruction height, H" 6 = 30ft
2
Average frontal area obstmction, S,.., = 8, 100 ft
Average area of ground occupied by obstruction. A.,6 - 240.000 f t2
z11 = 0.5 X Hr.+. (Sac/A",) = 0.51 ft + 0.66 ft

1.17 ft (Category B )
Single family homes:

located roughly I ,600 fee t on average from project
Average obstruction height, H0 r. = 20 ft
2
Avcrnge frontal area ob.slmction, S,.., = I ,000 ft
Average area of ground occupied by obst.ruction. Ao~~ = 8.000 ft2
z0 = 0.5 X /-/,..;, (Sor/ A.w) = 1.25 ft + 0.66 ft
1.1.91 fl (Category B )
To verify the usc of Ct~tcgory B with the open patches noted in the aerial photo from Google Earth. usc
Pigure C26.7-3 and C26.7-4.

Design Example 3A • Exposure Category/Surfllce Rouglmess C8tegory
Figure JA- 9. Sectors 5 and 6

Design Example 3A • Expos(lfe C8tegoty!Sur1oce Roughness CDtegofY
Open patch check.
Putch 1:
Open patch (Category C). d 1 = 1.400 ft
Areu = goo ft x 900ft = no.ooo ft2
Per Figure C26. 7-4; st I ,500 ft or less, A,..., 111111111 = 200,000 ft 2
Sector area= Length X Rudians/2 = ( 1,500 fti X 0.785/2 = 883.1 25
2
2
re
Ratio: 720,000 ft /883, 125 ttl = 81.5% > 50%
Usc surface roughness C
i.h: Plltn
~~"tn the m!M~ between rrult~ por..e en tr.e ga.r.d
1400 ,Feet
Figure JA - 10. Open parch distance
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCEJSEI 7-16 35

Design Example 3A • Expos(Jre Category/Surface Ro(Jg/lness C8tagow
Patcl12:
Open patch {Category C). d 1 !:'::! 2 ,150 fl
2
Areu = 700ft X 250ft = 175,000 ft
Per Figure C2.6.7-4: at 2.600 ft or les.->. A r.uuunnm ~ 400.000 ft2
.Area < A m uiruum
Neglect open potch per Figure C26.7-4
Negletl open patch
Use surface roughness B
R~commendation : Based on Open Palch anal}•sis, Exporure Category C
Figure 3A-l 1. Open patch distance

beslgn Example 3A • Exposute C8tegoty/Surtnce Roughness CDtegoty
Sector 7
Predominantly single-famjly homes with small warehouses adjacent to project; Surface Roughness B
implied. See Figure :lA-12 on the next puge.
lnhercnt value of Z:n = 0.66 ft

Small warehouses:
Average obstmction height, Fl, 1, = 30 ft
Averc~ge fron tal area obstruction. S,.it = 4.500 ft2
2
Avemge area or ground occupied by obstn.lction. A 0~ - 200.000 ft
Zu = 0 .5 X 1-1<-r. (S.,~IA 00) = 0.34 ft + 0.66 ft

= l.OOft (Category B )
Sirtgle family homes:

located roughly 1,800 feet ou average from projec t
Average obstmction height, H, 6 = 20 ft
A\1Cr.agc fron tal area obstruction. S,.it = 1.000 ft
2
Average area or ground oce111pied by obstnlction. Aot• = 8,000 rt-2
z0 = 0 .5 X He~, (So1/ A,J = L25 ft + 0.66 ft
= 1.91 ft (C:negory B )
The same open patches on S ecwr 6 border Sector 7. By inspection. limits for use of Category Bare not
satisfied.
R ecommendation: ExposUJre Category C
Sector 8
Consists of several small warehouses and single-family homes; Surface Roughness B implied.
Inherent value of z0 = 0.66 f l
Small \Varchouses:
Average obstruction height H.,r, == 30 n
Average frontal area ob-struc tion, S,o = 4,500 ft 2
Average area of ground occupied by obstruction, Ani• = 200,000 ft 2
z0 = 0.5 X Hob (S00 1A,__J = 0.34 f£ + 0.66 ft
Single-family homes:
located roughly 2,500 feet on average from project
Average obstruction height. Hoi> 20 ft
Average frontal area ob-struction, Sob = I ,000 ff
Average area of ground occupied by obstruction, A r.B = 8,000 ft2
z0 = 0.5 X Hce. (Sor/A,-'") = 1.25 ft + 0.66 ft
= 1.91 ft (Category B )
Recommendation: Exposlllre Category B

Design Example 3A • Exposure Category/Surface Rougl!ness C8tegoty
Figure 3A-12. Sectors 7 and 8

Design Example 3A • E:xposute C8togoty!SurfHce Rouglmess CJJtegoty
3. Exposure Requirements §26.7.2
Table 3A- l. Exposure requirements
Wind D irection Applicable ·wind Sectors Exposure Category
North Sector 1 and Sector 8 Category B
East Sector 2 and Sector 3 Category C
South Sector 4 and Sector 5 Category B
West Sector 6 and Sector 7 Category C
For Lhe deterrninulioll of Main Wind Force Resisting System pressures. the exposur~:: category for the
direction under consideration can be used. However. for the determ ination of Component and Cladding
wind pressure, the worst-case exposure category for rhe bui lding mu:>t be used.

Design Example 3B
Determination of an Intermediate Exposure at a
Transition Zone
OVERVIEW
It is often advantageous to cakulate an intcnncdiatc exposure. in particular at locations where minor bodies
of water or other simi lar upwind transi tions in ground surl·ace roughness result in the use of an exposure
less severe than the simplined dclinitions of ASCE 7 Section 26.7. This is permitted per the exception
clause of Sections 26.7.3, which allows in Lieu of the exposure categories of Section 26.7 the determination
of an imennediate exposure and resulting velocity pressw-e exposure coeftkiem K, detennincd by a rational
analysis method, which is in tum based on recognized literature.
ASCE 7 Collll1lentary Section C26. I 0 provides such a recognized method, whkh is based ou an upwind
fetch-based calculation producing a height-dependent intermediate velocity pre,ssure exposure coeftkient.
This example wiJJ detennine an intennediate exposure and resulting veloGity pressure exposure coefficient
K, based on Commentary Section C26.1 0. An intem1ediate exposure will be detem1i.ned for Sector 8 at the
site referenced in De~ign Example 2, Problem 2d, where footnote 2 indicates the designer muy benefit from
the determination of a more specil1c intermediate exposure.
OUTLINE
1. Site Topographic Informmjon
2. Calculation of Inlermediule Velocity Pressure Coefficient
3. Summary
4. Additional Information and Commentary
5 . Item Not Addressed in This Example
PROBLEM STATEMENT
A 33-foot-high buildi ng identical to that referenced in Design Example 2. Problem 2d is located in

San Francisco, CA. immediately south of the Golden Gare Bridge (L:uimde: 37.80237N, Longitude:
I 22.47656\V).
DETERMINE THE FOLLOWING:
1. The site topography informalion
2. The intermediate velocity press ure coefficient

Deslgn Example 38 • Determlnallon of 8n Intermediate exposure 81 s Transition Zone
1. Site Topographic Information
Figure JB-1. Seeror 8 aerial imagery (map image from Google Earl h)
The short distance of land from the soulh shore of the Golden Gate to the builcling s ite in Sector 8 is 640
feet, which is greater than 600 feet or 20 times the 33-foot building he ight (660 feet) per the Exposure D
definition in Section 26.7.3.
E xamination of the downwind Sector 8 aerial imagery northwest of lhe building site (Figure 3B- l)
i ndicates a ·considerable distance of irregular land surface over the Marin Peninsula, which can be classified
as an Exposure B roughness (z0 = 1.0 feeL per Table C26.7 - I) before crossing the Exposure D ocean
s urface of lhe Golden Gate. then Lrav,eling over a short distance of land with an Exposure B roughness to
che building site. The wind traveling over this significant distance of Exposure B terrain and then a short
distance of Exposure D ocean surface before reaching the building si te suggests that determination of a
more specific exposure may be advantageous in design.
2. Calculation of Intermediate Velocity Pressure Coefficient ASCE7
2 .1 DETERMINE ROUGHNESS LENGTHS AND HEIGHTS
The worst-case exposure for Sector 8 is assumed to be lhc combinali on of the longest d istance across the
channel and the shortest distance across land to the bui lding site as shown by lhe dashed line in Figure
3B-l. At lhe dashed Line, the d istance across the channel is 9.300 feet (1.76 miles) with an Exposure D
roughness Zo = 0.016 feet per Table C26.7- l. The distance from the south shoreline to the building site is
640 feet (0.1 2 miles) and can be classified as Exposure B with a roughness z0 = 1.0. Figure 3B-2 diagrams
tllese distances and roughness exposures.
42 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

Design cxemple 38 • Detennlmlllon of an lntemledl81e exposure at a 7ransltlon Zone
Downwind Sta1ion 1 Station 2 Station 3
Marin Peninsula Golden Gate

j /ulldlng Structuro
Roughlless B Roughness D
~ = 1.0 tu=0.01 6
, .. 9300 ft ( 1.76 miles) · 1- ----"--

64-'-'0;_:fl-'--"-'
(0'-.''--'12'-'m'-"-'-'-ilcs=··"--).,.
Figure 38- 2. Sector 8 roughness changes (based vn ASCE 7 Figure C26. 7-2)
2.2 CALCULATE (o:) AND z

11
AT STATION 1
The 3-second gust-speed power law exponent alpha (o.) and the atmospheric boundary layer gmdient
height, zg for the upwind E xposure B lcrrain und the do\vnwind Expos ure D tcrrnin at Station I nrc
determined as follows:
o F or the upwind Exposure B terruiJJ (z0 = 1.0 feet per Tuble C26.7-1 )
o: = c1(.o.m =6.62 X 1.0--11133 = 6.62 Eq C26. 10-3

zs =c2 z~ 0 125
= 1,273 x I .00' 0 ' 115 = 1,273 Eq C26. 10-4
o For the downwind E xposure D terrain (z0 = 0.016 feet per Table C26.7- l)
O: =c z.~0 m
1 =6.62x 0.016-u m = 11.47
11 0125
zs =c, ,... · 125
."'0
= 1,273xO.Olcl =759
where c 1 and c1 arc conslunts per Section C26. 10. 1 with c 1 = 6.62 and c1 = I ,273.
2.3 CALCULATE THE VELOCITY PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS AT STATION 1
The Station I upwind and downwind velocity pressure exposure coefficients K; althe building height (z)
and K3~ att.be 33-foot equilibrium height are derermined using Equation C26.10-l as follows:
o For the upwind Exposure B terrain where o. = 6.62 and zx = 1.273

{ ]2/u v GAl
K
<1•
- 2.0 ll
-
z - 2.0/ ~I
I J 273 )
::.: 0.67 Eq C26. 10-l
'".t \ .
..)3, ]2/u. ( 3.). , )21661
K . =2.01(- =2.01 I\273
-- !!!! 0.67
hJT
-~~
7
.
• Forthe downwind E xposore D terrain where o. = 11.47 and zr. = 759
K:a= 2.0 I
3"
(l7
"s
2
2Ja
2/u
=2.o t( 3
7)9
!)- .
' Il l J7
=1.16
..,.., -?/11.•17
K H = 2 .01 .....::
. • ft ( zg ] = 2.01(
7":>9
.1: )= 1.16

Design Example 38 • Determine lion of 8n Intermediate Exposure 81 a 7hmsltlon Zone
2.4 CALCULATE THE DISTANCE x 11
Usc Equation C26.10-8 to cukulute Lhe distance x0 :
x
0
=C~ X10-< ~ ... ""~~./-l.~ =0.621 X JO-( l.lfi O.ti7): l .J =0.00176 Eq C26.10-8
Where the constilllt c3 = 0.62 1 miles per Section C16.1 0.1.
2.5 CALCULATE THE FUNCTION FM(x)
Usc Equation C26.1 0-7 to determine the function FAK(x) over the transition from Stallon I to Stati on 2:
I (62.1'\
og 10 1.76
--~----'--;:- =
J .034 Eq C26.10-7
lon ( 62.1 )
10
"' .001763
where x 1 = 62.1 mile~. a constant per Section C26.1 0. 1 as the upwind terrain Exposure B coefficient
K"" is rougher and rhus less than the downwi nd terrain Exposure D coefficient K:J1:
x = the downwind distance (in miles) from the exposure tmnsition at Station I.
2.6 CALCULATE THE VELOCITY PRESSURE COEFFICIENT INCREMENT M<
Determine rhe velocity pressw-e exposw-e coefticienti:!..K over the transition Jrom Station I to Stalion 2 due
to the change in termin roughness using Equation C26.10-6:
M< -(R7 1 ~
-
___v
-
K,.u ) K ~~~ F.
·'-'·"
• . (x) -t0.67
Kw l ....
1
- - 1.16) (~I
)(0.340)- 0.169
1.16
-- Eq C26. 10-6
I!:!..KI~ iK.:\) - K:i/1= 10.67 - 1. 161= 0.49 > - 0.1 69

Usc M =-0.169
2.7 CALCULATE THE ADJUSTED K. VALUE AT STATION 2
Usc Equation C26.l 0-5 to determine the adjusted K~ value downwind at Station 2:
K~ 21 = K~J +AK = 1.16 -0.169 = 0.99 Eq C26.10-5
The adjusLed dov..·nwind K~l> = 0.99 value al Stntion 2 is not lower than the upwind value K~ 1 l = 0.67 value
at Stat.iou I, and js til us aLceeptal>le. ·
2 .8 CALCULATE (a) AND z8 AT STATION 2
The 3-~econd gust-speed power law exponent alpha (o:) and the atmospheric boundary layer grudiem
height, z8 for the upwind Exposure D terrain and the downwind Exposure B terrain at Stulion 2 arc
deterrnined using Equations C26.0 1-3 and C26. 10-4:
• For the upwind Exposure D terrain (Zo = 0.016 feet per Table C26.7-l)
o: =c 1 ~
0 133
= 6.62 x 0.016 °m = 11 .47
z_~ - c2 ~""u 25
= 1,273 x0.016-t<0. 125 =759
44 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 20181BC and ASCEISEI 7-16

Design Example 38 • Detennlnatlon of an lnte1medJ8te Exposure at a Tronsltlon Zone
• For lhe downwind Exposure B terrain (z11 1.0 fee t per Table C26.7- l )
0:= c1 z~ l.lJ
0
= t'i.62X I.o-11 133 = 6.62
z.r = c:2 ~n. Jlj = J.273 X 1.0~0 m =1.273
2.9 CALCULATE THE VELOCITY PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS AT STATION 2
The Station 2 upwind and downwind ' 'eloeity pressure exposure coefficients K~ at the building height (z)
and K3.~ at the 33-foot equilibrium height are determined per Equation C26. 10- I as follows:
• For lhc upwind Exposure D terrain where CJ. = 1 1.47 and z11 = 759
K = 2.0J(~]Va = 2.01( 33 )2/lltil?= 1.16

"' zt 759
33l2/u ( 33 )2/IIA<J
Kn =2.01 ( - 1 =2.0 1 - = 1.1 6
. . ft ~ zs J 759
• For che downwind Exposure B terrain where a. = 6.62 :md ;z-11 = J ,273
2/(( 2J6.62
K~- 2.01 2
- 2.0 1( ~ 3
) "' 0.67
-~ ]2/rJ.
(
( 7 ]
I. _73 216 6:2
K n =2.0 1
--P
33
ZK
=2.01(~)
),273
. = 0.67
2.10 CALCULATE THE DISTANCE x 0
Use Equation C26.1 0-8 to calculate the distance x0 :
Eq C26. 10-8
2.11 CALCULATE THE FUNCTION F.il((x)
Use Equation C26J 0-7 to detem1ine the function Fllli(x) over the transition from Station 2 to Station 3:
log 11> ( x 1 ) log10 (6.21)

--
x 0.12
FAK(X) = -(~)
x
=I ( 6.21 I
\ = 0.482 Eq C26.1 0-7
1
log!O Xo ogiO .001763}
where x 1 = 6.21 miles. a constant per SecLion C26.1 0.1 as the upwind termin Exposure D
coefficienl K:n is smoother and lhus greater than !he downwind termin Exposure B
coefficient K~;
x = the downwind distance from the exposure lransilion at Station 2.

Design Example 36 • Determlnalfon of 8n Intermediate Exposure 81 s Transition Zone
2.12 CALCULATE THE VELOCITY PRESSURE COEFFICIENT INCREMENT M
Determine the velocity pres.."ure exposure coefficient t:.K from S tntion 2 to Stution 3 due to the chunge in
terrain roughness using Equ.uion C26.1 0-6:
t:.K =- {K11 - K
-· ·•
~ 1 )~ 0 67
F... (x ):: (1.16- 0.67)( · J\0.482) =0.236
-"·' K :Jvl ~ 0.67
1.6.KI.51K:)'f - K:dl = 1.16- 0.67 = 0.49 > 0.236

Usc b.K = 0.236
12.13 CALCULATE THE ADJUSTED l<z VALUE AT STATION 3

Usc Equation C26.10-5 to deLennine Lhe adjusted K 1 vu.luc at Station 3, the builcling site_
K~>l = K ~ + !:lK = O.li7 + 0.236 = 0.91
The adjusted downwind K~11 = 0.91 value at Station3 is not higher than the upwind K~ 2 , = 0.99 value at
Station 2, and is tbus accet)table. '
3. Summary
R eferring to Table 26.10· 1. at 33 feet the calculated lntennediate velociry pressw-e exposw-e coeffil.:ieut K:
of 0.91 at the building site is found to be 23 percent Jess tbun the Exposure D vuJue of J .18 tbnt would have
been required using the defined exposure categories of Section 26.7. The site-specific intermediate exposure
is found w acrnally be berween a Category B ( K = ::::1 0.72) and Category C (Kz - 1.00) Exposure.
4. Additional Information and Commentary
For bu1lclings where wind loads control MWFRS lateral design. it may be reasonable and advantageous for
(be designer to calculate a site-specific intermediate velocity pressure coefficient versus using a more severe
exposure determined by the definitions of Section 26.7. It may also be bcnctkiaJ for C&C loads wberc open
water and other Surface Roughness Category D surfaces do not extend substantial distances from the site.
The designer is referred to Commenu.uy Section C26.1 0 and SEAW Wi nd Engineering Committee WEC
\\>bite; Paper 2-2016 www.seaw.org/assets/docs/Whitc;Pape.rs/wec_ whitc;_paper_2-2016.pclJ for additional
discussion on the topic of site-specific intennediate exposures.
5. Item Not Addressed in This Example
The follow-ing item is not addressed in this example but should be considered if an accurate investigation of
site exposures ala site is deemed to be practical:
Detennination of intermediate exposures for Sectors I and 2.

Design Example 4
Gust Factor
OVERVIEW
Wind flow is a turbulent process rbnt is idealized by tbc superposition of three stnJcturul responses: average
drag. buckground dyrmmic (from wind turbulence). and resonant dynamic (from structural dynamics).
Within ASCE. the Gust Factor. G. expresses the influence from Lhe background and resouant respOIL'ie as
fu nction or damping, wind turbulence (exposure), and the period of the Stnlcture. The Gust Facwr for
longer period structures (over I second) includes additional terms due to resonant response, which creates
the differences between the Flexible Bui lding Gust Factor (Equation 26.11-10) and the the Rigid Bui lding
Gust Facwr tEquation 26.1 E-6).
OUTLINE
1. Gust Efi'cct Variablct>
2. Approximate Natmal Frequency
3. Flexible Building Gust Factor G1
4. Rigid BuiJding Gust Factor
5. Concluding Though(s
6. Items ot Addrcs~cd in This Example
1. Gust Effect Variables ASCE7
According to Section 26.1 I , a building must be classified as either ·flexible or rigid, which is determined by
il~sway frequency. The classification will affect the calculation of the gust effect factor. In particular for a
flexible building. the structure and the wind can interact due to resonance. This behavior requires additional
design anention as it often magnilies the wind loading. Three gust effect variables are discussed within this
example.
• Approximate Natural Frequency. ASCE classifies buildings as rigid or flex ible for the purpose
o f determining design wind forces . Commentary Section C26.2 provides the foll owing
guideli ne in the definition for flexible buildings or structures: "When buildings or other
structures have a height exceeding 4 times the least horizontal dimension, natural frequency
should be investigated." Section 26. I 1.3 and Commentary C26.11 provide procedures for
calculating the natural frequency for various building type.~. In this example, the commentary
methods are used to illustrate the estimates for building sway period versus height.
• Flexible Building Gust Factor. In this example, the Gust Factor is determjned per Section
26.11.5 for a tall building with a pe1iod less than I Hz.. Buil dings and other structures that have
a fundamental natural frequency less than I Hz are classLfied as flex ible.

Design Example 4 • Gust Factor
• Rigid Builcling Gust Factor. ill !his example. tlle Gusr Facror is determined per Section 26.11 .4
for a rigid building. BuUdings or other structures wbose fundumentaJ nanmtl frequency is
greater than or equal to 1 Hz are classified as rigid. If the extemnl height-to-width ratio is less
thilfl 4. tl1e building can be considered to be rigid.
2. Approximate Natural Frequency ASCE7
The following building is considered in this example:
0_..A'
- .. ............ Office building, exterior dimensions as
..,'1-o.
.... ·-....
~
.......
., shown.
...
Structural system of concrete shear wall
core with composite concrete steel floors
and strm:turnl steel columns.
BuiJding mode 1 parallel to wind direction:

3.5 seconds.
Building mode perpendicular to wind

direction: 4.3 seconds.
Figure 4-1. Building properries
Section 26.11.2.1 provides several methods to approximnte building sway freq uency. The first is applicable
only to a buiJding height less than or equal to 300 feet with a height to effcclive width less than tlle effective
Jenglh, Ldi' as defined b y Equation 26.11-1. In rhjs example, assum ing 25 equally spaced stories, L'lff is as
follows:
Eq 26.1 l-1
.!!__ = 350 = 2. 9 ~ 4
L<ff 120
1
Building periods for taU sm.lctures are preferably determined using tlu·ee-dimensional analysis with the
s tructural stiffness expected during the wind event.
48 Wind Design Manual Based on 201 81BC and ASCEISEI 7-16

Titis example violates tlle tirst of tbese two conditions: nevertheless. the following approximations re.Sull
for various building systems:
Structural steel moment resisting frame:
n,, = 22.2/hus = 22.2 /(350)0.R = 0.20 hertz = 5 second~ Eq 26.11-2
Concrete moment resisting f rame:
n,, = 43.5//,u-9 = 43..5/(350)0·9 = 0.22 hertz = 4.5 seconds Eq 26. 11 -3
Other systems:
n.. 75/h .., 75/350 • 0.21 hertz • 4.7 seconds Eq 26.11 · 4
These approximations arc illustrated in Figure 4-2 with emphasis ndded nt the demarcation between the
fl exible building and rigid building definition.
300
l'
\
250 JJ -1-- - 1- - :- - - - - - - -
\
200 I \\ - Equation 26.11-2 22.2/H'O.S
(p
u.
Cl>
I
I
\\
\\
I - - -· EquaUon 26.11-3 43.5tH~o.9
- - Equation 26.11-4 75/H

150
LJ.-
~
' '
I
.E
.9 \ ~~ I ___ ~ Other Lateral I
Resisting Systems
'
L
<I>
~ v / _j Resisting
I
'
Steel Moment I
'
.£
;g
;,
Ill
C>
tOO I
I
I
I
\
' '
~"['
\
v -- I Frame
~ Concrete Moment I
so I
' ' "l ~~_..... Resisting
vv-
' I.
I I I
Frame
........ -1..~
FLEXIBLE
i' -
.... - r -·~- - ~.:·-1-;... I j__
0 I II I I l RIGID ;I
(Hertz) 0.000 I 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500

(Seconds) 5.0 2.0 1.0 0 .66 0.50 0.40
Approximate Natural Frequency
FIGURE C26.11·1 Equations for Approximate Natural Frequency n. vs. Building Height
Figure 4-2. ASCE 7 Figure C26. I I- I: ApproximaJe narurnl frequency

Additionaiiy. the comtrlen!ary for Chapter 26.11 provides several other methods to approximate buildiug
sway frequency.
Commentary equations include the following approxirmllions. The t:Ommentary suggesL'l thatthe following
e timate merhods olfer a tiiTer re~ponse more appropriately used for service or ncceleration purpose • not
for MWFRS methods:
Concrete buildings: n 1 = 220/11 = 220/350 = 0.63 hettz = 1.59 seconds Eq C26· 11 .9

Steel buildings: n 1 = 164/h = 0.47 hert7. = 2.13 seconds Eq C26-ll.l 0
Commentary Section C26.ll provides additional frequency estimates for steel poles and latt iced towers.
These p rediction methods should not be used for a n occupied bui lding.
The use of seismic sti1fnes.s predictions of Chapter 12 are not imended fm· wind design. TI1is is because
tbe 7~ limits of Section 12.8.2 arc intended to establish the upper bound clnstk period for the purpose of
limiti ng tht: ~ower bound seismit: design forn~. Seismic fort:es tend to det:re.asc with increasing building
s way pe.riod, and as such tbe Chapter 12 equalionii result iu periods that are notably less than the Chapter
26 estimates; this cnn be seen in Figure 4-3. Additionally, a stiffer building will conscrvat1vcly es tablish
seismic el'fects, whereas wind effects tend to increase with longer period- the opposite of scismi~: efl'ccts.
For these rea~ons jt is recommended rhat the sway period of a structure be based on three-dimensional
analyses, or faiJjng that, on the esti mates offered jn Chapter 26.
350
300
250 Other Lateral

Resisting Systems
Ci
~ 200 - E q n 26.11-2
-
:i
Ill
I
I
I
- Eqn26.11-3
=
§
0 150
---r------..,--
1
I
I
I
I
!
i
- Eqn 26.11-4
- - - Eqn 12.&-8
I
I
I I
100 - . - r--.-.- --, -- ..... - Eqn 12.8-7
! I '---------'
I
so
0 +-------r-----~r-----~-------r-------r----~
0 1 2 3 5 6
Sway Period ( seconds )
Figure 4- 3. Comparison of seismic (Chaprer 12) versus wind (Chaprer 26) period esrimares
50 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCEJSEI 7-16

3. Flexible Building Gust Factor G, ASCE7
In this example. the Gust Factor G wiiJ be found for the example structure in Part 2 with the followi ng
pam meters:
Risk Category TI
V. ultimate (700 yenr) - 110 mph
E~posure B
Building Height: 350 feet
Sway Period: 3.5 seconds
Damping = 1.5 percem
The selection of the damping ratio for wind design requires consideration of the building lateral system,
rne Jevel of defom1alion at d esign stale, and the height of the structure. Damping ratios berween 0.5 percent
and 3.0 percent have been observed in publications such as Boggs and Dragovich (1 ), Tumura {2), and
Smith et al 1.3 ). Inclusion of supplemental damping methods will also increase the damping for wind. In
l he exverience of the amhor. building structures at strength (ultimal e) level generally consider damping
f3tios between J.5 percent and 2.0 percent. Slender towers, bridges, nnd antennae often have less damping,
wherc!l5 timber structures may have more damping.
B = 200FT
u u u u u u u
60FT
I. 30"
... I
• • t1:
t1: >:
~
>:
co
1:
~
0
(\J
0 (\J T"" N T""
(")
II
• -'----
•
.....1
30"
n n n n n n n
WIND
Figure 4-4. Plan of example building

STEP 1: AERODYNAMIC HEIGHT, z

z,
The building equivalent aerodynamic center height. is defined as the greater of 60 percent of the height of
(be structure or ?.,,, according to l11ble 26.1 J -1 Footl1ote u und Jangt1agc within Section 26 .7 .4, Accordi ng
to Table 26.11-1 for Exposure B, lwJ11 = 30 feel.
z= mnx! O.li h or z,,.ul = IlliiXI0.6(350 il) =210ft or 30 ftl =210ft Table 26.11 - 1
~ defines a minimum elevation below which the wind speed does Mt decrease and is found within Table
26.1 1- l.
Expos ure Zmm
B 30 feet
c 15 feet
D 7 feet
STEP 2: TURBULENCE INTENSITY, 1:
The turbulence intensity /~ is found at height z using Equation 26. I I -7 and represents the amount of wind
turbulence relative to the locul steady wind.
1•6 ( 33 )1<6
L =c ( 33 ) =0.3 ft =0.2204 Eq 26.11-7
- z 210ft
Table 26.1 I - 1 contains scaUng 1em1 c, which accounts for decreased turbulence quantity with lower surface
roughness. Additionally. the influence of turbulence quantity reduces for tall buildings by virtue of l. in the
denominator.
Exposure c
B 0.3
c 0.2
D 0.15
STEP 3: INTEGRAL LENGTH SCALE OF TURBULENCE, L:
The Integral Length S cale of Turbulence is found by Equation 26.1 1-9 and represents the size of turbulent
eddies. L~ a.f fects the a long-wind non-resonant s tructurnl dynamic response.
L =f
- (z l
33
c
= 320 ft (
21
33
O ft )
10
=593ft Eq 26.11 -9

e.
'Hible 26.1 1- 1 contains tenn '.~hich is a scaling parameter indicaLing larger turbulence (gust) length with
lower sutiace roughness. (z/33)" adjusts tmbulence length for exposure and building height. Turbulence
length incrcuscs with incrcm;ed building height Cz) but nt n lower rate for lower surface roughness.
Exposure e(feet) E
B 320 1/ 3
c 500 1/ 5
D 650 1/8
STEP 4: MEAN HOURLY WIND SPEED, V~
z
The mean hourly wind speed is lhe speed of wind at elevation at one-hour averaging. V ~ is found by
Equation 26.1 1- 16 and includes conversion from the basic wind speed unit miles per hour to units of feet
per second units (88/60).
4
v., =b ( -)«
z.., (-88 ) \1 =0.45 ( ~
3.~ 60
( ft ) "
3.~
ft
( -88 ) 110mph = ll5.3 ftlsec
60
Eq 26.1 1- 16
Table 26.11-1 contains term b. which converts gust speed to mean hourly value and a,which gives the
verlical shape prof:ile of the wind profi le as dependent upon exposure.
-
Exposure b (J.
B 0.45 1/4
c 0.65 1/6.5
D 0.80 1/ 9
STEP 5: GUST RESPONSE PEAK FACTOR, gR
The gust response peak factor represems the relationship between the peak effect expected from the fitting
of the mean response given the building sway frequency (n 1) during a one-hour duration and rhe stochastic
nature of wind structure response.
The sway natural freque ncy 11 1 (bertz) is simply the inverse of sway period:
1
n 1 = - - = 0.2857 hertz
3.5 sec

Design Example 4 • Gust F8ctor
STEP6: BACKGROUNDRESPONSE, Q
The Background Res-ponse represents the dynaruic loading created by gust effects exclusive of
harmonic response and is found using Equarion 26.11-8. Dctcnnination or Q requires the bui lding width
pcrpcndicul:lr lo tbe wind. 8 , the building height, h, us weiJ us the Longitudi.nnl Turbulence Intensity, Lt ,
from Step 3.
Q= (l
B+h
ll)l\_\
I
"
I + 0. 63 ( 200ft+ .J50
1}1\J
ft)
= 0.7904 Eq 26.11 -8
'1+ 0.63 L:. 593ft
STEP 7: REDUCED FREQUENCY, N 1
The reduced frequency is a non-dimensional term and is found by &Juation 26.1 1-14. It uses the
Longitudinal Turl>ulence l ntensiry. L:. . from Step 3 and rhe Mean Hourly Wind Speed. Vo , from Step 4 ns
well as the svvay naturul freq uency fwm Step 5. -
1
0.2857 - )) (593 ft )
( sec
--'------ - - - - - - ' - - - = 1.4 69 Eq 26.11 -1 4
115.3 ft:Jsec
STEP 8: SIZE EFFECT FACTORS, R0 , R8 , AND RL
The Size Effec t Factors are empir ically fir representing relationships found between the building height
l h). the width perpendicular to wind (B), and the length purnllcl to wind (L), and each is found according to
Equation 26. 11-15a. Eta (11) is found according to Lhe description in Section 26.11.5. Sub.script:> have been
added for the height, across. and alorng directions. In all cases. Eta is greater rhan zero; thus, the limits of
Equation 2 6. 11-lSb do not upply.
54 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 201 8 IBC and ASCEISEI7-16

Design Example 4 • Gust rae tor
Table 4-1. Turbulence coherence factors and size e.ffecl factors
Turbulence Coherence Factor Eta (11) Size Effect Factor (R" R8 R1)
nh
- - , (I - e - 1 )
I I _, , ~
11 , = 4.6-d- v~
R~ =-
'1,, 2l)i;
_ (1/3.5 s)(350 ft) R. = _ I _- 1 (I- e - W .?b'.ll)
Height, h Tll - 4 .6I
' (115.3 ft/s) ~ 3.989 2(3. 989l
ll,, !::: 3.9893 R,, =0.2193

II B Ru = _I___1_, (1 -
l1n =4.6-J.-.. e-2•11l )
V:: 'la 2l)ji
Across Wind, B
= 4 6 (1/3.5 s)(200 ft ) R =-
1
--
1
( l- e-u:uoo1)
Tla · 0 15.3 ft/.s) 8
2.280 2(2.280) 2
q8 =2.280 RB = 0.3435
n1 L R = _1 __1_ (I _ e - 2l1f, )
l)L =J 5.4 -=-
V:: /_ TlL 2 'lL2
~ IS.4 (1/3.5 s)(l20 ft ) R = -~- - 1 ( l -e-2(4S79J)

Along Wind, L
t"lL (115.3 ft/s) L 4.579 2(4.579/
r)L ::!:: 4.579 R1_=0.1945
STEP 9: RESONANT RESPONSE FACTOR, R
The Resonant Response Factor R is found by Equation 26.11- 12 and considers the height, along. and
across clireclion size effect factors found in Step 8 as well as the slrucmral damping ratio. ~ (established
as 1.5 percent of critical damping in the problem statement). ·n,e Frequency Response Factor, Rn. is also
required according to Equation 26.11- 13.
7 .47N1 __
7 ._47
_ (_1._46_9..:....
)_ = O IO
R = - ---'----- 65 Eq 26.11- 13
" l l + I0.3N/'J (I+ 10.3(1.469) t. </3 •
R= k RnRhR,/0.53 + 0.47 R 1) Eq 26.1 1-12
I
R= -- - (0.106:1)(0.2 193)(0.3435)( 0.53+ 0.47(0. 1945))
0.01::>
R =0.5765

STEP 10: FLEXIBLE STRUCTURE GUST FACTOR , G
The Flexible Structure Gust Factor (G) is found using Equation 26. 11-10 with vuJucs fou nd in Step 2 tl~).
Step 5 (gR). Step 6 (Q ). and Step 9 (R) a well a~ JfQ and 8v• which are defined in Section 26. I 1.5.
8Q = 3.4
gv = 3.4
-[l + 1.7l=~~~Q +g!R l)

2 1
G . =0.92) Eq 26.11 - 10
l+l.7g.J~
- 2]
J
G = _ /,.--- 4 2-
2 -( 2
I+ 1.7(0.2204) \f 3.4 (0 .790 ) + (3.879) (0.5765)
1
0 925
[ I + 1.7(3.4)(0.2204)
G = 0.94
1
End result: G1 = 0.94 for the example values given.
4. Rigid Building Gust Factor ASCE7
:nf the previous example bui lding were instead five s tories with the following propc1iics, the Rigid Building
Gust Faclor would be found a.~
Building Height = 60 fe et
Building Sway Period = 0.5 SC{:onds
STEP 1: AERODYNAMIC HEIGHT, z
The bui lcling aerodynamic center height. z. is defined as the greater of 60 percent of the height of the
stnJcture or z""" according to language within Section 26. 11.4. According lO Table 26.11- 1 for Exposure B.
z.= = 30 feet.
z= max[0.6 h or zmu 1= max!0.6(60 fl) = 36ft or 30ft] = 36ft

Exposure z,,hl
B 30 feet
c 15 feet
D 7fcet

STEP 2: TURBULENCE INTENSITY,/<
The turbulence intensity is found ut height z using equation 26. 11-7 und represent;; the wind turlmlcncc
versus elevation.
. ,. _ )116
1 ( .,., )Ill\
1 1
'· = c ( · -' = 0.3 . . ft = 0.2957 Eq 26.11 -7
- z 36 ft
Tuble 26.11-1 contains tem1 c.
Exposure c
B 0.3
c 0.2
D 0.15
STEP 3: INTEGRAL LENGTH SCALE OF TURBULENCE, L :
The Integral Length Scale of T urbulem:e is found by Equation 26.11 -9 and affects the along-wind non-
;:
resonant structural dynamic response.
(l
1n
L: = t
- 33
~ = 320 tt (
36
33 ft
ft) . = 329 1.1 Eq 26.1 1-9
Tablt 26.11 - 1 contains terms e and E.
Exposure e(feet) E
B 320 1/ 3
c 500 1/5
D 650 1/8
STEP 4: BACKGROUND RESPONSE, Q
The Background Response represents the dynamic loading created by gust effects exclusive of harmonic
response of the structure and is found usi.ng Equation 26.1 1-8. Detcm1ination of Q requires the bui.ldi.ng
width perpendicular to the wind (B) and bui lding height (h) as well as the Longitudinal Turbulence
Intensity. L~ from Step 3.
Q=, 1+063(
8~" r =
1---------0 ~-
'
I
I + 0.63( 200ft + 60ft

329ft
I .
)
= 0.8050 Eq 26. 11-8

STEP 5: RIGID RESPONSE GUST EFFECT FACTOR, G
The Rigid Respon!>t Gu.o;t Fuclor is found from Equation 26.11-6 us ing values found in Step 2 (I : ) and Step
4 (Q). ru; wel l as :;0 and g •. which are defined in Se~tion 26.11.4:
8Q = 3.4
gv = 3.4
1+ 0.7gQ/: QJ
G=0.925 , Eq 26.11-6
( 1+0.7gJ ~
G =0 _925 ( I+ 0.7(3.4)(0.2957X0.8050)}
I +0.7(3.4}(0.2957)
G = 0.85
The computed value of Gin th.is example is es~entiully equal to 0.85. This example building with Exposure
Cor Ext>osure D would have G = 0.88 and G = 0.89 respectively. TI)US, altl)ough Section 26.11 .1 of ASCE
7-16 allows G = 0.85 for rigid bui ldings, select Rigid Building ~ hnpcs cun gcncrnte Gust Factors other than
0.85.
5. Concluding Thoughts
The preceding examples illustrnte [he use of ASCE 7 for building generally .ubovc and below a sway period
of I secood (the Sectiou 26.2 definition of rigid versus flexible). The user is cautioned that ASCE 7 melhods
do not consider across-wind dynanlic effects, and therefore ASCE 7 is of limited use for particularly tall
and o r long sway period towers or structures. Methods such as the one in Structuml Engineers Association
ofWashington (SEAW) White Paper 1-2016 (4) discuss the need for wind-tunnel evaluation and provide
methods to determine if a wind-tunnel evaluation is necessaty or advised. For this example, the SEAW
mcrhod would not call for wind-tunnel determi nation of design forces for the main wind force resisting
system; however, the method would suggest Lhe 350-foot-tall tower has questionable building service
occupant comfort performance. As such, fmther analytic or experimental determination of occupant
comfort acceleration pcrfom1ance would be suggested. ASCE 7 commentary contains one occupant comfort
analytic method; other methods are available in foreign codes (Canada or New Zealand). Alternatively.
and most accurately. a wind tunnel investigation can detemline service performance while also considering
measured buflding response within the local wind environment. Finally, Advanced Structural Wind
Engineering by Tamura and Karecm (5) includes a comprehensive derivation of Gust Factor by Davenport
and Vickery.

Design Example 4 • Gust f!!actor
6. Items Not Addressed in This Example
Finally. this example hus described the gcncml origin of wind parameters appearing in Table 26.11-1. For
completenes . three additional terms are described thm appear in rhe table but are not w~ed within Gust
Factor cnlculntion. These ure z.s• 0:, :<mel h. z.~ gives the height of the grodiem wind- an elevndon above
which wind speeds are ~ssumcd to not increuse- und is used in the /(_~ culculution. &. und b ure alternate
a
presentations of and b used for cakulaLions presented in the Commentary and offer a model of gust
speed blending both the steady wind and gusts into one wind-speed estimate:
((
~
~·
"
()
?.
\l(z) = \1 . b __:_
~3
REFERENCES
(1) Boggs and Dragovich. "Interaction of Across-Wind [llld Along-Wind with Tall Buildings," The
lntcrnationul Conference on Engineering and Built Environment, The Nnt:ional University of
Malaysia 2013.
t2) Tamura, Y. (2006) . Keynote Lectme: "Amplitude depe-ndency of dumping in building and
estimate techniques." Proceedings of the 12tlz Aus!mlasinn Wind Engineering Coriference.
Queenswwn, N ew Z ealand. Aust-ralasian Wind Engineerin g Sociery, Sydney.
(3) R. Smith, R. M ercello, M. Willford. "Intrinsic and supplementary damping in tall buildings."
Proceedings of [he lnslirulion of Civil Engir1eers. Structures and Buildings 163. April 20 I0
Issue SB2 Pages J 11-1 18, London UK.
(4) www.seaw.org/assets/docs/Whi tePapei'..<Jwec_w hite_paper_ l-20 16.pdf.
(5) Y. Tamura and A. Karcem, cd., Advanced Stntctural Wind Engineering, Springer 20 13.

Design Example 5
Tornado Storm Shelter
OVERVIEW
The International Code Council (lCC) and the National Storm Shelter Association (NSSA) initiated a
joint project in May 2002 to produce a standard for tbe design and construction of storm shelters. Storms
producing hjgh winds, hurrkanes, and wrnudos necess itate a location for safe refuge aga inst increased
pressures and flying debris. Typically, standard buildings arc not designed for the loading and other hazards
associated w ith these storms. The 2014 ICC and NSSA's Standard for the Design and Construction of
Storm Shelters (ICC 500- 14) provides design requirements for the structural system, as well as basic
occupant life s afety and health requirements for storm shelters.
The 2009 lnrenwrional Building Code (lBC) first referenced ICC 500 for storm shelt.er construction but
did not require storm shelters for any conditions. TI1e 2015 IBC added the requirement that tornado storm
shelters be provided where the shelter de.slgn wind speed is 250 mph for 9 11 call stations: emergency
operation cemers: tire. rescue. ambulance, and police stations: and artain GroupE occupancies.
Although 2018 IBC references ASCE 7-16 for wind loads, storm shelter wind loads are determined by the
referenced standard ICC 500-14. which utilizes ASCE 7-10 with modifications. ASCE 7-16 includes an
increase in components and cladding roof uplift external pressure coefficients (GCp) for low-rise buildings.
It also includes a non-mandutory commentary on tornado wind loads that recommends a minimum gust
factor for rigid buildings of0.9. Since these changes have not been reviewed or adopted by ICC 500. they
are not included in this example, but the engineer could voluntarily select to incorporate them. For this
Design Exan1plc, all references usc ASCE 7-10.
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEl 7-16 61

Design Example s • Tornado Sto1m Sheller
Th:is example will focus on r:be design of a tomado swnu sheller located within an elcmenmry school host
building in an a rea \Vitb lomado design w ind speeds of 250 mph. In accordtLnce with the 20 Us lBC. Section
423.4, a tomado shelter is n:quircd. There an: multiple systems thut cun be utilized for the structure of
a s torm sh elter. These systellls are w;ually dep~ndent on the geometry or the s torm shelter and the loads
associated witb its geographic locution. For this example, the .swrm shelter roof system consists of normal·
weight concrete (NWC) on a compo!>ite .steel deck supported by steel joists. The joi~t.s spun to lond-bcming
concrete masonry unit (C.MU) walls. These walls will also act as she<u· wttlls for the lateral-force-resis ting
system. The CMU walls are s upported on conventional strip footings. To mtt imain continuity with the host
building roof, overbuilt cold-formed m etal trusses wi.ll be supported by the storm shelter roof.
OUTLINE
1. Shdtcr Geometry and IBC Loud Criteria
2. ICC 500 Stonn Shelter Loud Criteria

2. 1 Rain Loads
2.2 Shelter Roof Live Louds

2.3 Wind Loads
2 .4 C onnections to Host BuiJding
2.5 Debris Hazards
3. R oof Design
4. Wall Design
5. Foundntion Dc..••ig n
6. Connection Design
1. Shelter Geometry and IBC Load Criteria
'!1.1 SHELTER GEOM ETRY
• 77 feet, 2 inches by 70 feet, 8\4 inches in plan with rypical rooff'raming as shown iu Figure 5- 1.
• Single s tory with roof height of 12 feet. 0 inches (top of shelter roof slab).
• Ex!crior, load-bearing CMU walls arc a nominal 12-i.nch thickness ; interior, lond-bcn.ri.ng CMU
walls are a nominal 8-inch thickness.
62 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 201 8 IBC and ASCEISEI7-16

Design example 6 • Tomsdo Storm Sheller
• 1l1e stoml ~belter is part of a host building. I t is separ.ued by an expansion joint from the maill
host building but has an overbuild roof consisting of steel deck on cold-formed metal trusses
thut is not purt of the shcltt!r. Therefore, it is considt!rcd purl of the host huilding for code
requirements. The host building overbuild roof plan is shown in Figure 5- 2. The ~.~old-fonncd
metal roof trusses ~ spaced at 4 fee t, 0 inches on ceDter. TI1e storm shelter will be designed
assuming the host building ovcrhui ld roof (cold-fom1cd trusses and rooting) wi ll break uwuy
fr-om the sturm sheller during a stonn evenL
CXPAI\!!i:O N JONT IZ"OAJ
I
1 2" ~U f i2" CIAU
: bl $
I II Ill' ' I
IIIII I II II II L...--
: :
:.
•
i:o
--'-i - - - -1!- ,.._
Q)
~1- rr ~""'
- .
\.__ 12' CI\AU
7T · 2"
Figure 5 I. Storm shelter roofplan

Design Example 5 • Tomado Storm Sl1eller
STCR\6 BHaTel
I fll'CIAU
1.--". - ;_ 1~- I:-.:.. - II . -- .. If -

-~
••• • !". --~ ~ I_::
1-
Z"CI~ ~ ~
I'-
/ .
, ;/
~ I~ CWJ
l/
v -a:
-m ~ ~l/IJ[
v
v I
v I
v I'
::~ - ~ / j
.- :
R GB \ I/ !
:
§
"'
~
I~
.
~ a:
g
- ·-- -- 0 ~
, ,'
I
- rr CMU
""' ~~ :
\ I
~
I"" i
'
'.'
.---- - - - -..
" f\
.. .. ...
I\ - ... --- ---- .. ----- --- -- ... - -- . - - --~I~
[_ \ _ EXPANSICX'J JOINT \ _ IZ" CIA\J
Tr- '2'
Figure 5- 2. Ho.f t building roof plan above storm :shelter
1.2 IBC LOAD CRITERIA
1.2.1 Roof Dead Load
The dead loads shown in Table 5- l are separated into ihree categories: bost building roof. stom1 shelter
roof, and superimposed dead loads. These have been separated so that the correct loads are used when
designing the storm shelter for different load conditions. These load condilions will be discussed later in the
d esign example.

Design Example 5 • Tomsdo Storm Sheller
Table 5-1. Roof dead loads
Component Loud (psf)

1W' Roof Deck "
.)
2n In~ul ution 2
I Host Building Roof
Stnnding Scum Roof 2
Cold-fom1cd Trusses @ 4' -0'' 5
4" NWC on 1W' Composite Steel Deck 57
Storm Shelter Roof
Steel Joists @ 2'-6" 5
Ceiling l
Lights I
Superimpo~ ed Dead Load MEP Allowance 3
Sprinkler 2
Miscellaneous I
1.2.2 Roof Live Load
According w IBC Table 1607.1. the host buildiug roof shall be designed for a reducible Live load of 20 psf.
2. ICC 500 Storm Shelter Load Criteria
2.1 RAIN LOADS
For storm shelters, the rain Loads arc detcmli_ncd in accordance with ASCE 7 and lBC, except that rainfall
rates are determined from ICC 500 Section 303. For hurricane shelters. the rainfall rate is increased by
6 inches per hour over the I 00-year rainfall rate. but for tornado shellers. the rainfall rmes utilize the same
I 00-year, !-hour maps as TBC. For this design exumple, we wi II ignore rain loads for two reasons: ( I ) the
host building roof is sloped at a 6: I2 slope. so the rain will not be able to accumulate on the roof. and
(2) in rhe event rhar the host building roof is rentoved due to tornado winds, rain can accumulate on the
s torm shelter roof. but the load will not control over the design Jive loud for the stom1 shelter.
2.2 SHELTER ROOF LIVE LOADS
Ac-cording to ICC 5QO Section 303.2, stom1 shelter roofs shall be designed for minimum live loads speci fied
in ASCE 7 but not less than I 00 pounds per square foot for tornado shelters. Since the roof live load fTo m
ASCE 7 is 20 pounds per square foot, the ICC 500 loading of 100 pounds per square foot will control over
the SILiDdard roof Live load required by ffiC.

Design Example s • Tornado Slotm $/Iefier
2.3 WIND LOADS
According to ICC 500 Section 304.1. storm shelter wind loads shall be determined using ASCE 7 with the
following exceptions:
• Ultimate (streng th) design w ind speeds for tornado shelters shall be determined using ICC 500
Figure 304.2(1).
• The wind directionality factor, K,1, shaH be tuken us 1.0.
The exposure category for tom ado . helters shall be C.
• The topographic factor. Kv , need nol exceed 1.0 for tornado shelters.
• E nc'losure classilications for storm shelters shall be dctem:Uncd in accordance with ASCE 7
Section 26.10. As a designer's note. it is recommc.nded that tornudo shelters be designed as
partially enclosed (GC,>J ..., ± 0.55). The rea:>oning behind rh is recom mendation comes from
tbe inability of tJ1e desi.gner to pred.ict the influence of static pressure drop, nnd the pnrtiully
enclosed classification hdps account for lc.ukuge into the building thut occurs from thc pressure
di.Dference betweeu rbe interior and the exterior or the buildi.ng.
Using the information above, the design vn.lues in Tab'le 5-2 can be used to determine the wind loads on the
s torm sheller:
Table 5-2. Design values
Variable Design Value
Ultimate D esign Wind Speed, V 250 mph
Wind Dircct..ionaliLy Factor, Kr~ 1.0

E~posure Category c
Topogr.apl:it.ic Factor, K:J J.O
Gust Effect Factor. G 0.85
Enclosure Classification Partially Enclosed
GCf". ±0.55

Using these design vct1ues. Lhe ma.iu wi.nd force resisting system (MWFRS) wind loads in Table 5-3 are
calculated using the Directional Method of C hapter 27 of ASCE 7. Since the stom1 shelter is approximately
square, lhc same louds will be used for winds acting pumllcl und pcrpe.ndiculnr to the shelter.
Table 5-3. MIVFRS wind loads
MWFRS Wall L oads
Surface z (ft) K~ q (psf) G Cp Net w/ + GC1, (psf) Net w/ -GCp; (psi)
Windward Wall 12.0 0 .85 136.0 0.85 0.8 17.7 167.3
Leeward Wall 12 .0 0 .85 136.0 0.85 - 0.5 - 132.6 17.0
Side Walls 12.0 0.85 136.0 0.85 - 0.7 - 155.7 - 6.1
MWFRS Roof Loads
Horiz. Distance from

Surface Windward Edge (f\) K. q (psf) G Cp Net w/ +Gc,., (pst) Net w/ - GC,; (pst)
0 to h/2 0.85 136.0 0.85 - 0.9 - 178.8 -29.2
h/2 to h 0.85 136.0 0 .85 - 0.9 - 178.8 -29.2
Roof h to 2b 0.85 136.0 0.85 - 0.5 - 132.6 17.0
> 2h 0.85 136.0 0.85 - 0 .3 - 109.5 40.1
0 to (B or L) 0.85 136.0 0.85 - 0. 18 - 95.6 54.0
Likewise, the components and cladding (C&C) wind loads in Tables 5-4a and 5-4b are calculated using
Chap-ter 30 of ASCE 7.

Design Example 5 • Tornado Stotm $/Iefler
Table 5-4a. C&C wall wind loads
Surface & Effecuve

Wind Area z (fl) K. q (psf) GC,.* Nel w/ + GCfll (p f) Ner w/ - GC, 1 (psf)
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.90 47.6 197.2

Wall- Zone 4 - 10 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 0.99 - 209.4 - 59.8
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.85 40.8 190.4

Wall - Zone 4 - 20 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 -0.94 -202.6 -53.0
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.79 32.6 182.2

\Vall - Zone 4 - 50 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 0.88 - 194.5 - 44.9
IWall- Zone 4- 100 SF

12.0
12.0
0.85
0.85
136.0
136.0
0.74
-0.83
25.8
-187./
175.4
-38.1
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.63 10.9 160.5

12.0 0.85 136.0 - 0.72 - 172.7 - 23.1
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.90 47.6 197.2

WalJ -Zone 5- 10 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 1.26 -246.2 -96.6
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.85 40.8 190.4

12.0 0.85 136.0 -1.16 - 232.6 - 83.0
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.79 32.6 182.2

12.0 0.85 136.0 - 1.04 -216.2 - 66.6
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.74 25.8 175.4

12.0 0.85 136.0 - 0.94 - 202.6 - 53.0
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.63 L0.9 160.5

12.0 0.85 136.0 - 0.72 - 172.7 - 23. 1
*GCPvalues include a 10 percenl red!uclion based on foolnole 5.

Design Example 5 • Toii>Bdo Storm Sheller
Table 5-4b. C&C roof wind loads
Surface & Effective

Wind Area z (ft) K. q (psf) GC1, Net w/ + GC1,1 (psf) Net w/ - GCI'1 (psf)
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.30 - 34.0 115.6
Roof - Zone I - 10 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 1.00 -2 10.8 -61.2
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.27 - 38.1 111.5
Roof- Zone I - 20 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 -0.97 -206.7 -57.1
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.23 -43.5 106.1
Roof - Zont 1 - 50 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 0.93 - 201.3 - 51.7
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.20 - 47.6 102.0
Roof- Zone 1 - 100 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 -0.90 - 197.2 -47.6
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.30 -34.0 115.6
Roof - Zone 2 - 10 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 1.80 - 319.6 - 170.0
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.27 - 38.1 111.5
Roof - Zone 2 -20 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 1.59 -291.0 -141.4
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.23 -43.5 106.1
Roof- Zone 2 - SO SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 1.31 - 253.0 - 103.4
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.20 - 47.6 102.0
Roof- Zone 2- 100 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 -1. 10 -224.4 -74.8
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.30 -34.0 115.6
Roof - Zone 3- 10 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 2.80 - 455.6 - 306.0
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.27 - 38. 1 111.5
Roof - Zone 3 - 20 SP
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 2.29 - 386.2 - 236.6
12.0 0.85 136.0 0.23 - 43.5 106.1
Roof- Zone 3 - 50 SF
12.0 0.85 136.0 - 1.61 - 293.8 - 144.2
Roof- Zone 3- 100 SF

12.0
I 0.85 136.0
I 0.20 - 47.6 102.0
12.0 0.85 136.0
I -1.10 -224.4 -74.8
The loads shown will be used in the design of the storm shelter srrucrural elements for this design example.

Design Example 5 • Tornado Sto1m Sheller
2.4 CONNECTIONS TO THE HOST BUILDING
According ao ICC 500 St:clion 304.9. "where an element or wmponent of the host building is connectt:d to
a storm shelter. the torm shelter shall be des igned to res ist the ma;~imu m force that could be u·ansmitrcd to
t.n e . hclter cguallo the ultimate failu re su·cngth of the connection or clemcn~ being connected, whichever is
lower, concurrent with the other wind loads on the storm shelter required hy Chupter 3."
F or this example, cold-fom1ed tnJsses are attached to the roof of the storm shelter to maintain the roof
profile of tbc host building. The attachment of these trusses to the storm shelter will be accomplished using
an embed plate in the .storm .shelter roof .slab at the ends of the trusses. Interpreting ICC 500 Section 304.9.
the _torm shelter components ~nee d to be designed for the maximum force that can be transmitted to the
s helter. It is assumed that the tnts~cs and the attnchmcnl of the tTusscs to the shelter wi ll be designed for
normal wind speeds. At speeds above normal wind speeds. the trusses or the connections will fail. and the
trusses will be aorn from the storm sh elter roof. The force transmitted w the storm shelter will be equal w
lbe maximum force transmitted just prior to the trusses or connections fai li ng.
To determine this load. rhe worsr-ca~e uplift should be calculmed for the end of the truss based on
llormnl wind speeds . The connection of the truss to the embed plate will be designed using this loud,
b ut overdt:signing the connection should be avoided to limit the additional force from the host building
elements that are applied to tlle shelter. Once designed. d1e ultimme stre ngth or d1e connection or the
truss can ibe detem1ined. Tbio load shall be transmitted to the storm shelter and the individual components
(embed plates, walls, footi ngs, etc.) should be checked for this loud added to the storm shelter loads.
2.5 DEBRIS HAZARDS
2.5.1 Wind-Borne Debris Missile Impact
l!CC 500 Section 305.1.1 and Table 305.1.1 specify that the shelter envelope is to be designed for a
15-pound sal.\rn lumber 2 by 4 tmvelling at the s peeds shown in Table 5-5.
Table 5-5. Wind-home missile speed
Design Wi.nd Speed Missile Speed and Shelter Impact Surface
100 mph for Vertical Surface.s

250 mph
67 mph for Horizontal Surfaces
1
The shdter cnvdope includes walls, roof, doors, w indows, and any other exterior covering. All of these
assemblies need to confonn to the missile-speed criteria specified above. Testing by Texas Tech University
has provided assemblies that meet the requirements of ICC 500. Tbe engineer should consult tl1ese test
results or other available lest results when selecting hjs or her wnll and roof Jsscmblies. The arcrutcct or
owner shall select door and window assemblies for the storm shelter that have ICC 500 compliance.
70 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 201 8 IBC and ASCEISEI 7-16

For tltis exaruple. 12-iudl CMU reinforced widl vertical #5 bat'S in every cell (groured solid) will be utilized
for the exterior walls. Using Texas Tech's testing duta, an 8-inch CMU wall with #4 burs in every cell is
adequate for a missile truvcll ing at 121 mph, which meets the specified requirements of ICC 500 Table
305.1. 1 for a vc.rLical s urface. For Lhe roof. 4-inch NWC on a ll/2-i nch composite deck reinforced wiLh #4
bars at 12 inches e.:~cb way will be used. Using Texas Tech's testing data, a 4-iuch slub with #4 ban; at 12
inches cuch wny is ndeguatc for n mi~silc travelling at 162 mph, which meets the specified requirements of
ICC 500Table 305.1. 1 for a horizontal surfaL:e.
2.5.2 Falling Debris/CoJiapse L ive Load
The engineer must also consider otber debris hazards. ICC 500 Section 305.3 states Lhat "lay down, rollover
and collapse hazards shal l be considered by the design professionnl." This code requ irement takes into
account any debris that may fall on top of tbe shelter during a storm event. If wind speeds exceed nonnul
design wind speed.':, it can be assumed thm normal sLructures may fail during a storm event. which may
cause significant loadiug on the stom1 shelter. Although not explicilly specified, we ussume this falling
debris load is applied us 1:1 collapse live load that repluces the ICC 500 Sec lion 303.2 specified roof live load
if jt conLrols. The collapse live load need not be added to the roof live load of ICC 500 SecLion 303.2.
For this example, we hove u.ssumcd that the cold-fom1ed trusses, roof deck, and roofi ng muy col lapse on top
of tbe storut shelter during a tornado. There is also a 12- inch CMU wall that is not purl of the storm shelter
lhat is adjacent to the shelter and may collapse on top of ti1e shelter in the event of a tom ado. Both of these
items oced t o be considered in developing a collapse live loud . Table 5- 6 shows the loading from these
items.
Table 5--6. Collapse load
Collapse Item Weight (JA.<tt} Impact Factor*
Trusses, Deck, a nd Roofing 12.0 1.0

12" CMU w/ #5@32 73.0 2.0
*An impact factor sha!J be applied to collapse items ar the d iscretion of the engineer.
Us ing Table 5- 6, the collapse live load is g iven by tile equation below:
LL,. = 1.0(12.0 psf) + 2.0(73.0 psf) = 158 psf

The calculated collapse live load is greater than the s peci lied roof live load of I 00 psf from ICC 500
Seclion 303.2. and therefore it will control for the design of the stom1 shelter.

Design Example 5 • Tome do Sto1m Sheller
3. Roof Design
3.1 COMPOSITE DECK DESIGN
To resist the large uplift forces caused by the tornudo, us ing u heavier roof system is recommended. For this
exampli.!, we will use a I \/:~-i nch composite deck with u 4-inch NWC topping (5 1/2 inches totnl thickne.~s).
To minimize the loading on Lhe roof joists. we will use a 2-fooL 6-ir1ch spacjng between joists. Two loading
conditions must be considered when designing the storm shelter roof: normn.llouding conditions, and
tornado event loading conditions. For the nom1al lauding condition, the cold-formed metal trusses will be
i n place and the IBC-prescribed 20-psf roof live load and typical wind pressures will control the des ign.
For the tornado event, the cold·fonned trusues will not be in place (removed by increased loading), but
the collapl!c roof live loud and tornado wind prcs~ ures wi.ll contr ol the dcs.ign. Based on the infom1ution
presentt!d above, the tornado event condition will control.
The composite deck must resist both the downward and uplift loads. lt is assumed that the superimposed
dead loads will be suspended from the joist frami ng and not supported by the composite deck. Therefore.
(he design loads for the composite deck d~ign are shown irl Table 5- 7.
Table 5-7. Design luadsfur composite deck design
DLoiYIVN (psf)~ DLuruFT (psf)s* L, (psf) WLoo

. WN (psf)*** WLuruFT (psf)** ~
0 57 158 115.6 -3 19.6
• Design tables for deck include self-weight of deck, so DL for downward design = 0 psf
"'~Self weight of deck and concrete
***C&C wind loading for Zone 2. with an effective wind area of (2.5')*(2.5'/3) = 2.083 ft 2 (Use 10 ft2)
Using the IBC load combinalions, the AUowable Stres..~ Design (ASD) loading values are as fol lows:
D = 0 psf Eq 16-8
D + L , 0 psf + 158 psf 158 psf Eq 16-10
D + 0 .6\V = 0 psf + 0.6 X 115.6 psf = 69 psf Eq 16-12
D + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75L = 0 psf + 0.45 X 115.6 psf + 0.75 X 158 psf
= 171 psf [controls] Eq 16-13
0 .6D + 0.6 \V = 0.6 X 57 psf + 0.6 X ( - 319.6 psf) = - 158 psf [controls] Eq 16-15
Likewise, tbe Strengrh Degign (SD) loading vaJues are as follows:
1.4D = 1.4 X 0 psf = 0 psf Eq 16-1

1.2D + 1.6L, + 0.5W = 1.2 X 0 psf + 1.6 X 158 psf + 0.5 X 11 5.6 psf
1.2D + W + 0.5L, = 1.2 X 0 psf + 115.6 psf + 0.5 X 158 psf = 195 psf Eq 16- 14
0.9D + W = 0.9 X 57 psf + (- 319.6 psf) = -268 psf [controls] Eq 16-16
72 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 201 8 IBC and ASCEJSEI 7-16

Using tlle Steel Deck lns titme (SDI) ASD design tables. the <illowable downward load for a 1Y2·incl1 deep.
20-gage composite deck with 4 inches of NWC is 400 psf for a span of 2 feet, 6 inches. 'Therefore, the
deck is adequate for downward loading. However, the uplift pressures cunnot be resisted by the composite
action of the deck. O nly the 4 inches of concrete tdepth above deck flutes) will be used to resist uplifL The
concrete wiU be designed as a represeJJtative 1-foot strip for a one- way slab ns a simple span between joists.
'The fac tored (SD) dc~ign values urc:
M = 11'L1 = (- 26H psf x I ft)(2.5 ft)? = - 209 lb-ftlft of slab

II 8 8
\1 =- =
wL (-268 psf X I ft)(2.5 ft) = - .,j .,j lb/f'l 0 f sIu)I
5
" 2 2
Us ing ACI 318-14. the American Concrete Institute's standard, it can be shown thfll a 4-inch thick. 3.000
psi concrete slab with #4 bars U;.
= 60,000 psi) at 12 inches on center (A 1.rrn'' = 0.20 in2/fr), each way
centered in the slab is adequate for the design vulucs above. Using the lower layer of reinforcement for
sp.an between joists. d ::~ 2 1~ inches.
a = .4,_11,., x f , = (0.20 iLh(60,000 psi) = _ "

0 39
0.85 X b X J;
(0.85 X I 2" X 3,000 psi)
0 9
a )
2
0.90 x (0.20 in /fi) x (60.000 psi) x ( 2.25" - ·~ ")
""M = if> X A
'1' :: .
X f
··f'""' ·'
X
(
d--
2
=- - - - - - - - - - -12"
--'-------<-
/ft
=I ,850 lb-ftlfl of slab

cpV, = q(Vc + V)
\lc = 2b,..dl..ji} = 2 x (12") x (2.25") x (1.0) x ~3,000 psi = 2,9 58 Jb/ft of slab
= 0 lh/ft of slab
\1,
~V:, = 0.75x(2.958 lb/ft of slab +O Iblft of slab)= 2.2 19 1b/ft of slab
Use 4 inches of NWC topping on 1112--ioch composite metal deck (SI/2 inches total thickness),
~inforced wit.b #4@12 inches each way centered in t.bc topping.
3.2 CONNECTION BETWEEN SLAB AND JOISTS
The composite roof system will be anchored to the s teel joists using headed sruds. The s tuds will trans fer
forces to the joists w hen the composite slab experiences uplift, and the connection fails when the concrete
nension strength is eXceeded. The strength of the conc rete in tension is given by the following equation:
~Nrfl (concrete breakout)

~N" =tv1IN
l ljlNP" (concn:tc pullout)
~Nw (side f<1ce blowout)
We will try using Y:2-inch diameter. 4-inch-long headed s tuds spaced at 24 inches along the joists. Given this
information. tbe factored de.sigu teus.iou load is given as

Design Example 5 • Tomado Slotm SlleUer
N" = w, x Joist Spuciog X Stud Spodog = (- 268 psf) x (2'- 6" ) x (2 ' - 0") = 1.340 lh/st11d
The concrete breakout su-engLh is given by ACT 3 18 as
ACI 3 18 Eq 17.4.2. 1u
Using ACI 318 Chapter 17 and Figure 5- 3, Lhe concrete breakout strength con be dctem1incd.
. .. . ~
D
~ . 4
I
-< -,.
~
'·
~
C"
~
....-
~ . .
~
4
~
~
....-
OJ l()
BREAKOUT CONE
Figure 5-3. Breakout cone for headed stud connection lo steel joist
A,'l\' = A8~., = 9/r~ = 9(2.5'? = 56.25 in

2
\fl "'·''' = I .O(co.m'c ~ 1.5h~;)

'11 r.,v = 1.25 (cast-in anchors)
'¥ Cj".N = 1.0 (cast-in ancbors)
NLo r;;['h't5
= k r A VJ, 11 ('j
k, = 24 (c:c t-in anchOf\;)

A.a LOA. = l.Otl.O) =1.0
Nb = (24)(1.0)~3.000 psi (2.5 " ) 13 = 5 ,1 961b
·ON b = (0.75) ( -56.25")

- (1.0)(1.25)(1.0)(5,196 lb) = 4,871 lb
. ( 56.25"
Using ACI 3 18, similar analysis can b e pe1fom1ed for concrete pullout and side-face blowout strengths.
Also, the designer should consider the tension capacity of the stud. However, concrete breakout will control
the design of the connect.ion. and therefore the proposed connection is adequate.
Use V:-incb diameter by 4-iocb-Joog beaded studs at 24 inches on center for the connection of the
composite slab to the steel joists.

Design Example 6 • Tomedo Storm Sheller
3.3 JOIST DESIGN
The joisl" for the storm .sbdter will be considered special joi sL~, in thut they will need to be designed by the
jois t supplier for the uplift forces. All joist design forces should be indicated on the consu-uction documems.
Howeve r, to coordillnte celJing heights witb the architect, an approximate depth for the joists s hould be
determined by the engineer of record. For this example. there ure two spun lengths for the design of the
joists. Tlle joists over lhe interior corridor are 8 feel, 7'1z ir1cbes long. and ilie joists over the classroom areas
are 30 feet, 6'1z inches . Similar to the composite deck design, the controlling loud condi tion wiJJ be during a
tornado event and the host building roofi ng and cold-formed tru~ses will not be present. Using the londing
infomtation presented above. the joisL~ will be designed for the loads in Table 5-8.
Table 5-8. Joist loads
DLoowt\ (psi) D l-tJPUFT (pst)"' L, (.psf) WLoowN(psf)"'* WLu PIJFT (pSf)'~<)

70 62 158 111.5 -291.0
t:Self-weight of deck/concrete and joists

M-C&C wind Joadiug for Zcme 2, with an effective wind area of (8.625')i'(8.625' /3) • 24.80 f~ (1Jse 20 ft 2)
Us ing the IBC load combinations. the A llowable Stress Design (ASD) loading values are as follows:
D = 70 psf Eq 16-8
D + L, = 70 psf + 158 psf = 228 psr Eq 16·10
D + 0.6W = 70 psf + 0.6 X 11 1.5 psf = 137 psf Eq 16-'12

D + 0.75(0.6'W) + 0.15L 70 psf + 0.45 X 111.5 psf + 0.75 X 158 psf
0.6D + 0.6\V = 0.6 X 62 psf + 0.6 X ( - 291.0 psf) = - 137 psf [controL.;) Eq 16- 15
Utilizing the speciiled 2-feet, 6-inch joist spacing, the controlling design values are
D + 0.75(0.6'W) + 0.15L - 239 psf X (2' -6") :::1 598 plf

0.6D + 0.6W = - 137 psf X (2'-6") = - 343 p1f
Using the Steel Joist Institute (SJT) Standard ASD Load Tables, a n 18KSP can be used for the 30-foot,
6'1z-inch span and a lOKSP can be used for the 8-foot, 7'h-iocb spun.
Use 18KSP jois1s for the 30-foot, 61J.z-inch span.

Use lOKSP jois1s for the 8-foot, 7 1h -incb span.
The joist supplier will be responsible for designing the joists for the uplift forces. as we.IJ as providing any
bridging requirements for the jois ts. The designer should consider using a deeper than typical joist seat
depth to account for the increased shear at the ends of the joists. For this example, we have assumed a
5-inch jois t seat, in lieu of the typical 2lf2-i nch j oist seat. T he cle_~ i gner should also consider indicating the
minimum thickness requirements for the top chord of the joist due to me connection of the headed studs.

Design Example s • Tornado Sto1m Sheller
4. Wall Design
The stom1 s helter walls nct!d to be designed as both bcuring walls a nd s hear walls. T he bcn ring wall and
s hear wall cases will be designed using componems and cladding or main wi nd force resisting system wind
loading, depending on the case being explored. Since these loads vttry, both cases need to be checked.
F or our example. the exte1ior walLs of lhe storm sheller will serve as both bearing and shear walls. The
jmerior conriclor walls will act only as bearing walls but will be des igned for the IBC Section 1607.1 5
prcscnbcd horizontal load of 5 psf.
We will no( be going through the full design of (he CMU walls for this design example. However, we will
dctcm1inc the loads on the walls and discuss items the designer should consider when dcsigoiog tl1e storm
s helter walls.
4 .1 EXTERIOR WALL DESIGN
Figure 5-4 depicts (he exterior wall design cases.
DL DL DL
I~(MWFRS)
lL LL
WL (C&C)-
,.__1
OUT-OF-PLANE
'
WL(MWFRS) -
OVT-OF-PLANE I Wt. (r.IWFRS) WL (MWFRS) -
OUT-OF-PLANE
~ 'f ' WL(MVWRS) -
IN-PLANE
,.___.,.
':'
I I
(a) (b)
BEARING WALl. CASES SHEAR WALL CASE
Figure 5-4. Exterior wall design cases

Design Example 6 • Tom8do Storm Shelter
TI1ere are rwo bearing wall cases. Case (a) nses C&C wind loads in the design of the wall. C&C loads are
only applied to one s urface ~ t a time, however, so no downward wind loads are applied to the top of the
wnll, and lhe design is controlled by out-of-plane bending . For Case (b), ASCE 7 Section 30.2.3 stute.s that
for tributary areas ove•· 700 square feet., MWFRS loads C<ln be used . Therefore. Ca ~e (b) explores the design
require d to .resi.t M WFRS loads for both out· of.. plane and axial loading.
The shear wall case looks aL MWFRS loads for out-of-plane, ax ial, and in-plane loading. B y ~tudying
F igure 5-4, one can see rhat the shear wall case will control over bearing waU CaEe (b) for this example .
Therefore., onJy two cases need to be checked llnd designed for: Bc.uring Wall Case (11) and the Shear Wall
Case.
4.1.1 Bearing Wall Case (a)
The exterior walls have the following tributary roof widths:
30'-6112" 1 n
Wa11 T 1ibutary Width ... = = 15 -3 1/4
"··' 2
2' 6"
Wall Tributary Width ,-w = - - - = 1' -3"
c. 2
The design height of lhe exterior walls should be determined by the engineer based on construc[ion
assumptions. For our example, we wil l assume that the interior s lab-on-grade docs not bruce the wall , and
therefore the wall is braced at the footing and the top of the s torm .shelter. Thus. the design height is the
height of rhe wall above tin ish floor plus the depth of the footing. We will assume the footings are 2 feer.
0 inches below lioi sh floor, a nd therefore the design height will be 12'-0'' + 2'-0'' = 14'-0".lf the e nginee r
desires lo use the interior s lab on grade to brace the walL it mus t be able to provide brucing for both
positive and negative wind pressures on the wall and must have adequate capac iry to resist the load.
We will use 12-inch-thick CMU walls for the exterior walls. S lenderness of the wnll s hould be checked,
although our walls are not slender based on design height and thickness. During a tornado event. we will
aEsume that the roofing, metal deck, and cold-for med trusses above the storm s helter roof will not be
prcsenl Table 5- 9 shows Lhc downward design loads for the walls.
Table 5- 9. Downward design loads
Dead Load (psf) L ive Load (psf)
70 (concrete on metal deck, joists, and

158 (collapse live load)
superimposed dead load)
Using the tributary widths from above. th e downward loads on th e exterior walls are
DL,".s = (7() psf){ IS'-3 1/4") = I ,069.0 p1f

DL,;.w = (70 psf)(l'-3") = 87.5 plf
U ,"--' =(ISS psf)(l5'-3 l /4") = 2,4 12.8 plf
u t:.u- = (158 psfXI' -3'') =197.5 plf
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 !BC and ASCE/SE! 7-16 77

Design Example 5 • Tornado Slotm SileUer
To detenuiue Lhe C&C wind loads on t.he walL. t.he effective wind area must be detenniucd. Using t.he
s tandard efi'ective wind area (EWA) cukulution from the ASCE 7 detinibon,
" f't 1]
[1J~c50
l )( SJ.Jun length) :::: (14'()")( 14
.,,.,.,,.
i:!vvr, :::: ( spun 1~ngtl\ - - ) = 65"""
- '-0"j .,,,,., t>'.,-
3 3
Using the Zone 5 C&C loud.s with an effective wind arcn of 50 square fcc.t, t he controlling wind loud
applied to the exterior walls is - 2'16.2 psf. The designer can further refine the loading based on the actual
effective wind area in lieu of using a benchmark vaJue as shown above. By srudying the gcomet.ry of the
building with Lhc loading mfomu1tion, the designer can dctcrrmne that the north-south wall~; will control the
design of the exterior walls. Figure 5-5 shows the loading for this design case.
DL -- 1069 0 PLF
LL = 2412.8 PLF
21 6.2 PSF
~
1.,
... . ,_
..
-
.
.
'
I
...
- ..
..
'
',
..
...
'.
. L ?
I
~~~!'~.,.;
.
.
,..- .. .
·-
~
j
Figure 5- 5. Bearing wall case (a) loading (north-sowh walls)
78 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 201 81BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

4.1.2 Shear Wall Case
All of the information from the Bearing Wall Case (a) uhove applies to this case except for the wind loads.
For this case. MWFRS load:S will be used for downward. uplif t. in-plane. and out-of-plane loading. Using
lhe MWFRS londs, the controll ing dO\vnward and uplift loads ou the exterior walls are 54.0 p f rmd - 178.8
psf, respectively. TI1e controlling out-of-plunc und in-plnm~ wind loading on the exterior walls will be
determined using ASCE 7 Sec-Lion 27.4. Figures 5-6 and 5- 7 show the wind pressures associated with wind
in the two orthogonal direct~ ons and wind oriented 45 degrees to the two orthogonal directions.
-
-
.....
-
\'M-ID
I P..._., P... --
'- ,F.. -
.....
P,..,_
-
WINO IN ORTHOGONAl DIRECTIONS
Figure 5-6. Wind pressures for wind in IWO orrllogonal direcrions
U (5)( ~
D75xP_...
i-
0.7!JXP.,., -j Oi!JxP,.,.....,
...
I
-~----~-..-~------~
VII\Nf1 4S' TO ORTHOC.ON>\.1 DIRECTION-S
Figure 5- 7. Wind pressures for wind 45 deg rees ro llVO orlllogonnl directions
Wind Design Manual Baged on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 79

Design Example s • Tornado Sto1m Slle/Jer
The two load cases showu are Cases l and 3 from ASCE 7 Figure 27.4-8. The torsionctlload cases (Cases
2 and 4) are not required si nce the storm shelter is 1 story with a height. h ~ 30 fee t (see ASCE 7 Section
27.4.6 and Se.ction D 1.1 ). Using the MWFRS loads shown in Table 5- 3, the londs shown in Tnblc 5- 10 will
be used to determine the in-plane shear loads.
Table 5-10. MWFRS loads
Wal l .P(psf) 0.75P (psf)

Windward 17.7 13.3
Leeward - 132.6 -99.5

Side -155.7 -
The londs listed nbove arc for +G<..~r wositive internal p ressure). This wus chosen since the side wall
pressure was much g:rea.ter for positive internal pressure than for negative internal pressure. The windward
and leeward pressures for the positive and negalive internal pressure ca~es produce the stune overall
pressure in one direction (i.e., 17.7 psf + 132.6 psf = 150.3 psf and 167.3 psf - 17.0 psf = 150.3 psf).
Therefore. the only difference will be the side wall pressures. Using engineering j udgment. one can
detemline that Case 3 will uot contro l over Case 1 since 0.75 X ? wiNDWARD is not greater man PsmE· The
[lOrth and south exterior wal ls will be controlled by wind in the cast-west direction (worst case in-plane
loading with worst case out-of-plune loading). Similarly. the C<ISL and wes t exterior walls will bl! wntrolled
by wind in the north-somh direction. We will now detennine the loads on the north and south exterior walls.
A similar procedure cnn be used to determine the loads on the cast and west exterior wnlls. Figure 5-8
shows the lateral wind pressures on the storm shelter cuused by wind in the enst-we.st direction.
P810 E = 1'55.7 psf
WIND
PLE~WARP-= 132.6 psf
I I
' '
Ps,or:. = 155.7 psf
Figure 5-8. \11/nd pressures.for wind i11 easr-wesr direcrion
80 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 201 8IBC and ASCEISEI 7-16

Design Example 5 • Toii>Bdo Storm Shelter
TI1e oorth aud somb exterior walls will be designed for atl our-of-phu1e wind load of J55.7 psf. To ca1culale
the in-plane wind load in the north and south exterior walls. the windward and leeward pressures are added
together and distributed to the roof diaphragm and into the walls. The in-plunc wind loud can be determined
by the following equati on..~:
Height above Grade, h = 12'-0"

Length of Shelter Perpendicular to Wind. B 70' - 8'A"
Length of Shelter ParullcJ to Wind, L = 77'-2"
Story Shear in Roof Diaphrngm, Vmv !::! ( ~ )u"wl\:owMn +~-'""YARD XH)

12'-0"}(1 7.7 psf + 132.6 psfJ00'-8W) • 63.750 ~b
VE\r = ( - -
2
Unit Shear in North mnd South WaUs, vt\'s = ( V;'' ) + L
v.~IS = ( 63,7~0 lb } · (77'-2'') = 413 plf
The in-plane wind load on the north and south exterior walls is 4 13 plf. Finally. the wind downward and
uplift loads on rhe north and south wal ls are given by the roof wind pressW'e multipHed by the lribut:u·y roof
width for the walls:
WLd07rn.NS = (54.0 psf)( 15' -3W) = 825 plf

WL.,,,,ss = ( - 178.8 psi)( I5' -31A'') =- 2.730 plf
Figure 5- 9 shows the loads to be used for the des ign of the north and soutb exrerior walls for the shear W!ill
case.

Design Example s • Tornado Stotm Slleller
=
DL 1069 PLF
LL =2413 PLF
WL =825 PLF, -2730 PLF
WL= 156 PSF
r
~
~ I~
.. ~ WL=413 PLF
(IN-PLANE)
-
b
~
~
~v
b
0..
I .I
Figure 5-9. Shear wall case loading (norrh-sow h walls)
4.1.3 E xterior Wall Design
Using an analysis program, the exterior walls can be analyzed and designed for the loads calcul ated. The
following items should be carefully considered when designing the storm shelter walls:
• Lintel Design- Lintels un the wall should be designed for all storm shelter loading. including
downward, uplift, out-of-plane, and in-plane loading.
• Jamb Design - Load.<; on windows and doors should be transferred to the jambs on either side
of the opening. a nd the j ambs should be designed accordingly.

Design Example 5 • lomedo Storm Sheller
• Ecceulriciry of Applied Loads at the Top of lhe Wall - Tbe designer ~ballnccoutH for eccentric
loads, as required, for the design of the wall.
• In crca~ed Loads due to Host Building Connections - As mentioned previously. any host
building connections to the stom1 shelter sbould be accouuted for. For this example, the cold-
formed tnt~se~ tic into the roof !:dub at the exterior wnl llocation~. Therefore, the wall~ must be
designed for !.he increased loads due to Lhis conneclion.
• Doubly Reinforced CMU Wulls - To account for tbc inc reused wind pressures, doubly
reinforced CMU wal ls may be utilized. If used. !.he engineer must provide proper lap lengths
for CMU wall reinforcement.
Fior this example, we will as.sume thut 12-inch-thick CMU walls reinforced with 4!5 bars ut 8 inch~ on
cemer are adequate for the exterior walls. Since lhe reinforcement is spaced ar 8 inches on center. all cells
in the wall will be grouted solid.
4.2 INTERIOR WALL DESIGN
The interior loud-bearing masonry walls will be designed for sim ilur downward/uplift loads as the exterior
walls. However. the out-of-p lane loading is clictaLed by the requirements of IBC Section 1607. 14 (a
horizontal load of 5 psf). E ven thougn the interior walls will see a significantly decreased out-of-plane
load compared to tbc exterior walls, these walls will sec the largest tributary urea for downward and uplift
forces . Using an analysis program. the interior walls can be analyzed and designed for the loads calculated.
In addjtion to the items listed above for tile exterior walls. oue item that the designer should consider for the
i.nterior walls is the bearing condition for the load-currying elemcms. In our example, the minimum bearing
length for the joists should be taken into considernt:ion when looking at !.he design of !.he wall.
For this example, we wiiJ assume that 8-inch-tbick CMU walls reinforced with #5 bm-s at 8 incbes on cent or
arc adequate for the interior walls. Since the reinforcement is spact:d ut 8 inches on center. ull cells in the
wall will be grouted soLid. Although the CMU wall design did not call for reinforcement at a spacing of 8"
inol1es, the designer muy want to consider re inforcing/grouti ng every cell to increase the weighr of the wall
~o counteract the significant upl ift forces on these wull~. Otherwise, the continuous footings supporting
these wans may need to increase in size to counteract t.he forces.
5. Foundation Desiign
5.1 UPLIFT CHECK
Due to Lbe h.igh magnitude of wind forces from Lhe tornado, Lhe footings may be controlle.d by uplift. The
uplift is resisted by the self-weight of the structure (roof slab, steel joists, CMU wn.lls, and footings). The
designer can run an uplift check to determine !.he minimum footing size required to resist these uplift forces
prior to designing lhe footing for downward loads. The designer sh ould keep in mind that top reinforcement
in the footing may be required to resist the uplift. It is recommended that !.he density of the CMU being
used for the storm shelter design be listed on the general notes for the project to ensure that the correct
CMU is provided during construction of rhe storm shelter.

Design Example s • Tomado Sto1m $/leUer
5.2 CONTINUOUS FOOTING DESIGN
The continuous footings for the walls will be. designed similarly. with Lbe on ly change being the load~
applied to the footings. For this example, we will go through the design of the continuous footings for the
north and south exterior wulls.
The rtort.h a nd south exterior wRlls are 76 feet. 2 inches in length. and 14 feet high from the top of footing
( assuming top of footing is 2 feet, 0 inches below the tin ish floor) and have a tribmnry w idth of 15 feet, 31.1.1
i nches. T he downward londs on the footi ng a rc as follows:
DL =70 psf (15' -3'A") + 11 S psf (14' -Cf) =2 .721 plf (roof DL + wall weight)
LL = 158 psf (15'-3W) = 2,413 p lf (collapse LL)
WLc = 102.0 psf(15'-3W') = 1,558 plf
(C&C Zone 2. EWA = (30'-6W)(

30 6
'; W') = 311 ft 2
• use 100 fr)
The shears loads on tbe Joolillg are conrrolled by the out-of-plane wind loading on the wall
(14'-0'')
M., ""2 1 6 .2psf ~ -2 - = 1,514plf (C&C Zone 5. EWA =50 f~)
Using these loads and Lhe allowable bearing pressure provided by Lhe geotechnical report for the project.
cbe engineer can use an analysis program to design the conlilluous footing for the wall. l11e footing
designed f or downward loads s hould be compared to the minimum footi ng size designed for uplift to
determine which condition conLrols. The fooling should be checked for sliding and overturning according
lO applicable codes. The shear force acting on the wall needs to be transferred into the footing us ing tJ1e
vertical dowels cxtcndi.ng up from the footing into the bottom of the wull . ·n,e s hear capacity of th ese
vertical dowels should br.: checked for the design loads. For this example. we will assume that 4-fooL
0-inches-wide. 1-foot, 6-inch .. thick continuous footings reinforced with 5 #5longitudinal bars top and
bottom a nd #5 bars at 12-i nch transverse burs top and bottom is adequate for supporting the north and soutJ1
exterior walls.
6. Connection Design
Maintai ning a load path is c rilical in the design of a stom1 shelter, w hich is why the connections of the
structural elements must be studied carefully by the designer. For our example. the load path from roof to
footing is
(I) Composite Slab Roof Syste m
• Connection of roof slab to s teel joists using headed smds
(2) Steel Joists

• Connection of steel joists to CMU walls using bearing plates
• Connection of roof s lab to CMU walls (including diaphragm shear) using steel reinforcement

Design Example 5 • Tomado Storm Sholler
(3) ctvru Wall~

• Connection of CMU bond beam at top of waiJ to the portion of wu!l be low using steel
reinforcl!ml!nt
• Connection of CMU wall to footing using stee.l reinforcement
(4) Concrete Footings
(5) Eanh
Figure 5- 10 and 5- 11 show the connection details m the top and bo11om of the north and south exterior
CMU wnUs. This design example wi ll not go into the design of aU of the connection clements, but it wil l
give .a description of these clemenl~ and some items the designer should consider.
12
TRVSS MFR TO DE.SI0N
BRIDGING FOR 200 PLF
CON~CTION CF lRUSS
EMBED PL BY TRLrcS MFit
TO -t
L·\T"RJ.L SH£!..1\R LOAD
tULTltMTE 0/'P.A,CTTY OF
CONN NOT TO QCCI![D 8.6K}
SEE ARCH PWGS
STEEL ROOF DECK •
stt. GCN-'IOT!lS
BENT PL:l~x<SH~IIl
CONT
I . . . . . . __ -
l/21"x4' HEAIJED SlUDS

@2'-0' STAGGERED ON
EAJOIST
JOIST -
seE PlAN
VENEER-
SEE ARCH OWGS 16' DEE.P'E!.OND B£AM
VW ?J1.5 OONT TI.B
12' CMU ·
HOOK IIERT REit\'F
FOR VERT RSINF.
AT TOP OF WALL SEE FDN SECTIONS
Figure 5-10. Top of wall connection details

Design Example 5 • Tomsdo Storm Shelter
Ouee the loads ate trans fert-ed w the CMU bond beatu. tJJe bond beam needs w transfer lie loads to the
rest of the wall. To do this, Lhe vertica.l reinforcement in the wall mn be booked at the top of the wall. 'l11e
designer should check to confim1 this develops the verticul reinforcement into the bond benm. A deeper
bond beam may be required depending on lhc loads and reinforcement being used in the wall.
As shown in Figure 5-11, the loads in th0 wull urc trunsfcrred to the footing using dowels thut typically
match t.be size and .spncing of t.be verticaJ reinforcement in t.h e walL The dowel~ .shouJd be checked for bot.h
~hear and tensile capacity. The footing tl1en transfers the load to the earth.
TI1is design example does not and cannot eover all of the differetH design conditions associated witll stonn
shelters. Different structural systems can be chosen by the designer and are typically dicmted by size and
height of the stom1 sheller, us wcU as local uvuilability of materials and design preferences. However,
the design process is s imilar for all of the d i1ferent conditions. A few items that were not covered in this
example tbat hould be considered by the designer are h ted below.
• Peoet.ration.s in the s tonn shelter .shell (wall and roofs) need to be protected according to ICC
500 Section 306.3. Typically, mechan ical openings are protected using an ICC 500 rated
louver syst.cm similar to doors and windows. However, ICC 500 allows opco_ings to be baffled
to prevent. wind-borne debris from entering the shelter. Baffles are typically used to protect
_mailer penetrations iu the stonn shelter wall or roof clue w utility piping. ICC 500 Section
309.1 requires that openings that are !urger than JY2 square inches in areu for rectangular
penetrations or 2Yio inches in diameter for circular pc.nctr-utions require protection. Baffles can
be 4-s ided steel boxes that are bo.lt.ed to the inside of the storm shelter wal l. This requiresmat
the tJtility line be turued immediately after entering the shelter, which should be coordinated
with the mechanical, electrical, und plumbing engineer~ .
• To avoid damage from propagating onto the s torm shelter, it is recommended that non-shelter
building clements be disconnected from the s torm s helter. This entails providing nn expansion
joi_n t between walls. roofs. and slabs. This allows for the non-shelter elemenlS to be damaged or
ripped away without damaging the storm shelter.
Wind Design Manual Baged on 2018 tBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 87

Design Example 6
High Winds Example
OVERVIEW
·The wind design method for computing wind forces on u building structure is dctcm1i.ncd using ASCE 7-16.
Main Wind Force Resisting System louds are dettrmincd using either Chapter 27- thc direction procedure,
or Chapter 28- the envelope procedure. Component and Cladding loads are determi ned using Chapter 30.
As an ~hernntive, wi nd tunnel testing following the procedure in Chapter 31 may be used.
In Lhis design example. the directional procedure of Chapter 27. Part I is employed. To determine
component and cladding loads, Chapter 30, Part 1 is used.
SHORELINE
40' 80'
Building Location: Mianli Beach, Florida

Building Mean Roof Height = 60'
Figure 6-1. Building plan and elevation
OUTLINE
1. Detcnnine Wind Load Design Procedure
2. Chapter 27 - Part I: Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open Buildings of All Heights
Step I: Determine Risk Category of Building
Step 2: Determine the Basic Wind Speed. V. for the Applicable Risk Category
Step 3: Determine Wind Load Parameters
Wind Design Manual Baged on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 89

Design Example 6 • H/gl! Wltt<ls Example
Step 4 : Determine Velocity Pressure Exposttre Coefti ciem. K~
Step 5: Determine Vdocity Pressure qt
Step 6: Determine External Pressure Coefl\c.ient, Cr
Step 7: Calculate Wind Pressure. p. on Each Building Surface
3. Determine Wind Load De-.<>:ign Proced ure - Components nod Cladding (C&C)
4. Chapter 30 - Part I: Low-Rise Buildings
Step 6: Determine Extcma] Pressure Cocfiicicnt, (GC1,)
Step 7: Calculate Pressure, p
1. Determine Wind Load Design Procedure ASCE7
Because rhe mean roof height of rhe bui lding equals 60 feet as shown in Figure 6-1, all fou r options ro
detemJ.ine wind pressures in Chapter 27 - Wind Loads on Bu.iJdings: Main Wind Force Resisting System
<.D irectional Approach). or Chapter 28 - Wind Loads on Buildings: Main Wind Force Re..~i sting System
(Envelope Procedul'e ). of ASCE 7- 16 can be utili zed. The available procedures are as fo!Jows:
a. Chapter 27 - Part 1: Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open Buildings of All He ights
b. Chapter 27 - Part 2: Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Buildings with h ::s; 160 ft
c. Chapter 28 - Part I: Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Low-R ise Bui ldings
d. Chapter 28- Part 2: Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Low-Rise Buildings
Because rhe building plan dimensions are nor consistent with those used to developed tl1e Cl1aprer 27 -
Part 2, Chapter 28- Part 1, or Chapter 28- Part 2 procedures, the most general procedure in tl1e smndard;
Chapter 27- Part 1 will be utilized for this example.
2. Chapter 27 - Part 1: Enclosed, Partially Enclosed,

and Open Buildings of All Heights
Table 27.2-1 has been provided in ASCE 7-16 and lists all of the steps required to detem1ine the Main Wind
F-orce Resisting System (MWFRS) loading on a building.
90 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI7-16

Design Example 6 • High Winds Exemple
Table 27.2-1 Steps to Determine MWFRS Wind Loads for

Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open Buildings of All Heights
Step 1: D etermine Risk Category of building; see Table 1.5~ 1.

Step 2: D etemnne the basic wind speed, V, for applicable Risk Categmy;
see Figs. 26.5-1 and 26.5-2.
Step 3: Detem1ine wind load parameters:
• Wind directionality factor, Kd; see Section 26.6 and Table 26.6-1
• E xposure category; see Section 26.7.
• Topographic factor, K::,; see Section 26.8 and Fig. 26 .8-1.
• Ground elevation factor~ K ; Section 26.9.
('
• Gust-effect factor, G or G1; see S ection 26.11.

• Enclosure classification; see Section 26.12.
• Intemal pressure coefficient, (GC}>I); see Section 26.13 and
Table 26.13-1.
Step 4: Detennine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K~ or K11 ; see
Table 26.10-1.
Step 5: Determine velocity pressure q<-or q,, Eq. (26. 10-1).
Step 6: Determine external pressure coefficient cpor CN:
• Fig. 27.3-1 for walls and flat, gable, hip, 1nonoslope, or mansard roofs.
• Fig. 27.3-1 for domed roofs.
• fig.
....., 27.3-1 for arched roofs .
• Fig. 27.3-1 for monoslope roof, open building.
• Fig. 27.3-1 for pitched roof, open building.
• Fig. 27.3-1 for troughed roof, open building.
• Fig. 27.3-1 for along-ridge/valley wind load case for monoslope,
pitched, or troughed roof, open building.
Step 7: Calculate wind pressure, p, on each building surface:
• Eq. (27 .3-1) for 1igid and flexible buildings.
• Eq. (27.3-2) for open buildings.
Figu re 6- 2. ASCE 7 Table 27.2· 1
STEP 1: DETERMINE RISK CATEGORY OF BUILDING
The building is an oftice building wilh no essential functions. Therefore, the building is a Risk Category II
structure, sec IBC Table 1604.5.
Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7· 16 91

Design Example 6 • H/gll Wlrt<Js Example
STEP 2: DETERMINE THE BASIC WIND SPEED, V, FOR THE APPLICABLE RISK CATEGORY
From Figure 26..5-IB. the busic wind s peed for Lhc s ite is 170 mph. Wind speed delcrminution is avnilublc
through lhe ASCE!SEI online Hazard Tool as shown below.
ASCE
JMJPJI!lttTTc:I'C7/IilJ~
ASCE 7 Hazards Report
Location: Risk Category: Standard Version:
No Address At this Location Elevation: 3 ft II ASCE!SEI 7-1o
Lat 25.8079 Soli Class:
Long: -80.123275
Elevation Reference Datum:
North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88)
Wind
Results:
Wind Speed: 171 Vmph
Data Source: ASCEISE17-16, Rg. 26.5-18
Date Accessed: Fri Jul 2 1 2017
Value provided Is 3-serond gust wind speeds at 33 ft above ground lor Exposure C Category, based on lln<Mr
interpolation between contours. Wind speeds are interpolated in accordance with the 7-16 Standard. Wind speeds
correspond to approximately a 7% probability of exceed anee in 50 years (annual exceedance probability=
0.00143, MRI = 700 years).
Mountainous terrain, gorges, ooean promontories, and special wind regions should be examined for unusual wind
conditions.
Figure 6-3. ASCEISEI haZftrd tool results
92 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI7·16

STEP 3: DETERMINE WIND LOAD PARAMETERS
o Wind directionality factor, K,1; sc.c. Section 26.6 and Table. 26.6- 1
From Tnblc 26.6-l, K,1 for the MWFRS of buildings equals 0.85.
• Exposure category; see Section 26.7.
Per Section 26.7.4.1, the exposure cnn be different for each wind direction considered in the
determination of wind pressures on the building.
The building is located on the bench in Miumi Bench, and thus in the cust-wcst direction of the
building the Exposure c]agsificaGon is Exposure D because of the adjacent water surfaces. ln the
north-south direct-ion there are adjoining buildings, and thus the Exposure classification is Exposure
B because of the ortJ.nn terrain.
o Topographic factor. K:r: see Section 26.8.
The site is rdutivdy flat and docs not meet conditions 4 or 5 of Section 26.8.1, thus there is no
speed up effect; K~1 1.0.
o Ground elevation factor, Kr; sec. Section 26.9.
The ground suti"ace elevations at the, ite = 3'. thus Kt = 1.0.

o Gust-efrect factor, G or G1 ; see Section 26.11.
Because tbe building·s height docs not exceed its least horizontal width, the building is considered
a rigid building per the del1nition of "Building or Other Structure. Rigid" in Commentary Section
C26.2. Per Section 26.11.1. "The gust-effect factor for a rigid building ... is permitred m be taken as
0.85.'"
o Enclosure classification; see Section 26.12.
The building is located on Miami Bench, and thus, according to the definj tion, it is located in a
Hurricane-Prone Region. In Sec Lion 26.2- Dennilions. the Hurricane-Prone Regions are defined as
·'Areas vulnerable to hurricanes; in the United States and its territories, defined us
i. The U.S. Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico coasts where the basic wind speed for Risk
Category II buildings is greater than 115 miles per hour; and
n. Hawaii, Puerto Rico. Guam, Vii'Jin Islands , and America Samoa."
The building structure is on the Atlantic Ocean, and the wind speed is greater than 115 miles per
hour: thus, this condition applies. According to Section 26.12.3, the glazed openings in this building
are required to be protected.

Design Example 6 • H/gll Wltt<ls Example
Per Section 26.12.3.1, Wlnd-Borue Debris Regions . glazed openings shall be protected in
accordance with Section 26.12.3.2 in the following locutions:
I . Within I mi le of the coastal mean high water Line where the bnsic wind speed is equal to or
gremer than 130 miles per hour, or
2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than 140 miles per hour.
The buiJding meets both oftb.ese criteria, and tbus impncr-resistam glazing must be provided for all
of the windows on the building.
Wirh the inclusion oJ impact-resistam glazing, the building can be classified as an Enclosed
Budding.
• Internal pressure coefficient, (GCP,); see Section 26.13.
As noted in Section 26. 13, Table.! 26.1 3-1 indicates for an Enclosed Building (GCI'1) = ::!:0.18.
STEP 4: DETERMINE VELOCITY PRESSURE EXPOSURE COEFFICIENT, K:
Table 26.10-1 indicmes the following values of K, for the building. See Figttre 6-4.
Height Above Ground Level, z Exposure

ft B D
0-1 5 0.57 1.03
20 0.62 1.08
25 0.66 1.12
30 0.70 1.16
40 0.76 1.22
50 0.81 1.27
60 0.85 1.31
94 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI 7·16

Design Example 6 • Hlgll Winds example
Table 26.1 D-1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients,

Kh and Kz
Height above Gl"ound Lovol, z Exposure
ft m 8 c D
0-15 0-4.6 0.57 (Q.70)a 0.85 1.03

20 6.1 0.62 (0.70)0 0.90 1.08
25 7.6 0.66 (0.70)0 0.94 1.12
50 9.1 0.10 0.98 1.16
40 122 0.76 L04 1.22
50 15.2 0.81 l.09 1.27
60 18.0 0.85 Ll3 1.31
70 21.3 0.89 1.17 1.34
80 24-4 0.93 1.21 1.38
90 27.4 0.96 1.24 1.40
100 30.5 0.99 1.26 1.43
120 36.6 1.04 1.31 1.48
140 42.7 L09 1.36 1.52
160 48.8 1.1 3 1.39 1.55
180 54.9 1. 17 1.43 1.58
200 61.0 L20 1.46 1.61
250 76.2 1.28 1.53 1.68
300 91.4 1.35 1.59 1.73
550 106.7 1.41 1.64 1.78
400 121.9 1.47 1.69 1.82
450 137.2 1.52 1.73 1.86
500 1524 1.56 1.77 1.89
ause 0.70 in Chapter 28, Exposure B, when z <30ft (9.1 m).
Notes
I. The vellocil)' pressure exposure coefficient Kt may be determ ined from
the foDowiog form ula:
For lS ft (4.6 m) $ z $ Zg K::= 2.0l (z/ zR)Zfa
For z < 15 ft (4.6 m) Kz = 2.0 I ( 15/~) 2/a
2. o: and z~ are tabulated in Table 26.[ 1-1.
...,
.). Linear interpolation for intermediate val u~ of heigbt z is acceptable.
4. Exposure categories arc defined mSection 26,7.
Figure 6--4. ASCE 7 Table 26.10- 1

Deslgn Exsmple 6 • H/gll Wlfl'<ls Example
STEP 5: DETERMINE VELOCITY PRESSURE qc
Eq 26. 10-1
Where:
K~ = 1.0
K,~ = O.H5
K< = 1.0
v = 170 mi/1.1
qc = 0.00256 K~ ( 1.0) (0.85) ( 1.0) ( 1702) = 62.9 K _
H eight Ab ove Ground L evel, z Exposun.>
ft Kz -B qt (psn K~ - D qt (psf)
0- 15 0.57 35.8 1.03 64.8
20 0.62 39.0 1.08 67.9
25 0.66 4 1.4 1.1 2 70.4
30 0.70 44 .0 1.16 7 3.0
40 0.76 47.8 1.22 76.7
50 0.81 50.9 1.27 79.9
60 0.85 53.5 1.31 82.4
96 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI 7·16

STEP 6: DETERMINE EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT, c,,
Di<Jgrems
WIND
q,cc,
1- L- 1 1- L-1
PLAN ELEVATION
GABLE, HIP ROOF
WIND
q,Gc,
f--L ·I
ELEVATION ELEVATION
MONOSLOPE ROOF (NOTE 4)
WIND
- - - - L. - - -- ------L.-----------
PLAN ELEVATION
MANSARD ROOF (NOTE 7)
No ta tion
B =HorilOnlliJ dimrosion ofbuihling. inn (m). mCJIS\1100 normal to wind uilllcolion.
L = Horizonllll dimcns:ion of building. in 0. (m). mru-"'lm:d p:rr.illcllo wind dinJCiion.
=
It Mean roof be it; hi, i:n ft (m), C!(Cepl tlut rov» hci~;bt sb:IJI be uA:d for 6 ::S I0 de~.
: - Hcisnt ubo'" grou.')(l, i.o ft (ml.
=
G Gust·eiTc<:l fae1or.
q, q, =Velocity prc:s:<urc. in lh lft' (Nim'). c\'!.IUIII<>d rll rc:.<pcaivt: height.
e
=An:_k 0~ plrne of rold from bximrruJ. in d:arc-:1.
A GURE 27.3-1 Main Wind Forco R!!sisting System, Part 1 (All Hoights): External Pressure Coefficionts, CP, for Enclosed and Partially
Enclosed Buildings-Walls and Ro ofs
conclnu&S
Figure 6-5. ASCE 7 Figure 27.3-1

Design Example 6 • Hlgl1 Wltl'<ls Exarnple
Wall Pressure Coefficients, CP

~tD LAI c, UuV.\th
Wm<l\\11111 <1.1111 All'u~ 0.~ l/,

Il-l - ll s
Urtlra.J \lUll
~4
2 OJ
1)..2
"·
q,
s,:ku.,l l All \Ill...,. -0.7 "·

lJ,
Roof Pressure Coefficients, C" for use with q,,

Vl~ndllt! t<l l<YtA\IId
Ansj,.. Q (<hUll-ed) Anjlt, &(tll!l'tt"i)

1/th.d
Drac.tJ:.o h!L
•• ,. 20 2.
" •• ~ur 10 ~20
:>0
"
N""ml :<: 0.15 -07 -0.5 -03 -02 --{).1 0 .0'
to Ruli'! --0. 18 0.0' 0.2 0..3 0.3 O..J 0.4 U.OI 0 - ll.3 -0.~ -0.6
{tit
I)~ 10' 1)5 0.9 0.7 - 0.4 -0 3 -02 -02 o.o·
-O. IS - 0.18 0.0• 0..2 0..2 0.3 DA 0.010 - 0.5 -0.~ --0.6
~1 0 --Q.J' - 1.0 --{).7 -OS -03 -02 0.0'
-0. 18 - O.IS - O.IIl 0.0· 0.2 02 03 0.01 0 -0.7 - 0.6 -0.6
l.'ll.nd Olta:1i:lh hll Hroi:cqN!JI 01.-., lr;,m V/.hclNtrd t!<!go c,

1\\cnnal to RiUb\! fur 505 0 to h!2 -0.9. -0.18
U-= J{f .ill~ Pn tll'l llfl 10 h 0.9. -O. I N
1oRJdL• fn: illIll h to 211 - O.S. - O.IS
> 211 1).1. - O.IS
'2 1.0 0 tol:/2 - 0 ..'>'·. -O.lS
:. 11.'2 0.7. -0.19
'V.!l'-"' is prm·idtd DDTIIllrrpoblion pmposc;<.
• y,jo~ mn be redu;>:>:ldu,rl)• -..uh oreli 0\~r \\Wch 11 is :>;f b;llble ::< fullrfll,;:
' Par rout <lop<" g,rr:n:oc lluu l!O' , UIC (~ - O.S.
Rofunhu FM1u
""'~"' Al6 1,m'
~ 100 ~ 9.3 1.0

2:50 23.2 0.9
~ 1.o:o ~ 92..9 0.8
Notes
I Plus :~nd minu..< sign.< signif-y prcs.;•urc:s :~cling toward and ;nvay from the ~rfa='· rc..<:pcctivdy.
2. LineJn interpol:llJOn u permillcd ~or v-.llu~s of LIB. /IlL. nnd 0 olhiO'J than shown. lntorpol:llion sh:J.II only be c:t."lied out between
\\\.JUL-;; of the !;&me ~gn. where no >--aluc ot' the s ame sign I ~ gl\lcn. oJSumc 0.0 tot interpol mlon putl>OS<:J.
3. When~ IWO \-:J.IUe:> of C. are U~tell. this mdtl'"llles thl.tthe WttHIWan.J roof ~lope is s ubjected 10 eilhe:r po.s.tll\le or negJJJI\le pl'<!;i~ure
and ~he roof struc ture shlllllx <lcs.lgncd ior both ~onditions. lnterpolntion for intcrmcdi ntc rntios of /IlL in this c-Jtic ~hull only be
cn.rricd ouJ ~tween C v.\Jue:; of ltikc l'ijJJl.
J . For monos lope roof;, ~mile roof surl"'aw Is etthcr n whtLiw.!lld or [\."'l\\'J!Id surf:1ce.
5. Refer to Pig. 273-2 for dome-s ll.ltd Pig. 27.3-3 for llll:hod roofs.
6. For mnnsHrd roof:;, the lop horiwnul surfucc und lccword indincd l'Urfucc shall be rrcntcd os lccn''.m l ~rfu~es from
Lhc t;,blc.
7. Except for MWFRS$ :1t Lhe mof cor~lsting o( moment·r~hting fr..\mes. the toJal hari7Allllal she:lr sh~ll not be k~ tlun Jh:ll
dcJcm1incd by llcglccting 11·1nd {or= on roofstufuccs.
FIGURE 27.3·1 (Continued). Main Wi nd Force Resialing System, Part 1 (All Heights): External Pnt-S.Sure Coolllcienls, c•. for Enclosed end
Pa~y Enclosed Bulltllugs-Walli and Roofs
Figure 6- 5 (continued). ASCE 7 Figure 27.3-1
98 Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 201 8 IBC and ASCEISEI 7 -16

Design Example 6 • High Winds Example
FJiOlll lbe Wall Pressure Coeftkient portion of the table. select c,, based on their location on the buildi.ng.
0
Windward wall - cp = 0.8 for all building geometric!\.
o Leeward wall values are based on the ratio of the building le ngth (L) ;md the building width (B).
0 In the east-west direction L = 80 feeL and B = 186.67 feet. thus UB = 0.43.
• Therefore: Cv = -0.5.
o In the nortb-soutb di.rcction L = 186.67 feel and B = 120 feet, thus UB = 1.56.
• Tbe1'efo.re: c , = - 0.39 by interpolation.

o Side Walls - c, = - 0.7 for all building geometries.
From the Roof Pressure Coefficient p01tion of the table select C1, bnsed on the roof slope. and location on
the building. The roof :;lope Y2: 12 (2.4 degrees), and h = 60 feet.
o The roof values are based on the ratio of the building height (II) and the building length (L).
o In the east-west direction h = 60 feet and L = 80 feet, thu.s lr!L = 0.75.
• Therefore, 0 to h/2 - Cv = -0.9, -0.18
h/2 to" - cp = - 0.9, - 0.18
h to 2h - C1) = - 0.5, - 0.18
o ln the nor th-south direction h = 60 feet and L = 186.67 feet, thus h/L = 0.32.
• Therefore. 0 to h/2 - Cv - 0.9. - 0.18
1112 to h - cr = - 0.9. - 0.18
h to 211 - c,) - - 0.5. -0.18
STEP 7: CALCULATE WIND PRESSURE, p, ON EACH BUILDING SURFACE
Because lhis is a rigid building, Equation 27.3- l is used to calculate the wind pressures.
Eq 27.3-1
where:
q "" q= for windward walls evaluated at height z above the ground.

q = qr, for leeward walls, sidewalls, and roofs evaluated ut height h.
q1 • qA for windward walls. sidewalls . leeward walls. and roofs of enclosed buildings.

Design Example 6 • H/gll WIMis Example
East-West Direction - Wan Pressures
qn = q00 = 82.4 psf

G = 0.85
(GCP1) = ±0.18
lllerefore -p = q (0.85) cp- (82.4) (± 0.18)

= q (O.RS) C1, - (± 14.R3)
WaU qt or q1, (psf) D~;-sign Pressure (psf}

c"
Windward:
0'-15' 64.8 0.8 58.9, 29.2
20' 67.9 0.8 61.0, 31.3
25' 70.4 0.8 62.7, 33.0
30' 73.0 0.8 64.5, 34.8
40' 76.7 0.8 67.0, 37.3
50' 79.9 0.8 69.2, 39.5
60' 82.4 0.8 70.9, 41.2
Leeward:
Full Height 82.4 - 0.5 -20.2, -49.9
Side:
Full Height 82.4 - 0.7 -34.2, -63.9
East-West Direction- Roof Pressures
q 6 = q00 = 82.4 psf

G - 0.85
(GCJ.,)= ±0. 18
Therefore. - p .. (82.4) (0.85) cp- (82.4) (::!:0.18)

= (70.04) cp- (± 14.83)
Roof Location c, Design Pressure (psi)

0 lO hf2 -0.9, -0.18 -48.2, -77.9 or 2.2, -27.5
1112 to h - 0.9, -0.18 -48.2, -77.9 or 2.2 , - 27.5
h to 211 - 0.5. - 0.18 - 20.2. - 49.9 or 2.2. - 27.5
> 211 -0.3. -0.18 -6.2. -35.8 or 2.2. -27.5
100 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

-77.9 PSF -77.9 PSF

-49.9 PSF
,...___ ____, - - - - 60'

,
30
__,___ ________,~--~- l-4------.,.1- - - - 50'
. -- - r- - - - -40'
30'
----:::---:----=~:-=--- 25,
+INTERNAL PRESSURE ~~--r 20'
l-4----r' _ .....,__._.........__..,_.__ 15,
-48.2 PSF -48.2 PSF

-20.2 PSF
1-- - r - - - - - 40'
30'
---::::--:--=~:-::--- 25,
-INTERNAL PRESSURE ~--r 20'
~--r' _..).U....J,L.J.-->-<.J..._ 15,
Figure 6--f:J. East-West direction MWFRS building pre~·sures
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7-16 101

Design Example 6 • H/giJ Wltt<Js Example
North-South Direction - Wall Pressures
qn = q00 = 53.5 psf

G == 0.85
{GCP1) = ±0.18
111erefore, -p = q (0.85) e ll - (53.5) ~± 0 . 18)

= q (0.85) cp- (::9.63)
WaU qt or q1, (psf) Des ign Pressur e (psf)

c"
Windward:
0'-15' 35.8 0.8 34.0, 14.7
20' 39.0 0.8 36.2, 16.9
25' 41.4 0.8 37.8, 18.5
30' 44.0 0.8 39.6, 20.3
40' 47.8 0.8 42.1, 22.9
so· 50.9 0.8 44.2, 25.0
60' 53.5 0.8 46.0, 26.8
Leeward:
Full Heighr 53.5 - 0.39 -8.1, -27.4
Side:
Full Height 53.5 - 0.7 -22.2, -41.5
North-South Direction- Roof Pressures
q 6 = q00 = 53.5 psf

G - 0.85
(GCr,)= ±0. 18
Therefore. - p .. (53.5) (0.85) cp- (53.5) (:!:0. 18)

= (45.4-8) cr- (±9.63)
Roof Location c,. Design Pressure (psr)

0 to hf2 -0.9, -0.18 - 31.3, -50.6or1.4, -17.8
h/2 to h - 0.9, - 0.18 - 31.3, -50.6orl.4, - 17.8
II to 211 - 0.5. - 0.18 - 13.1, - 32.4 or 1.4. - 17.8
> 211 -0.3. -0.18 -4.0, -23.3 or 1.4. - 17.8

-50.6 PSF -50.6 PSF

· 32.4 PSF
- •• ' .•
- +INTERNAL PRESSURE
NORTH-SOUTH DIRECTION
.. .:,r: - ••
-31.3 PSF -31.3 PSF

-13.1 PSF
~~~--~~--L-~~--~~~L-~~--~~--L-4 ~--~ -------- 60'

II 60' 30' ' • t •
50'
.' .
II
•--
' I
II -INTERNAL PRESSURE
......
II ' ..
NORTH-SOUTH DIRECTION
Figure 6-7. North-South direction MWFRS building pressures
3. Determine Wind Load Design Procedure -

Components and Cladding (C&C)
Sinoe the mean roof height of the building equals 60 feet. the first two methods to determine wind pressures
in Chapter 30, \Vind Loads: Components and Cladding, of ASCE 7-16 can be utilized. The available
procedures are as foll ov.:s:
a. Chapter 30 - Pat1 1: Low-Rise Buildings
b. Chapter 30 - Purt 2: Low-Rise Buildings (Simplified)
Because the building plan dimensions are not consistent with those used to developed Chapter 30 ParL 2,
the most general procedure in tbe standard for low-rise buildings; Chapter 30 - Part I is utilized for this
example.
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI7-16 103

Design Example 6 • H/gll Wl11<1s Example
4. Chapter 30- Part 1: Low-Rise Buildings
'fable 30.3-1 hu.o; been provided in ~I)CE 7-1 6 and lists ull of the steps required to dctcm1inc the
Componenr and Cladding (C&C) loads on a building.
Table 30.3-1 Steps to Determine C&C Wind Loads for Enclosed

and Partially Enclosed Low-Rise Buildings
Step 1: Detennine risk category; see Table 1.5-1.

Step 2: Determine the basic wind speed, V, for applicable risk category; see
Figs. 26.5-1 and 26.5-2.
Step 3: Determine wind load parameters:
• Wind directionality factor, Kd; see Section 26.6 and
Table 26.6-1
• Exposure category B, C, or D; see Section 26.7.
• Topographic factor, K~; see Section 26.8 and Fig. 26.8-1 .
• Ground elevation factor, Ke; Section 26.9 and Table 26.9-1.
• Enclosure cla~sificat:ion ; see Section 26.12.
• Inten1al pressure coefficient, (GCpt.); see Section 26.13 and
Table 26.13-1.
Step 4: Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K11 ; see Table 26.10-1.
Step 5: Determine velocity pressure, q11 , Eq. (26.10-1).
Step 6: Determine external pressure coefficient, (GC):
• Walls; see Fig. 30.3-1.
• Flat roofs, gable roofs, hip roofs: see Fig. 30.3-2.
• Stepped roofs; see Fig. 30.3-3.
• Multispan gable roofs; see Fig. 30.3-4.
• Monoslope roofs; see Fig. 320.3-5.
• Sawtooth roofs; see Fig. 30.3-6.
• Don1ed roofs; see Fig. 30.3-7.
• Arched roofs; see Fig ...... 27.3-3, Note 4 .
Step 7: Calculate wind pressure, p; Eq. (30.3-1).
Figure 6- 8. ASC£ 7 Table 30.3-1
1 04 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7·16

Design Example 6 • High Winds Example
Fmru lbe MWFRS example above lbe values for Step 1 lhrough S tep 5 have been detennincd. TI1ey are ~
follows.
Ri k Category ~ II
V= 170mph
K, = 0.85
Expo-sure category = D. Per Section 26.7 .4.4 for C&C loading, the exposure in any direction that res ults i n
the large..~! loads mu.~t be used.
K:~ = 1.0
K~ = 1.0
E nclosure classification = Enclosed, because impact-resistant glazing is provided nl all windows.
(GC1,,) = ±:0.18 ince it is an enclosed building
STEP 6: DETERMINE EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT, (GC1,)
• Walls; sec Figure 30.3-1.
The "a" dimension is the smaller of
10 percent of least horizontn.l dimension = 10 percent (80 feet)= 8 feet or, 0.4/1
= 0.4 (60 feet) = 24 feet.
Therefore "a" = 8 feet.

Zone 4 values are as follows:
Effective Wind Area - ft2 +(GC,) - (GC,)

2
SIO fl 1.0 -I. I
~500 ft2 0 .7 -0.8
Zone 5 values are as follows:
Effective Wind Area - ft2 + (GC") - (GC")

::; 10 t\2 1.0 -1.4
2=500 ft? 0.7 -0.8
Although Foomote 5 allows values of GC, to be reduced by 10 percent when 9 ::; 10 degrees, tltis
reduction was not applied to the example.

Deslgn Example 6 • H/gfl Winds Example
Diagrams
Notation
a= I 0% of lc.ast horizontul dimension or 0.411. whichcV\."T is smullcr. but not less thun either 4% ofkast
horizon lui dimension or 3 fl (0.9 m).
Exception: For buildings with 0 ~ O•to 7 • and a least horizontal dimension greater than 300 fl (90 m),
dlmun~ion a shall be limited to a maximum of 0.8/t
II= Mcnn mofhti£ht, in ft (m). except that Clive height shnll be used for 0::; 10".
0 = Angle of plnnc of roof from hotiznll[!ll, in d~gt\'\.--.;.
External Pressure Coefficient, (GC) • Waf/s

tO 500
-t.<
(} ' -IJI
w
(OJ -I ,I
....... - I.
~
..I
cQ)
-1.2
-1.0 """ ~ -I.
·u -'JI
!:E _,~
Ill
8 -'..I
~ 4;1
:J
0
"'~
(})
-4.2
a..
-
-'..1
_,,,
(ij
~
E -'JI
+1.0
\:!J~"'Q) ~
- •(\.
•l. 0
w
•1 .1
I 10 lJl 50 110 210 SI)D IUIO
(ll. l) (C\9) !1.9) t4..6) lll..;)(tR6) (4~.S) iSUm
Effective Wind Area, ft2 (m 2)

Notes
I. Vertical s c:."'lc denotes (GC,J to be used with q/r.
2.. Horizont~l scale denotes effective wind area., in ft' (m').
3. Plus l.l.lld minus signs ~gnify pressures Gcting toward [lfld away frum the surfaces, rtspccti\·cJy.
-t Esoh component shall be designed for m!l..ximum positive und negative prcssmcs.
5. Values of (GC.J for walls shall be reduced by 10% when 0 ~ 10".
FIGURE 1!0.3·1 Componontt: :md Cl:~ddlng (h 60 ft (h 18.3 m)l: Extom:~l Pros!:uro Coaffiolont~. {GCJ. for !!nolot:od and Partblly
Enolo~;od Bulldlng:;--Wall~
Figure 6-9. ASCE 7 Figure 30.3- 1
106 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC a nd ASCE/SEI 7-16

Design Example 6 • High Winds ExempJe
Flat roofs. gable roofs. hip roofs: see Fig. 30.3·2A.
Diagrams
o.nh I
~I
, , --T
I I
®. 0
....
r ....@...L r- -
r
l).i h r +~i, ®~I
r:t:r~
0
I I I I
® 1CD1 (j) ICDt®
ELF.VATJClN
Notation
B - llomnl1tll dimcnuon of buililing mo.:::run:u nonn:s\ lo winu din:ction, in ft (m).
, =Eai'C height >troll be '115ed ror 9 =10'.
!l =An~k of p!Jnc oi roof from OOrizooul, in dcgrec;.
External Pressure Coefficients

10 100 ·:i.O .----__:_:IO:..___ _:..:IOO
..:..__-;--,
~~ I
..Jfl 0 cr!:n,l\1!.
""'"
c-- t
S'..
§ .2
rE li:l
~ .:LI>
'-'
~
lA 8 ·lA
-2.2
Ul
l:;:
z:
2.
<l
;:1
•lfl
4A
J
§
-~-~ t-(i):;:;;
·If,
·Ill
, :-::
<D:::----~:--~-+-!-1
~
= t<>.]
Jj ).~
.0.:1 -
.u
.Q,.I
.Oh
41> 11-==========~~~=1
+-l\b
'"1.'.$ J))J -
•• , ,....,
-< 1.0 o ~-------~-~
:~ ltl:l ~l II.).)~
"\ I t
I
,, v; tl ~ ""
• 1 •)1'' 1 \ 1-V.) t~•lcU ~ t"-11
I
U~1
lhi:X.O
( I 't th) \..J i l t (\)
!.«<lUI..O
U~. ' HtJ'I)
P.ff«Lh" W1nd An.u.. It~ (m') BfTc.:liw Wind""'"· 0' (m')
Notes
I. Vcnic.1l scale denotes (GCJ to be used with q•.
2 . H orizontnl sc :lle denot~c. l:'fkcti ve \.\~)od ~:1... in ft.1 (m1) .
3. Pllli :1.nd mulUs sJgns slgnliy pf\.'<>SUrcs oc!lng roii'Md aud !IW!lY irom the su rfl\L'e>. rc.s.pccuV\lly.
~- Each component ~hlll\ be designed for maximum po!'ith~ and ncgnrh~ pl':s~urc$.
5. If a pli!:!pct ~ua\ lo or highc:.r than 3 ft (0.9 rn) i:s provided :ll"ound the pcrimct cr of the roof with 0 5 7", the ncg,:llh'C
values of fGCr) in Zen a 3 slull be .:qU!l..l to tho;c for Zone 2. :J.Dd pruirive l'a\ucs o( (GC~ in Zone$ 2 and 3 shall be set
cquslro tho~ for wll.ll Zones 4 a nd 5. r~pcctlvcly, in rig. 30.3- \.
6, V~lues of ( GC,J for roof ovt:thangs include pre%ure contributions fro m both upper antllowl!r surl"nce.~.
7. If o'·erhangl' exil'!, the lc..'.!el" horiznnlill dim~!;ion o r the building ~11:111 nor include any o'~hang dimension, but the edge
di.sl3ncc. a . .slull\ be rne.JI5urcxl from the outside odgc of the ovcrlung.
AGURE 30.3-2A Compon~nts and Cladding [h 60 It (h 18,3 m)]: Extemul Pressure Cnofncients, (GC,). for Enclosed and Partially
Enclosed Buildings-Gable Roofs, 0 70
Figure 6-10. ASCE 7 Figure 30.3-2A
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI7-16 107

Deslgn Example 6 • High Winds Exarnple
Calculare the roof zone dimen~iom; - 0.2/z • 0.2(60 feer) 12 feet

0.6/t = 0.6(60 feet) = 36 feet
Roof Zone (GC1,) values
Effective Wind Area - tr Zone 1' Zone1 Zone 2 Zone 3

2
s lO ft 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
2
:2500 ft 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
s I 0 fl2 - 0.9 - 1.7 -2.3 - 3.2
2 500 ft 2 -0.4 - 1.0 -1 .4 -1 .4
STEP 7: CALCULATE PRESSURE, p
P = CJ1,[(GCP) - (GC,.,.)J Eq 30.3- 1
w here: q11 = 82.4 psf

(GCP) = ±0.18
Effective Wind Area - cf Wall Zone 4 - (psO Wall Zone 5 - (pst)
+~lOW 67.6, 97.2 67.6, 97.2

- ~10 f~ - 105.5, - 7 5.8 - 130.2. -I 00 .5
+ ::soo ft 2 42.8. 72.5 42.8. 72.5
-::sao1'11 - 80.8. - Sl.l -80.8. - 51. 1
Effccti''e Wind Area - tf Roof Zone 1' Roof Zone 1 RoofZonc2 Roof Zone 3
+ :s; 10 f t! 9.9, 39.6 9.9. 39.6 9.9, 39.6 9.9, 39.6
-:s; )Q ft 2 -89.0, -59.3 -154.9. - 125.2 -204.4. - 174.7 -278.5, -248.8
+ 2500 ft2 1.6, 31.3 1.6, 31.3 1.6, 31.3 1.6, 31.3
- ;::::5oo f't:2 -47.8, - 18. 1 -97.2, - 67.6 -130.2, - 100.5 -130.2, - I 00.5
To help dctcml.inc lbc config uration of lbc roof zones, Figure C30-I has been provided.

Design Example 6 • Hlgll Winds example
~ CD
s
(j) (V CD (!)
1
L
(j) <D ® (i) <D (j) (i) (j) 0
I
<i?L @ r ~-· Q)
LJ
<D G> <!> m
Build In~ whh lea!llto(.zontal Buildl"SSVollh lc.J<t florl!onrol l!ul oilf1b'l WTt h ~~~~~ hotll0f'>l81 ll utdlnt/1 wlth~tl!~ ho<ltonr~l
dlmemloc! (lr~otel 1hB•I Vlh dlmun1lon gletllec th~n 1.211 but dm.:!1!Jon l('f) thtn 1.211 ~ncl dlrncn-'Of1 1CR: th'ln 1.211
l~<thliQV\h \J r~horltofllal<imcnllon
~tr.WI !hill 1.2/t
f iGURe C30·1 Pour Po!:~lblo Soon:lltios for Roof Zone~, \\lhloh bcpcnd on thn Rtltloe o11ho LtuJ~t and Largo!ll Horizontal Pl~n Dlmonslonn
I~ 111e Me !In ROo1 Height f)
Figure 6- 1 I. ASCE 7 Figure C30-J

This building falls into the conliguration with the least horizontal dimension greater than 1.2/r but less than
2.411. This results in the following conJigurarion.
80 '
l 36' r
USE 10 FTZ...
- +
Z0NE(1 -154.9 PSF 39.6 PSF
ZONE@ -204.4 PSF 39.6 PSF
ZONE (3 -278.5 PSF 39.6 PSF
PLAN
Figure 6- 12. Building configuration
Because the included angle of the bend in the building is greater than 135 degrees. this does not count as a
comer. and thus the comer zones are not required on the roof.
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI?-16 109
Design Example 7A
Wind Forces on a Simple Diaphragm Building -
Part 2 Method
OVERVIEW
Determination of wind loads for main wind force resisting systems (MWFRS) can be accomplished using
one oftbe four procedures described in Section 26.1.2.1 of ASCE 7. The four procedures include: (1) the
Directional Procedure for buildings of all heights discussed in Chapter 27: (2) the Envelope Procedure for
low-rise buildiugs discussed in Chapter 28; (3) the D irectional Procedure for building appurtenances and
ocher structures discussed in Chapter 29; and (4) the Wind Tunnel Procedure for all buildings and other
structures discussed in Chapter 31. The first three procedures urc based on extensive research and present
anaJytical methods for determining wind loads on buildings and other structures. The fourth procedure
addresses wind tunnel testing methods aud requirements that may be considered where the use of au
anaJytical procedure may produce inaccurate or uncertain results.
For the purposes of Design Examples 7 A and 7B. determination of MWFRS wind loads are presemed
using one of the two methodologies of the Envelope Procedure contained in Chapter 28. The methodologies
are described in ASCE 7 as ·either Part 1 or Part 2 and arc applicable to low-rise buildings. Per definitions
contained in ASCE ?,low-rise buildings are defined as enclosed or partially enclosed buildings with ( l) a
mean roof height, h, less than or equal to 60 feet and (2) a mean roof height that does not exceed the least
horizontal dimension of the building.
Part I is applicable fio all enclosed and partially enclosed low-rise buildings where determination of the
wind qoads on the windward, leeward, and side walls is necessary for the engineer to analyze the internal
forces in M\VFRS member.>. The use of the Part I Envelope Procedure is intended for buildings wi th
flat, gable, or hip-roof configurations. Specific equations are used w calculate rbe wind pressures on each
!building surface. The Pan I Envelope Procedure is presented in Design Example 7B.
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 111
Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on a Simple 0/aphtagm Bulldl'ng- Part 2 Me/hod
Patt 2 is applicable ollly w enclosed sill:lple diaphragm low-rise buildings. Similar 10 tlle Part l procedure.
this met!Jod i~ intended for buildings with flat, gable, or hip-roof conf:igurations. Wind pressures are
determined directly from tnblcs derived from a simplincation of the Pnrt J Envdope Procedure. These
pressure..; a.re applied to the horizontal and vertical projected surface.~ of the building. The simpli fied
method of the Part 2 Envelope Procedure is presented iu lhis Design Ex.:uuple.
D esign Example 7 A illustrates the use of the simplified procedure using two roof conftgurations (i.e.. hip
and flat) for the same buiJding footpriut. 1l1is permits the oser ro compare dLft'erences in wi nd loads for
buildings witb differing roof configurations.
OUTLINE
1. Building and Site lnfom1ation
2. Determine Applicability of Simplified M ethod
3. Wmd Load Parameters Specified in Chapter 26 (ASCE 7)
4. Determine Simpliiicd Design Wind Prcs~urcs, PSJo
5. Determine Adjustment Factor for Building Height and E xposure,/..
6. Determine Adjusted Simplilled Design Wind Pressures. Ps
7. Distribution of Horizontal Wind Loads a long Height
8. Vertical Distribution of Wind Uplift Forces
1. Building and Site Information
1.1 BUILDING INFORMATION
• 90 feet by J 50 feet in plan with typical !loot· plan shown in Figure 7 A- I
• Bui lding I: Two-story building with hip roof as shown in Figure 7 A- 2a

o Roof slope 5:12 (8 = 22.6 degrees)
• Bui lding 2: T wo-story building with tlat roof as shown in Figure 7 A- 2b
o Flat, monos lope roof with 1
A: I 2 (9 < 5°) slope
a No parapet
• Impact-resistant glazing at all openings
• Office occupancy on borh fl oor.;;
112 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI 7· 16

Design Example 7A • Wind Poroes on a Simple Dlaphtagm Bullo\hg - Par/ 2 Mellwxi
• Roof fnuuing systertl- Premanufacrured cold-formed steel .roof trw;ses with wood Strllctural
panel roof sheathi ng
• Floor framing system- Premanufuctured cold-for111ed steel floor trusses with wood structural
panel floor ~hea thiug.
• Bearing waU systeiii with cold-fonned steel studs and wooc.l structur.ll panel sheathing. Sbcar
walls are provided iiJ the north to south direction along Gridlines A, C, and D and in rhe side to
side direction along Gridliocs 1, 5, and 6.
Figure 7A-I. Typical floor plan

Deslg n Example 7A • Wind Forces on a Simple Diaphragm Bullai'ng- Part 2 Method
I I
I
liB I liD I I II lilll I I I
Figure 7A- 2a. Building elevation (hip roofbuildin~:)
0 0 ~
I
I
I
I
I l
B BBB B B B El B B B B B B El
B B B B B B Brm! B B B B B B B .
Figure 7A-2b. Building elevmion (jim roof building)
1.2 SITE INFORMATION
• Located in SummerviiJc, SC.

a 33.05° N. 80.17° W
• TI1c buiJding is located on flat and open terrain typical of Exposure C.
2. Determine Applicability of Simplified Method ASCE7
In order to use rhe provisions contained in Part 2: Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Low-Rise Build ings of
Chapter 28 of ASCE 7, all eight conditions contained in Seclion 28.5.2 must be satisfied. If a building
does not meet all of the conditions. lhen the use of Part I: Method of the Envelope Procedure contained in
Chapter 28 or one of the other procedures specified in Chapter 26 should be considered. For the hip-roof
and flat-roof bwldings of ttlis Design Example, each of t.hc conditions of Section 28.5.2 is reviewed.

Design Example 7A • Wind Foroes on s Simple Diaphragm Bullo\hg - Par/2 Mellwxl
l . The building is a ~imple diaphragm building as defined in S ection 26.2.
• ln Section 26.2, ASCE 7 defined u "simple diaphmgm building" us "u bui lding in which
both windward and leeward wind loads are ln\nsmil!ed by roof and vertkally spanning wall
a~ embl.ies, through comiJ1uous floor and roof di:~plmtgms, to the MWFR.S ."
• The hip-roof building and flat-roof building sbown in Figures 7 A- 2a and 7 A- 2b meet the
require ments of a simple diaphragm building, as the wind loads are transmiued from the
roof nnd wall u~sc mblics into the roof and floor diaphmgms, wb.ich iu tum tn.msfcr londs to
the MWFRS comprised of wood structural panel shear walls.
2. The building is n low-rise buiJding as defined in Secti on 26.2.
lii.Ju:Q.Qf:
The total height of the two-s wry building with hip roof shown in Figure 7A-2u is 43 feet, 9 inches.
The ~ve height is 25 feet. 0 inches. Therefore. the mean roof height is
25'0" + 43' 9" ...

h= = 34..")8 ft
2
Flat roof:
The total height of the two-story building flat roof as shown in Figure 7 A- 2b is 25 feet, 0
iucbc . Per the notation in Figure 28.5- 1. lhc mean roof height is lhe eave height for a building
with a roof angle less than I 0 degrees. Therefore, the mean roof height for the flut roof bui lding
is 25 feet 0 inches.
The mean roof beighlts for b01h the h ip-roof building and the flat-roof building do not exceed
60 feel or the lcust hori:wntal building dimension of 90 feet . Therefore, both building types nrc
considered a low-rise building.
3. The building is enclosed as dctlned in Section 26.2 und conforms to the wind-borne debris
provisions of Section 26.12.3.
• Per tbe BuiJding Information given in Section 1. 1 of thjs example, impuct-rcs:istant gluziog
wiU be provided at all openings. Therefore. both building types are considered enclosed.
4 . The building is a regular-shaped building as detlncd in Section 2 6.2.
• The hip-roof building and flat-roof building shown in the figures do not contain any unusual
georneu·ic i rregularities. Therefore, both are considered to be regular-shaped buildi11gs.
5. The building is not classified as a flexible building as detined in Section 26.2.
• The hip-roof building and Aut-roof building arc low-rise buildings as defined in Seclion 26.2.
Therefore. both building types are not considered flex ible.
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 115
Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on a Simple Olaphtagm Bullo\'ng- Part 2 Me/hex!
6. The building does tlot have respons e characteristics that make it s ubject to across-wind loading.
VGillex shedding, or instability caused by galloping or flutter, a nd it d oes not have u site location
for which chnnnding effects or huffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions wnn ant special
con siderc~tion.
• For the pur[XJscs of this Design Example, the hip-roof nnd Aut-roof buildings do not hnvc
such respons e characteris tics.
7. The buiJding bus an upproximntcly symmetrical cross section in each direction with either a tint
roof or a gable or hip roof with 8 :;o; 45 degree.~.
• The hip-roof buildi ng and flnt-roof buUdLng shown in the figures have s ymmetrical c ross
section.o.; in each orthogonal direction. The hip-roof structure has a roof slope of 5: 12 (8 =
22.6 degrees). The ftat-roof st:n:Jcmre has a roof s lope of !AI: 12 (8 < 5 degrees).
8. The building is exempted from tors ional loud cases as indicated in Note 5 of Fig . 28.3-1, or the
torsional load cases defined in Note 5 do not control the des ign of a ny of the MWFRS of the
building.
• The hip-roof building and flat-roof building shown in the figures m eet the exception
contained in Note 5 of Figure 28.3- 1. Both example buildings are two stories or Jess in
bcight with flcx.iblc wood structural diaphragms.
In w nclusi.on. since the hip·roofandflal·roof buildings satisfv all eight conditions con wined in Sec:tio11
28.5.2, rhe winLIIoads can be obtained using rhe p rovisions comained in Part 2: Enclosed Simple
Diaphragm Low-Rise Buildings of Chapter 28.
3. Wind Load Parameters Specified in Chapter 26 ASCE7
For b-oth the hip- roof a nd Aut-roof structures, the following wind load pnrnmctcrs from C huptcr 26 arc
d e termined using the given building and site infonnation.
R eview and determine the following:
• Rlsk Category (IBC Table 1604.5)
c 'if'he building classification is Risk Category IT based on office usc.
• B asic Wind Speed V (Section 26.5)

a V = 140 m ph for a Risk Category II structure location in Summerville, SC
o De termined using maps included in ASCE 7 ATC Windspeed Calculator by the Applied
Technology Council
Per Section 26.5.2, fo r special wind regions and some areas of the country, the basic wind speed
may need to be obtained from the building code official for the aurhori.ry having jurisdicr.ion.
• Exposure Category (Section 26.7)
o Exposure C (give n)
o See Design Example 3 for further disctL~sion on Exposure Category.
11 6 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

Design Example 7A • Wind Foroes on a Simple Diaphragm Bullo\hg- Part2 Metii'O<i
• Topographic Facror K::r (Section 26.8)

o Flnt tcn-uin (given)
o K:; =- 1.0
o Sec Design Example 2 for further discussion on Tbpogruphic Fac tor
4. Determine Simplified Design Wind Pressures, Psao ASCE7
TI1e simplin ed method of Pan 2 utilizes lhe table iJ1 Figure 28 .5-1 to determine the wind pre sures at
vurious wind speeds. These wind prcs~urcs have been tubulatcd ba~cd on a mean roof height, h cquul to
30 feet. Exposure Category B. and various roof angles fron\ 0° degrees to 45 degrees.
Horizontal, vertical, and overhung w ind pressures arc provided for different zones. Z<>ncs A through D
correspond to the horizontal pressures on thc vertical projections of wall and roof structures. Zones E
mrough H corrcs1>ond w the ''Crtil~l pressures on the roof structure. Zones E0 H and G0 H corres pond to
the roof overhangs. The tabular design press ures on roof surfaces include positive and negative internal
pressures (Lond Case l and Load Ca.sc 2, respectively). For simple diaphragm buildings with roof angles
les~ £han 25 degrees. the tables ru;surne rhm rhe lllaXilllum uplift is c.:ontrolled by positive internal pressure
{Load Case 1). The tabular design pressures on wall surfaces combine rhe windward and leeward wall
prcssures (i.e .. internal pressure cancels).
Figure 28.5-1 illus trates the application of the wind pressw·es along the two principal orthogonal directions
of the building and denotes these us Case A and Case B. For Case A, the wind is considered to act
primarily parallel to the transverse walls (end walls). For Case B. the wind is considered to act primarily
perpendicular to the transverse walls (end walls). Per Foolllote 3 of Figure 28.5- 1, a roof angle of 0 degrees
should be used in dctcm.Uni.og the wind pressures.
The simplified design wind pressw·es, Ps.10, for the hip-roof building are obtained (rom the 140-mph table in
Figure 28.5- l a nd are shown in Table 7 A- 1.
CASE A Zones
Overhang
Horizontal Pressures Vertical Pressures Pressures
Roof
Angle A B c D E F G H E oH GoB
20" 43.0 - 11.4 28.7 - 6.3 -37.3 -26.0 -26.0 - 19.7 -52.3 -40.9
25° 39.0 6.3 28.2 6.4 - 17.3 - 23.6 - 12.5 - 19.0 - 32.3 - 27.5
Using linear interpolation fore = 22.6°. the pressures. PS>.o• are determined as
22.6° 40.9 -2.2 28.4 0.3 - 26.9 - 24.7 -19.0 - 19.3 -41.9 -33.9
CASEB
oo 31. 1 - 16. 1 20.6 - 9.6 - 37.3 -21 .2 - 26.0 - 16.4 -52.3 -40.9

Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on s Simple Diaphragm Bullo\i1g- Part 2 Me/hod
Similarly. the implified design wind pre~sures . p_.,,,l· for lhe ftar roof building are obtained from tlle 140-
mph table in Figure 28.5-l and are sb own in Table 7 A- 2.
Table l A 2. Flat roofp~:f) pressure~·
C ASES
AandB Zones
Overhang
Horizontal Pressures Vertkul Pressures Pressures
Roof
Angle A B c D E F G H EOI-1 Gon
0° to 5° 31.1 - ]6.1 20.6 - 9.6 - 37.3 - 21.2 - 26.0 - 16.4 - 52.3 - 40.9
Near rhc i!.nd.s and t!dges of buildings, higher wind pressures result. These locations are denoted as end
zone5 and are shown iu (he isomettic figures included in Figure 28.5- 1. The notation in Figme 28.5- l
provides for calculation of the distance a as the smaller of 10 percent of the least horizontal dimension or
0.4 h. hut not less than either 4 percent of the least horiwntal dimension or 3 feet
Hi() roof:
Distance, a, lhe s maller of
l 0 percent {90 feet) = 9 feet (- Govems
or 0.4 (34.38 feet) = 13.75 feet
but not less than cilher

0.04 (90 feet) = 3.6 feet
or 3 feet
Flat root
Distance, a, the smaller of
10 percent {90 feet) = 9 feet f- Governs
or 0.4 (25 feet) I 0 feet
b-ut not less than either

0.04 (90 feet) ~ 3.6 feet
or 3 feet
Therefore.. a = 9 feet and 2a = 18 feet for bolh roof types. These distance.~ are taken from the comer of lhe
building wall and llQ! the comer of the roof overhang.

Design Example 7A • Wind Foroes on a Simple Diaphragm Bullo\hg- P8rt2 Met/too<i
5. Determine Adjustment Factor for Building

Height and Exposure, A ASCE7
The pres ures obtained from the table in Figure 28.5- I are based on a mean roof height. h. equal to 30 feet
and Exposure Category B. Adju stment~; for building height and exposure ar-e provided in the adj ustment.
factor table located in Figure 28.5- 1. The adjustment factor for the hip roof building is determined by
interpolating bctweenme.an roof heights using the tabular va!ue.s for Exposure C. These values are shown in
'P.1ble 7A- 3.
Table 7A- 3. Hip roof adjusrmem facrors
Mean Roof Height (fl) t.,

30 1.40
35 1.45
For the hip roof building. the adjusnnent factor is determined using linear interpolation for a mean roof
height of 34.38 ft. The adjustment factor for the hip roof building is A = 1.44.
For the flat roof building, the adjustment factor can read directly from the rable for a mean roof height of
25ft. The adjustment factor for the flat roof buiJding is A= 1.35.
6. Determine Adjusted Simplified Design Wind Pressures, Ps ASCE7
The simplified design wind pressures determined in Step 4 are multiplied by the adjusouent factor
dctcm1incd in Step 5 and the topographic factor using the equution
Ps = AK:.~ Ps_~o Eq28.5- l
Hip roof:
The simplified design wind pressures. p5• for the hip roof building for Case A are shown in Table 7 A-4
with adjustments for height and topography using A = I .44. K:J = 1.0. n1cse pressures correspond to
the zones illustrated in Figure 7 A-6a for Case A.
Table 7A-4. Arljusred hip roof design pressures. Case A
Zones
Overhang
A B c D E F G H E oB GoH
59.0 - 3.2 41.0 0.4 -38.8 -35.7 -27.4 - 27.9 -60.5 -4-8.9

Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on a Simple Diaphragm Bullo\'ng- Part 2 Method
Figure 7A-6a. Wind pressure disTribution (hip roof building), Case A
Footnote 7 of Figure 28.5-1 requires that ''lhe total horizontal load shall not be less than that detcm1ined
by assuming Ps = 0 in Zones Band D." If the adj usted tabular pressures in Zones Band Dare negative,
(ben the horizontal loads in Zones A .and C would be counrerac!ed. For this example. since the pressure in
Zone B is negative, and tbe pressure in Zone D is nearly zero, a check must be made to determine whether
the negative pressure in Zone B reduces the total horizontal load on the building to less than that would be
present if the pressures !n Zones B and D were set to zero. The sum of horizontal loads in Zones B and D
results in an overall positive value since ZoneD bas a much larger area than Zone B; therefore, the adjusted
tabular pressures sho\1111 in Table 7 A-4 arc used instead of setting them to zero. The horizontal wind loads
acting on llhe hip roof building for Case A are shown in Table 7A- 5.
120 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI?-16

Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on s Simple Dlapluagm Bullo\hg - Par/2 Mell!·o<l
Table 7A-5. Hip roof wind base shew; Case A
Zone Zone Areu, sf Ps• psf Horizonllll Loud, lhs
A 450 +59.0 26,550
B 97 - 3.2 - 310
c 3,300 + 4 1.0 135,300
D 2 ,100 +0.4 840

Total wind bnsc shcur 162,380
1llc simplified design wind pressures arc applied to the verticul and borizontal projections of the building
walk and roof. Footnote 2 o fFigun: 28.5-1 requires the loud putte.ms to be "applied to each com er of the
building in tum as lhe reference corner (see Fig. 28.3- 1)." The commentary coll(ained in ASCE 7 indicates
l hnt the simplified method is based on lhe low-rise method. The low-rise method wus developed using
research on gable roofed buildings. The commentary p rc.sents a suggc..-;tcd method for adapting loudings for
hip-roof b uildings (Figure C28.3-2)_ For this Design E xample. this adaptation hru; been incorporated into
Figures 7A- 6a and 7A- 6b.
ru previously indicated, Figure 28.5-1 requires that a roof angle of 0 degrees be used to determine the wind
pres, ur-es for Case B when the wind is considered to act primarily perpendicular to the transverse walls (end
walls).
The simplified design wind pressures. Pso for the hip roof building f or CAS"E B are s hown in Table 7 A- 6
with adjustments for height and topography using A. = 1.44, Kv = 1.0. These pressures cotTcspond to the
zones illustrated in Figun: 7A-6b for u u:c B.
Table 7A- 6. Adjusted hip roof design pressures, Case B
Z ones
O verhang
A B c D E F G H E ou Gou
44.9 -23.2 29.7 -13.9 - 53.8 -30.6 - 37.5 -23.7 -75.5 -59.0
For Case B. rhc horizontal pressure for Zones B and D are negative. As previously discussed, the use of
negative values would counteract tbe positive pressures in Z ones A and C. Per Footn ote 7, the pressures for
Zones B and D will be set to zero_
The example building projects out at the f ront oftbe building . Since the projection is located away from the
reference comer and is in the direction of wind fl ow. end zone pressures will be applied to the projecting
wall and roof surfaces for Case B. These zones have been denoted A* and B ~ respecLively and are s hown
in Figure 7 A-6b. The horizontal wind loads acting on the hlp roof building for Case B are shown in
Table 7A-7.

Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on e Simple Dlapl1ragm Bullcfl'ng- Part 2 Metho<i
Figure 7A- 6b. Wind pressure disrribution (hip roof building), Case B
Table 7A-7. Hip roof wind base shear. Case B
Zone Zone A n:-n, sf Ps, psf Horizontnl Load, lbs
A 225 + 44.9 10, 102
A*' 100 + 44.9 4,490
B 32.5 - 23.2 (Usc 0) 0

B* 11.5 -23.2 tUsc 0) 0
c 2025 + 29.7 60, 143
D 988 - I3.9 (Use 0) 0

Total wind base shear 74,735

Design Example 7A • Wind t=oroes on a Simple Diaphragm Bullo\hg- Part2 Metlwxl
Section 28.5.4 requires thm the load effects of the design wind pressures be greater than the nunimum
horizontal wind pr-essures applied to wall and roof surfaces. For Zones A and C. the mini mum horizonwJ
wull pressure is + 16.0 psf. For Zones B and D, the minimum horizontal roof pressurt: is + 8.0 psf. Tables
7A- 8 and 7A-9 provide a check of the oventll load efrccts for both Case A and Case B for the hip roof
building.
Table 7A- 8. Hip roofminimum wind base shem; Case A
Zone Zone Aren.. sf Ps· psf Horizontal Load. lbs
A 450 + 16.0 7.200
B 97 +8.0 776
c 3.300 + 16.0 52.800
D 2, 100 +8.0 16,800
Total wind base shear 77.576
For this example. the min.irnum wind loads do not govern for Case A since 77.576 lbs is less thar1 the
162,380 Jbs c:tlcuJated earlier.
Table 7A- 9. Hip roof minimum wind base she01; Case B
Zone Zone Aren.. sf Ps· psf Horizontal Load. lbs
A 225 + 16.0 3.600

At< 100 + 16.0 1.600
B 32.5 + 8.0 260
B* 11.5 +8.0 92
c 2025 +1 6.0 32.400
D 988 +8.0 7,904
Again, the minimum wind loads do not goveru for Case B since 45.856 lbs is less th an the 74,735 lbs
calculated earlier. u: rhe minimum wiJ1d pressures were to govern for a particular case, then the minimum
wind pressures would be utilized in the analysis of the MWFRS for thnt pnrticulur cusc.
For comparative purposes, the same building will be analyzed using a flat roof instead of the hip-roof
configuration. Overhang pressures were included to provide a comparison to the hip building overhnnd
loads.
Flat roof:
The simplified design wind pre.o;sures. Ps. for the flat roof building are shown in T-.:tble 7 A- I 0 wi th
adjustments for height and topography using "A =:~ 1.35. K:1 =:~ I .0. Wind pressure distributions for the Hal
roof are shown in Figures 7A-6c and 7 A- 6d. TI1e horizontal wind loads acting on the flat roof building are
shown in Tables 7A- ll and 7A- 12 for Cast:s A and B, n:spcctivcly.
Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on s Simple Olaphtagm Bullo\'ng- Part 2 Melhod
Table 7A- JO. Adjrwed flat roofdesign press11res
Zones
Overhang
Horizontal Pressure~ Vert.ical Prc:>sw-es Pressures
A B c D E F G H EoH Gon
42.0 - 27.8 - - 50.4 - 28.6 -35.1 -22. 1 N/A N/A
Fig11re 7A-6c. Wind pre~u11re distribution ({far roof building). Case A
124 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16
Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on s Simple Dlapluagm Bu//(l\hg - Par/2 Mell!·o<l
Table 7A-ll. Flat roof wind bose shear. Case A
Zone Zone A rcu, sf P.\·, psf Horizontnl Loud, lhs
A 450 + 42.0 18.900
c 3,300 + 27.8 9 1,740
Totul wind bnsc s hcur 11 0,640
Figure 7A - 6d. Wind pressure disrribwion (jlat-roof building). Case B

Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on s Simple 0/aphtagm Bullo\'rlg- Part 2 Me/hod
Table lA- 12. F fcll ror!].wind base shew; Case B
Zone Zone Areu, sf Ps: psf Horizont:nJ Loud, lbs

A 225 +42.0 9,450
A* 100 +42.0 4,200

c 2,025 +27.8 56,295
Total wind bnsc shcnr 69,945
1By insr.rettion. Lhe minimum wind loads required by Sctlion 28.5.4 do not govern ~inte the adjusted wind
pressm-es on the wafls are greater than 16 psf.
The simplified design wi_nd pressw·es shown in the preceding tables and figure:; are strength-level design
pressures. The user is reminded that the appropriate load factors from Chapter 2 of ASCE 7 or the applicable
building code should bt applied when designing individual members and components using either sLrength
design or allowable stress design methodologies contained in the applicable material desjgJl standards.
7. Distribution of Horizontal Wind Loads along Height ASCE7
For tbe purpo.es of this Design Example, the MWFRS is comprised of horizontal plywood diaphragms and
vertical plywood shear wal ls. While the overall analysis and design of the diaphragms und shear walls arc
beyond the cope of this exllmplc. a general discussion of the vertical distribution of the wind loads to the
diaphragms is warranted.
In the transverse direction, exterior shear walls are located along Gridli.nes A and D. with UJl interior shear
wall located {)11 Gridline C. The Ocxiblc cliaphragms spuo from Gridli ncs A to C and fTom Gridlincs C to
D. This permits the diaphragms to be considered as two simply supported beams spanning between the
respective shear walls. Since the placement of the shear wall on Gridli ne C is not symmetric witlJ respect 10
the center of the building, the reaction forces at each shear waLl line wi ll vary depending on the load pattern
onder consideration (see Footnote 2 of Figure 28.5- 1).
In the longitudinal direction , the shear walls are located at Gridlines 1 and 5. The plan projection occurring
at 'the fronr oftlle building between Gridlines 5 and 6 is relatively small in comparison to the overall
building dimension. For the purposes of this example, wind forces on the projection have been assumed to
be resisted by the shear walls on Gridline 5. Tht wind forces in this direction are resisted by a single flexible
diaphragm spanning from Gridl ines l to 5 and can be analyzed as a simply supported beam spanning
between rhe respective shear walls.
]o general, tbe load to the diaphragm can be determined by multiplying the wind pressure in a particular
zone by the area of the projected wall and roof surface,~ that arc tributary to the horizontal diaphragms at
each level. Per Footnote 2 in Figure 28.5-1. the wind loads must be applied to the bui lding and rotated
around each ·comer of the building as shown in Figure 28.3- I . This produces eight loading patterns for each
example buiJding {i.e., four each for Cases A nnd B). Due to the symmetric nature of the example buildings,
the user could consider only four loading patterns (i.e .. two each for Cases A and B) for determination of lhe
diaphragm reactions.
Using applicable static equilibrium equatjous. tlJe reaction forces due to the wind loads are determined
for each diaphragm. These reactions are shown in Tables 7 A-13 through 7 A-1 6 and arc referenced to the
windward corner location based on their compass location. In adilition, reactions have been included in the
tables for the lower half of lhe jirst floor walls. These reactions were included to provide a means to perfonn
a calculation check against the totu_l wind base shears previously calculated in Section 6.

Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on a Simple Diaphragm Bullo\hg- Part 2 Met/1'0<1
Table 7A-13. Hip rovfdiaphmgm reac:Jion.l'. Case A
Diaphrngnn Reactions, lbs

Gridlinc A Gridlinc C Gridlinc D
Diaphragm Windward
Lc,,cl Corner RA RcA R C (IWII) I~ co Rv
Roof NE 10,500 10 ,628 15,954 5,326 6,444
NW 11,724 10 ,740 l 6.012 5,272 5.200

SE 10 .500 10 .628 15.954 5,326 6.444
sw I 1.724 10.740 16.012 5.272 5.200
z<t! floor NE 25.625 25.625 39.165 13.540 16.1 35
NW 29,310 25.990 38,803 12.81 3 12,813
SE 25.625 25.625 3 9,165 13.540 16. 135
SW 29.310 25,990 3 8,803 12.813 12.813

1
1' floor NE I 5.375 15,375 23,500 8, 125 9,680
NW 17,586 15,594 23,282 7,688 7,688
SE 15,375 15,375 23,500 8,125 9,680
SW 17,586 15,594 23,282 7,688 7,688
Table ?A-14. Hip roof diaphragm reacJions, Case B
Diaphragm Reactions. lbs

Gridline I Gddlinc 5
Diaphragm Level Windward Corner R, Rs
Roof NE 7,3:\2 6,7 17
NW 7,332 7.3 11
SE 6.7 17 8.230
sw 6.7 17 8.230
2 nd floor NE 18.331 16.793
NW 18.331 18,277
SE 16.793 20.575
sw 16,793 20,575
1" fl oor NE 10,998 10,075
NW 10,998 10,966
SE 10,075 12,345
SW 10,075 12.345

Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on a Simple Dlaphtagm Bullo\'ng- Part 2 Me/hod
Table 7A-15. Fla1 roof diaphragm reaclions, Case A
Diaphragm Reactions, lbs

GridlineA Grid linc C Gridline D
Diaphragm WLndward
Level Comer RA RcA R C(khl\) Rcn Ro
Roof NE 6 ,950 6,950 10,655 3,705 4,523
NW 8.113 7,065 10,540 3,475 3.475
SE 6.950 6,950 10,655 3.705 4.523
sw &.1 13 7.065 10.540 3.475 3.475
2ui floor NE 17.375 17.375 26.638 9.263 11 .307
NW 20.282 17,663 26.35 1 8.688 8.688
SE 17.375 17,375 26.638 9.263 11.307
SW 20,282 17,663 26.35 1 8,688 8,688
51
1 floor NE 10.425 10,425 15,983 5,558 6,784
NW 12,170 10,598 I 5,81 0 5,212 5,212
SE 10,425 10,425 15,983 5,558 6,784
sw 12, 170 10,598 15,810 5.212 5,212
Table lA-16. Flat roof diaphragm reacJions. Case B

GridUnc I GridUne 5
Diaphragm Level Wind.\vard Corner R, Rs
Roof 1\f£ 6,862 6,843
NW 6.862 6,732
SE 6.287 7,702
sw 6.287 7,702
2"~ floor f\iE 17.155 17.1 07
NW 17, 155 16.996
SE 15,717 19,255
SW 15,7 17 19,255
I,.. floor NE 10,293 10,264
NW 10,293
I ! 0, 153
SE 9,430 11 ,553
SW 9.430 11 ,553
128 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI?-16

Design Example 7A • Wind Porces on a Simple Diaphragm Bullolilg- Part 2 Metlto<J
8. Vertical Distribution of Wind Uplift Forces ASCE7
For the purposC$ of this Des ign Example, the roof system is constnu.:ted of wood structural pnn cl roof
. heathing supported l>y pretlHtnufactw-ed cold-formed steel roof tmsses. While the ovemll analysis and
design of the roof diaphragm, supponing tn1sses, and roof anchorage ure beyond the scope of this example,
a general discussion of the distribution of the wind uplift forces is warranted.
Vertical forces genera ted by wind a re typical ly referred ro as uplift forces. T hese uplift forces are
distributed to the supporting structural cle ments nnd must he trunsfcrrcd down through the structure to
provide for a continuous load pmh. Uplift forces are also used to an alyze overall structural stability to
prevem ovenurning or the struc ture.
Gross up lift forces are calculated by multiplying the vertical wind load by the area over which the loads
acts. Tables 7A- 17 thr ough 7A- 20 ptoe.sent the gross upliJt loads ac ting on the hip roof and flat roof
struc tures for Loud Case A and Load Case B .
Table 7A- .17. Hip roofg ross uplift forces, Case A
Zone Zone Area, sf Ps· psf Vertical Load. lbs
E 81 0 - 38.8 - 31.428
F 940 - 35.7 - 33.558
G 6. 140 - 27.4 - 168.236
H 6.298 - 27.9 -1 75.714
EoII 130 - 60.5 - 7.865
Gml 374 -48.9 -18,289

Tota l wind uplift -431 .202
Table ?A-18. Hip roof gross upliflforr:es. Case B
Z.Qnc Z.Qnc Arcn, sf P.~· psf Vertical Load, lbs
E 810 - 53.8 - 43,578

E* 87 -53.8 -4,68 1
F 940 -30.6 - 28,764
G 6,053 -37.5 -226,988

H 6,298 -23.7 -149,263
EoH 130 -75.5 -9.815
EoH+' 48 -75.5 -3,624
G oH 326 -59.0 -19,234

Tota l wind uplift -485,947
Wind Design Manual Bssed on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7-16 129

Design Example 7A • Wind Forces on s Simple Dlaph18gm Bullo\'ng - Part 2 Method
Table 7A- 19. Flat roof gross llpliftforr:es, Case A
Zone Zone Areu, sf Ps, psf Vertical Loud, lbs

E 810 -50.4 -40,824
F 810 - 28.6 - 23, 166
G 6, 140 - 35.1 - 215,514
H 5,940 -22.1 - 13 1,274
Totul wind uplift -410,778
Table 7A-20. Flat roo.fsross uplifi.forces, Case B
Z<>ne Zone Arcn, sf Ps• psf Vertical Load, lbs

E 810 -50.4 - 40,824
E,. 87 - 50.4 - 4,385
F 810 - 28.6 - 23, 166
G 6,053 -35.1 -212.460
H 5,940 -22.1 - 131.274
Total wind uplift - 4 12, 109
The following items are not addressed in rhis example bm are nevertheless necessary for a complete design
of the main wind force rcsi1>ting system:
• Application of appropriate load factors for individual member design.
• Comparison of wind and seismic forces.
• Design of individual members comprisi.ng the roof framing system.
• Design of connections/anchors to resist the roof uplift.
• Design of individual memhcr.> comprising the wall framing system.
• Design of rhe diaphragm system.
• Design of the shear wal l system.
• Design of the foundations.

Design Example 7B
Wind Forces on a Simple Diaphragm Building -
Part 1 Method
OVERVIEW
Design Example 7B Illustrates the Part I Merhod of the Envelope Procedure of ASCE 7 and provides a
comparison oflhe wi.nd pressures and distribution of wind loads to rl1e MWFRS for the hip-roof building of
Design E..xamplc 7A.
OUTLINE
I . Building and Site Information
2. Wind Load Parameters Specified in Chapter 26
3. Determine Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient
4. Determine Velocity Pressure
5. Determine Extemal Pressw-e Coefticiem. GCPI
6. Calculate Wind Pressure
7. Distribution of Horizontal Wind Loads along Height
8. Vertical Distribution of Wind Uplift Forces
9. Discussion on Comparison of Part I and Part 2 Methods
10 . Items Not Addressed in This Example
Design Example 7B • Wind Forces on s Simple Dlaphtagm Bullo\'ng- Part 1 Method
1. Building and Site Information
1.1 BUILDING INFORMATION
• 90 feet by I 50 fee t in plun wilh typic:~I floor plan shown in Figure 78- 1
• Two-story building with hip roof as shown in Figure 7B- 2

o Roof slope 5:12 (9 = 22.6 degrees)
• Irnpacr-resistant g lazing at all opening .
• Office occupancy on ull floors.
• Roof framing system - Premnnufactured cold-formed steel roof rn1sses with wood stnlctural
panel roof sheathing.
• Floor framing systems - Premanufactured cold-formed steel floor trusses with wood structural
panel floor sheathing .
• Bearing wall system with cold-fonned steel sruds aud wood su·uctmal panel sheaLhing. Shear
walls are provided i11 the nortl1 to south direction a long Gtidlines A, C , and D and in the side-
to-side direction along Gridlines I, 5, and 6.
Figure 78-1. Typical floor plan

Deslgn Example 78 • Wind Forces on o Simple Dlophrogm Building- Part 1 Meii'I'<Xi
0 0
l
I
cp I
I
I
I
I
I I
1111 IIIli I I IHI I I 1m 1m llll

m1 I 00 I ~ ~ 00 00
Figure 78- 2. Building elevation (hip-roof building)
1.2 SITE INFORMATION
• Located in Summorville, SC.

o 33.05° N, 80.17° W
• The building is located on Ant nnd open terrain typicnl of Exposure C.
2. Wind Load Parameters Specified in Chapter 26 ASCE7
Review and determine the following from Cbnpter 26:
• Risk Category (IBC Table I 604.5)

o The building classifica6on is Risk Category ll based on office use.
• Basic Wind Speed. V (Section 26.5)

c v= 140 mph for n Risk Category n su-ucture location in Summerville, SC
o Determined using maps included in ASCE 7 or the ATC Windspeed Cakulacor by the
Applied Technology Council.
Per Seclion 26.5.2. for special wind regions and some areas of the country, the basic wind speed
may need to be obtained from the building code o.fficial for lhe authority having jurisdiction.

Design Example 78 • Wind Forces on s Simple Olaphtagm Bullo\'ng- Part 1 Method
• Exposwoe Category (SeGlion 26.7)

o Exposure C (given)
o See Design Example 3 for furlhcr disl:ussion on Exposure Category
• Wind Diroctionulity Factor, K", using Section 26.6.

o K0 0.85 from Table 26.6- 1 for I\1\VFRS for buildings
• Topogruphic Factor K11 (Section 26.8)

o Flat terrain (given)
o K; = 1.0
o See Design Example 2 for furrher discussion on Topographit Factor
• Enclosure Classitkntion using Section 26.12

o Enclosed building (impact-resistam glazing)
• Internal Pressure Coefficient, GCfil. using Table 26.13-1

a GCp; = ±0.18 for enclosed building
3. Determine Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient ASCE7
For Exposure C. lhe velocity pressure exposure coefficjents, K: and Kh, are d etermined from Table 26.10-1.
The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K:• is the coefficient used to evaluare the velocity pressure ar a
height, z, above the ground surface. T he velocity pressure coefficient, K1., is the coefficient used to evaluate
lhe velocity pressure at lhe mean roof heighl h - z.
For this Design Example, lhcsc coefficients arc shown in the table in Step 4.
4 . Determine Velocity Pressure ASCE7
The velocity pressure equation conta1ncd in ASCE 7 historically has converted the basic wi nd speed ro
a pressure using Bernoulli 's L aw with an air density at the standard atmospheric pressure. ASCE 7- 16
has introduced a Ground Elevation Adjustment Factor, K,. into the familiar velocity pressure equation
lo account for the effect on ai.r dens:ity that results from the ground elevation at the project site being
higher than the same project located at sea leveL Table 26.9-1 provides tubular values for K,. in I 000-foot
i ncrements and a formula for cak:ulaling lhe values in Note 2 to Lhe table. Conservatively. the value of K,
can be taken as 1.00 for all elevations.

Design Example 78 • Wind Forces on 8 Simple Dlophtagm Bulldfng - Part 1 Metl'i'<Xi
TI1e velocity pressures at various elevations are obtained from the equation
Eq 26. I<}-L
Tnble 78-1. Velocity pressure
Height Above Velocity Pressure Exposure Velocity Pressure

Ground Level Coefficients (psf)
z: (ft) K~ T<,, lft q,.,

0-15 0.85 - :~ 6 .3 -
20 0.90 - 38.4 -
25 0.94 - 40 -
30 0.98 - 4 1.8 -
II = 34.3~ - 1.01 - 43.1
40 1.04 f- Value used only for interpolation of K1,
5. Determine External Pressure Coefficient, GCpf ASCE7
The external pressure coefficient, GC, 1, is determined using Figure 28.3- I . These pressure coefficients were
developed bru;ed on re5carch for gnblc-roof buildings. The Commentary recommends udupting the loudings
for hip-roof buildings. Per Commentary Figure C28.3-2. roof coefficients from the Load Case A table
• houJd be used for both Load Case A and Load Case B. For this Design Example. this adaptation has been
incorporalcd into Figures 7B-3n and 7B- 3b.
Deslgn Example 78 • Wind Forces on a Simple Dlephtagm Bullo\'ng- Part 1 Method
Table 7~2. Hip roof pressure coe_[Jicients, Case A
Roof Building Surface

Angle
(degrees) I 2 3 4 IE 2E 3E 4E
20° 0.53 -0.69 - 0.48 - 0.43 0.80 -1.07 - 0.69 - 0.64
30-45° 0.56 0.21 - 0.43 -0.37 0.69 0.27 -0.53 -0.48
Using linear interpolation for e = 22.6°, 1he coeflicie m~ are de!crmined as
22.6° 0.54 - 0.45 - 0.47 - 0.4 1 0.77 - 0.72 - 0.65 - 0.60
Figure 78-Ja. Wind pressure distrlbwion (hip roof building). Case A

Design Example 78 • Wind Forces on 8 Simple Diaphragm Building- Part 1 Met/'1'0<1
Table 78-3. Hip roof pressure cve,Oiciel/1.1', Case B
Roof BuiJding Surface

A.ugle
(degree ) 1 2~· 3to 4 5 6 lE 2E,. 3E'1 4E 5E 6E
0-90° - 0.45 -0.45 - 0.47 - 0.45 0.40 - 0.29 -0.48 - 0.72 - 0.65 - 0.48 0.61 -0.43
* Load Case A Roof Coefficients- See Commentary Figure C28.3-2
Figure 7B-3b. Wind pressure distribution (hip roof building), Case B

Design Example 7B • Wind Forces on a Simple 0/aphtagm Bullo\'ng- Part 1 Method
NO[e 8 of Figure 28.3-1 stares when rue roof pressw-e coeftkiem GC,,fis negative in Zoucs 2 <\lid 2E. GCPI
s hall be applied ill Zones 2 and 2E ''f or a distance from the edge of roof equal to 0.5 times the horizontal
dimension of Lhe bui lding parnlld to the direct]on of the MWFRS heing des igned or 2.5 t ime~ the eave
height at the windw~ud wall. whichever is less." The remainder of Lhe roof utilizes the roof pressut-e
coefticien1 for Zone 3 and 3E.
For Lhis D esign Example. the roof pressure coefficients, GS,1, are negative in Zones 2 and 2E. Thus. the
distance from the edge of the roof is Ihe smaJJer of
0.5(90 feet) = 45 feet i n the transven;e d irection (.Case A)

0.5(150 feet) = 75 fee t in lbe Jongitudi.nal direction (Case B)
2.5h" = 2.5 X 25 feet = 62.5 feet
]n the trnnsverse direction, tbe application of the roof pressure coefficients will be governed by 0.5 times
t be horizontal building dimension. In the longitudinal direction, the application of the roof pressure
coefticie.nts will be governed by 2.5 times the eave height. resulting in modi"tication of the pressure
dUribution i.n Figure 7B- 3b to that shown in Figure 7B- 3c.
Figure 7B-3c. Wind pressure distribution (hip roof building), Case B
138 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEt 7-16

Design Example 76 • Wind Forces on 8 Simple Dlophtagm Building - Part 1 Meth·o<i
6. Calculate Wind Pressure ASCE7
The design wind pressures for the MWFRS arc determined using E guution 28.3-1:
Eq 28.3 - 1
Table 7B-4. Hip roofdesign wind pressures. p
LOAD CASE A- TRANSVERSE DmECfiON

l nternuJ Building Surface
Pressure,
GCP1 1 2 3 4 IE 2E 3E 4E
+0.1 8 15.4 -27.3 - 27.9 - 25.6 25.5 - 38.7 -35.7 - 33.5

- 0.18 30.9 - 11.8 - 12.4 - 10.1 41.0 - 23.2 - 20.2 - 18.0
LOADCASEB
II Internal
BuiJding Surface
Pressure.
GCP, 1 2" 3* 4 5 6 lE 2E* 3E>~ 4E 5E 6E
+0.18 - 27.2 - 27.3 - 27.9 - 27.2 9.5 - 20.3 - 28.4 - 38.7 - 35.7 - 28.4 18.5 - 26.3
- 0.18 - 11.6 -11 .8 - 12.4 - 11.6 25.0 - 4.7 -1 2.9 - 23.2 - 20.2 -12.9 34. 1 -10.8
*' Pressures based on Load Case A Roof C oefficients - See Commentary Figure C28.3-2
Near the ends and edges of buildings. higher wind p ressures result. These localions arc denoted as end
zones and are s hown in the isometric figures included in Figure 28.3- 1. The notation in Figure 28.3- 1
provides for calculation of lhe distance a as the s maller of: 10 pcrccm of the least horizontal dimension or
0.4 h, !l!ll not less than either 4 percent of rhe least horizontal dimension or 3 feeL
Hip roof:
Distance. a. the s maller of
10 percent (90 feet) = 9 fee t f - Governs
or 0.4 (34.38 feet) = 13.75 feet
but not less than either

0.04 (90 feet) = 3.6 feet
or 3 feet
The calculated wind pressures are applied w the vertical and hori zontal surfaces of the building walls and
roof. Note 3 of F igure 28.3-1 requires tbut ·'the building must be designed for aU wind directions using the
eigh t loading patterns shown ... applied to each building corner in tum as the windward corner." Note 4
requires that "combinations of external and internal pressures shall be evaluated as required to obtain the
most severe loadings." TI1us , when both positive and negative imernal pre sures are considered. there are
sixteen separate loading conditions that must be evaluated. S ince the example build ing is symmetric in one
direclion. the number of loading cases is reduced f rom sixteen to eigh l.
Wind Design Manual B.ssed on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 139
Design Example 76 • Wind Forces on 8 Simple Dlaphtagm Bulldl'ng- Part 1 Method
F or de.sigu of the MWFRS. N ote 6 of Figure. 28.3-1 requires lhar "the total horiwntaJ shear sball not be
Jess tban that determined by neglecting the wind forces on the roof." For Load Case A of this example,
t he horizontal components of the. design wind pressure..~ in Zones 2 and 2E uct in the opposite dirc.ction t iS
lhose in Zones 3 a nd 3E. Whc.n each particular roof' zone m-ea is multiplied by the corresponding horizontal
p res ure, and aJJ borizonta1l'Oof loads are ~ ummed together, a positive value results; therefore , the wind
forc es on the roof a rc not neglected. If the s um of the horizontal loads o n the entire roof s inH.: hire had
resulted in a negative value, then the wind forces on the roof would be neglected.
Roof overhung pressures arc calculated using the provisions conmioed in Section 28.3.3. An ndditiooul
p ositive extc.mal pressure is applied to the bollom surface of the windward roof overhang in combination
w ith <tb
. e fiop surface pres ures previously detemlined. The additional pos itive external pl'e ssure is
d ctcm1incd using Equatio n 28.3-1 with a pressure coefficie nt GC, equnl to 0.7. Fo r the purposes of this
cxampk, the additional external overhang pressures to be added to the to p surface pressures previously
cakulated are 22.4 psf (GC1, 1 • + 0 .1 8) and 37.9 psf (GCJJ1 - 0.1 8).
The controlling horizontallouds for Load Case. A on the structure shown in Figure 7 B-3a are shown in
Ta ble 7B- 5.
Table 7B-5. Hip roofl4.!ind base shear. Case A
Horizontal Pressure in
Zone Zone Area. sf Direction of Flow Horizo ntal Load. lbs
I 3.300 15.4 50.919
2 2.102 -10.5 - 22, 113
3 2 .102 10.7 22,555
4 3.300 25.6 84.546
lE 4 50 25.5 11 ,471
2E 97 -1 4 .9 -1 ,445
3E 97 13.7 1,332
4E 4 50 33.5 15,093
F or Load Case B. the ho rizontal components of the design wind pressur~~ in Zones 2 and 3 act in the
o pposite dire ction as Lhose in Zones 2E and 3E. The sum of these horizontal loads resulrs in a negative
value; therefore, tbe wind forces on tlhc roof arc neglected per Note 6 of Figure 28.3-1 for design of the
MWFRS.
The example building proj ects o ut at the front of the building. Since the projection is located away from the
reference comer and is in the direction of wind flow, end zone pressures will be applied to the projecting
wa ll and roof surfaces for Load Case B . These zones have been denoted with an asterisk as shown in
Figure 7B- 3c, and the controlli ng horizontal loads on the structure are shown in Table 7B- 6.

Design Example 78 • Wind Forces on 8 Simple Dlaph1agm Building - Part 1 Meti!'<Xl
Table 7B-6. Hip roof base wind shear. Case B
Horiz.onrul Pressure in
Zone Zone Area. sf DirecLion of Flow Horizontal Load. lbs
2 49 1.5 0 0
2* 47 0 0
3 491.5 0 0
5 2.025 25.0 50.625

6 2.025 4 .7 9.5 18
2E 491.5 0 0
2E" 47 0 0
3E 491.5 0 0
SE 225 34.1 7,673
5E" 100 34.1 3,410
6E 225 10.8 2,430
6E" 100 10.8 1,080

Tot:nl wind base shear 74,735
Section 28.3.4 requires that the design wind pressures used for design of the MWFRS be greater than
{he minimum horizontal wind pressures applied to wall areas and to rhe vertical projections of the roof
surfaces. The minimum horizontal wall pressure is + J 6.0 psf, and the minimum horizontal roof pressure is
+ 8.0 psf projected onlo the vertical wall and roof surfaces. Tables 78-7 and 78-8 provide a check of Lhe
overall load effects for both Case A and Case B.
Table 7B- 7. Hip roofminim11m wind base shear. Case A
Minimum Pressure in
Zone Projected Zone Area. sf Direction of Flow Horizontal Load. lbs
1+ 4 3.300 + 16.0 52,800
2+ 3 2. 102 + 8.0 16.816

JE+ 4E 450 + 16.0 7.200
2E+ 3E 97 +8.0 776
Total wind base shear 77.592
For this example, the minimum wind loads do not govern for Load Case A since 77.592 Jbs is less than the
previously dctcm1incd base shear of 162,357 lhs.
Design Example 78 • Wind t:oroes on a Simple Olaphtagm Bullcil'ng- Part 1 Method
Table 7B-8. Hip roof minimum wind base shew ; Case B
Minimum Prtssurc in
Zone Projected Zone Area, ~r Direction of F low Horizontal Lond. lbs
2+ 3 491.5 +8.0 3.932
2* 47 + 8.0 376
5+6 2,025 + 16.0 32,400
2E+3E 49 1.5 +8.0 3,932
2E* 47 +8.0 376
5E+ 6"E 225 + 16.0 3,600

5£>~ + 6"£>< 100 + 16.0 1,600
I
Total wind bnsc sh l!llf 46,2 16
Ag-ain. the minimum wind loads do n ot govern for Load Case B si nce 46,216 lbs is less than the previously
calculated base shear of74,735 lbs.lfthe minimum wind pressures were to govern for a particular case,
t hen the minimum wind pressures would be utilized in the analysis o f theM WFRS for that particular case.
The simplitied design wind pressures shown in the preceding tables and llgures are strength-level design
p ressures. The user is reminded that the appropriate loud factors fro m Cbaprer 2 or the appUcublc building
code should be applied when designing individual members and components using either slrength design or
allowable slress design melbodologies comained in tbe applicable material desig11 standards.
7. Distribution of Horizontal Wind Loads along Height ASCE7
Similar to the MV\•'FRS for Design Example 7 A. the MWFRS for Design E xample 7B comprises horizontal
plywood diaphragms and vertical plywood shear walls. While the overall analysis and design of the
diaphragm s and shear walls arc beyond the scope of this example, a general discussion of the vertical
clistrihmion of tbe wind loads to the diaphragms is warranted.
lln the transverse direction, exterior shear walls arc located along Gridlincs A and D, with an interior shear
wall located on Gridline C. The fl exible diaphragms span from Gridlincs A to C and from Gridlincs C to
D . This permits me diaphragms to be considered as two simply supported beams spanning between the
respective sh ear walls. Since the placement of tbe shear wall on Gridline C is not symmeoic with respect to
the center of the builcling, the reacGon forces at each shear wall line wi ll vary depending on the load pattern
under consideration (see Footnote 2 of Figw·e 28.5- 1).
In the longitudinal direction, the shear walls arc located al Gridlines I and 5. The plun projection occurring
at the front of the building between Gridlines 5 and 6 is relatively small in comparison to the overall
building dimension. For the purposes of this example, wind forces on the projection have been assumed
t o be resisted by the shear walls on Gridline 5. The wind forces in this direction arc resisted by a single
fl exible diaphragm spanning from Gridlines I to 5 and can be analyzed as a simply supported beam
spanning between lhe respective shear walls.
Design Example 78 • Wind Forces on 8 Simple Diaphragm Bulldlilg- Part 1 Me/11'0<1
ln general rbe load to the diaphragm can be detenui ued by multiplying rhe wind pressure iu a particular
zone by the area of the projected \valJ and roof surfaces that are tributary to the horizontal diaphragms at
eJ.tch level. Per Footnote :1 in Figure 28.:1-1 , the wind louds must be applied to the bui ldi ng using positive
and negative internal pressures and rotated around the building as shown in the figure.
Using npplicublc stutic equilibrium cgtLHtions, the reuction force"' due to the wind loud~ nrc determined for
each diapl:u-ogm. These reactions are shown in Tables 7B- 9 and 78-10 and are referenced to the windward
corner location based on their compass location. In addition, reactions have been included in these tables
for tbe lower half of the first-floor walls. These renctions were included to provide u means to pcrfom1 a
calculation check against the total wind base shears previously calculated in Section 6.
Table 78-9. flip roof diaphragm reactions. Case A
Dinphragm Reactions, lbs

Gridline A Gridline C Gridline b
Diaphragm Windward
Level Corner RA RCJ, R C\CtCII) Rcfl Ro
Roof NE 10,395 10,462 15,888 5,426 6,058
NW I 1,772 10,595 15,897 5,302 5,17 1
SE 10,395 10.462 15.888 5,426 6,058
SW 11.772 10,595 15,897 5,302 5,17 1

2rxl floor NE 25,656 25,656 39,213 13,556 15,130
NW 29.338 26,020 38,848 12,828 12,828
SE 25.656 25.656 39.213 13.556 15.130
SW 29.338 26.020 38,848 12.828 12.828
I " tloor NE 15.394 15.394 23.528 8.1 34 9.078
NW 17.603 15.612 23.309 7 .697 7.697
SE 15.394 15.394 23.528 8, 134 9.078
sw 17.603 15.612 23.309 7.697 7.697

Design Example 7B • Wind Forces on a Simple Dlaph18gm Bullo\'rlg- Part 1 Method
Table 7B-10. Hip roof diaphragm reactions, Case B
I Diaphragm Level Windward Corner

Gridbn!! 1
R,
Gridli nc 5
Rs
Roof NE 7,337 6,725
NW 7,?,37 7,320
SE 6,725 8,234
SW 6,725 8,234
2"~ floor NE 18.343 16.814
N\V ] 8.343 UUOI
SE 16,8 14 20,585
SW 16,814 20,585
1$1 floor I\'E 11.006 10.088
NW 11,006 10,980
SE 10,088 12.351
SW 10.088 12.351
8. Vertical Distribution of Wind Uplift Forces ASCE7
Similar to the roof system in Design Example 7 A. the roof system in this example is consln.lcted of wood
s tructural panel roof sheathing supported by premanufacturcd cold-fom1cd steel roof trusses. While the
overall a nalysis and design of the roof diaphragm, supporting trusses. and roof anchoruge are beyond the
scope of this example. a general discussion of the distribmion of the wind uplift forces is warranted.
Vertical forces generated by wi nd arc typically referred to as uplift forces. These uplift forces arc
distributed to the supporting stn tctural elements and must be transferred down through the structure to
provide for a continuous load path. Uplift forces are also used to analyze overall sauctural stability to
preYent overturning of the stJucture.
Gross uplift forces are calc\l1ated by lllmltiplying the vertical wind load by the area over which the loads
acts. Tables 1B- 11 and 7B- 12 prcseot the gross uplift loads acting on the structure for Load Case A and
Load Case B.

Design Example 78 • Wind Forces on 8 Simple Dlapluagm Bulldlhg - Pari 1 Me/11'0<1
Table 7B-ll. H ip ruafgross up/if1 f orces, Case A
Zone P rojected Zone Area, sr U plift Pressure, psf Vertical Loud, lbs
2 6,320 -25.2 - 159.264
2ofl 288 - 47.6 - 13,709

2E 81 0 - 35.8 - 28,998
2EoH ~6 - 58.2 - 2,095
3 6.392 -25.7 - 164,274

3E 846 - 32.9 -27,833
Total wind upW't - 396.174
Table 7B- 12. Hip roofgross upl~(tforces. Case B
Zone Projected Zone Area, sf Uplift Pressure, psf Vertical Loud, lbs
2 3,583 - 25.2 - 90,292

2 .. 472 -25.2 - 11 ,894
2E 2,830 - 35.8 - 101.314
2Eou 94 - 58.2 - 5.47 1

2ES 462 - 35.8 - 16,540
2E*00 12 - 5 8.2 - 698
3 4.207 - 25.7 - 108.120
3E 2.938 - 35.8 - 105.180
3EoH 94 - 58.2 - 5.471

Total wind uplift -444.980

Design Example 78 • Wind Forces on a Simple 0/aphtagm Bullcil'ng- Part 1 Method
9. Discussion on Comparison of Part 1 and Part 2 Methods
Design Examples 7a and 7b present the two methodologies of the Envelope Procedure contained in Chapter
28. Des ign E~ ample 7 A presems the simplified mcrhod of the Pa11 2 Envelope ProcedUI'e, which provides
wind loads in tabular fom1. Design Example 7B presents the Part I Method ·o f the Envelope Procedure,
which provides specific equations to calculate wind pressures. A compnrison of the horizontal wind louds
and the vertical wind loads i~ presented in Table 7B- 13.
Table 78- 13. Hip rm!f wind load comparison
Purt 2
Load Case Part I Simplified Method
A 162.357 lbs 162,380 Jbs
Total wind base shear
B 74.735 lbs 74.735 lbs
A -396. 174 lbs -435,090 lbs

Total wind uplift
B - 444.980 lbs - 485.947 lbs
Both methods provide _imilar results with regard to the total base wind shear on the hip-roof stntcture.
However, d ifferences exlst in the total wind uplift loads between the two methods. For the hlp-roof structure
oscd in Design Example_<; 7 A and 7R the simplified method presented in Design Example. 7A produces a
hjgher and more conservative total wind uplift.
The following items are not addressed in this example but are nevertheless necessary for a complete design
of the main wind force resisti ng system:
• Appl ication of appropriate load factors for individual member design.
• Comparison of wind and seismic forces.
• Design of individual members comprising the roof framing system.
• Design of connections/anchors to resist the roof uplift.
• Design of individual members comprisi.ng the wall framing system.
• Design of the diaphragm system_
• Design of the shear waiJ system.
• Design of tbe foundations.
Design Example SA
Wind Forces on a Three-Story, L·Shaped Building
() ()
() () 0
() () 0 0
() () 0 0 Cl 0
() 0 0 Cl
0 0
OVERVIEW
This example shows application of ASCE 7, Chapter 27: Wind Loads on Buildings - Mrun Wind-Force
Resisting System (Directional Procedure). The building plan is L-shaped with a reentrant comer. The
building has a flat roof structure with a perim eter parapet created by the third-floor sruds being continuous
past the roof framing. The buildiog is a braced frame structure with braced frames at the perimeter in eucb
direction.

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a 7hr~Siory. L-sl~aped Building
OUTLINE
1. Building Location. Use. and Geometry
2. Calculation of Velocity Pressures
3. Determination of External Pressure Coeftieicnrs
4. Application ofWind Pressures
5. Vertical Distrib-ution of Wind Loads to Dinphrugrns
6. Horiz.ontal D istribution of Wind Loads to Braced Frames
7. Design Wind Load Cases
8. Items Not Addressed in ll1is E xample
1. Building Location, Use, and Geometry
1.1 GIVEN INFORMATION
• The building is located in New Orleans. LA. (.Latitude: 29.925 1. Longitude: - 90.0702)
• The building is surrouoded by a IllL"\ of res:idential and commercial buildings from the
southwest to the northeast sectors (sectors I, 6, 7, and 8) und by the Mississippi River fro m the
norlhea.st lO rbe southwest $ectors (sectors 2. 3. 4. and 5).
• Al l floors withi n the building will be used ns ofncc space.
• The main portion of the L-sha ped building is 74 feet , 8 inches by 146 feet, 8 inches in plan with
a 48-fcct by 50-feet, 8-inch projection.
• The typical ftoor framing plan is . bown in Figure 8A- 1.
• The roof framing plan is shown in F igure 8A- 2.
• ll1e buiJding is lhrcc-stories with a perimeter parapet as shown in Figure 8A- 3.
148 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7·16
Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a Tllree-Story. L·Shape<l Building
50' -8' 96' -{) '
B
9
<r
N
..
b
N
En
c
lo 9
~ v
N
Figure 8A-l. Typicalfioorframing plan
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7· 16 149

Design Exempt& BA • Wind Forces on B Three-Stoty. L-SIIaped BullcJmg
96' ·0'
-.- A
----0
lB
N
------®
I I I
7
9
:.:N
c
...~
N
0
--®
...~
N
-®
I
146'-8'
Figure 8A-2. Roofframing plan

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a Tllree-story. L·SI1aped Building
0
~
.9
0
....
l/)
9
0
0
Figure BA-3. Typical building section a/ exterior wall 0

•9
ln 0
0
0
0
9 .,
ln
- ~
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI7·16 151

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a Three·Siory, L-$/1aped Building
2. Calculation of Velocity Pressures ASCE7
2.1 DETERMINATION OF RISK CATEGORY
As indicated in Section 1.1, all floors. witllin the building wi ll be used as oftice spnce. Bused on the nuture
of occupancies listed in TBC Table 1604.5, the building would not qualify for Risk Category I (ugricu\tural,
temporary. minor structure. etc.). Risk Category ill (assembly. educational. public utilities. etc.). or Risk
Category IV (essential facilities). By default, the building would be assigned to
Risk Category 11
2.2 DETERMINATION OF BASIC WIND SPEED
Section 26.5.1 indicates that th e basic wind speed, V, used to calculate the d esign wind loads for a Risk
n
Category building shall be dctcrmi ned from Figures 26.5-IB and 26.5-2B. The bnsic wind speed mup for
the continental United States is cont<\ined in Figure 26.5- 1Band should be Llsed to determine the basic wind
speed for rhe site located in New Orleans, LA.
Note 6 from Figure 26..5-1 B indicates that "localion-specific basic wind speeds shall be permilled to be
detem1ined using www.atcouncil.org/windspeed.'' This link leads ro the Applied Technology Council's
Wind Speed by Localion website. Specific instructions for determining the basic wind speed for a locution
are contained on the wehsite. In general. the address for the s ite or the latitude and longitude for the site
can be iuput on rhe website to generate the site-specific wind speed. The user is cautioned thar wind speeds
for multiple risk categories, multipJc return periods, and multiple editions of ASCE 7 are provided by
the website, and care should be taken to select the correct wind speed for the intended use. The authority
having jurisd.i~tion for the s ite should be consulted to detennine if there are local wind-speed requirements
tb at may govern over the provided basic wind speed on the ASCE 7 maps and ATC website.
For tbe purposes of this design example. the basic wind speed for the site located at Latitude: 29.9251.
Longitude: -90.0702 in New Orleans, LA for a Ris.k Category TI building has been determined to be
V = 145 MPH
Beginning with ASCE 7-10, the basic wind speed for u site has been provided as a strength-level wind
speed. Tbe IBC defines this strength-level wind speed as the basic design wind speed. V. The IBC provides
a met:hod of converting tbe basic design wind speed to an allowable stress design wind speed, Y,;,d• should it
be required for usc \\ith another standard or with product manufacturer's installation instructions.
2.3 DETERMINATION OF WIND DIRECTIONALITY FACTOR
Section 26.6 indicates that the wind directionality factor, KJ, shall be determined from Table 26.6-1. As
this desigu example illusLTates loads for the main wind force resisting systems of a building, the wiud
directionality factor is
Kd = 0.85
1 52 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a 1hree-$tory. L·Shape<l Building
2.4 DETERMINATION OF EXPOSURE CATEGORY
S~:clion 26.7 provides dt:scriptions and de-finitions for surface roughness categoriell (Seclion 26.7.2) and
exposure categories (Section 26.7.3). When an engineer is determining the comroll ing exposure ~ategory
for a site, the surrounding topographic feat mes in all directions oft he site must be considered. A good way
do organize the analysis of the .surrounding topogmphic featurc.s is to organize these features by sectors.
Th.is is discussed in SecLiou 26.7 .I and illustrated in Comrr1entary Figure C26.7 -8. As indicated iu Sec Lion
1.1, tbe buiJding is surrounded by a mix of residential and commercial bui ldings from t.he southwest to the
northeast sectors (sectors 1, 6, 7, and 8) and by the Mississippi River from the northeast to the southwest
secLOr.s (sectors 2. 3. 4. and 5).
The mix of residential and commercial bui !dings in sectors 1, 6, 7, unci 8 would meet the description for
Surface Roughness B. This surface roughness prevails fo r more than 2.600 feet in the upwind direction and
lhus meet lhe definition of Exposure B . The water surface of the Mississippi River in sectors 2, 3, 4. and 5
meets the description for Surface Roughness D. This surfnce roughness prevails less than 5,000 feet in tbe
upwind d.i.rection and thus does not meet the definition of Exposure D. Because of this, these sectors meet
lhe definition of Exposure C.
For simpl icity, the wind loads for all surfaces of the building will be calculuted for one exposure category.
The COIHrolling exposure category for the site is
Exposure C
2.5 DETERMINATION OF TOPOGRAPHIC FACTOR
Section 26.8 discusses topographic etrects and the topographic factor. K:r As there are no significant hills.
ridges, or escarpments and no abrupt changes in general topography near the sile, then
K" = 1.00
2.6 DETERMINATION OF GROUND ELEVATION FACTOR
Section 26.9 discusses the ground elevation factor to adjust for ai.r density, K~ As indicated in the section
and in notes of Table 26.9- 1. it is permitted for all cases to conservatively assume that
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI7-16 153

Design Example 8A • Wind Forces ons Three-Siory, L-Sheped Building
2.7 DETERMINATION OF GUST EFFECT FACTOR
Section 26.11 discusses whether a building or structure is to be considered rigid or flex ible based on it.s
f undamental nacural frequency and the consequence of this determination or1 the gusr effect factor, G.
Section 26.11 .2 indicates that low-rise buildings urc pcm1ittcd to be considered rigid. T bc detlnition of n
low-rise building is contained in Section 26.2. To bc determined u low-rise building. three conditions must
be met (a) it must be an enclosed or partially enclosed building: (b) the ruean roof height must be less
th an or equa.l to 60 feet ; :mel (c) the m ean roof height must not exceed the least horizontal dimension. The
conditions as~oc iatcd with this definition arc discussed below (Sections 2.8 und 2.9). As csmblished below,
lhe building can be cons idered a low-rise building and therefore a rigid building. Section 26. 11.1 indicates
that for a rigid building
G = 0.85
2 .8 DETERMINATION OF ENCLOSURE CLASSIFICATION

AN D INTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
Section 26.1 2 requires that an enclosure classitkution be determined for each building in order for the
appropriate internal pressure coefficient for the calculation of wind loads to be determined. For buildings
located in hurricane-prone regions (defined in Section 26.2). the user should. first check ro see if the site is
located in a wind-borne debris rcgiorn. Section 26.12.3.1 specifics two cri teria for designating a buiJding as
being located in a wind-borne debris region. Si nce the basic wind speed for the site is 145 mph, this site
meets criteria 2 of this section, and therefore this building is located in wind -borne debris region. This will
require thnt all glazed openings for the building be protected in accordance with Section 26. I 2.3 .2. As nlJ
glazed openings will be protected from wind-borne debris and. as indicated in Sections 1404.13 and 1709.5
of the IBC. all exterior windows and doors will be provided with an adequate design pressure rating, there
will effectively be no openings (detined in Section 2 6.2) in the building enve lope. This allows the enclosure
classitication to be defined as
Enclosed Building
B ased ou tlris enclosure classiftcat:ion. Section 26.13 is used to determine the internal pressure coefftcienr.
GCpi• for the building. Table 26.13-1 specifies tbat for an enclosed building, t.he internal pressure coefficient
s hall be
cc,, = ± 0.18

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a Three-$/ory. L·Shape<l Building
2.9 DETERMINATION OF MEAN ROOF HEIGHT AND

VELOCITY PRESSURE EXPOSURE COEFFICIENT
Section 26.10. 1 discusses the velocity pressure exposure coefficient . K: or K 11• In order to detennine
whether K=or K1, is required, the user must look at the method boiog used to calculutc the wind londs for the
building. In this exump!t:, St:ction 27.3, Wind Loads: Main Wind Force Resisting System will be utilized.
Section 27.3.1 indicates when the velocity pre.o,;sure. q. and the velocity pressw·e for internal pressure
detem1inarion, q,, is to be bused on the height above ground .level, e. or the mean roof height of the building,
h. Review of this section indicates that q and q1 can be taken us q,1 for all but one cnsc (q fo r windward
walls). However. as this is a low-rise building. varying the velocity pressure for the windward wall is not
usually petformed, and q11 wi ll be used for lhe windward wall as well.
Section 26.2 indicates that for roof ang lcs less thun or equal to 10 degrees. the mean roof height can be
laken as rhe eave height of dhe building. As the office buildi ng's roof is essentially flat (mi nimal slope
pr ovided in the roof cladding system for drainage), the euve height can be Iuken at the top of tbe stmctural
roofframing system. As shown in the figures in Section 1.1. Lhe mean roof height for the office builcling is
h - 45 feet
Based on rhis height, the velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kh, can be determined from Table 26.10-
L While the table and linear interpolation can be used to determine the velocity exposure coefficient, the
author prefers to use Notes J and 2 of the table to calculate this value. Using Note I, for heights greater
lhan 15 feet.
K,, = 2.01( ~~ )lio.

'-.~
From Table 26. 11- 1. for Exposure C.~ and a. are defined as 900 feet and 9 .5. respectively. This yields
K
1
=2.01( 45 ft )2•'>5
' 900ft
2.10 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY PRESSURE
As indicated in Section 2 .9 above, the velociry pressure evaluated at the mean roof height, qh, can be used
for calculation of the wind pressures. Section 26.10.2 defines q,1 in Equation 26.10- 1 as
Inserting all of the values from above yields
q,, = 0.00256(1.07)( 1.00)(0.85)(1.00)( 145)2
q" = 49.0 psf

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a Three·Siory, L-SI>aped Building
S ection 27.3.4 for parapets is di~cussed in Sectior\s 3.3 and 4.1 of litis example. Section 27 .3.4 references a
velocity pressure evaluated at the top of rhe parapet, q1,. In pr-actice, the author typicaiJy does not rccuJculate
the velocity pressure at the top or the parapet as the small increase in height produces only u negligible
increase in pre%ure (a 0.9 psf or a 1.8 percent inL~rease in this example). Therefore. q1, will be used in the
remainder of the example. As parapet heiglHs increase, these etrects should be evalumed by the user on a
cru>e by case basis.
3. Determination of External Pressure Coefficients ASCE7
Section 27.3. 1 indicates that lhc external pressure cocfncicnt3, c,,. for the various surfaces of the building
s hould be dctcrmined using F igures 27.3-1. 27.3-2, and 27.3-3. A<; this design example involves an
endosecL flat-.t oof building. Figure 27.3-1 will be utilized to detennine the appropriate CJJ values for each
s:urface.
Three key building dimensions are used to determine these coefficients: B. the horizontal dimension of
tbe buildi.ng uormal to tile wind direction; L. the horizontal dimension of the building paraiJel to the wind
direction; and h, the mean roof height. Wind loads nrc generally culculuted for two orthogonal directions
for a building: (1) nomtalto the roof ridge or Lhe tran$verse direction: and (2) paral lel to the roof ridge
or the longitudinal direction. When c<lnsidering a flat.. l'oof building, an assumed ridge line must be used
to dctcnninc these \vind load directions. TypkaiJy, tbe assumed ddge line i.s place purniJcl to the long
dimension of the building. In the case of this example. the ridge line would be placed between gridlines D
and E from gridune 1 lo 7.
3.1 DETERMINATION OF WALL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
Table 8A- l summarizes the windward, leeward an d side wall pressure coefl:lcients, CP. based on Figure
27.3- 1.
Table 8A-l. Wall pressure coe,(ficiellts
Direction Surface L B UB cr
~ Windward
t:>J) 0.80
Wall
~~
....
t; .S Leeward
l:l- 74'-8" 146'-8" 0.51 - 0.50
c: ~ \Vall
F-<
. . ss
Side
z._. Wall
- 0.70
-
-
c: "O
l=le2
....
t:>.()
Windward
Wall
0.80
;a
.z.S Leeward
146'-8'' 74'-8" 1.96 -0.31
-bn ~ Wall
C:::l
0
...:I E
~ Side
e:. Wall
- 0.70
Design Example BA • Wind Fo~es on a Tilree-S/ory. L·Shaped Bu/1<1/ng
3.2 DETERMINATION OF ROOF PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
Table 8A-2 summwize.s the roof pressure coefficients, C1, . bused on Figure 27.3-1.
Table 8A- Z. Roof pressure coefjiciems
Direction Surface cp
0 '-0"" to
" L h/L
-0.98,
....... 22'-6" -0. 18
(II
bA)
~~ 22'-6" to - 0.86,
"',.,> .....0
4.1 45'-0" - 0. 18
g- 45'-0" 74' -8" 0.60
e :-; 45. -CY' to - 0.54,
. 8
~ ...... 90'-0" - 0. 18
0
z;
'-"
90' .()"to -0.38,
122'- 8'' - 0.18
0' -0"" lO - 0.90.
-~'0
1>.0
- (o/
22'-6"
22' -6" to
- 0.18
- 0.90.
.e ~
'0 0 45'-0" -0. 18
a-
"6'£ (3
45'-0" 146'-8" 0.31
45' -()" to - 0.50,
-===c:i:;
0
...l 90'-0" - 0. 18
~
90' -CY' to - 0.30,
146'-8" - 0.18
3.3 DETERMINATION OF PARAPET PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
Section 27.3.4 provides the combined net pressure coefficients, GC1'", for parnpets. These coefficients are
independent of wi nd direction: however, to be consistent with the previous calculations. they will be shown
for both the transverse and longitudinal direction.
Table 8A- 3 summarizes the windward and leeward parapet combined net p ressure coefficients. GCfA•' based
on Section 27.3.4.
Table 8A-3. Parapet pressure coefficients
Direction Surface GCpn

Windward Parapet 1.50
Transverse (Normal to Ridge)
Leeward Parapet - 1.00
Windward Parapet 1.50
Longitudina1 (Parallel to Ridge)
Leeward Parapet - 1.00
Wind Design Manual Bssed on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7·16 157

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on s ihree-Siory, L-$/ieped Building
4. Application of Wind Pressures ASCE 7
4.1 DETERMINATION OF DESIGN WIND PRESSURES
For wall and roof surfaces, the dc~ig n wind pre~su rcs arc calculated using Equation 27.3-1:
p = qGC" - q,(GC~;)
f or parapet surfaces, the design wind pressures arc culculuted using Equation 27.3-3:
Table 8A-4 summarize the wind pressures for all building surfaces based on the wind load pammcters in
Soctwns 2 and 3.
Table 8A-4. Summwy of wind pressures
Direction Surface GCP1 p

Wmdward 0. 18 24.5 psf
Wail - 0.18 42.1 psf
Leeward 0.18 - 29.6 psf
Wall -0.18 - 12.0 ps f
Side 0. 18 -38.0 psf
Wall - 0.18 - 20.3 psf
0. 18 - 49.6 psf
Roof - 0. 18 - 32.0 psf
0 '-0'' to
22'-6" 0. 18 - 16.3 psf
- 0.18 1.3 psf
~
I:)J) 0. 18 - 44.6 psf
(li :E - 0.18 -27.0 psf
~CII: Roof
0
(ll
22'-6'' to
~ -
~-a 45'-0" 0. 18 - 16.3 psf
~ e
0
- 0. 18 1.3 psf
z
._, 0. 18 - 31.3 psf
Roof - 0.18 -13.7p.sf
45'-0v to
90'-0v 0. 18 - 16.3 p.sf
- 0.18 1.3 psf
0. 18 - 24.6 p.sf
Roof -0.18 - 7.0 psf
90'-0u to
122' -8" 0. 18 - 16.3 psf
- 0.18 1.3 psf
Windward Parapet N/ A 73.5 psf
I Leeward Parapet N/A -49.0 psf

Design Example BA • Wind For~es on a Three-Story. L·Shape<i Boll<llng
Table BA-4. Stmtnwry uf wind pressures ( cominued)
Direction Surface Gc,,, p

Windwurd 0.1 8 24.5 psf
Wall - 0 .18 42.1 psf
Leeward 0.1 8 -2 1.7 psf
WaU - 0 .18 - 4.1 psf
Side 0. 18 - 38.0 psf
Wull -0.18 -20.3 psf
0.1 8 -46.3 psf
Roof - 0 .18 - 28.6 psf
0 '-0'' to
22'-(J' 0.1 8 - 16.3psf
- 0 .1 8 1.3 psf
,--,
eJ
- eo 0.18 -46.3 psf
"'"0
·-= ~
c ....
'"0 ~
-
Roof
22'-6'' to
- 0 .18 - 28.6 psf
.....
·sn !:l 45'-0" 0.1 8 - 16.3 psf
c::::
0 ~
l.o - 0.18 1.3 psf
.J :::
~
'-' 0.1 8 -29.6 psf
Roof - 0.18 - 12.0 psf
45'-0'' to
90'-0" 0. 18 - 16.3 psf
- 0 . 18 1.3 psf
0. 18 - 2 1.3 p. f
Roof - 0.18 -3.7 psf
90'-0" to
146'-8" 0. 18 - 16.3 psf
- 0. 18 1.3 psf
\Vindward Parapet N/A 73.5 psf

Leeward Parapet N/A - 49.0 psf
The wind pressures in Table 8A-4 are c.akulated at a strength level (LRFD). Should the user require wind
pressures at a service level (ASD), the wind pre.~sures would need to be multiplied by the 0.6 load factor
specified in Section 2.4.1.
Design Example BA • Wind Forces on s ihtee·Sioty, L-$/~eped Building
5. Vertical Distribution of Wind Loads to Diaphragms
5.1 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WIND LOADS TO DIAPHRAGMS
For design of the diaphragm elements of the main wind force resisting systems of the building, the wall
'~kind pressures from Section 4 are combined and distributed to each diaphragm level (second floor, third
fl oor. and roof). Table SA- 5 s ummarizes the wind forces at each of the diaphragm levels for the transverse
and longitudinal directions.
Tc1ble 8A- 5. Wind forces m each diaphragm level

Diaphragm Total
Level Windward Wall Surface Fon:e Leeward Wall Surface Fol'ce Force
Second
Floor
(I~ft + I~ft } 24.5 psf) =368 plf csft +-
2
15ft\
- / 29.6 psf) =444 plf
2
8 12 plf
1
Third
Floor
( ~ft + 1~ft ) (24.5 psf) =368 plf (
1
~ft + 1~ ft )cz9.6 p.sf) =444 plf 8 12 plf
csft)
- -
2
(24.5 psO + ('5
- -
2
n) (29.6 psl) +
Roof
(( ~}
2(1 5 ft)
(2)15 f1 + 3.5 ft)}73.5 psf) (( ~
2(15 ft)
} (2)15 ft + 3.5 ft}}49.0 pst)
885 plf
471 plf 414 plf

Longitudinal (Parallel to Ridge)
Diaphragm Total
Level Windward Wall Surface Force Leeward WaU Surface Force Force
Second
Floor
(15ft
~
2
15 ft )
+2 -
(24.:> psf) =368 plf
5 1
(' ft + ft
2
~ )<21.7 psi)= 326 plf 694 plf
1
Third
Floor
- -+ -15-ft ) (24.:>- psf) =368 plf
('5ft
2 2
( ~ft + 1 ~ft}21.7 psf) = 326 plf 694 plf
+
e-ft)(24.5 psf)+ - -ft ) (2 1. 7 psf) +
('5
2
Roof
(( ~
2(15 ft)
)((2)15 ft + 3.5 ft)}73.5 psf) ((
35
· ft } (2)15 ft + 3.5 ft)}49.0 psf)
2(15 It)
825 plf
- 471 plf - 354 plf

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a Three-.Story. L·Shaped Bu/1<1/ng
6. Horizontal Distribution of Wind Loads to Braced Frames
6.1 FLEXIBLE VS. RIGID DIAPHRAGMS
'llle distribution of the MWFRS wind loads to the braced frames will be dependent on the type of
diaphragms and the stiffness of the braced fTnmcs used to construct the office building. In this example,
the roof diaphragm is a cold-formed steel roof deck. and the third a nd second ftoors are cold-formed steel
composite floor deck with a 6-inch concrete slab. T his creates a simation where rhe roof diaphragm is a
flexible diaphmgm and the third and second floor diuphrugms arc rigid diaphrngms. It is assumed for this
example that all braced frame.~ ou all floors are identical and. thu:>. have the same relative rigidity (R = l).
The conditions described above result in t he tbird-Aoor braced frames receiving wind loud.s fTom the
Jlexible roof diaphragm based on tributary area and the second and first floor b11u.:cd frames receiving wind
loads from the rigid floor diaphragms based on the braces· t•elaLive rigidity and their location with respect to
the center of rigidity.
6.2 DETERMINATION OF CENTER OF MASS AND CENTER OF RIGIDITY
In order for the user to determine the distribution of the MWFRS wind louds ut the third and second floor
Jigid diaphragms. the center of mass and the center of rigidity must be dcterrniocd for tbesc floors. In
~ne interest of brevity, tbe fulJ calculations of these locations are not shown in tllis example. There are an
abundance of other slructuml analysis and design references indicating the methods to determine these
locations.
For the ol'fice building, the center of mass hns been determined to be located 46.9 feet above gridlinc F
(between gridline.s D and E) and 63.3 feet to the right of gridline l (between gridlincs 3 and 4). The center
of rigidity has been determined to be located 48 feet above gridli ne F (ou gridline D) and 56 feet to the right
of gridUne 1 (between gridliines 3 and 4).
6.3 HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF WIND LOADS TO BRACED FRAMES
In the interest of brevity, the complete horizontal distribution of MWFRS wind loads to all braced frames at
all levels will not be shown iu this example. 1l1e horizontal distribution to the braced frames aJong gricUi ne
7 wiiJ be showtl to .iiJustrate rhe method of distribution that can then be used 10 calculate the forces at all
braced frnmcs at all levels.
At tile roof diaphragm. the tJiird floor braced frames along gridli ne 7 (7-CD-3 and 7-EF-3) will share half of
the transverse direction wind load at the roof level.
\1 = v = (885 plf)(l 46'-8'' ) = 32.450 lbs

Hn-:> 7 .~.:; (2)(2 braces)
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI7· 16 161

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a ihree-Sioty, L-Simped Building
At tlle lhird-ftoor diapllragm. tl1e secoud-tloor braced frames along gr:id.line 7 (7-CD-2 and 7-EF-2) will
receive di.rect s hear from the rigid diuphragm in addition to torsional shear clue to the eccentricity berween
the center of muss and the center of rigidity.
c = 63.3' - 56' = 7.3'
1 = 35.328 ft1 (.relative rot.alional sLiffness of braces)

· ~ _ . , _ (H I2 plf)(l46'-8") _
Du-cct \11.eo-1 - Dm~ct V'J.Irr.2 - - 19,850 lbs
- (6 braces)
56')(1) , ~.,? lbs

. T . I
TOfSIOmU V7.a:p = Of!;JOnn V7·EF-' "'
(19.850 lbs)(7.3')(146.67'
.., 2
- - (.15,328 ft 2 )
Total V7.cD-2 = Total V7_6 p.2 = 19,850 lbs + 372 lbs = 20,222 l bs
At the second-floor diaphragm, the first-floor braced frames along gridlinc 7 (7-CD-1 and 7-EF-1) will
receive di.rcct hear from the rigid diaphragm in addition to tor_ional shear due to the cccentriciry between
th e center of mass and the center of rigidity. Since tho MWFRS wind loads arc the same as the third-floor
Jevd. the c.alculations are the same a.s the second-floor brncc.o; above.
Total \17 _CD-I = Total \17.Er~l = 20.222 lbs
7. Design Wind Load Cas,e s ASCE7

Section 27.3.5 s pecifies that the main wi11d force resisting sysrems of buildings shall be designed for the
lond cases indica ted io F igure 27 .3-8 .
7.1 DESIGN WIND LOAD CASE 1
Figure 27.3-8 dctines Loud Case 1 as the full design wind pressure acting in each of the principal axes of
£he building separately. This con~onds to the transverse and longimdinal directions illustrated in Sections
4 , 5, and 6.
162 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI7·16

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a Three-Story. L·Shaped Bu/1<1/ng
7.2 DESIGN WIND LOAD CASE 2
Loud Clli>e 2 uses 75 pen.:en't of the full design wind pressure a~:ting in each of tJ1e principal axes of
l he building separately and an applied lorsional moment with an ecccntriciry equal to I 5 perccn£ of the
projected building widtb. For ill u~trative purposes, the brnced frames discussed in Section 5.1 hnve been
recukuluted for Loud Cru;e 2 in Table 8A-6.
Table 8A-6. Load Case 2

Diaphragm Total
Lc\·cl Windward Wall Surface Force Lccwurd Wall Surface Force Ft)l"CC
Second
Floor
(0.75)(368 plf) = 276 plf (0.75)(444 plf) = 333 plf 609 plf
Third
(0.75 )~368 plf) - 276 plf (0.75)(444 plf) - 333 plf 609 plf
Floor
Roof (0.75)(471 plf) :::: 353 plf (0.75)(414 plf) = 310 plf 663 plf
For the third-floor braced frames along gridline 7 (7-CD-3 and 7-EF-3):
Direct \1 =Direct \1 = (()()j plt')(1 46' -S") = 24.3 10 lbs

7.('0..3 1
-EF-3 (2)(2 braces)
M7 = ~663 plf)(l46' -8N)(O. l5 )( 1 46' -8") = 2,139,280 ft-lbs

. . . (2. 139,280 ft-lbs)
1 OTSJOn V7 CD , = Ton:10n V7 EF,
- ._, . ._,
= (6)(146.67'-63.3") = 4,277 Jbs
Total V1.c D-J = Total \17-EF-J = 24,310 lbs + 4,277 lbs = 28,587 lbs
For the second- and fi rst-floor braced fTa mes along grid line 7 (7-CD-2.1 and 7-EF-2. 1):
. . . (609 plf)(l46' -8'')

Du-cct V7 _a>.:~ = Dn-cct VHr-...2 = =14,887 llAo;;
(6 braces)
. . (14,887 lbs) ( 7.3' + (0.15)(146.67')) (146.67' - 56')(1)

T orsiOnal V7 .(:TH =TorsiOnal \17 Ef'-.2 = - - - - - ' - -- - - - - - - : - - - ' - - - - - - -
. . (35,328 ft 2 )
Torsional V7_00, 2 = Torsional V7.Ef'.2 = I. 120 lbs

Total V1.c0 . 2 = Total \17-EF-2 = 14,887 lbs + 1.120 lbs = 16,007 lbs
In ilie case of this office bui~ding. Load Case I controls the design of the braced frames.

Design Example BA • Wind Forces on a Three-Sioty, L-Siuwed Building
7 .3 DESIGN WIND LOAD CASES 3 AND 4
Load Cas~ 3 and 4 invol ve further reductions of the f ull design wind pre.~sures from Load Cu.o;es I und
2 : however. these pt-essures are applied to the printipal axes ~ imullaneously. A s the braced frames for
tbe office building arc independent in eacb direction and do not share stn1cturalmember~ (e.g ., vertical
columns), these load cases will not control the design of the braced frames. Should n condition exist where
the MWFRS of the two pri11cipal direclions share sttuctural members. Load Cases 3 and 4 should be
i mrestigated for d esign of these ~bared member!;.
The following items are llol adclxessed in this example but are nevertheless necessary for a complete design
of the "v:ind Joad resisti ng system:
• Design of diaphragms at th e roof. thi.t'd- and second-floor levels.
• Design of any required collectors or chords.
• Design of tbe braced f rames.
• Design o f the foundations.

Design Example 8B
Components and Cladding Wind Forces
on a Three-Story, L·Shaped Building
0
0
0 0 0
0
tl tl
0 0 0 0
0
tl tl 0 0 0 0
tl tl 0 0 0 0 0
tl tl
()
() 0 0 0 0
0
OVERVIEW
This example shows the application of ASCE 7 Chapter 30 Wind Loads: Components and Cladding- Part
I for the building and location in D esign Example 8A. C&C wind l oads will be determined for several
common building clements: ( I) ty pical exterior stud, (2) third floor stud with purupct, (3) typical roof
framing member. (4) wall cladding. (5) roof cladding. and (6) window unit.
OUTLINE
1. Building Location. Use. and Geometry
2. Calculation of Velocity Pressures
3. Determination of External Pressure Coefficients
4. Application of Wind. Pressures
5. Items Not Addrcs~cd in This Example

Design Example 88 • Components end Cl9ddlng Wind Forces on a Three-Stoty, L·Shaped Building
1. Building Location, Use, and Geometry
• The building is located in New Orleans, LA. (Latiw de: 29.9251, Longitude: -90.0702)
• TI1e building is surrounded by a mix of re.sidentittl and commercial buildings from the
.southwesr to the northeast sectors (sectors 1, 6, 7, and ~) and by the Mississippi River from the
northeast io the southwest sectors (sectors 2, 3, 4, and 5).
• All floors within the building will be used as office pace.
• The main portion of the L-shapc.d building is 74 feel 8 inchc.> by 146 feeL 8 inches in plan with
a 48·feet by 50-feet, 8-inch projection.
• The typical floor framing plan is shown in Figure 8B- 1.
• The roof framing plan is shown in Figure ~B-2 .
• The building is lhree-stories with a perimeter parapet as shown in Figure 8B- 3.

Design Example 88 • Componems end Cladding Wind Forces one Tl1ree-Story. L·SilR{)(Kl Building
so·-a-· 96'-{)'
A
I I I --@
.,(;>
N
I
B
--®
c
..
b
N
I f f I
9
v
N
D./ •
WlJ --®
I -, ----®
Figure 88-1. Typicalfioorframing plan

Design Example BB • Components and C/8ddlll[} Wind Forces on 8 Tllre&·SIOIY, L·S/1oped Bull<llng
-.- A
----0
l ------®
I I I
7
9
:.:N
c
...~
N
0
--®
...~
N
-®
I
146'-8"
Figure 88- 2. Roofframing plan
1 68 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI?-16

Design Example BB • Componems and Cladding Wind Fo~s on a Tllree-Story. L·SI1aped Building
' ~
0
'
.
9
0
....
l/)
9
0
0
Figure 88-3. Typical building section a/ exterior wall 0

•9
ln 0
0
0
0
•>
- ~

Design Example 8B • Components and CltKJdlng Wind Forces on a Three-Stoty, L·Shaped Building
2. Calculation of Velocity Pressures (ASCE 7)
2 .1 DETERMINATION OF RISK CATEGORY
As indicated in Section 1.1, all floors. witllin the building wi ll be used as oftice spuce. Bused on the nuture
of oc.cupancies listed in TBC Table 1604.5, the building would not qualify for Risk Category I (ugricultural,
temporary. minor tructurc. etc.). Risk Category ill (assembly. educational. public utilities. etc.). or Risk
Category IV (essential faci lities). By default, the building would be assigned to
Risk Category 11
2.2 DETERMINATION OF BASIC WIND SPEED
Section 26.5.1 indicates that th e basic wind speed, V, used to calculate the d esign wind loads for a Risk
n
Category building shall be dctcrmi ned from F igures 26.5-IB and 26.5-2B . The bnsic wi nd speed mup for
the continental United States is cont<\ined in Figure 26.5- 1Band should be Llsed to determine the basic wind
speed for rhe site located in New Orleans. LA.
Note 6 from Figure 26.5-1 B indicates that "localion-specific basic wind speeds shall be perrnilled to be
detem1ined using www.atcouncil.org/windspeed.'' This link leads ro the Applied Technology Council's
Wind Speed by Localion website. Specific instructions for determining the hnsic wind speed for a locution
are contained on the wehsite. In generaL the address for the s ite or the latitude and longitude for the site
can be iuput on rhe website to generate the site-spe cific wind speed. The user is cautioned thar wind speeds
for multiple risk categories, multiple return periods, und multiple editions of A.SCE 7 are provided by
the website, and care should be taken to select the correct wind speed for the intended use. The authority
having jurisdi ~tion for the s ite should be consulted to detennine if there are local wind-speed requirements
tbat may govern over the provided basic wind speed on the ASCE 7 maps and ATC website.
For tbe purposes of t his design example. the basic wind speed for the site located at Latitude: 29.9251.
Longitude: -90.0702 in New Orleans, LA for a Risk Category TI building h as been determined to be
V = 145 MPH
Beginning with ASCE 7-10, the basic wind speed for a site has been provided as a strength-level wind
speed. Tbe IBC defines this strength-level wind speed as the basic des ign wind speed. V. The IBC provides
a med1od of converting tile basic design wind speed to an allowable stress design wind speed, Y,;"1, should it
be required for usc \\ith another standard or with product manu factu rer's in~tu U ation instructions.
2.3 DETERMINATION OF WIND DIRECTIONALITY FACTOR
Section 26.6 indicates that the wind directionality factor, KJ, shall be determi ned from Table 26.6-1. As
lhis design example illusl.nltes loads for the components and cladding of a buiJding. the wind d irectionality
factor is
Kd = 0.85
Design Example 88 • Components and Cladding Wind Forces on a Three-Story. L·SIIaped Boll<llng
2.4 DETERMINATION OF EXPOSURE CATEGORY
St!clion 26.7 provides descriptions and dc.finitions for surface roughnt!SS categories (Stct.ion 26.7.2) and
exposure categories (Section 26.7.3). When an e ngineer is determining the comrolling exposure category
for a s ite, the surl'Ounding topographic featmes in all directions oft he site must be considered. A good way
do organize the analysis of the .surrounding topogmphic features is to organize the.sc feuture.s by sectors.
Tiris is discussed in Secl.iou 26.7.1 and illustrated in Commentary Figure C26.7-8. As indicated iu Section
l.1, tbe buiJding is surrounded by a mi:< of residential and commercial bui ldings from the southwest to the
northeast sccton; (sectors 1, 6, 7 , and 8) and by the Mississippi River from the northeast to lhe southwc,.•;t
secLOr.s (sectors 2. 3. 4. and 5).
The mix of residential and commercial bui !dings in sectors 1, 6, 7, unci 8 would meet the description for
Surface Ro ughness B. This surface roughness prevails for more than 2.600 feet in the upwind direction and
lhus meet lhe definition of E xposure B . The water surface of the Mississippi River in sectors 2, 3, 4. and 5
meets the description for Surface Roughness D. This surfnce roughness prevails less than 5,000 feet in tbe
upwind direction and thus does not meet the definition of Exposure D. B ecause of this, these sectors meet
lhe definition of Exposure C.
For simplicity, the wind loads for all surfaces of the building will be calculuted for one exposure category.
The COI.Hrolling exposure category for the s ite is
Exposure C
2.5 DETERMINATION OF TOPOGRAPHIC FACTOR
Section 26.8 discusses topographic etrects and lhe topographic factor. K:r As lhere are no significant hills.
ridges, or escarpme nts and no abrupt changes in general topography near the site,
K" = 1.00
2.6 DETERMINATION OF GROUND ELEVATION FACTOR
Section 26.9 discusses the ground elevation factor to adjust for ai.r densiry, K~ As indicated in tbe section
and in the notes of Table 26.9-1. it is permitted for all cases to conservatively assume thut
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI7·16 171

Design Example 86 • Components end CltKJdlng Wind Forces on a Three-Stoty, L·Shaped Building
2.7 DETERMINATION OF GUST EFFECT FACTOR
Section 26.11 discusst!s whether a building or structure is to be considered rig id or flexible based on iLS
f undamental narural frequency and the consequence of this determination or1 the gusr effect factor, G.
Section 26.11 .2 indicates that low-rise buildings ure pcm1il!ecl to be considered rigid. Tbe det:lnition of n
l ow-rise building is contained in Section 26.2. To bt! determined u low-rise building . three conditions must
be met (a) it must be an enclosed or part.ially enclosed building: (b) the mean roof height must be less
th an or equal to 60 feet; and (c) the m ean roof height must not exceed the least horizonta l dimension. The
conditions associated with this definition arc discussed bdow (Sections 2 .8 und 2.9). As cstnblishcd below,
l he building can be considered a low-rise building and therefore a rigid building. Section 26. II. I indicates
that for a rigid building
G = 0.85
2 .8 DETERMINATION OF MEAN ROOF HEIGHT AND

VELOCITY PRESSURE EXPOSURE COEFFICIENT
S ection 26.10.1 discusses lhc velocity pre-5mre exposure coefficient, K~ or K11 • In order to dctcm1ine
wh ether K.; or Kn is required. the user must look at the method being used to calculate the vtind loads for the
building. In (his example, S ection 30.3 Part I: Low· Rise Buildings will be utilized. Section 30.3.2 indil:ates
cb at lhc velocity pressure, q, can be taken os q,\·
S ection 26.2 indicates that for I'Oof angles less than or equal to I 0 degrees. the mean roof height can be
taken as the cave height of the building. As the office building's roof is cs scnHnl ly flat (mini mal slope
provided in lhc roof cladding system for dminuge), the eave height can be taken at the top of the structuml
roof framing system. As shown in the figures in Section l.l. the mean roof height for the office building is
h = 45 feet
.Based on this beighl, the velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K1,, can be determined f rom Table 26.10-
1. While the table and linear interpolation can be used to determine the velocity exposure coefficient, the
author prefers to use Notes I aud 2 of the table to calculate this value. Using Note I for heights greater than
15 feet gives
H IJ.
Kn =2.01 ( :.: )
From Table 26.1 1- 1. for Exposure C ~and a. are defined as 900 feet and 9.5. respectively. This yields
K = 2.01( 45ft )l">.s

o\ ~900 ft
K1, = 1.07
172 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEt 7-16
Design Example 86 • Components and Cladding Wind Forces on a Three-Story. L·Shaped Bu/1<1/ng
2.9 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY PRESSURE
ru indicated in Seclion 2.9 above. the velocity pressure evaluated at the mean roof height, qh. can be used
for calculation of the wind pressures. Section 26.10.2 defines q" in Equation 26.10- 1 as
Inserting all of the values from above yields
q,, = 0.00256( 1.07)( I.OO)t0.85)( 1.00)~ 145/
q1, = 49.0 psf
Sec~ion 30.8 for parapet ~ is discussed in Sections 3.5 and 4.2 of this example. Section 30.8 references a
velocity pressure evalm1ted a t the top of the parapet, qP. In practice, the author typically docs not recalculate
the velocity pressure at the top of the parapet as the small increase in height produces only a negligible
increa e in pres ure (a 0.9 psf or 1.8 percent increase in tllis example). Therefore , '11o will be used in tbe
remainder of the example. As parupet heights increase, these effects should be cvnluutcd by the user on u
case-by-case basis.
3. Determination of External Pressure Coefficients ASCE7

3.1 DETERMINATION OF EFFECTIVE WIND AREAS
The definition of Effective Wind Area is provided in Section 26.2 and discussed in greater detail in
Commentnry Section 26.2. For thjs example, C&C wind loads will be dctcrmjned for scverul common
building elements: (I) typical exterior stud. (2) third-floor stud with parapet. (3) typical roof framing
member, (4) wall cladding, (5) roof cladding, and (6) window unit. Based on the detinition and commentary
cliscussion, the effective wind arcus for cuch of these clements is summarized in Table SB- 1.
Table 88- 1. Effeclive wind areas ofbuilding elemellls
Element Basis for Effective Wind Area Effective Wind Area
Typical exterior stud S pan length X !.0 span length (15 tt{ fi)""
15
3 75 ft
1
Third-floor stud with parapet Span length X Y) span length (18.5 ft)(IS;ft )=114 ft 2
TYpical roof framing member Span length X Vl span length (24 fl)(2~ ft) = 192 ft
2
Wall cladding Tributary area to fastener S l O ff
Roof cladding Tributary area to fastener .:::: 10 ff

\Vindow unit Actual unit size (3.5 ft)(S ft) = 17 ft 2
Wind Design Manual Bssed on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI7-16 173

Design Example 8B • Components end Cladding Wind Forces on s Three-Stoty, L·Shaped Building
3.2 DETERMINATION OF END ZONE WIDTHS
For the ~eveml common building d ements discussed in this example, Figure 30.3- 1 will be utilized for
wall surface elementS. and Figure 30.3-2A will be milized for roof surrace elements. Euch of these figures
g raphically illustrntes different zone& on the wall und roof surfaces.
Figure 30.3- 1 separates waU sw1'aces into two zones: Zone 4 (cornmonly referred to as an "intet·ior zone")
and Zone 5 (commonly referred to as an "end zone''). The width of ZoneS is defined as width "a.'' This
width ··a" is defined within Figure 30.3-1 and is calculated below for the example bui lding.
Tile smaller of: (0 .10) least horizontal dimension = 0.10(74.67 ft) = 7 .S 1"1
or (0.40)11 = 0.4()(45 ft) = 18 ft
Bot not less rhan: (0.04) least borizomal dimension = 0 .04(74.67 ft) = 3ft or 3 ft
Therefore. the controlling value is: a = 7.5 ft
F igure 30.3-2A separates roof surfaces into four zones: Zones 1' and 1 (commonly referred to as "interior
z ont!s"). Zone 2 (commonly referred to as an "end zone"). and Zone 3 (wmmonly referred to ru; a "comer
z one"). The widtll of fuese zones is defhted within Figure 30.3-2A as a perce ntage of the eave heigh£. h. and
is calculated below for the example building.
t0.60)h = 0.60(45 f l) = 27 fc
and
(0.20)11 = 0.2 0(45 ft) = 9 ft
3 .3 DETERMINATION OF WALL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
As the office building's roof is essentially flat, Note S of Figure 30.3- 1 applies to the wall pressure
c oeftlcients. This note allows the values of the coefficients to be reduced by I0 percent. The exact equations
f or determining, the values in Figure 30.3-1 are contained in Commentary Section C30.3. Table 88-2
summarizes the wall pressure coeffkients, GC, .
Table 8B- 2. Wt~/1 pressure coe_tficienrs
Element Effective Wind Area Zone 4 GCP Zone 5 GCP

2
Typical exterior stud 75 fl +0.76. -0.85 + 0.76. -0.98
2
Third-floor stud with parapet 114 ft +0.73. - 0.82 + 0.73. -0.92
Wall cladding ~ 10 fl2 +0.90. - 0.99 + 0.90. - 1.26
\Vindow unit 17 fl2 +0.86. - 0.95 + 0.86.-1.1 9
174 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEt 7· 16

Design Example BB • Components and Cladding Wind Forces on a Three-$tory. L·SIIape<l Building
3.4 DETERMINATION OF ROOF PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
A.~ the office building's roof is essentially flut , and the pampet height is greater than 3 fee l, Note 5 of
Figure 30.3-2A applies to the roof pressure coefficients. This note indi<:ates thar the negative value o f Zone
3 shall be set equal w thut of Zone 2 and also lJ1dicntcs that the poNitive vlllucs of Zones 2 and 3 be set
equal to those for wull Zonc:.s 4 and 5 from Figure 30.3-1. The:: exact equations for determining the values
in Figure 30.3-2A are contained in Commentary Section C30.3. Table 88-3 sun1marizes the roof pre.s~ure
coefficients, GC,.
Table 88- 3. Roojpressul'e coefjidenrs
Effective Zone 1' .Zone 1 Zone2 Zone3

Element Wind Area GC, GCP GC, GCP
Typical roof 2 +0.20, +0.20, +0.70, +0.70,
192 ft
fmming mcmhcr -0.76 - 1.17 - 1.62 - 1.62
+OJO, +0.30, + 0.90, +0.90,

Roof cladding :510ft2
- 0.90 -1.70 - 2.30 - 2.30
3.5 DETERMINATION OF PARAPET PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
Parapet elements are discussed separately in Section 30.8. The pressure coefficients discussed in this
section are lhe same as those conrained in Section 30.3, which was previously used in this example to
culculate the pres.sure coefficients for several common buiJding elements.
Section 30.8 provides a metihod for combining wall and roof pres.sw-e coefficients to calculate the windward
(Load Case A) and leeward (Load Case B) C&C parapet pressures. These load cases are graphically
illustrated in Figure 30.8-1. Load Case A involvc:.s the combination of wall Zones 4 and 5 with roof
Zones 2 aud 3 for the windward parapet. Load Case 8 involves the combination of wall Zones 4 and 5
with addjtional wall Zones 4 and 5 for the leeward parapet. The author typically uses the wall pressure
c.ocfficic::nts that were previously calculated for the third-floor stud with parapet in Section 3.3 as the values
of p 1 and p~ illustrated in Figure 30.8- 1. For the wall and roof pressure coefficients fo r the values of p 2 and
v~· the author typically assumes an effective wind area !: 10 squat-e feet. Table 88-4 sununa.rizes the parapet
pressure coefficients, GCr .
Table 8B-4. Parapet pressure coefficients
Load Case p 1 (Zones 4 and 5 GCP) p 2 (Zones 2 and 3 GCP)
Windward parapet (Load Case A) + 0.73 -2.30
Load Case p_, (Zones 4 a nd 5 GCP) p 4 (Zones 4 and 5 GCP)
Leeward parapet (Load Case B) + 0.90 - 0.82, -0.92

Design Example 86 • Components end CIIJdding Wind Forces on s Three-Stoty, L·Shape<J Bulldlllg
4. Application of Wind Pressures ASCE7
The design C&C wind pn:.ssun::s arc calculated using Equation 30.3-1:
The C&C wind pressures calculated with thjs equation are at a strength level (LRFD). Should the user
require C&C wind pressures at a service level (ASD), lhe wind pressures would need to be multiplied by
the 0.6 loud factor specified in Section 2.4. I.
4.1 DETERMINATION OF DESIGN WIND PRESSURE FOR A TYPICAL EXTERIOR STUD
The C&C wind pn:s.sure.s for a typical exterior stud based on the wind loud parameters in Sections 2 and 3
are as shown iu Table 8B - 5.
J"(tble 88- 5. C&C wind pressures for atypical exterior stud
Element GCP, p (Zone 4) p (Zone 5)

0.18 28.4 psf. - 50.5 psf 28.4 psf. - 56.9 psf
TYpical Exterior Stud
- 0.18 46.1 psf. - 32.8 p..crf 46. 1 psf, - 39.2 psf
4.2 DETERMINATION OF DESIGN WIND PRESSURE FOR A

THIRD-FLOOR STUD W1TH A PARAPET
The C&C wind pressures for a third-floor stud with parapet based on the wind loud parameters in Sections
2 and 3 are shown in Table 8B-6.
Table BB-6. C&C wind pressures for a third-floor .~!ltd ·with parapet
E lement GCp; p (Zone 4) p (Zone 5)

0.18 27.0 psf, -49.0 psf 27.0 psf, -54.0 psf
Third-floor stud
-0.1 8 44.6 psf. -31 .4 psf 44.6 psf, -36.4 psf
0.18
Windward parapet 148.5 psf 148.5 psf
-0.18
0.18
Leeward paraper -84.3 psf - 89.2 psf
- 0.18
176 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEt 7·16
Design Example 88 • Components end Cloddlng Wind Forces on o Tllree-Story. L·Shaped 8(11/</lng
4.3 DETERMINATION OF DESIGN WIND PRESSURE FOR

A TYPICAL ROOF FRAMING MEMBER
The C&C wind pressures for <l typical roof f raming member ba~;e d on the wind load parametei. in Sections
2 and 3 are . hown in Table 8B- 7.
Table 88 - 7. C& C wirul pressures for a typical roofframing member
Elen1eut GCP1 p (Zone 1') p (Zon e 1) p (Zone 2) p (Zone 3)
Typical
roof 0.18 1.0 ]A-.:f', - 46.1 ps:f 1.0 psf, - 66.2 psf 25. 5 psf, - 88.2 psf 25.5 psf, -88.2 psf
framing - 0. 18 18.6 psf, - 28.4 psf 18.6 psf, - 48.5 psf 43. 1 psf, - 70.6 psf 43. 1 psf, - 70.6 ps f
member
4.4 DETERMINATION OF DESIGN WIND PRESSURE FOR WALL CLADDING
The C&C wind pressures for wall cladding based on the wind load parameters in Sections 2 and 3 are
shown in Table 8B- 8.
Table BB-8. C&C wind pressures for wall cladding
Element GCP1 p (Zone 4) p (Zone 5)
0.18 35.2 psf. - 57.3 psf 35.2 psf. - 70.5 psf

Wall cladding
- 0.18 52.9 psf. - 39.6 psf 52.9 psf, - 52.9 psf
4.5 DETERMINATION OF DESIGN WIND PRESSURE FOR ROOF CLADDING
The C&C wind pressures for roof cladding based on the w ind loud parameters in Sections 2 and 3 are
shown in Table 8B-9.
Table 88-9. C&C wind pressures for roof cladding
Element GCI'; p (Zone 1') p (Zone 1) p (Zone 2) p (Zone 3)

Roof 0.1 8 5.9 psf. - 52.9 psf 5.9 ps f. - 92. 1 ps f 35.3 psf.- 12 1.5 psf 35.3 psf. - 121.5 ps f
claddi ng -0.18 23.5 psf, -35.3 psi 23.5 psf. -74.5 JA.<:t' 52.9 ps:f, - 103.9 psf 52.9 psf, -103.9 psf
Design Example 88 • Components and Cladding Wind Forces on a Tilree·Stoty, L·Shape<l Building
4.6 DETERMINATION OF DESIGN WIND PRESSURE FOR A WINDOW UNIT
The C&C wind pressure..o,; for a window unit based on the wind loud purume.Lcrs in Sections 2 and 3 ure
s hown in Table 8B- I 0.
Tttbfe BB-10. C&C IVind pressures for a window unit
Element GCP1 p (Zunc 4) p (Zunc 5)

0.18 33.5 p.sf. -55.5 psf 33.5 psf, -66.9 psf
Window unit
- 0.18 51.1 psf. - 37.9 psf 51.1 psf. - 49.3 psf
4.7 USE OF C&C WIND PRESSURES FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Both 2m 8 me Section 1605 and ASCE 7 SecLion:; 2.3 and 2.4 indicate that when consideri ng loads and
load combinations for structural design, those producing the most "critical'' or "unfavorable" effects should
be considered. This will result in con sidcrution of both MWFRS and C&C wind pressures for structural
design.
When pcrfom1ing the structural design of a building, the aurhor typ ically begi ns with the MWFRS wind
pressures to design the horizontaJ (diaphragms) and vertical (bracing . .shearwalls. etc.) lateral force resisLing
systems of the building. Once the elements and connections of these systems have been adequately sized
for the M'W'FRS wind pressures, the author then uses C&C wind pressures for out-of-plunc aod uplift loud.s
in combinati on!: with any dend and live loads present to design individual members and connection--:.
The following items are not udclressed in this example but are nevertheless necessary for a complete design
of the v...iud 1oad resisting components and cladding of the building:
• Determination of locations of component and cladding in specific zones.
• Design of stJuctural elements receiving C&C wind loads.
• Design of anchorage of struclural elements receiving C&C wind loads.
• Design of attachments of waH and roof cladding.
• Specifications of design pressure (DP) ratings for window and door u nirs.

Design Example 9
Design Wind Forces for a 14-Story Office Building
OVERVIEW
Tbe objective of thls cxarnplc is to urilize Chapter 27, Directional Method, to dctenuinc the wind lond for
the design of the Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS), and Chapter 30 Part 3: Buildings with
tr\ean roof height. h > 60 feet method for compuling Lhe Components and Claddings (C&C) pressures on
rhe building's fat;ade.
OUTLINE
1. Problem Statement
2. Solution
3. Discussion
1. Problem Statement
1. 14-story s teel moment frame building. See Figure 9-1 for dctnils.
2. Rectangular plan shape. Bortom podium floor bas footprint of 155 feet by 105 feet. Upper
floors arc 130 feet by 80 feet in p lan dimens ion. The lower floor and upper levels s hare a
comer.
3. Bouom podium floor height is 17.5 feet. Upper floors arc cuch 12.5 feet tall.
4. The building has a fiat roof with a 3-foot-high parapet along the enlire perimeter.
5. Office building, which is not an essential facility and does 11ot pose a substantial risk to humun
life.
6. Located in a suburban area of Sacramento, CA.
7. Aat topography at and surrounding the building.
8. Ground elevation above sea level at building location = 35 feel.

9. The building is enclosed and typical g lazing panel climcnsions arc 5 feet wide X 6.25 feet tall.
1.1 USETHEWIND LOADS PROVISIONSTO DETERMINE
I. Wind forces for design of the Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS).
2. Wind p ressures for design of the components and cladding

Design Example 9 • Deslgn Wind Forces for a 14-Story Office 8 (11/d/ng
130.0ft.
~I -N
( [)
-,....-
1.0
;:::
' 0
Tower ([) 0
N
co
=! .t:: '
@)
0 Tower ~
("')
0 If>
co 0
~
Podium
?--- ---
I
155.0 ft.
PLAN ELEVATION
Figure 9-1. Example building plan, elevation. and dimensions
2. Solution ASCE7
2 .1 MWFRS
The step-by-step procedure for computing the MWFRS wind loads for an enclosed building of all heights is
given in Table 27.2- I as shown in Figure 9- 2.

Design Example 9 • Design Wind Forces for a 14-Story Ofllce Building
Step 1: Detennine Risk Category of building: ~cc Table 1.5-1.

Step 2: Determine the basic wind speed, V, for the applicublc Risk Cntegory; sec Figl\. 26.5-1 und
26.5-2.
Step 3: Determine wind load parameters:
• Wind directionality factor, Kd: see Section 26.6 and Table 26.6-1.
• Exposure category: see Section 26.7.
• Topographic factor. K~,: see Section 26.8 and table in Fig. 26.8- 1.
• Ground devation factor, K,; see Section 26.9.
• Gust-effec t factor, G or G1 ; sec Section 26. 11.
• Enclosure classification; sec Section 26. 12.
• lntemal pressure coefficient, (GCI';); see Section 26.13 and Table 26.13- l.
Step 4: Detenninc velocity prcs.sure exposure coefficient, K, or Kh: see Table 26.10-1.
Step 5: Determine velociry pressure q: or q1,, Eq. (26. 10- 1).
Step 6: Determine external pressure coefficient, CPor C.v:
• Fig. 27.3-1 for wnlls and flat, gable, hip, monoslope, or munsurd roofs.
• Fig. 27.3-2 for domed roofs.
• Fig. 27.3-3 f or arched roofs.
• Fig. 27.3-4 for monoslope roof. open building.
• Fig. 27.3-5 f or pitched roof, open building.
• Fig. 27.3-6 f or troughed roof. open building.
• Fig. 27.3-7 for along-ridge/ valley wind load case for monoslope. pitched. or !roughed
roof. open building.
Step 7: Calculate wind pressure, p, on cuch building surfncc:
• Eq. (27.3-1) for rigid and Acxiblc buildings.
• Eq. (27 .3-2) for open buildings.
Figure 9- 2. Steps to detennine MIVFRS wind loads for enclosed. partially

enclosed, and open. buildings ofr1/l heighrs, Table 27.2· 1
Design Example 9 • Design Wind Forces for s 14~Story Office Building
14-Story Office Building:
Step 1: Based on the building duta provided, this is a Risk Category TI building.
Step 2: From Figure 26.5-l B, the bnsic wind s peed, V, for Risk Cntegory n and Exposure C in
Sacramento is approximately 94 mph. Sacramento is not in a Special Wind Region.
Step 3: The velocity pressw-e, q= at a height z above gmund is computed by Equation 26.10-1.
Eq 26.10-l
where
K_ velocity pressure exposure coefficiem. see Section 26.10.1

K::J = topographic factor, sec Section 26.8.2
K, - wind directionality factor. see Section 26.6
Kr = ground elevation factor, sec Section 26.9
V = basic wind speed. see Section 26.5
q= = velocity pressure at height z.
K~, - 1.0. fl at topography at and surrounding the building
K,1 = 0.85, for MWFRS and components and cladding of buildings (Table 26.6- l)
K~ = 1.0. Conservatively assumed as 1.0 per Table 26.9-1 for this example. Alternately.
the fomlUla in note 2 of Table 26.9- 1 (Kc - e - OJJOLJl.ltV. ~)can be used to esrimate
K, = 0.9987 = 1
Therefore.
q~ = 0J)0256K:K~;J<,1 KY 2 = 0.00256K~ X 1.0 X 0.85 X 1.0 X 942 = 19.23K~ psf
K: can be detennincd from Table 26.10-1 , excerpted here for Exposure Category B in Figure 9-3.
Design Example 9 • Design Wind Rlrces for a 14-Story Ofllce Buil<llng
Height above ground level. z (feet) K: for Exposure B
0-15 0.57
20 0.62
25 0.66
30 0.70
40 0.76
50 0.81
60 0.85
70 0.89
80 0.93
90 0.96
100 0.99
120 1.04
140 1.09
160 1.13
180 1.17
200 1.20
Figure 9- 3. VelociTy pressure exposure coefficienFs, K, and K=' Table 26.10-1
Kz for exposure B is rhc same for MWFRS and components and clndding.
2.2 EVALUATION OF GUST EFFECT FACTOR, G OR G1
Section 26.11 provides the procedure for development of the gust e ffect factor G. For flexible buildings
a gust effect facwr. G1 . is used. According to the definition in Chapter 26. a F lexible Building is defined
as one that has a fundamenta l natural frequency less than 1 Hz. Another rule of thumb (as discussed in
Commentary Section C26.2 [Building or Other Structure, F lexible]) that is sometimes considered in the
determination of a building's tlexibiliry is whether its height exceeds the least horizontal dimension by a
factor of 4. T be gust effect factor is important to assess for taller, more flexible buildings since there is a
greater chance of a resonant response being induced by the gust energy in lhe oncoming \lortnd flow.
Therefore, the first step is to detemline whether the building is a rigid building or flex.ible building. Section
26.11.2.1 p laces limits on the usc of approximate formulas for the computation of natural frequency. These
limitations are that the building height is less than or equal to 300 feet, which is the case for this example.
Secondly, the building height s hould be Jess than 4 times its effective length, L di· Equation 26.1 1- 1 was
used to dctcmJjnc Lctt1 for tllis building as
L afi· x = 132.4 feet

Lctr.y = 82.4 feet
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7·16 183
Design Example 9 • Design Wind Forces lor s 14-Story Office Building
Since Jr s 300 reer and h < 4 L 011, born limitations m-e satisfied. and the approxinuue lower bound namral
f requency (n.), in he11z for tbis steel moment frame building can be detem1incd by Equation 26, I I-2 as
11,1 =22.2/1! :!.0

Eq 26.11-2
n ..
1
= 22.21( I ~or = 0.348 Hz< I Hz ~ Flexible stmcturc
The natur-al f£equency determined from a computer analysis or other rational melhods can also be utilized
i n these computations. See commentnry C26. ll for more discussion.
The gu t effect facwr G1 for tlc.xible structure.~ can be computed using the provisions of Section 26.11 .5. As
s uggested in Commentary ,ection C26.ll , a damping rario of 2.5 percent of crjtical for ultimate strength
design is being used in th1s example. Dctmls of the calculations arc shown below.
Table 9-1. Building and environmem al1ributes
X-di.rection Y-direclion
V (mph) 94 94
n 1 (H z) 0.35 0.35
~ 0.025 0.025
h (ft) 180 180
Exposure B B
8 .,11 lft) 80 130
L<tJ tft) 130 80
The footprint of the poruum has not been considered in the determinatjon of the effective widths and
lengths.
Table 9-2. Terrai11 e.\JJOsure conswms forjlexible buiJdi11g calculations - e:'Cposure B (Table 26.11 · 1)
(J. tno
b 0.84
a 1/4.0
b 45
c 0.30
e 320ft
-E 1/3.0
~It 30ft
beslgn Example 9 • Design Wind Forces for e 14-Story Ofllce Bu/1<1/ng
Table 9-3. Calculal'l!d parameters for flexible building calculations
X -direction Y-dired:ion
z 108.00 108.00
I, 0.25 0.25
L 475.10 475.10
Q 0.84 0.82
gQ 3.40 3.40
g,. 3.40 3.40
gR 3.93 3.93
v~ 83.44 83.44
Nl 1.97 1.97
R" 0.09 0.09
lln 3.43 3.43
Rn 0.25 0.25
Till 1.53 2.48
Rll 0.45 0.32
llL 8.30 5.12
RL 0.11 0. 18
R 0.49 0.42
Gr 0.93 0.90
The gust efrect factor for the building in the x-direclion is G1 • 0.93. in the y-direclion. G1 0.90.
2.3 EVALUATION OF DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
The design wind pressure, p, is determined by Equation 27.3- 1.
Eq 27.3-1
where,
GCf'1 is the internal pressure coefficient and is detennined from Table 26. 13-1 .
For an enclosed building GC1,; = ±0.18
CJ> is the external pressure coefficient and is determined from Figure 27.3-1 (reproduced in Table
9-4 for walls)

Design Example 9 • Design Wind Forces for s 14-Story Office Bulldltlg
Table 9--4. Wall pressure cuejjicients, c,, (Figure 27.3-1 )

Surface UB c,, Use With
Windward wall All values 0.8 q!
0---1 -0.5 qlt
I Leeward wall 2 - OJ q,,

2::4 - 0.2 q,,
Sidewall All values -0.7 qlt
Pressure on the windward wuH = p, = qGCr~ .. - q1(GC1)

Pl'e$sure on the leeward wall = p1 = qGC, 1 - q1(GC,.,)
Net story pressure= prc,~surc on windward wall - pressure on kcwnrd wall
Net story pressw-e = Pw - p1 = [qGC,,,, - q1(GC1")] - [qGCi>1 - q1(GCP1)] = qGCpw - qGC1>1
F or an enclosed building. the internal pressures component balances out on the windwurd and leeward wall
and does not affect the story pres.\1ure. Section 27.3.1 states rhm "for positive internal pressure evaluation. ciJ
may conservatively be evaluated at height h(q, = (fJ,)."
As an example.
For !:he windward wall at Story I:

p = qGCP - q1(GCI'1) = 11.5 X 0.93 X 0.8 - 22.5 X ( - 0.18) = 12.6 psf
For rhe leeward wall at Story I:
p = qGCP- q,(GC~, ) = 22.5 X 0.93 X (-0.4)- 22.5 X (+0.18) = - 12.5 psf
Net story pressw-e at Story I = 11.5 X 0.93 X 0.8 - 22.5 X (- 0.18) - (22.5 X 0.93 X
(- 0.4) - 22.5 X (+0.18)) = 17.0 psf
The calculations for all floors are shown in Table 9-5.
Table 9- 5. Ct1fculwion ofsrot·y ner pressures
X·din!<.:t!oo Y-dir~~ tlnn
Net Net
Story Story lntcmnl Wind wan) Lccwo1rd Net Story Suny StiJTY Windwo11d l.l:cwJnd Nee Story Stmy Slmy
Height E!cvntion q. Prc~ urc cr Prc~urc Pn:~mrc Prc~urc Force Torsion She;.r crPrc!:;ltuc Pn:s~ure Pn:!:;lliJC Force Torsion Shenr
Str)ry (ft) (it) K: (psf) (!>~f) Loowun:l (psf) (I~ f) (psf) (kip) (klp·ft) (kip) Leeww-d (psi) (l!l:ift (psf) (kip> (klp·fO (kip\
S10ry 14 12.S 180.0 1.2 22.S 4.0 - 0.4 20.7 - 12..5 24-~ 12.3 147 12..3 - 0.5 20_2 - 14.2 26.3 21.4 4 17 2 1.4
Story 13 12.S 167.5 1.1 22.0 4.0 - 0.4 20.4 - 12...5 24.2 2-1.2 290 36_4 - 0.5 19.9 - 14.2 26.0 42_2 823 63.6
Story 12 12.5 155.0 1.1 21.5 4.0 -0.4 20.0 - 12...5 23.8 23.8 286 603 - 0.5 19.6 -14.2 25.6 41.7 8 12 105.3
~ Story 11 12.5 142.5 1.1 21.0 4.0 -0.4 19.7 - 12...5 23.4 23.4 281 83.7 -0.5 19.2 - 14.2 25_1 41.1 80 1 146..3. ~
0.. ~
0 :::.
Story 10 12.5 130.0 l.l 20.5 4.0 - 0.4 19.3 - 12.5 23.0 23.0 277 106.8 - 0.5 I!!.S - 14.2 24.9 40.4 7&8 186.7
~
(I)
V>
'§ Story 9 12.5 117.5 1.0 19 .9 4.0 - 0.4 18.8 - 12.5 22.6 22.6 271 129.4 - 0.5 18.4 - 142 24-~ 39.7 775 226.5 ~
~ -5
Story S 12.5 105.0 1.0 19.3 4.0 - 0.4 18.4 - 12.5 22. 1 22. 1 266 151.5 - 0.5 17.9 -14.2 24.0 39.0 760 265.5 <P'
"'::>c <o
~
Story 7 12.5 92.5 1.0 18.6 4.0 - 0.4 17.9 - 12.5 21.6 21.6 260 173. 1 -v.s 17.4 - 14.2 23.5 38.2 745 303.7 •
!l;'
V>
(I) Story 6 1.2.5 80.0 0.9 17.8 4.0 - 0.4 17.3 - 12.5 21.1 21.1 253 194.2 - 0.5 16.9 - 14.2 23.0 37.3 728 341.0 w
<q
0.. ::>
0 Story 5 12.5 67.5 0.9 17.0 4.0 - 0.4 16.7 - 12.5 20.4 204 245 2 14.7 - 0-~ 16.3 - 14.2 22.4 36.3 70S 377.3
::>
N ~
0
...... Story 4 12.5 55.0 0.8 16.0 4.0 - 0.4 15.9 - 12.5 19.7 19.7 2.'' 7 234A - 0-~ 15.6 - 14.2 21.7 35.2 6S6 41 2.5 'i
co Jt
OJ Story 3 12.5 42.5 o.s 14.9 4.0 - 0.4 15.1 - 12.5 18.9 18.9 227 253.3 - 0-~ 14.8 - 14.2 20.8 33 9 660 4.:16.4 ~
0 ~
Q)
Story 2 12..5 30.0 0.7 135 4.0 - 0.4 14.1 - 12.5 17.8 17.8 2 14 271.1 - 0...5 13.7 - 14.2 19.8 32.2 628 478.6 0'"
::::5
0.. ....
)>
(/)
0
StCJry I 17_~ 175 0.6 115 4.0 - 0.4 12.6 - 12.5 17.0 2<L2 349 2953 - 0..5 12.4 - 14.2 IS.4 40.0 874 5 18 6 ..."'
1-
(/)
D;~;~c ll.l - 0.4 - 12.5 15.3 - 0.5 - 1-1.2
ffi
m
0 0.6 4 .0 123 16.7 241 310.6 12.0 18. 1 2-1.5 570 543.1
~
0
:::
Ol
::::,
<)
<I>
~
....ll. ~
to
-....! ~
Design Example 9 • Design Wind Forces for 8 14-Story Office Bulldirtg
Story shears are shown graphically iu Figure 9-4.
);aroru:n SIOI)'N01 Pl~i<WIQI
2 (0
~01
o-c.J .. I '-"'V I
:-ueprr !D)• I
,.....--
UJDp21 el<ry 1-
f-- 11-0
Z1"'''l
1l.o&lotf
Illl1 ,.,.,
-- el<ry II
Q:ry I
t~,,
Ill
~
U11.(·•U 3»<J!
110
1'1k)W
:-- $>J<j)
r--
Zl f] f"J
-~I'd
- ~'lOf,
~'"'
r--'
• l.llP~f !:.-1U'J (
r- I•
flU. pal ~1::-(, ~
~
u .u ,..., !,l::o(JJ
tTO:J p..a~
r-- !n)• l
IG.U. JA •I--
..,
D.u••
I
-10 to uo
Figure 9-4. Story 111t1 pressures
2.4 COMPONENT AND CLADDING PRESSURES
Part 3 in Chapter 30 for enclosed buildings with mean roof heights greater than 60 feet is applicable for
detem1ining tl1e components and cladding pressures for this example building.
The step-by-step procedure for computing C&C wind loads for an enclosed building is given in Table
30.5-1.
The design wind pressure. p. is determined by E quation 30.5-1.
Eq 30.5-1
Where GCJ, for walls and flat roof are detem1ined from Figure 30.5-1. the wall and roof surfaces are divided
into zones as shown in the excerpt of Figure 30.5-1 reproduced in Figure 9-5.
As an example. GCi' for Zone 4 Otl the Wall is ±0.9 (for effectiVe area < 20 ft 2) .
Positive pressure at roof level = p1, = q 1,(GCP) - q1(GCP1)
From rhe rviWFRS section. q" = 22.5 psf

GCP1 = ±0.18
p~ • 22.5 X 0.9 - 22.5 X (- 0.18) • 24.3 psf
The maximum wall and roof pres..<;urcs for different effective wind areas are tabulated in Table 9- 6. Note
t hat windward wall pressures may vary over Lhe height of the building asK= goes from 0.57 at h = 0 - IS
feet lO 1.17 at h = 180 feet.
Design Exomple 9 • Design Wind Forces for a 14-Siory Ofllce Buil<llng
.. I 8 ~ ~
®
I
...J I
:
0--r---c~~r--- r- .JQ)
~ ~t
_:1
ROOF PLAN WALL ELEVATION
Figure 9-5. Wind pressure zones (ASC£ Figure 30.5-1)
Table 9-6. Calculation ofdesign wind pressure for components and cladding
Forll > 60ft Roof Zone Ptc.<StL~ (p. f) Wnll Zone Pn:s.<urc~ (p..;t)
Zone I Zone 2 Zone 3 Zonc4 Zone 5
E.!Ycclh"C Wmd
An:a (ft') Po..<itivc Negali\'e PositiV1: Neg~liV1: Posith-e Ncl!llli\-e Pa.<iLive Nc!JMh·c Posilh-e Negativ.:
!0.0 16.0 -35.5 16.0 - 55.7 16.0 - 76.0 2d.3 - 2d.3 24.3 - 44.5
20.0 16.0 - 335 16.0 - 53.0 I 16.0 - 72.4 24.3 - 24.3 24.3 - 44.5
50.0 16.0 -30.9 16.0 -49.3 16.0 - 67.6 22.4 - 23.0 22.4 - 39.4
100.0 16.0 -28.9 16.0 -46.5 16.0 - 64.1 20.9 - 22.0 20.9 -35.5
500.0 16.0 - 24.3 16.0 - 40.0 16.0 -55.7 17.5 - 19.8 17.5 - 26.5
qo\ for C&C 22.5 (psf)
GC", ~o.ns
a 8.0 fl
Notes:
1. Since a parapet ::::: 3 feet tull is present, zone 3 may be treated as zone 2 (foolnolc 7, Table 30.5-1 ).
2. Minimum design pressures for components and cladding per Section 30.2.2 of ASCE 7-16 are 16 psf.
3. Positive pressures act toward the surface. and negative pressures act away from rhe surface.
Design Example 9 • Design Wind Forces for s 14-Story Office Building
3. Discussion
3.1 FLEXIBLE STRUCTURE
Parometers selected for this ex ample iiJustrate the effect of a building's flexi biliry on the design loads for
the ~.f\VFRS. T he conuibution or higher modes to th<.: design wind force s is expected to be negligible for
this example building. A flexible building will have larger displacemeuts at the top floor as compared to
a more rigid building. For taller buildings, larger displacements at higher occupied floOI'S could produce
ilcc.clcrations that may be uncomfortnble to occupants along with imposing other servicc.nhi llty concerns
that may dictate design.
3 .2 IMPACT OF PODIUM
The interaction of wind How between me podjum a nd the building Cilll impact wiud pressures for the des ign
of the podium roof and walls depending on the confi guration relative to tbe building. However, a more
precise d istribution of wind pressures is not calculable from currently availnble analytical procedures. This
is a topic of continued discussion and wiLl likely get some more anent ion in the next version of ASCE 7.
3.3 WIND TUNNEL TEST
D etermination of the use of wind tunnel procedures is often dependent ou the parameters of interest to the
building owner end design team. For example, locating the subject building downwind of a sign ifi cant
trucrure may produce adver!:e pres..~ure conditions Lhat are not contemplated in the ASCE 7 provisions.
When the subject building is located downwind of another building from which exhausts may create
a ir quality concerns at lhc air intakes, or the bui ldi ng is going to have outdoor dining or seating areas,
modeling of local winds may be useful. In these jnstances. wind tunnel testing can be considered to better
quautif)r wind tlow.
3.4 EFFECTIVE AREA FOR DESIGN OF COMPONENTS AND CLADDING
Boundary conditions s uch as continuity and tixily may likely impact the e iJ cctive wind areu. This is u topic
of continued discussion and will likdy get more allcntion in lhe next vers ion of ASCE 7.

Design Example 10
Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All Heights
with Flat Roofs or Gable or Hip Roofs with Slopes
Less Than 7 Degrees - Small Commercial Building
OVERVIEW ASCE7
Previous code allowed room for interpretation when the engi neer wns applying design loads ro solar
structures. Several ndvnnccs hnvc been mudc pertaining to the calculation of wind on solar pnncl:; and
appLication of that load to the roof :>Lructure to which it is au ached. The American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) and Structw-al Engineering Institute (SEI) Standard Minimum Design Loads and
Ast;ociuted Criteria for Buildings und Other Srrucrures, 2016 Edition (ASCE 7-16) hus provided new
guidance for the calculation of rooftop solar panels for buildings of all heights with flat roofs or gable or
hip roofs wirh lopes less than 7 degrees (Section 29.4.3 and C29.4.3).
ASCE 7-1 0 and prior editions do not specifically state how to calculate wind loading on solar stntctures.
RefereuL.-e is made to snow loading on solar panels in commentary Section C7.8 in ASCE 7-05 and ASCE
7-JO, but not much more was included regarding solar smtctural array design.
The International Code Council (lCC) in their document litled Acceptance Criteria for Modular Framing
Syvtems used to Support Photovoltaic (PV) Modules (AC428), provided "guidelines for the evaluation of
the modular framing systems, because Lhe codes do not include specific provisions for modular framing
system~ for PV panels." The code~ referenced in this excerpt were the 2006. 2009. and 2012 International
Building Code (IBC) in Llle November 2012 edition of tbe acceptance criteria. AC428 has the following
editions: October 2010, February 201 1, June 2012, and November 2012. 'Wind, sno>v, seismic, dead, and
live loads, as well as deflection. corrosion protection. and application of special inspection criteria are
discussed for flush-mounted and freestanding arrays.
The Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC). in their document titled Wind Design for
Low-Profile Solar Photovoltaic Arrays on Flat Roofs (SEAOC PYZ-2012), provides guidance for design of
wiod loads on solar panels on fiat roof stnJCtures (0-7 degrees) and references ASCE 7-05 and ASCE 7-.10.
In Wind Design for Solar Arrays (SEAOC PY2-2017). SEAOC references ASCE 7- 16 and other sources to
provide wind design guidance for solar flush-mounted arrays on sloped roofs, flush- and tiJt-mounted arrays
on flat roofs, and ground-mounted systems.
When designing a solar array or group of arrays, tbe following should be observed per ASCE 7-16 for
panels on a flat or gable or hip roof with 1:1 less than a 7 degree slope:
RISK CATEGORY - Section C29.3. I . Solid Freestanding Wails and SoLid Freestanding Signs, "The
Risk Category for rooftop equipment or appurtenances is required to be not less than that for the
building on which lhe equipment is located, nor lhat for any other facility to which the equipment
provides a necessary service. For example. if a solar array is located on the roof of a hospital. design
wind load for the solar array is based on Lhe Risk Category for the hospital, even if tJJe solar array is
not needed for functioning of the hospital." Reference to R isk Category is also made in Section 26. 10.

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Panels for Bu/1<1/ngs of All Heights with Pial Roofs or
Gflblu or Hip Roofs wHh Slopvs LOI>S Tlwn 7 Dogroos - Smll/1 Commvrcwl Building
GEOMETRY- Section 29.4.3 is only applicable for roof slope.-> frortl zero 10 7 degrees. F rom Figure
29.4-7, this methodology muy be used for panels with an angle betwee11 the roof and tbe panel of
0 degrees to 35 degrees. From Section C29.4J, "Fig. 29.4-7 intentionally hus u limited runge of
application. with the maximum height above the roof surface (h 2) for the solar panels limited to 4 fl
(1.2 m) and the panel chord length (Lr) Limited to 6.7 ft (2.0 m) .... Likewise, the height of the gap
lx:tv.·ecn the panels and the roof s urface (h 1) is limited to 2ft (0.61 m) .... The requirements arc not
applicable 10 open structures because the applicable tes t d:.Ha are from enclosed structures, which have
different aerodynamics than open structures."
SEAOC PV2-2017. Section 5.3.4. SUltes "ASCE 7-16 Section 29.4.4 [Rooftop solar panels parallel
to tbe roof surface] is restricted to enclosed or paniaJJy enclosed buildings. This restriction is not
necessary; lhe procedure is accurate for and mny be applied to solar pnnels parallel to nny roof
surfuoe."
Chapter 31, Wind Tunnel Procedure, states "The Wind Tunnel Procedure sha ll be peilllitted for any
building or other structure in lieu of the design proct:dures speci fi ed in ... Chnptcr 29 (MWFRS for all
other structures)." Section 31.6.1. 1. Limitations on Wind Loads for Rooftop Solar Collectors. states that
..rhe minimum design wind load based on a wind tunnel study shall not be less than 65% of the values
resulting from Fig. 29.4-7 subject to l hc conditions of Section 3 1.4.3. T he m inimum design wind force
based on a wind mnnel study for roof-mounted solar ~.:ollector systems need not comply with the minimum
rJet pressure of 16 psf (0.77 kPa) per ASCE 7-16, Section 30.2.2:' n 1erefore, if wind tunnel testing is
pcrfom1cd in accordance with the recommendations of ASCE 7, Chapter 31, for solar arrays, which also
rererences ASCE 49-12. Wind Tunnd Testing for Bui ldings and Other Structures. then wind pressures
cannot be Jess £han 65 percent of code values and need not comply with the 16 psf minimum requirement
However, Section 31.6.1.2, Peer Review Requirements for Wind Tunnel Tests of Roof-Mount.cd Solar
Collectors, indicates that wind pressures may be taken as Jt~_.,;s than 65 percent of code values if a peer
review o f the wind tunnel test confonning to Sectiou 3 1.6.1 and ASCE 49 is performed.
D esign Examples I 0 and 11 should give the user a firm grasp of solar arruy design with low roof slopes as
specified in ASCE 7. References to additional supplemental information can be found in the References
section of these examples. Design Example 10, Building I - Small Commercial, will review the entire
design from the top of the solnr panel through the supports to the roof. Design Example I I, Bui lding 2 -
Large CommerciaL is not a full example. but will show edge conditions and :zones not captured in D esign
E xample 10. The following examples are analyzed using the ASCE 7 methodology.
'While the term "solar panel" may sometimes be interchanged with "collector" or "module." a solar panel
refers to a rectangular piece of equipment (with an area typically measuring approximately 5.5 feet by
3.25 feet to 6.5 feet by 3 .25 feet, and a maximum thickness measuring between 0.25 inch and 2 inches,
which includes the module fmme) used to absorb the sun 's light emissions for conversion to energy.
The tenn "solar anay" is used l o define a panel group connec£ed by structural supports. Ballru;t in these
examples refers to weight that can be added to the system to mitigate uplift and/or sliding loads.
OUTLINE
1. Building Geometry and Loads
2. Wind D esign
3. Items Not Addressed in This Design Example
4. References
192 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEt 7· 16

Design Example 10 • Rooftop So/or Panels for Buildings of All /·/eights with Flat Roofs or
GaJ»c or 1-/lp Roofs with Slope.s Luss TIN.In 7 Dogrous - Smill/ Commurr:i:JI 8(1//dfng
1. Building Geometry and Loads ASCE7
• Bui lding
o Location - small endo.sed commercial building in Albuquerque. NM
o Grade around buildi ng - level
o At-,grade elevation - 5.400 feet above .sea level

o Surrounding area - Suburban residential area with mostly single family dwellings
(sec Figure C26.7-5(a)]
o Mean roof height It - 15 feet
o Roof pitch - liz: 12 (2.39 degrees) (Flat Roof)
o Dimensions - 40 feet by J00 feet
o Parapet width - 6 i nches
o Par.tpd height h pr - 2 feet
o Risk Category 1I
• Solar Panel
o Dimensions - 39 inches by 78 inches
• S olar Array
o Angle that the solar panel makes with the roof surface u> - I 0 degrees
o Minimum height of panel above roof h 1 - 6 inches from the top of the solar panel to the top
oftbe roof
o Ma.ximum height of the panel <~hove the roof h1 - 19.5 inches from the top of the solar panel
l O the top of the roof
o Gnp between panels - I inch (East- West), 5 feet (North-South) (panel edge to adjacent panel
edge)
o Ri sk Category ll - same as buildiJ)g per Section C29.3.1
o Solar panel orientation - portrait
Design Example 10 • Rooftop Soler Panels for 6(1/kllngs of All Holghts with Flat Roofs or
GDblo or Hlp Roofs IVith Slopos Loss Tlwn 7 Dogroos - Small CommorcJlJI Building
ROOF PEAK
ROOF PITCH
1/2: 12
h= 15.00
) ' - - - - - - - - - - 40.00'- - - - - - - - - - : Y
Figure 10-J. Elevarion view
100.00'
~ 0.50' \~tOE P'>\RAPET

/ AflEAOF SOLAR
PANEL IUSfAI.lATION
t t
r ROOF PeN<
.SQOO'
~/
• •
Figure 10- 2. Plan view
Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Pflnels for Bvlldfngs of All l-Ie/gilts with Flat Roofs or
Gab.Jv or /-1/p Roofs with Slop<.-s Luss TIIJJn 7 Dogrous - Srnil/1 Commurt:l:JI 8(1//dfng
2. Wind Design ASCE7
C huJ:Mer 30. Wind Loads: Components and Cladding. has been utilized in previous editions of the ASCE 7
w determine wind load on solar panels on the roof. Section 30. 13. Rooftop Sol:lt' Panels for Buildings of
All Heights with Fl<~t Roofs or Gable or H ip Roofs with Slopes Less than 7°, refers to Sections 29 .4 .3.
SecLiou 29.4.4. Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to the Roof Surface on Buildings of A ll Heights and Roof
Slopes. does not apply to Litis example except where referred to in S ection 29.4.3 or C29.4.3. Secrion
29.4.3. Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All Heights with Flul Roofs or Gable or Hip Roofs with
Slopes Less than 7°. and accompanying commentary is Ulilizcd for design of this example.
Figure 10---3 is an il lustmdon of the 56-panel layout on tbc roof. For this example, the ~o l ar panels nrc
attached to Lhe racking structure (panel s upport structure). The racking structure consists of a tray with
..;onn ections to the panel at t wo points on each side (foW' total connecLion.s per module) along its length. The
trnys rest on the roof and arc tied together in such a way that the shming of load for the an-ay only occurs
in the east-we.sL dircclion. The racking manufacturer and engineer of record for the racking structure have
indicated rhat the maximum sharing that occurs for this particular system is I row (east-west) by 3 columns
(lllol1b-south). Areas with missing solar panels ca11 be assumed m h ave missing nays and no connccLion in
the east-west direction to any adjacent solar panels.
Seclion C29A.3 states: ''Rooftop equipment and stntctures, such as HYAC units, screens, or penthouses,
can provide some sheltering benefits to solar arrnys located directly downwind of the object; conversely,
however. the regions around edges of such slructures can have ac-celerated wind flow under varied wind
direclions. Accordingly. the edge increase factor ignores such structures and is calculated based on the
distance to the building edge or adjacent array, neglecting any intervening rooftop stmctures. This results in
the panels adjacent to rooftop objects being designed for higher wind loads to account for the accelerated
w iud flow: ' For the purposes of wind design. reviewing the placement of solar panels on the roof and
neglecti ng the rooftop equipment ohsn"Uctions will yield an approp1·iate design per code.
~-Jt--+4.80' TYP.
D SOLARFWlUL
1:8:] ~,S$NG PANOL
Figure 10- 3. Array rop view

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Panels for Boii<Jings of All Heights with Flat Roofs or
GiJblo or Hip Roofs IVnh Slopos Loss Tlwn 7 Dogroos - Sm~/1 CommorciJJI Building
2.1 CODE DESIGN APPLICABiliTY
Before b~:ginnjng the d~:sign , verify thut the array falls within the bounds of the application of Sections
29.4.3 and C29.4.3.
Table 10-1. Code design applicabilily
Is fuc
Parameter
Parameter Met? Wby Is the Parameter Met"?
Stated iJl design. Determine from
Section 26.2. SEAOC PV2-2017
Enclosed or partially enclosed
I Yes indicates that the same methodology
building
may be applied to open buildings
(Section 5.3.4)
2 Roof slope is between 0° a nd 7° Yes The roof s lope is 2.39°.
Ang le of solar panel to grade 2: 0° The slope between the roof and the
3 Yes
and :5 35° panel is 10°.
The distance from the top of the

solar panel to the top of the roof is
19.5 in. (SEAOC PV2-2017, Section
Maximum height above the roof
4 Yes 5.2.2 states "h 1 and h1 , us defi ned in
surface <.hJ to top of panel is 4ft
ASCE 7-16. are measured from the
roof surface to the rop surface of the
pane:!.")
The distance from the top of the

6 in. (SEAOC PV2-2017, Section
5 Yes 5.2.2 states "!1 1 and 112 , as defined in
surface <_h 1) to top of panel is 2ft
ASCE 7-16. are measured from the
roof surface to the top surface of the
panel.")
The solar panel has a portrait

Maximum panel chord length of 6.7
6 Yes orientation and the maximum panel
ft ~80.4 in)
chord le ngth is 78 in (6.5 fl).
The smallest edge d istance is 6.7 ft.
Minimum edge distance is the
7 Yes which is greater than the minimum
ma,'\imum o f 2(112 - 111) and 4 ft
edge dis tance of 4 ft.

Design Example 10 • Rooftop So/or Panels for Buildings of All 1-felg})fs will! Flat Roofs or
GabJb or /-1/p Roofs with Slopes Loss Tt~JJn 7 Dogrous - Srnil/1 Commurcl~l Building
2.2 VELOCITY PRESSURE q11
Scclion 29.2. 1 refers to Chupter 26 for wind lond parameters. The velocity pressure, q11 , is culculutcd from
SecLion 26.10 utilizing the following five variables.
Velocity pressure exposmc coefficient (K~ , Secti on 26.10. 1)
Topographic facror (K:r· Section 26.8.2)

Wind directionality factor (KJ, Section 26.6)
Ground elevation factor (K<. Section 26.9)
Basic wind speed (V, Section 26.5)
To determine the velociry exposure coefticiem K,. use Section 26.1 0.1. which then refers to Table 26.1 0- 1.
The building is located in Exposure B and has a height above ground level (mean roof height, /1) of 15 feet
Aooord:ing to the notes on Table 26.1 0-1, si nce the structure is designed per Chapter 29 in Exposure B nnd
the height of the bui lding is J 5 feeL use a K.: coeftkient of 0.57.
K_ = 0.57
To detennine the topographic factor K='' use Section 26.8.2. Since the building is located at level grncle and
not near a ridge. hill, or e.scurpment, per Section 26.8.2. utilize u K1_~ = 1.0.
To determine the wiucl dir-ectionality factor K". use Section 26.6, which refers to Table 26.6-1 for
determination of Kd. 1l1e tem1 that defines the structure most uccurntely is "Roof Top Equipment," which
has a Kd of 0.85.
KJ = 0.85
To determine the ground elevation factor K'". use Section 26.9. The at-grade elevation at the s ite of lhe
building is 5.400 feet above sea level. Usi ng Table 26.9-1 , the elevation falls between 5,000 feet and 6,000
fec.t. Conservatively. K, can be taken as 1.00 per Note I: it can be interpolated: or it can be calculated from
lhe equation in Note 2 as shown below.
K, = e -o.!l:OO!IQ(;l Table 26.9-l

K
~
=e -o.o:oo.~(54{o fi)
Wind Design Manual B.ssed on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI7-16 197

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All Heights with Plat Roofs or
Gflblo or Hip Roofs with Slopos Lot;S Thun 7 Dogroos - SmlJ/1 CommorciJJI Building
The basic wiud speed. V. can be obtained from S ection 26.5 . l11e Section refers to Figures 26.5- lB and
2 6.5-2B for Rjsk ll Category buiJdings and s tructures. In this example, the building is designated as Risk
rr
Category a nd therefore, fTom Section C29.3.1 ' the solar array located on thut building is designated us
Risk Category n. Front interpolation of' Figure 26.5- IB. the basic wind speed i$ I05 mph for the illT<IY and
building. As an alteroa uve, s ite- pecific wind peeds can be obtained from www.atcouncil.org/windspeed.
This il' a free resource that cnn be u ti.lizcd for design ouL-;idc of spcciul wind regions. Another tool uvuilublc
is http://ascetools.onlinel. On this latter resource. in addition to basic wind speed, the user wiU also be able
to determine ~ire-specific data pertaiuing to seismic accelerations, flood zone, base flood elevation, growtd
s now load, rain load, tsuoumi-Joud risk, and icc thickness witb concurrent temperature and gust speed.)
V = 105 mph
The velocity pressure for the roof slntcture can now be determined using E q uation 26. 10-1.
q~ = O.Ct0256K~ K"K,1K, V (lb/ft

2 2
); V in mi/b Eq 26.10-1
q~ - 0.00256 X {0.57) X (1 .0) X (0.85) X (0.82) X (105 mi/11) 2
q, =11.21 lb/ t=tl
2 .3 DETERMINING EFFECTIVE AND NORMALIZED WIND AREAS FIGURE 29.4-7
Next determine the eff ective area(s). A. to the part of the slructure to be ana.lyzed. From Section 26.2.
(be effective area is defined as "[t]be area used ~o determine the external pressure coefficie nt (GC,,) and
(GC,) . . . . For rooftop solar arrays, tbe effective wind area in Fig. 29.4-7 is equal to the tributary area for
the structural elemem being cun..-;iueretl. except that the width of the effecLive wind <trea need nuL be less
man ooe-chird its length. For cladding fasteners, rhe effective w ind area shall not be greater than the area
t hat is tributary to a n individual fastener." Also fro m Section 26.2, cladding fasteners nrc ''[c] lcmcnts of ...
rooftop slructures and equipment tha~ do not qualify as part of the M WFRS (Main Wind Force R esisting
System).'' The effective areas for this example are calculated below.
E ffective area to a solar panel

2 2
Solar Panel- A "" 78 in X 39 in/144 in /ft = 21.13 if
Effective area to a connection from the solar puncl to the tray
14 Solar Panel - A 21.13 fr x lA • 5.28 fr
Effective area based on shrni.ng for baUnst ann.lysis

1 Row x I Column - A = 78 in X 39 in X 1 solar panel = 2 1.13 fr
I Row x 2 Colurnu - A = 78 in x 39 iu X 2 solar panels = 42.25 ft1
2
1 Row X 3 Column - A = 78 in X 39 in X 3 solar panels = 63 .38 ft
The area, An. is lbe "nonnalized area for rooftop sola r arrays iu Fig. 29.4- T (Section 26.3) and is
dctcmJined by the following equation.

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All /·lelgilts w/111 Flat Roofs or
Gab.Jb or /-lip Roofs with Slo,Ws Loss Tiwn 7 Dogrous - SrnM/ Commorr:I:JI Building
ln Lhis equation from Figure 29.4-7. L,. is the "nommlized building length for use with Fig. 29.4-7" (Sectio n
26.3). The nom1alized building length is calculated from the following equation.
In this equution, WL is the "width of a building on its longest side in Fig. 29.4-7," und Ws is the "width of n
building on it.s shortest side in Fig. 29.4-7" (Section 26.3). For the example building.
WL = JOO ft
\V5 ~ 40ft
"= 15 t't
Solving for the normalized length of the building . L6:
4 = min(0 .4 X (15ft X 100 ft)05, 15ft, 40ft)
Lb = min(l5.49 ft. 15 ft. 40ft)
The nom1alizod area, A11, can now be calculated bused on each effective area.
A,.= (1.000/[max(IS ft, 15 ft) 2J)A

A~ = ( I ,000/( 15 ft) 2)A
A, = 4 .44A
Normaliz ed area to a solar pil.llel

Solar Panel - A, = 4.44 X 21.13 ft2 = 93.82 f~
Normalized area to a connection from the solar panel to the tray

'A Solar Panel - An = 4 .44 X 5.28 ~ = 23.44 ft2
Normalized area based on sharing for ballast analysis

1 row X I column - A,= 4.44 X 21.13 ft2 93.82 f~ =
1 row X 2 column - A" = 4 .44 X 42.25 tY = 187.59 ft
2
2
I row X 3 column - A" = 4.44 X 63.38 ft = 28 1.41 ft 2
The nominalized area will be needed to determine the nominal net pressure coefficient (GCm)n.... in
Figure 29.4-7.
Wind Design Manual Bssed on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI7-16 199

Gablu or Hlp Roofs IVnh Slopos Loss Thun 7 Dogroos - Strw/1 CommorciJJI Building
2 .4 PARAPET HEIGHT FACTOR 'Yp §29.4.3
The pur.upct height fuctor, yP' is utilized to take into account the turbulent c!fecl~ of wind due to the height
of the parapet. Thi factor \:an be cukulated by the foll owi ng equation:
Ill', = 2 ft
II= 15ft
Y1, = min ( 1.2, 0.9 + 2 fillS ft)

)), = min ( L2, LO)
y1, = LO
2.5 PANEL CHORD FACTOR -y, §29.4.3
The panel chord factor~ 'Yc will depend on the geometry and orientation of lhe panel and can be calculated
by the foiJ owing equation fr om Section 29.4.3.
y,. = max (0.6 + 0.06 Lf'' 0.8)
L,, = 78 in = 6.5 ft
y,. = max (0.6 + (0.06 X 6.5). 0.8)
Y, = max ( 1.0, 0.8)
Yc = LO
2.6 EXPOSURE FACTOR 'YE §29.4.3
From Section 26.3, Symbols, the following detinit.ions should be observed in dctem1ining c/ 1 and d2•
"d1 for rooftop solar array. horizontal distance orthogonal ro the panel edge to an adjacent panel or
tbe building edge, ignoring any rooftop equipment in Fig. 29.4-7, in ft (m)..
"d1 = for moftop solar arrays, horizontal distance from the edge of one panel to the nearest edge in the
next row of panels in Fig. 29.4-7 ."

Design Example 10 • Rooftop So/or Panels for Buildings of A/11·/e/gilts w/Ul Flat Roofs or
GJJ/JJ() ot 1-//p Roofs with Slo{>(>s Luss TIIJJil 7 Dogrous - SmM/ Commurr:lal Building
Pmm Section 29.4.3. the exposure factor. 'IR· for solar panels can be determined by considering wind from
all directions in the following way:
'"'r: = 1.5 for uplit'lloads on panels that are exposed and tho~e within a distance l .5(L1) from the end of
a row at an exposed edge of the array; y6 = 1.0 elsewhere for u plift loads and for all downward louds,
as illustrntcd in Fig. 29.4-7. A puncl i~; detined u.s exposed if d 1 to the roof edge > 0.511 and one of the
following applie8:
I . d 1 to rhe adjacent array> max(4h 2, 4ft (1 .2 m)) or
2. d 2 to Lhe next adjacent panel > max(4h1• 4ft ( 1.2 m))."
Since the solar panels nre in a portrait orientation, the panel chord length. L1,. is equul to 78 inches. 1.5L1, for
uplift loads in determining the exposure factor is shown below.
LP = 78 in
1.5LP = 117 in
Exp()Sed solar panels for upl iJt arc also den ned where the dh;tance d 1 is greater thnn 0.511 to a building edge
and greater than the maximum of 4h2 or 4 feet to the next adjacent .arrny or panel. These calculations arc
shown below.
0.51! = 0.5 X 15 ft = 7.5 ft
4112 = 4 x 19.5 iu = 78 in = 6.5 ft

4ft
V.There the distance from the roof edge to the edge of the panel parallel to that roof edge is greater than
7 .S feet in any direction, and the distance to the next adjacent army (north-soutb or cust-west) or next
adjacent panel (north-south or east-west) is greater than 6.5 feel, that panel should be considered exposed
for uplift loads.
Al the end of the row of an exposed edge, a p<mel can also be considered exposed if it falls within 1.5 of the
pMel cbord length. or I.SLP. Exposed solar panels for upl ift should be assigned an exposure factor. 'YE· of
1.5. Non-exposed solar panels and aU downward wi_nd loads should be assigned an exposure fac tor of 1.0.
Why each pand is considered exposed and non-exposed is discus...'>cd specifically for each panel in the next
section for clarity.
SEAOC PV2-2017 includes recommendations for interpolation between the non-exposed 1.0 and exposed
1.5 f-actors in Figure J0-4 (SEAOC PV2-20 17) based on d/h 2 or d 1/h 2•
After dctcm1ining the wind loads for each of the areas, Figures I 0-4 and I 0-5 can be generated.

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Panels for Bull<llngs of All Heights with Flat Roofs or
Gablu or Hlp Roofs IVflil Slopos Loss Tfwn 7 Dogroos - Srrwlf Commorcwl Building
0110' VIIOfl PARAPCT liiAL()NC nocn
0.511
4!1.(}!)
.. - .. - . . - .. l -.. -
I
.. - .1!'~ . . - . . - .. _. .. - .. -
I
.. - .. f--l
12ZZ!I!X~'OSCD PANEL MIN 1'>\Nfil fiO~U

- ' "- DISTA/ICE UNE
r=J NON~XPOSEO PANEl. PAMoL EXPOSURE
~ MISSING PAI'EL LitlE
@ WINO ZONE • - - . ~;~oZONE
Figure 10-4. Array top view wirh defined areas
I
I
I
I
'
LJ-- ----------: .·-·. --· -------.-- :-.- -- - ---
I I
"1
-- f----1
~ I!.XPOSCD PAN~l ~•N. PANULCDGU

• - •• - DISTANC~ U N6
CJ NON-l:XPOSOD PMt:.L PANR I!XPOSURfl
~ ~\SSING PANUL UNE
@ VIIND ZONE • - - • YOND ZONE
UNE
Figure 10- 5. Array top view wirh diflned areas

Design Example 10 • Rooftop So/or Panels for Buildings of A/11-lelghts w/U1 Flat Roofs or
Gi)/JJQ or /-1/p Roofs wilfl Slo,Ws Luss TI'N.ln 7 Dogrous - Smilll Commurc:l~l Building
Fmm Figure 10-5. rbe follo·wirlg i!\ provided to help the reader understand the reUBouiug behind me
select-ion of exp-osed or non-exposed for e<~cb solar panel:
Non-Exposed Solar Panel!\:
• The edge(s) of solar pund~ not udjnccnt to another ~olnr punel is within a distunce of 0.5/z of the
edge of the building, all oilier solar panel sides have adjacent solar panels within the ma,ximum
dis tance of 4112 and 4 feet to the next adjacent panel, and solar panels are not located within a
dis tance of l.SL1, of an exposed panel edge. (RI, C3-R4, C5-R4, Cl-R5, Cl -R6, C8-R2, C8-R3,
C8-R4. C8-R5. and C8-R7).
• The cdgo(.s) of solar panels not udjnccnt to another solar panel is not within a distance ofO.Sh
o f the edge of the builcling. and all other solar panel sides huve adjacent solar panels within the
maximum distance of 4112 and 4 feet w the next adjacent patlel and solar panels are not locmed
within a d istance of l.SL, of an exposed panel edge. (C2-R2, C3-R2, C5-R2, C6-R2, C7-R2,
C5-R3. C6-R3, C7-R3, C2-R4, C6-R4, C7-R4, C2-R5, C:1-RS, and C5-R5).
Exposed Solar Panels:
• The north edge of the solar panels located in R8 from the north direction are greater than a
distance of O.Sh from the nonh building edge, and there is rno next adjacent solar panel ro the
oortb.
• The east edge of solar panel Cl-R7 from rhe east direction is greater than a dis tance of O.Sh
from the CllSl building edge, a nd there is no adjacent solur pnnel within the maximum of 4h2 nnd
4 feet to the easl
• The wes t edge of sol ar panel CS-R7 from the west direction is greater than a distance of 0.5/t
from the west building edge, and thc.rc is no adjacent solar punel within the maximum of 4hz
and 4 feet to the wes t.
• Solar panels C6-R7 and C7-R7 arc within a di~tuncc of l .SLPof the end of u row at an exposed
edge. It can be called an exposed edge at the e nd of a row because the distance d 1 is greater than
the maxi mum of 4112 or 4 feet. In addition, the solar panels to the south are missing. The south
edge of the solar panels from the south direction arc greater than a distance of 0.5h from the
west building edge. and there is no adjacent solar panel within the maximum of 4hz and 4 feet
to lhe south.
• The west edge of solar panel C8-R6 fTom the west direction is greater thun a distance of 0.5/i
from the west building edge. and there is no adjacent solar panel within the maximum of 4h2
and 4 feet to rhe wes t.
• The east edge of solar panel C5-R6 from the east direction is greater than a distance of O.Sh
from the east building edge, and there is no adjacent solar panel within the maximum of 4112 a nd
4 feet to the cast.
• Solar panels C3-R6 and C4-R6 are within a eli stance of 1.5LP of the end of a row at <Ul exposed
edge. It can be called an exposed edge at the e nd of a row because the dis tance d 1 is greater than
the ma..ximum of 4h 2 or 4 feet. In addition. the solar panels to the north arc miss ing. The north
edge of the solar panels from the north direction are greater than a distance of 0.5h from the
north building edge, and there is no adjacent solar panel witJ1in tbe maximum of 4112 and 4 feet
to t he north.
Wind Design Manual B.ssed on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI7-16 203

Gllblu or Hip Roofs wfl/1 Slopvs Lot>S Thon 7 Dogroos - Sm~/1 Commorciol Building
• The north edge of solar pa.r1els Cl -R2. C2"R6. C6-RS. and C7-R5 are greater !.hail a distance of
0.5/r from the nonh buiJding edge, and there is no adjacent solar panel within the max.imum of
4-h2 .and 4 feet to the north.
• Tile south edge of solar panel s C4-R5, C4-R2, aud Cl -R4 are greater tlum a distance of 0.511
from the south building edge, and there is no adjacent solur panel within the maximum of 4h2
and 4 feet lO Lhe soulb.
• Solar panels C2-R:1, C:)-R3, a nd C4-R3 arc withjn a distance of 1. 5L1, of the end of u row at un
expo.st:d edgt:.
2.7 NOMINAL NET PRESSURE COEFFICIENT (GC"')""" FIGURE 29.4-7
The nominal rlet pressure coeffici ent. (GCm)~,,.•. for the example array can be determined
from Figure 29.4-7, which contains two graphs showing \vhere a nominal net pressure
coefficient can be obtn.incd if the zone and normalized wind area are known. To c.use the
analysis process. the equations for the slopes of the lines cakulated in Figure 29.4-7 are
p resented in Table 10-2. (They are n lso shown in SEAOC PV2-2017, Table Cl.)
111ble 10- 2. (GCm),.,.,. equarions
Roof Wind Zone

...,
(J)1< A., .) 2 I
0° to SO sSOO - 0.6669log 10(A") + 2.300 -0.57431og10(A11) + 2.000 - 0.426 l logl!lA11) + 1.500

0° to 5° >500 - 0.35001og 10(A 11) + 1.445 -0.30001og10(A,) + 1.260 - 0.2500logu/A11) + 1.025
15° to 35° :5500 - L0004log 10(A,.) + 3.500 -0.8337log111(A, ) + 2.900 -0.5372log 10(A,.) + 2.000
15° to 35° > 500 -0.30001og 10(A") + 1.6 10 -0.2500log10(A") + 1.325 -0.25001og 10(A11) + 1.225
..Interpolation is permitted between soand 15° (Section C29.4.3 and Fig. 29.4-7).
F or this example problem, £he nominal net pressure coef-ficient, bused on the angle that the solar panel
makes ·with lhe roof ( 10 degrees) and the normalized wind areas calculated previously. are shown in
Table 10---3. From the graph and rhe table above. there is uo given nominal net pressure coeffident for the
example problem's specified angle; however. interpolation is pem1itted between the gmphs per Section
C29.4.3 and Fig. 29.4-7.

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All 1-/elgl>ts w/U! Flat Roofs or
GIJbk> or 1-//p Roofs with Slop<>s Luss 'ThJm 7 Dogrous - Smil/1 Commurr:ibl 8(1//dlng
Table 10-3. (GCnJ,,,. 11 calculation
Wind Zone 3 Wind Zone 2 Wind Zone I
2 :::;;oo to :::;:; 15° to :s;o o to 100 :::;:; 15° 0to :50° to :::;:; 15° t o
Areu Description A 11 (f1 )
::;s o 10° ::;s o ::;s o 10°
s3S0 s 3S s 3S"
Solar Panel 93.82 0.98 1.26 1.53 0.87 1.06 1.26 0.66 0.80 0.94
Solar Panel
Connection to TI·ay 23.44 1.39 1.76 2.13 1.2 1 1.49 1.76 0.92 1.09 1.26
(l /4 Solar panel)
But last Analysis-

93.82 0.98 1.26 1.53 0 .87 1.06 1.26 0.66 0.80 0.94
1 Row X 1 Column
Ballast Analysis -
JRow X 2 Column
187.59 0.78 1.00 1.23 0.69 10.85 1.00 0.53 0.66 0.78
Ballast Analysis -
281.41 0.67 0.86 I.OS O.S9 0.73 0.86 0.46 0.57 0.68
J Row X 3 Column
2.8 NET PRESSURE COEFFICIENT GC"'
The net pre ure coefficient is calculated from the parapet height factor Yp· panel chord factor Yc• arrny edge
factory£, and nomjnal oct pressure coefficient (GC"')..,,.,~ in Equation 29.4-6:
Eq 29.4-6
Tabk I 0-4 shows the tabulated net pressure coefficients for the system.

Deslgn Example 10 • Rooftop Soler P8nels for Bulkllngs of All Heights with Plat Roofs or
GiJblu or Hip Roofs IVnh Slopos l.o~>S Thun 7 Dogrous - SmlJ/1 CommorciJJI Bill/ding
Table 10-4. Net exposure coe_(ficient (G Cm) calm lal"iun
Area Description Y,, '{,. Ye: (GC,..),""' GC111 :U.me Exposure
1.0 1.0 1.5 1.26 1.89 3 Exposed
I Solur Pund
1.0 1.0 1.5 1.06 1.59 2 Exposed
I 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.26 1.26 ...~ Non-exposed
1.0 1.0 ) .0 1.06 1.06 2 Non-exposed
1.0 1.0 1.5 1.76 2.64 3 Exposed
Solar Panel Connection 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.49 2.24 2 Exposed

to Tray (l /4 Solllf panel) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.76 1.76 3 Non-exposed
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.49 1.49 2 Non-exposed
1.0 1.0 1.5 1.26 1.89 3 Exposed
B allast Analy is 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.06 1.59 2 Exposed

( l Row X l Column) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.26 1.26 3 Non-exposed
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.06 1.06 2 Non-exposed
l.O 1.0 1.5 1.00 1.50 3 Exposed
Ballast Analysis 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.85 1.28 2 Expos ed

{I Row X 2 Columns) J.O 1.0 1.0 1.00 1.00 3 Non-exposed
1.0 1.0 1.0 0.85 0.85 2 Non-exposed
1.0 1.0 1.5 0.86 1.29 3 Expo.sed
Ballast Analysis 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.73 1.10 2 Exposed

( I Row X 3 Columns) 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.86 0.86 3 Non-exposed
1.0 1.0 1.0 0.73 0.73 2 Non-exposed
2 .9 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
O nce all of the variables for the design are calculated, the design wind press ures for the rooftop solar
panels, support strucntre (racking structure). and components per Equation 29.4-5 can be derennined.
Eq 29.4-5
2 .9.1 Solar Panel Design
S olar panel manufacturers ty pically h ave specitications for each panel. For the purposes o f structural
design. the engineer will need to review these specifications to determin e correct placement of suppons. the
number of and type of adequate supports. and check tes ted pnnel pressures. Table I 0-5 shows wind load on
the panel.

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of A/1/·le/g/lts w/U! FIDt Roofs or
GabJc or 1-//p Roofs with Slope-s Luss TI~o~m 7 Dogrous - SmMI Commurr:i:JI Building
Table 10-5. Solar panel design wind load calculation (uplift and downward pressures)
Velocity Adjusted Load on

Area Pressure Eft"ective
Description
Zone Exposw-e cc,. Press w-e
(p f)
Pressure*
Area (f~)
Solar
(psi) (psi) PancJ (lbs)
3 Exposed 1.89 11.21 2 1.19 21.19 21.13 447.7
2 Exposed 1.59 11.21 17.82 17.82 2 1.13 376.6

Solar Panel *~
3 Non-exposed 1.26 11.21 14. 12 16.00 2 1. 13 338.1
2 Non-exposed 1.06 11.21 11 .88 16.00 21.13 338.1
*From Section 29.7 - Minimum Design Wind Loading. Lhe design wind force cannot be Jess than 16 psf
{or - 16 psf for uplift) unless wind tunnel r.esting is perl'ormed per Chapter 3 1.
**All downw-ard pressures on the panels <lre Non-Exposed.
2.9.2 Solar Pane] to Tray Connection Design
The racking structure consist" of a trny with connections to the panel at two points on each side (four total
connections per module) along its length. All solar panels have connectors that have an effective area of one
qum1er of a solar panel. The res ults of the figure are summarized in Table I0- 6.
Table 10- 6. Solttr pane/ to tray connection design wind load calculation (uplift and downward pressures)
Velocity Adjusted Load to

Area Pressure Effective
Description
Zone Exposure ccm Pressure
(psf)
Pressure to
Area (fr)
Connection
(psf) (psf) (lbs)
Solar Pane.l 3 Exposed 2.64 1 1.2 1 29.59 29.59 5.28 156.3

Connection 2 Exposed 2.24 I 1.2 1 25.11 25. 11 5.28 132.6
to Tray
( 1/4 Solar 3 Non-exposed 1.76 11.2 1 19.73 19.73 5.28 104.2
Panel)~ 8
2 Non-exposed 1.49 11.21 16.70 16.70 5.28 88.2
~From Section 29.7- Min imwn Design "Wind Loading. the design wind force cannot be less than 16 psf
(or - 16 psf for uplift) unless wind tunnel testing is perl'ormed per Chapter 3 1.
UAJJ downward pressures ou the panels are Non-Exposed.

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Penels for Buildings of All Heights with Flat Roofs or
GD.blu or Hlp Roofs with Slopos Loss Tfwn 7 Dogroos - Sm~1// ComrnorciJ:JI Building
2.9.3 Tray to Roof Design
z
a_.
~
~EXPOSED PANEL IJIN. PANELEDC!:

, - - •. - DISIANCE UNE
~ NON-C.XPOSED PANEL PltllEL EXPOSURE
l8J MISSING PANEL UNE
@ I'll NO ZONE . - - • VII NO ZOI\'E
UNe
S-3 SHARING O::SIGN/ 1flON
Figure 10- 6. Array top view wirh defined sharing areas
Figure 10- 6 was utiuzed to determine the appropriate GCm factors that should be appued to each solar
pand bast d on their sharing area. The sharing area cun be a maximum of 3 solar panels in the cnst west
direction for the purposes of this example. A sharing designation of S-1 indicates that only a 1 row by I
column shaJing area is ob-served for the solar panel in question. A sharing designation of S-2 indicates that
only il. I row by 2 column sharing area is observed and S-3 indicates that a I by 3 column sharing area is
observed for lhe solar panel in question. The results of the figure are summarized in Table I0- 7.

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All l-Ie/gilts w/U1 Flat Roofs or
GiJbk> or Hlp Roofs with Slopes Luss 7M n 7 Dogrous - Smilll Commorci:JI Blllldfng
Table 10-7. Ballast design wind load calculation (uplift and downward pressures)
An:n Lolld
Velocity Adju~tod
Arcn Pn:s5tltl.! Effecth"l! Utili7..ed l'rom Trny
Zone EI\porurl~• H GC"' Pn:~urc Pn~s5un:•
Description ())!f) Ar~.1 (fr) for Pouu to Roof
(j~t) (p~1)
Loud (ll2) (IllS)
3 l:ixpo!ed 1.89 1 1.21 2 1.19 2 1. 19 2 1. 13 2 1.1 3 447.7• .

BnH~t
Analy!>IS 2 Expo:<ed 1.59 1 1.21 17.82 17.82 2 1.13 2 1.1 3 376.6• .
( 1 Row X I 3 Nort-ex.poscd 1.26 I 1.21 14.1 2 16.00 2 1.1 3 2 1.13 33!!.1• •
Column)
2 Nun~xpo~'W 1.06 11.2 1 11.88 16.00 2 1. 13 2 1.1 3 338.1• .
3 Exprued 1.50 11.2 1 16.82 16.82 42.25 2 1. 13 3~5.3 • •
Bullast
Anal }'l-is
2 Exprucd 1.28 11 .2 1 1•1.::14 16.00 42.25 2 1.1 3 338.1• •
(I Row X 2 3 Non~xpoS~.-'<1 1.00 11.21 11.21 16.00 42.25 2 1. 1 ~ 338.1••
Column.<}
2 Non-e\ f>OS\..'11 0.85 11.2 1 953 16.00 42.25 2 1.1 3 338.1H
"
.) E:(prued 1.29 11 .2 1 14.46 16.00 63.38 2 1.1 ~ 338.1°
Bnll<tSl
Analysis 2 Bxprued 1. 10 11.21 12J3 16.00 63.38 2 1.1 3 338.1 ..
(l Row X 3 3 Non-expo~-oo 0.86 11.2 1 9.64 16.00 63.38 2 1.13 JJS.t • •
Column.<)
2 Non-expo!lod 0.73 11.21 8. 18 16.00 63.38 2 1. 13 JJ8,}H
*F rom Secuon 29.7 - Minimum Design Wind Loading. lhe design wind force CiHUlOt be less than 16 psf
(or - 16 psf for uplift) unless wind tunnel testing i performed per Chapter 3 1.
**Point load lOa single !>Olar panel taking sharing of ballast load into consideration.
**8 All downward pressures on the panels are Non-Exposed.
Table 10--8 shows the design point load calculation for wind in the uplift and downward (vertical) and
horizontal (north or soulh) wind direcuons with respect to lhc roof for each so lar panel depending on zone.
exposure, and sharing designation. This was perfomJed by taki ng the sine (horizontal wind load) or cosine
(vert:i cal wind load) of the angle that lhe solar panel makes with the roof surface (I) and multiplying by the
point load_
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7·16 209
Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar PtJnels for Balkllngs of All Heights with Flfll Roofs or
Gablo or Hip Roofs with Slopos Loss Thun 7 Dogroos - Sm~/1 Commorc.i!JI Balldlng
Table 10-8. Solar panel design point load wlculalion (uplift and downward pressures)
Vcnknl Vcrth:nl Hnrim ntal

Arcn Point Lond Upli ft Wind Downwnrd (Nonh-Somh)
Zone Expo.'> urc Soh\t pa nel
~ctiption (II>~ > Lo.\tl Wmd Lnad Wlnd L.>:td
(l b.~) (II>~) (II>~)
E.\polJ!!l
3
(Uplift)
Cl · R7 447.7 440.9 - 77.7
I B~lmt
Analysis
( l Row X 1
2
E.'q)(l~l
(Uplift)
Non-exposed
C8-R6 376.6 370.9 - 65.4
Column} 3
(DOWIIIVOid)
C I-R7 338.1 - 332.9 58.7
Non-ex posed
2 C8-R6 338.1 - 332.9 58.7
(Oownw:ud)
E..~pol>:<! CJ -R2. CJ -R8. C5·R7.

3
(Uplift) CS-R8
355.3 349.9 - 61.7
E.'\"pol>!d
:m.9 -
I 2
(Uplift)
C 2-R3, CI-R4, C5-R6
CI-RI, C3-R I. C5-R I,

338. 1 58.7
Ballast 3 Non-exposed 338.1 332.9 332.9 58.7

C8-Rl. C8-R2. C8-R7
Analysis
( l Row X 2 C8-R3. C3-R4. C5-R4.
Columus) 2 Non-exposed C II· R4. Cl -R5. C!!·R5. 338.1 332.9 332.9 51!.7
Cl-R6
I 3
Non-ex posed
(Downwn rd)
Noo-cxposcd
Cl-R2, Cl-R8, CS·R7,
C8-R8
338.1 - 332.9 58.7
2 C2-R3. CI -R4. C5-R6 338.1 - 332.9 58.7

(Oowmwud)
C4-Rl. C6-R7. C7-R7.

E.~poJ.t:tl
3
(Uplift)
Cl·RS. C3·R8. C4- R8. 338.1 332.9 - 58.7
CS-R8, C6-R8, C7-R8
CJ-R3, C4-R3, C4-R5,

E:~pos.<."<<
2
(Uplift}
C6-R5, C7-R5. C2-R6, 338.1 332.9 - 58.7
C3·R6. C4-R6
C5-R3. C6-R3. C7-R3.

3 Noo-expo~c,!l Cl·R4, C6-R4. C7-R4. 338. 1 332.9 332.9 58.7
S al!:tit
Analy:;;i~
C2-R5, C3-R5, C5-R5
(I Row x 3
C2-RI , C6-R I, C7-R I,
Colunms) 2 Non~xpo,~cd C2-R2, C3·R2. C5-R2. 332.9 58.7
338.1 332.9
C6·R2. C7·R2
C4-R2. C6-R7. C7-R7.

Non-exposed
3
(Dou·nwmd)
Cl·RS. C3·R8, Cll· RS, 338.1 - 332.9 58.7
C5-R8, C6-R8, C7-R8
O-R3, C4-R3. C4-R5,

Non-exposed
2
(Downww!l)
C6-R5. C7-R5. C2-R6. 338.1 - :m .9 58.7
C3·R6. C4-R6
These loads should be applied to the panel to detem1ine adequacy of the aJTay on tbe building and building
due to th e array loads. Further requirements are discussed in Section 2.1 0.

Design Example 10 • Rooftop So/or Panels for Buildings of All l-Ie/gilts wltll Flilf Roofs or
G:JJ»o ot /-1/p Roofs with Slo01s Luss TIMIIl 7 Dogrous - SrnMI Comrnurr:la/ Building
2.10 ROOF DESIGN
Utiljzing the wind loads with the appropriate combinutions listed in Chapter 2. Combinutions of Load<:,
check that the solar panel (based on [he manufacrurer speciiicntions), the solar panel connection to tray. the
troy to roof con nee Lion (friction, anchor, or combiJJntioo of the two), and loads to tbc roof nrc appropriate
for the structure.
In this check, per Section 29.4.3, the roof should be designed for both of the followi ng cases:
1. The case where solar collecton:. are present. Wind loads acting on .solar collectors in accordance
wirh this section shall be applied simultaneou. ly wirh roof wind loads specit\ecl in other
sections acting on arens of the roof not covered by the plun projection of solar collectors. For
this case. roof wind loads specitied in other sections need not be applied on areas of the roof
covered by the plan projection of sohu· collectors.
2. Cases where the solar arrays have been removed.
For Case I , the wind load within chc roof area of rhc solar pauel.s bas been computed. The wind loud to tbc
remainder of the roof would need to be de.tem1ined and applied simultaneously to the building to determine
adequacy of the building for the solar array(s).
Case 2 should be reviewed for adequacy of the structure to resist wind loads.
Checking these rwo cases with rhe appropriate load combinations should ensure safe design of the building/
structure.
2.10.1 BaUast.ed Arr-<~ys
Vertical forces reported in Table 10-8 should be checked and reviewed in the vertical (uplift and downward)
directions in accordance with Section 2.10 for the adequate design of the array to be determined. Ballast
and array weight should be applied to mitigate the effects of uplift.
The horizontal forces due to wind reported in Table J0-8 should be applied in the north and somh
direcrions. BaUast and array weight in accordance \'"ith Section 2.10 should be appHed t.o mitigate the effect
of sliding forces on the roof. The coefficient of friction of the array on the roof type should be used to
determine the resisting force of the horizontal wind loads on the array.
Refer to Design Example I 5 for additionul considerntion of gravity loads on the exi~ting roof supporting
solar arrays. Due consideration should also be given to exi<;Ling framing to ensure economical layout of the
solar array.
2.10.2 AttachedArrays
FulJy or partially attached arrays may be requb·ed to resist the horizontal and/or vertical wind forces on
a solar array to the roof. The design value.-; for the attachments to the roof should be available from the
roof-anachment manufacturer and should be checked against lhe load or porlions of the load that are lo be
resisted, such as those reponed in Table I 0- 8 and in accordance with Section 2.1 0.
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI7· 16 211

Design Example 10 • Rooftop Solar Panels for Bulkllngs of All Heights with Plat Roofs or
Gllblu or Nip Roofs IVflil Slopos Lot>S Thon 7 Dogroos - Sm{l/1 CommorciJJI Building
The following it~ms were not addressed in this example, but s hould be reviewed and/or performed during
design as appmprime:
• Analysis of existing building for structuml udequucy. Considcmtion s hould be given to the
building s upport s tructure below the solar array to minimize impact on existing framing. if
possible. ln mosr cases, the e ngineer of record for the building hus a ser limit on the average
loud, tota l load. a nd/or point loud to the roof (typically consisting of dead loud and s now load
combina tions). Additional load may mean renovation of the s tructure for additional capacity.
• Review of other loading conditions such us snow, seismic, dead, flood, etc., und the appropriate
load combinations on the arrays and building .
• Setbacks not pertaining to v.~"nd design s uch as fire or shading.
• Non-rectangular shaped build ing . which are disctts..o;ed in more de tail in Section C29.4. 1 (see
Figure C29.4- l), and the SEAOC PV2-201 7 document.
4. References
American Society of Civil Engineers/StruclUral Engineering Instinue (ASCEISEI) 2016. "Minimum Design
Londs for Buildings a nd Other Struct11rcs" ASCE 7-16, published by America n Society of Civil Engineers,
2017.
AmeriCiln Society of Civil Engineers.ISouctural Engineering Institute (ASCEISEI ) 2010. "Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures" ASCE 7-10, published by A merican Society of Civil Engineers.
2010.
America n Society of Civil Engineers/Structural Engineering Ins titute (ASCE/SEf) 2005 . ''Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures" ASCE 7-05. publis hed by American Society of Civil Engiueers.
2006.
International Code Council Evaluation Service (l CC-ES). "Acceptance Criteria for Modular Framing
S ys te ms Used to Support Photovoltaic (PV) M odules" AC428. published by the Ime rnational Code
Council, November 20 I 2, June 2012, February 20 I 1, a nd O c tobe r 20 I 0.
Structural Engineers Association of C alifornia (SEAOC) Solar Photovoltaic Sys tems Commirtee 2017.
' "Wind Design for Solar Arrays" SEAOC P V2-20 17, publisbed by Structural Engineers Association of
Calif ornia, 2017.
Structural Engineers Association of Ca.ufomia (SEAOC) Solar Photovoltaic Sys tems Collunirtee 2012.
"'Wind Design for Low-Profile Solar Photovoltaic Arrays on Flat Roofs" SEAOC PV2-20 12, published by
Struclura:J Engineers .~<;sociation of California. 2012.
Design Example 11
Rooftop Solar Panels of All Heights with Flat or Gable
or Hip Roofs with Slopes Less Than 7 Degrees - Large
Commercial Building
OVERVIEW ASCE7
Previous code allowed room for interpretation when the engi neer wns applying design loads ro solar
structures. Several advances have been mudc pertaining to the calculation of wind on solar pnnds and
application of that load to the roof structure to which it is attached. The American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) and Structmal Engineering Institute (SEI) Standard Minimum Design Loads and
Associated Criteria for Buildings and 01her STrucTures, 20 16 Ed ition (ASCE 7-16) has provided new
guidance for the calculution of rooftop solar panels for buildings of all heights with flat roofs or gable or hip
roofs with slopes less than 7 degrees (Seclion 29.4.3 and C29.4.3). See Design Example 10 for additional
h1story applicable to this Design Example.
OUTLINE
2. Wind Design
3. llems Not Addressed in This Design Example
4. References
• Building
o Location- large partially endoscd commercial buiJding in Albuquerque, NM
o Grade around buiJding - level
o At-~nule elevaliun - 5,400 fee t abuve sea level
o Surrounding area - suburban residential area with mostly single fami ly dwellings
[see Figure C26.7-S(a)]
o Mean roof height It- 30 feet
o Roof pitch - 112:12 (2.39 degrees) (ftar roof)
o Dimensions - 150 feet by 150 feet
o Paraper width - 6 inches
o Parapet height hP, - 2 feet
c Risk Category ll
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI7·16 213

Design Example 11 • Rooftop Solar Panels of All Heights with Fmt or G8J>Ie or
Hlp Roofs with Slop<ts Less Th/Jn 7 Dcgroos - L;)rgo CommatciiJI Building
• Solar panel
o Type -framed
o Dimen~iuns- 39 im:hc~ by 78 inches
• Solar Arruys
o Angle that the solar panel makes with the roof surface w - I0 degrees
c Minimum height of panel above roof h 1 - 6 inches f.rom the top of tbc solar panel to tbc top
of the roof
o Maximum Height or the panel above the roof 112 - 12.8 inches from the top of the solar panel
to the top of the roof
o Gap between panels- I inch (East/West). 1.5 feet (North/South) (panel edge to adjacent
panel edge)
o Risk Category II- same as building per ASCE 7-16. Section C29.3.1
o Solar panel orientation - landscape
ROOF PITCH '/J: 1~
h,=200r ,
··r::L-------------------------------------------------------~
) ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 5 0.00'- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , 1 '
Figure 11-1. Elevarion view

Design ExBmple 11 • Rooftop So.t.ar Panels of All /-/eights wll/1 Flat or Gable or
/-lip Roofs with Slopos L<MS Than 7 Dogroo-s - Lnrgo Commorr:lal Bullcllng
..r---------------- 150.00'- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , r
0.5{) WIDE PARAPET
ARRAY 1N
t
NOR'TH
- ARRAY 1C
t t
Figure 11-2. Pla11 view

Section 29.4.4, Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to the Roof Smfacc on Buildings of All Heights and Roof
Slopes, does not apply to the structure except where referred to in Section 29.4.3 or C29.4.3. Section
29.4.3. Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All Heights with Flat Roofs or Gable or Hip Roofs with
Slopes Less than r.and accompanying com mental)' is uti lized for design of this example. See Design
Example 10 Section 2 for additional discussion.
Figure 11-3 is an illustration of the panellayoUL on the roof. For tllis example, tJ1e solar panels are attached
to the rack;ng structure (panel support structure). The racking structure consists of a tray with connections
w che panel at two points on each side (four lOtal connections per module) along its length. For the
purposes of (his example, only the solar panel design for wi nd will be reviewed.

Design Example 11 • Rooftop Soler Panels of All Heights with FltJt or Gable or
Hlp Roofs with Slop<M Less ThtJn 7 Dogroos - L;)rgo CommcucftJI Building
0 0
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
ll
I
I 26 7
I
I I IJ'
t><l::><l .
I I I
I I I I I I
'rl I I
ARRAY 1N
I><D<J t
NORTH
7.00'
J,._l
I
I I I I
I I I I I
1
0
I
I
I
I
I I I I I
I I 1><1><1
I I IJ
I><I><I I I 2s.1o·
I I
ll
4.00' - [ ARRAY 1C
I I I I I
I I I I I I
3.20'~1 I 1><1 I I
1.50' ""'1=1
.,I
I
1><1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
F1Jo
I I
ARRAY 1S
7.10'
0.50'
' 55.32'
bf;~E~D
D SOLAR PANEL
C8J MISSING PANEL
Figure 11-3. Array top view
216 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI7-16

Design Example 11 • Rooftop So.'.ar Panels of All /-!eights w/1/1 Flat or Gable or
/-lip Roofs with Slopos L&ss Thon 7 Dogro~M - Lnrgo Commorci:JI Building
2.1 CODE DESIGN APPLICABILITY
Before beginning the design, verify that the arrnys fall within the bounds of the application of Sections
29.4.3 and C29.4.3.
Table 11-1. Code design appficabilily
Parumctcr
Pn.nuneter Met'! Why Is t.bc Parmucter Met?
Stated iu design. Detennine from
Enclosed or pnrtin.lly enclosed
I Yes indicates thnt the same methodology
building
may be applied to open buildings
(Section 5.3.4)
2 Roof lope is between ooand r Ye The roof slope is 2.39°.
Angle of solar panel w grade ~ oo n1e slope between the roof and the
3 Yes
and ::s 35° panel is 10°.
n1e distance from the top of the
12.8 in. (SEAOC PV2-2017. Section
4 Yes 5.2.2 states "h 1 and 112 , as defined in
surface 112 to top of panel is 4ft
ASCE 7-1 6, are measured from the
panel.")
111e distance from the top of the

6 in. (SEAOC PV2-2017. Section
5 Yes 5.2.2 states "h 1 and 112 , as defined in
surt'ace 11 1 to top of panel is 2ft
ASCE 7- 16, are measured from the
panel.")
nle solar panel is in landscape. and
Maxjmum panel chord length of 6.7
6 Yes the maximum panel chord length is
ft (80.4 in)
39 in (3.25 ft).
The minimum edge distance is 7.1 ft,
Minimum edge distance is the
7 Yes which is greater than the minimum
maximum of 2(/r.2 - 111) and 4 fr
edge distance of 4 f1.
Design Example 11 • Rooftop Solar Panels of All Heights with Fl8t or G8J>Ie or
Hlp Roofs wllh Slopes Less ThlJn 7 DGgr()(}S - Largo Commatciul Building
2.2 VELOCITY PRESSURE q1,
Scclion 29.2. 1 refers to Chup-tcr 26 for wind load purarnc.:.tcrs. The velocity pressure, qh. is culculutcd from
Section 26.10 utilizing the following five variables.
Velocity pressure exposure coefficient (Kt , Section 26. I 0. 1)
Topographic factor (Ke~. Section 26.8.2)
Wind directionality foe tor (Ktl, Section 26.6)
G 1•ound elevation factor (K• . Section 26.9)
Bnsic wind speed (V, Section 26.5)
To determine tile velociry exposure c·o efficient K:. use Section 26.1 0.1. which then refers to Table 26.10-1.
The building is located in Exposure B and has a height above ground level (mean roof height, h) of 30 feet.
According io the notes on Table 26.10-l. since lhc structure is being designed per Chapter 29 in Exposure
lB. and the he igh{ of the building i5 30 feet use a K~ coefficient of 0.7.
To determine tbe topographic factor K:~, use Section 26.8.2. Since the buiJdLng is located at leve l grade and
not ncar a ridge, hill. or cscnrpm ent, per Section 26.8.2. utilize a Kv == 1.0 .
K~ = 1.0
To determiue tile w ind directionality factor K".

use Section 26.6. which refers to Table 26.6-1 for
determination of K.~. Tbe tenn that defines the structure most accurately is "RoofTop Equipment," which
has a K4 of 0.£5.
K" = 0.85
To determine lhe ground elevation factor Kc. use Section 26.9. The a t-grade elevation a£ the site of the
building is 5,400 feel above sea level. Using Table 26.9-1 , the elevation falls berween 5,000 feet and 6,000
feet. Conservatively. K. can be In ken as 1.00 per Note I ; it can be interpolated; or it can be calculated from
£he equation jn Note 2 as shown below.
K. = e-o.o:ooJ€1~) Table 26.9-1

K
<
= e-o.o:oo.~t5. 100 hJ
Kr == 0.82

Design Example 11 • Rooftop So.\!Jr Panels of A/11-fe/ghts vll/11 Flat or Gah/e or
Nip Roofs with Slopos Lo-ss Thon 7 Dogroo-s - Lnrgo Commorclal 8(1//<lfng
TI1e basic wiud speed. V. ca.n be obtained from Section 26.5. The Section refers to Figures 26.5- 1B and
26.5-2B for Risk ll Cntegory buildings nnd structures. In lhis example, the building is designated as Risk
Category IT. and therefore, from Section C29J.1 , the solur array located on that building is dcsignnted as
Risk Category ll. From interpolation ot'Figure 26.5-lB. tl1c basic wind speed is 105 mph for the a.rray and
buildiug. As an aJterualive, ~ ite-. pecitic wind speeds can be obtained from www.mcouncil.ot•g/windspeecl.
']'his is a free rc.sourcc thal cnn be uti lized for design outside of special wind region ~ . Another tool avuil ublc
is http://ascetools.online/. (ln this latter resource. in addition to basic wind speed, the user wiU also be able
lo determine ~ ite-specific data pertaining to seismic accelerations, flood zone, base flood elevation, ground
snow load, rain load, ~unnmj-Jond risk, and icc thickness with concurrent temperature nnd gust speed.)
V = 105 mph
The velocity pressure for the roof structure can now be detennined using Equation 26. I 0-1.
qr, = OJX)256K:K,.Kt1KrV 2 (lb/f\ 2); V in mi/h Eq 26.10-1

q,, - 0.00256 X (0.70) X ( 1.0) X (0.85) X (0.82) X (105 rtti/11) 2
qh = 13.77 lb/fl 2
2.3 DETERMINING EFFECTIVE AND NORMALIZED WIND AREAS FIGURE 29.4-7
Next. detennine the et'fecLive areas. A. to the part of the structure to be analyzed. From Section 26.2.
1be effective area is delioed as "[t]he area used to determine the external pressure coefncient (GC1, ) and
r(GC,.,) .... For rooftop t>olar arrays, the effective wind area in Fig. 29.4-7 is equal to the tributary urea for
tht: structural element being ~.:on.sidered, excepllhal the width of the effective wind an::a need nuLbe less
man oue-rhird its length. For cladding fasteners, the effective wind area shall nor be greater than the area
that is tribumry to an individual fastener." Also from Section 26.2, cladding fasteners nrc "(c]lcmcnts of .. .
roof"top slrucLure.s and equipment that do not qualify as part of the MWFRS (Main Wind Force Resisting
System)." For rhe purposes of the example . only the solar panel area will be reviewed. The effective area for
tbe solar panel is calculated below.
Effective area w a solar panel

Solar Panel - A = 78 in X 39 in/144 in 2/ ft 2 = 21. 13 ft2
The area. A,.. is the " normalized area for rooftop solar arrays in Figure 29.4-7" (Chapter 26.3) and is
detem1ined by the foll owing equation.
In this equati on from Figure 29.4-7, Lb is the "normalized building length for usc with Fig. 29.4-7" (Sectio n
26.3). The flOnnaJized building length is cnlculaLed from the following equation.

Design Example 11 • Rooftop Solar Panels of All Heights with FI!Jt or G8ble or
Hlp Roofs wllh Slop<ts Less Th/Jn 7 Dogroos - L:Jrgo Commotcinl Building
equation. W1 is the "width of n building on its longesr side in Fig. 29.4-7.'' :wd
]n tltis w.,. is the "widlh of a
building on its shonest side in Fig. 29.4-T (Chapter 26.3). For the example building:
w,_~ tso rc
Ws = 150ft
IJ == 30ft
Soh~ng for the normalized length of the building, L1,:
LJJ = mitH,0.4 X (30ft X 150 ft)05 • 30ft. I 50 ft)

~) = min(.26.8 ft., 30ft, 150ft)
L, = 26.8 fr
The normalized area. A..,. can now be calclllated for the solar panel area.
1
An = (. L000/{max(26.8 ft, 15 ft) ])A
A" ( 1.000/(26.8 ft)2)A
A,= 1.39/\
Nom1aUzed area to a solar panel

Solar Pantl - A~ = L39 X 2 1.13 ft 2 = 29.37 ftz
A, - 29.37 ft2
The uominalized area will be llleeded w determine the nominal net pressure coefficiem (GCm)""" in
Figure 29.4-7.
2 .4 PARAPET HEIGHT FACTOR -y" §29.4.3
The parape.t height factor, 'Yp' is utiliz.cd to take into account the turbulent effects of wind due to the height
of the parapet. This factor can be calculated by the following equation:
Yp = minll.2. 0.9 + 11,.)11)
flpt = 2ft
h =30ft
yP = min(1.2, 0.9 + 2ft/30ft)

~' = minll.2, 1.0)

Design Example 11 • Rooftop So.l.ar Panels of A/11-le/ghts vdl/1 Fmt or Gable or
Nip Roofs with Slopus Lo-ss Thon 7 Dogroo-s - Lnrgo Commorci<JI Building
2.5 PANEL CHORD FACTOR -y,. §29.4.3
The panel chord factor,"(,, will depend on th~ geomt:try nnd oric.ntntion of lhc piinel und cun be culculnted
by the following equation from Section 29.4.3:
'(,. = mux(0.6 + 0.06 L1,, 0.8)

L, = 39 in = 3.25 ft See page 220
'(,. = max(0.6 + (0.06 X 3.25). 0.8)
'(, = max(0.8, 0.8)
'Yr = 0.8
2.6 EXPOSURE FACTOR 'Y£ §29.4.3
Fmm Section 26.3, Symbols. the following detinirions shou ld be observed in detem1ining d 1 and d 1.
"d1 = for rooftop solllT array. horizontal distance orthogonal to the panel edge to an adjacent panel or
tile building edge. ignoring any rooftop equi pment in Fig. 29.4-7, in fr (m):'
"d2 = for rooftop solllT arrays. horizontal distance from the edge of one panel to the nearest edge in the
next row in Fig. 29.4-7 ."
From Section 29.43, th e exposure factor, 'IE, for solllT pands can be determined by considering wind from
all directions in rhe followi.ng way:
''yr: = 1.5 for uplift loads on panels that arc exposed and those within u distance l .5(L1) from the end of
a row a! an exposed edge of the array: 'YH- 1.0 elsewhere for uplift loads and for all downward loads.
as illustrated in Fig. 29.4-7. A panel is defined as exposed if d 1 to the roof edge > 0.511 and one of t.he
following applies:
I . d 1 to rhe adjacent an-ay > ma.:-:(4112 • 4 fr (1.2 m)) or
2. d 2 to the next adjacent panel > max(411 2 , 4ft ( 1.2 m))."
Since the solar panels are in a landscape oriemation. the panel chord length. Ll" is equal to 39 inches. l. SL,.
for uplift loads in deterrnini.ng the exposure factor is shown below.
L P :::;; 39 inches
l.5LP = 58.5 inches
Exposed solar panels for uplift are also de1ined where !he distance d 1 is greater than 0.511 to a building edge
and greater than the muxinmm of 41!2 or 4 fee t to the next adjacent array or panel.
0.5/t ::::~ 0.5 X 30 fl Cl 15ft

4h2 = 4 X 12.8 in = 51.2 in = 4.27 ft
4 ft

Design Example 11 • Rooftop Solar Panels of All Heights with F/JJt or Gsl>le or
Hlp Roofs wilh Slop<ts Less Tmln 7 O&groos - Lv1gu Commarci81 Bui/cfing
Wbere tlle dist~utce from the roof edge to the edge of the panel parallel to thm roof edge is greater than 15
f eet in any direction, and tbe distance to the next adjacent array (north-south or east-west) or next adjacent
panel tnorth-south or east-west) is greater than 4 .27 fed , that panel should be considered exposed for uplift
loads.
~- -~~ma~(;(h2-hW~.-4;-:- - - -- - -
1 I
-:- - ~:L~ING ~~;;~- -~
1 1
, _ _ j _ - - - - - -~ """""---- - ' - - - - - - - - L _,
I I ' " -o.!ih I II
I ~zh I :
I ® I ® I I
I 0
® 0
I I
I I J
I I
I I Ww//W/X///W/A?m I I
----_I_- - - - - ----- - - - f'lZl 17/¥"/2 ~ - - -- ----- - - --- L--- - -
I I ~~~ I :
: f?ZI I I V/NA :It
I I ® '·~'~/f.~XIr ® I I NORTH
_:_-- -:-- -- --------- -~~~~ -------------- ~ --- ~ .

I V/Lr/hl><I:><:W/WJ I !
I
0
4.00' - {
~ rMJ~
I ARRAY 1C I
0 :1
I
I ® IW/J II ~ ® I
I t] };;~ I
I vJ1
I W/Y/AXI I I
1 ------ -~xb7J : &2------ -~
~ _j:
L 1 r-
.1-- - ARR~\Y 1S
- - - - -I , - - - - - - - - - - - -
l
- - - - - - - - - 7.10"
l
E-
o.so· -,VI
15.00'
~- 5 5 . 3 2'
~-----60.00'
- ----:;1'
, .
- - - - ---.t .·
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL ____ MIN. PANEL EDGE

DISTANCE LINE
D NON-EXPOSED PANEL
PANEL EXPOSURE
~ MISSING PANEL
--- LINE
WIND ZONE
@ WIND ZONE
LINE
Figure 11-4. Array top viewwirh defined areas

Design Example 11 • Rooftop So.<nr Panels of A/11·/e/ghts wl/11 Flat or Ga/)/e or
f-lip Roofs with Slopos L&ss Thon 7 Dogro&s - Lnrgo Commorc:I:JI Building
At the end of !.he row of an exposed edge. a panel can also be considered exposed if it falls wi!hin 1.5 of tlle
panel cbord length, or l.SLP. E xposed sola r panels for uplil't should be nS5igned nn exposure factor, "(6 , of
1.5. Non-exposed solar pane ls and all downward wind loads should he assigned an exposure factor of 1.0.
Why euch panel is cons idered expo ed and non-exposed is di~cusscd specitkally for ead1 panel in the nex t
. ect.ion for clarity.
SEAOC PV2-2017 iududes recommendations for interpolation bet ween the non-exposed 1.0 and exposed
1.5 factors in Figure 4 (SE AOC PV2-2017) based on dJ!h2 or d 1/h1 •
A f-ter determining all o f the wind loads for each of the difrerent areas. Figure 11-4 can be generated.
Cl (2 (3 C4 cs I (6
Rl ~
®R2rm I pm W/1@
R3 t/:/21 Fm><W/1@
R4 E//fj
RS ~ I I I ~ --
R6 V/)j><J/m I WhJ
-ARRAY
- 1S-
-
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL
- - - - MIN. PANEL EDGE
DISTANCE LINE
D NON-EXPOSED PANEL
- - - PANEL EXPOSURE
C8:J MISSING PANEL LINE
-- -- - - - WIND ZONE
@ WINDZONE
LINE
Figure 1 I-5a. Array JS rop view wirh defined areas

Design Example 11 • Rooftop Solar Panels of All Heights with FU>t or Gable or
Hlp RO()fs wllh Slop<is Loss Tmln 7 O&grO(JS - La1g0 CommorCilll Building
From Figure 11-Sa. me following is provided w belp tl1e reader understand the reasoning behirtd tl1e
s election of e);posed or non-exposed for each solar panel:
Array as- Non-exposed Solar Panels:

• The cdgc(s) of solar puncls not adjacent to another ::;olnr panel is within a dist:unce of 0.5/z of the
edge of the building. aU other solar panel s ides have adjacent solar panels within the maximum
distance of 4h1 and 4 feet to the next adjacent panel. and solar panels are not lo~ated within
a distanoc of l.SL, of an exposed panel edge. (C4-R6, C5-R6, C2-R5, C3-R5, C4-R5, und
C5-R5)
• The cdgc(s) of solar panels not adjacent to another solar panel is not within n distance of 0.511
{)f the edge of the building, and all other solar puncl sides huvc adjacent solar panels within the
maximum distance of 411'1 and 4 feet to the next adjacent panel. and solar panels are not located
within a distance of l.SLp of .an exposed panel edge. (C2-Rl, C3··R I, C4-R I , C2-R2, C3-R2,
C5-R2, C2-R3, C2-R4, and C3-R4)
Array l S - Exposed Solar Panels:
• The west edge of the solar pa!!lels located in Cl from the west direction are greater than a
distance of 0.511 from the west building edge, <.md there is no next adjacent solar panel to the
west.
• The east edge of the solar panels located in C6 and CS· R4 f1om the east direction are greater
than a distance of 0.5h from the cast bui !ding edge, and there is no next adjacent solar pnnel to
the easL
• The east edge of solar panel C3-R3 from the east direction is greater than a distance of 0 .5h
from the cust building edge, and there is no adjacent solar panel within the maximum of 4h1 and
4 feet lO the east.
• The west edge of solar panels C3-R6 and CS-R3 from the west direction is grcntcr than a
distance of 0.511 from the west building edge. and there is no adjacent solar panel within the
m:L'<imW11 of 41!2 and 4 feet to the west.
• The north edge of the solar panels C4-R4 and C5-R I are greater than a distance of 0.5h from the
north building edge. and there is no adjacent solar panel within the maximum of 4h2 and 4 feet to
tbe nortJ1.
• The south edge of the solar panel C4-R2 is greater than a distance of 0.51! from the south bui.lding
edge, and there is DO adjacent solar panel within the maximum or 4h'l and 4 fee t ro the south.
From Figw"e ll-5b. the following is provided to help the reader understand the reasoning behind the
selection of exposed or non-exposed for each solar panel:
Array lC - Non-Exposed Solar Panels:
• The edge(s) of solar panels not adjacent to another solar panel is not within a distance of O.Sh
of the edge of the building, and all other solar panel sides have acljacent solar panels within the
maximum distance of 4h'1 and 4 feet to the next adjacent panel and solar panels are not located
within a distance of l.SL1, of an exposed panel edge. (C2 -R2, C5-R2, C2-R4, C5-R4, C2-RS,
C3-R5, C4-R5, C2-R6. and C3-R6)
Design Example 11 • Rooftop So.t.ar Panels of All /-/eights w/111 Flat or G8ble or
/-lip Roofs with Slopos L&ss Than 7 Dogtoo-s - LMgo Commorr:lal Building
I
CD
C1 I C2 C3 C4 cs I C6
W«///1///X///Y//&Z]
----- ~ f@
Rl
m ~-------·
® R3t/0WAXIXV~ ®
R4 t/0] V//VA W/;]
R5 vzn I I W/ff?;j
R6 v/~ I VM><IX I
® I
ARRAY 1C
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL
----MIN. PANEL EDGE
DISTANCE LINE
D NON-EXPOSED PANEL
PANEL EXPOSURE
---
~ MISSING PANEL LINE
- ----- · WIND ZONE
® WIND ZONE
LINE
Figure 1l-5b. Array JC l op view wi.1h de.fined areas
Array l C - Exposed S olar PaneLs:
• The west edge of the solar pane ls located in Cl from the west direction are greater than a dis tance
o f O.Sh from tbe wes t building edge. and there is no next adjacem solar panel to the west.
• The east edge of the solar panels located in C6 and C4-R6 from the east direction are greater
than a distance of 0.511 from the east building edge. and there is no next adj acent solar panel ro
the easL
• The east edge of solar pane l C2-R3 from the east direction is greater than a dis tance of 0.511
from the east building edge, and rhere is no adjacent solar panel within the maximum of 4111 and
4 feet to the cast.

Design Example 11 • Rooftop Solar Panels of All Heights with F/JJt or G81>1e or
Hlp Roofs with Slop<ts Loss Tmln 7 Oogtoos - Latgo Commarcinl Building
• The west edge of solar panels C5·R3 frorn the west direction ill gremer thau a eli stance of 0.5/r
from the west buiJdi.ng edge, and there is no adjacent solar panel within the max.imum of 4h 2
and 4 feet to the wcst.
• Tile north edge of the solar panel R l. C3-R4, and C4-R4 are greuter thtm a disumce of 0.511
from the north building edge, and there is no adjacent solnr panel within the mnximum of 4h2
and 4 feet to Lhe north.
• Tbo soulb edge of tbc solar panels C3-R2, C4-R2, nnd C5-R5 nrc greater thnn a distuncc of O.Sh
from the south building edgc. and there is no adjacent ~ol a r panel within the maximum of 4112
and 4 feet to the south .
® Rl ~//WhV//Y/~C1 :
I
C2 C3
® C4 CS
I
: C6
®
3
-----~~ ~~ t:02----- -·
R3 w~
R4md w~ vm
® R5t0;1 I I WhVA ®
R6~~A><I XI
I CD I
ARRAY 1N
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL MIN. PANEL EDGE

DISTANCE LINE
D NON-EXPOSED PANEL
PANEL EXPOSURE
0 MISSING PANEL LINE
WIND ZONE
@ WINDZONE
LINE
Figure 1 l-5c. An·ay top view w irlz defined areas

Design Example 11 • Rooftop So.<nr Panels of A/11-le/ghts with Flat or Ga/)/e or
f-lip Roots with Slopus Lo-ss Thon 7 Dograo-s - Lnrgo Commorclbl Building
F 110Jt'l Figure 11-Sc. lbe followiug is provided to help the reader understand the reasoning behind tile
select-ion of exposed or non-exposed for e<~c h solar panel:
Am1y 1N -Non-E)( pOsed Solar panels:
• The cdge(s) of $Oinr panels not udjuccnt to another solar pnncl is not within u distance of O.Sh
o r the edge of the building. and all other solar panel sides have adjacent solar paneL.; within the
maximum distance of 4112 and 4 feet to the next adjacent panel. and solar panels <U'e not located
within a distance of l.SLP of an exposed panel edge . (C2-R2 , C5-R2, C2-R4, CS-R4, C2-R5,
C3-R5 . and C4-R5)
Array 1N - Exposed Solar pnncll;:
• The west edge of the solar panels located in Cl from the west direction are greater than a
di.stance of O.Sh from the west building edge, and there is no next adjaeem solar panel to the
west.
• The east edge of the solar panels located in C6 and C4-R6 from the east d irectio n are g reater
than a distance of 0.511 from the eust building edge, and there is no next adj acent solar pnncl to
theeasL
• The cnst edge of solar panel C2-R3 from the cast direction is greater than a distance of 0.5h
from the east building edgc. and there is no <.ldjacent solar panel within the maximum of 4h1 and
4 feet to the east.
• Thc wc.sl edge of solar panels C5-R3 from the west direction is g reater than a distance of 0.5h
from the west building edge. and there is no adjacent solar panel within the maximum of 4h 2
and 4 feet to Ehe west.
• The north edge of the solar panels R I. C3-R4. and C4-R4 arc greater than a distance of 0.5/i
from the north buiJding edge, and there is no adjacent solar panel within the maximum of 4h 2
and 4 feet to the north.
• The sourh edge of the solar panels C3-R2, C4-R2, CS-RS , and R6 are greater lban a distan ce of
0.5h from the south building edge, and there is no adjacent solar panel within the maximum of
4112 and 4 feet to the south.
2.7 NOMINAL NET PRESSURE COEFFICIENT (GCm),"" FIGURE 29.4-7
The nominal net pres sure coefficient. (GCm)·"""' for the example arrays can be detennined from Figure
29.4--7, which contai.ns two graphs where a nominal net pressure coefficient can be obtained if the zone
and nom1alizcd wi nd area arc known_ To case thc analysis process, the equations for the slopes of the
lines calculated in Figure 29.4-7 are presented in Table I 1- 2. (They are also shown in SEAOC PV2-20 17
Table Cl .)

Design Example 11 • Rooftop Soler P8nels of All Heights with F/81 or 081>/e or
Hlp Roots wlfh Slop<M Loss TmJn 7 O&gtOOS - U>tgo Commo;ciul Building
Table 11-2. (GCm)""'' equllliuns
I ....1
Roof Wind Zone
w* A, 2 l
0° to 5° ~500 - 0.6669log 10(A,.) + 2.300 - 0.57431og 10(A,) + 2.000 - 0.42 6 llog 111(A") + 1.500
0° to 5° >500 - 0.35001og 10(A,.) + 1.445 - 0.30001ogw(AJ + 1.260 - 0.2500log 111(A,) + 1.025
15° to 35" :S500 - I.()(l04log 10(A,.) + 3.500 - 0 .8:B71og 10(An) + 2.900 - 0.5372log 10(A,.) + 2.000
1 5 ~ lO 35" > 500 - 0.3000log mCA..) + 1.6 J0 -0.25001og10(An) + 1.325 -0.25001og 111(A") + 1.225
..Interpolation is penniaed between soand I So (Section C29.4.3 and Fig. 29.4-7)
For this example problem, the nominal net ptessure coefficient, based on the angle rhm the solar panel
makes v.~tJ1 the roof (10 degTees) und lbe normalized wind nrens calculated previously, arc shown in
Table 11-3. F rom the graph and tht: table above, there is no given nominal net prcS$ure cod:licient for the
example problem's _pecified angle; however. imerpolalion is pemutted between the graphs per Section
C29.4.3 and Fig. 29.4-7.
Table 1/-3. (GCm)..,,.u c:alculmion
Wind Zone 3 Wind Zone 2 Wiud Zoue I

:::::oo (0 ::::: ! 5° to :::::oo to ::515° to :::::oo {0
Area Description A., (if) 10° 10° IOo :::::15° to
::::so :::::35° ::::5o :::::35° ::::so :::::35°
Solar Panel 29.37 1.32 1.68 2.03 1.16 1.42 ] .68 0.87 1.05 1.22
2 .8 NET PRESSURE COEFFICIENT GC,
The net pressure coefficient is calculated from the parapet height factory, . panel chord fac tor r ... array edge
factor Y£• and nominal net pressure coefficient (GC,,)""" in the follow ing cqumion:
Eq 29.4-6
Table 11-4 shows the tabulated net pressure coefficients for the system.
Design Example 11 • Rooftop So.\ar Panels of Alii-/eights wl/11 Flat or GJ:lble or
f-lip Roofs with Slopos l.&ss Than 7 Dogmoo - L!lrge Commorr:/~1 8(1/1(/lng
Table 11-4. Net exposul1! coe_fliciem (GCm) calculation
Area Description "¥,, y,. 'YF. (GCu,)•h~w GCIII Zone Exposure
1.0 0.8 1.5 1.68 2.02 3 Exposed
I 1.0 0.8 1.5 1.42 1.70 2 Exposed
1.0 0.8 1.5 1.05 1.26 I Exposed

Solar Panel
1.0 0.8 1.0 1.68 1.34 3 Non-exposed
1.0 0.8 J.O 1.42 1.14 2 Non-exposed
l.O 0.8 1.0 1.05 0.84 1 Non-exposed
2.9 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Once aU of the variab.lcs for the design arc calculated, the design wind pres sures for the rooftop solar panels
per Equation 29.4-5 can be determined. An example of the entire system design and discussion of roof
design is shown in Design Example I 0.
Eq 29.4-5
2.9.1 Solar Panel Design
Solar panel manufacturers typically have specifications for each panel. For the purposes of structural
design, Lbe engineer will need to review Lbese specificmions to determine correct placement of suppons and
the number of and type of adequate support~. He or she must also check tested panel pressures. Table 11-5
shows wind load on the panel.
Table 11-5. Solar panel design wind load calculation (uplift and downward pressures)
Velocity Adjusted Load on

An:a Pressure Efl'cctive
Zone Exposure GC,11 Pressure Pressure* 2 Solar
Description
(psf)
(psf) (psf)
Area (fl )
P a nel (Jbs)
3 Exposed 2.02 13.77 27.82 27.82 21.13 587.7
2 Exposed 1.70 13.77 23.41 23.41 21.13 494.6
1 Exposed 1.26 13.77 17.35 17.35 21.13 366.6

Solar Panelu
3 Non -exposed 1.34 13.77 18.45 18.45 21.13 389.9
2 Non-exposed 1.14 13.77 15.70 16.00 21.13 338.1
1 Non-exposed 0 .84 13.77 11.57 16.00 21.13 338.1
~'From Section 29.7. Minimum Design Wind Loading, the design wind force cannot be less than 16 psf
(or - I 6 psf for uplift) unless wind tunnellesting is performed per Chapter 3 1.
**All dowTJward pressures on the panels arc Non-exposed.
Design Example 11 • Rooftop Solar Panels of All Heights with F!Dt or Gable or
Hlp Roofs with Slop<ts Loss Tmln 7 OCfJtO(JS - La1g0 Comrnorcinl Bui/cfing
The following it~ms were not addressed in this example, but should be reviewed und/or performed during
design as appt\Oprime:
• Analysis of existing building for structuml udequucy. Considcmtion should be given to the
building support structure below the solar array to minimize impacr on existing framing. if
possible. In mosr cases, the engineer of record for the building hus a ser limit on the average
loud, tota l load. and/or point loud to the roof (typically consisting of dead loud and snow load
combinations). Additional load may mean renovation of the structure for additional capacity.
• Review of other loading conditions sucb us snow, seismic, dead, flood, etc., and the appropriate
load combinations on the arrays and building.
• Wind loading application on the buildi ngs in the arcu around the solar panels.
• Setback.~ not pertaining to wittd design such ns fire or shading.
• Non-rectangular shaped buildings, which urc discussed in more detail in Section C29.4.l (see
Figure C29.4-l ). and Lbe SEAOC PV2-2017 documenL
4. References
American Society of Civil Engineers/Structural Engineering Institute (ASCE/SET) 20 16. "Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and OL11er Structures'' ASCE 7- 16, published by American Sociery of Civi.l Engineers,
2017.
American Society of Civil Engineers/Structural Engineering Instin.He (ASCE/SEf) 2010. "Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures·· ASCE 7-10, published by American Society of Civi l Engioeers,
2010.
American Society of Civil Engi.neers/Srructural Engineering Institute (ASCEISEI) 2005. "Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures" ASCE 7-05, published by American Society of Civil Engineers,
2006.
]nternationul Code Council Evaluation Service (ICC-ES). "Acceptance Criteria for Modu lar Frnming
Systems Used to Support Photovoltaic {PV) Modules" AC428. published by the International Code
Council, November 2012, June 2012. February 201 I, and October 2010.
Structuml Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) Solar Photovolta.ic Systems Committee 2017.
" Wind Design for Solar Arrays" SEAOC PV2-2017, published by Structural Engineers Association of
CaW'omiu, 2017.
Structural Engineers _-\___<;,sociation of California (SEAOC) Solar Photovolta.ic Systems Committee 2012.
" Wind Design for Lmv-Profile Solar Photovoltaic Arrays on Rat Roofs'' SEAOC PV2-2012, published by
Structurnl Engineers Association of California, 2012.

Design Example 12
Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to the Roof Surface
on Buildings of All Heights and Roof Slopes - Single
Family Residence
OVERVIEW ASCE7
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and Structural Engineering institute (SEI) Standard
ASCE 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Critcriu for B uildings and Other Structure:;, has
provided new gllidance for the calculation of rooftop solar panels p arallel to the roof surface on buildings of
all beigbts and 1uof slopes (Sections 29.4.4 and C29.4.4). Please refer 10 Design Ex:.tmple lO's overview for
additional discussion.
When designing a solar array or group of arrays. the following should be observed for panels parallel to the
roof surface:
RISK CATEGORY - s ,ection C29.3.l . Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Freestanding Signs. states:
'The Risk Category for rooftop equipment or appurtenances is required to be not. less than that for
the building on which the equipment is located. nor that for any other fac ility to which the equipment
provides a necessary service. For example. if a solar array is located on the roof of a hospital. design
wind load for the solar array is based on the Risk Category for the hospital. even if the solar array is
not needed for functioning of the hospital."
GEOMETRY - Section 29.4.4 states: "The design wind pressures for rooftop solar panels located on
e nclo-sed or parl1ally enclo-sed buiJdjngs of all heights, with panels parallel to the roof surface, with
a tolerance of 2° and with a maximum height above the roof surface. 111 • not exceeding 10 in. (0.25
m) halll>e detennined iu accordance with this section. A mini mum gap of 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) shall be
provided between al l panels, with the t;pacing of gaps between panels not exceeding 6.7 ft (2.04 m).
In addition. the array sh all be located at least 2h2 from the roof edge. a gable ridge, or a hip ridge."
Section C29.4.4 states: "[C]urrent requirements are based on pauel sizes up to 6.7 ft (2.0 m) long for
heights above tbe roof surface that are Jess than I 0 in. (254 mm) and a minimum gap around the pane ls
of 025 in. (6.35 mm) L arger gaps and lower heights above the roof surface could fu rther decrease the
wind loads, but wind runnel testing would be required to take advantage of this difference. For metal
roof panels, the I 0-in. (254 mm) maximum distance above the roof surface is measured from the pan
of the panels. rather than from the top of the panel ribs."
Design Examples 12 and 13 give fhe user a firm grasp of solar array design parallel to the roof as speciJied
in ASCE 7-16. References to additional supplementu.l information can be found in the references section o f
lhis example problem. Design Example 12. Bui.lding I - Residential. reviews the design from the top of the
solar r anel through the suppons on the roof. Design Example 13, Building 2 - Sports Complex, is not a full
example but will show edge conditions and zones not captured in Des ign Example 12. Tbc examples arc
analyzed using the ASCE 7-J 6 methodology.
While the tem1 '·solar panel" is someti mes interchanged with collector or module, a solar panel refers to a
rec.Langular piece of equipment (with an area typically measuring approximately 5.5 feel by 3.25 feet to 6.5
feet by 3.25 feet. and a ma.x1mum thickness measuring between 0.25 inch and 2 inches. which includes the
module frame) used to absoJTb tbe sun's light emissions for convers ion to energy. The term ··solar array" is
used lO define a panel group connected by structural supports.

Deslgn Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels P8ralle/lo the Roof Surface
on Builcfinys of All Heights tJnd Roof Slopos - Sing/@ Famfly Rw;idanco
OUTLINE
I. Building Geometry and Loads
2. Wind Design
4. Reference.~
• Building
o Location - enclosc.d single-family residence in Hofrmao EsLates. JL
C) Grade around building - level
o At-grade elevation - 800 feet above scu level
o Surrounding area - suburban residential area with mostly single famil y dwellings [see
Figure C26.7-5(a)J
o Mean roof height h - 14.38 feet
o RQof pitch- 6:12 (26.5 degrees)
o Gable roof
o Dimeo ion - 35 feet by 70 feet
c Roof structure -truss spaced at 16 inches on center
c Roof cover- asphalt fiberglass shingles
o Building roof overhung - 2 feet (horizontal projection from p lan view)
o .Risk Category TI
• Solar Panel
c Dimensions - 39 iuches by 78 inches
• Solar Array
o Flusb co roof
o Maximum height of panel above roof h 2 - 5 inches maximum from the roof to the top of
solar panel (Section C29.4.4)
o Gap between panels- 0. 75 inches (North-South and East- West directions) (puncl edge to
adjacenr panel edge)
o Risk Category ll - Same as buiJding per Section C29.3.J
a Solar panel orientation - landscape

Design Example 12 • Rooftop So/or Panels Patallelto tile Roof Stl!fece
on Buildings of All Holghts and Roof Slopos - Slnglo Family Rosldvnce
ROOF PITCH
6:12
L26.57"
11=14.38'
1r
10.00'
2.00' -,1'----,1'--- - - - - -31 .00' ------~-+- 2.00'

J ' - - - - - - - - - -35.00' --------...,Y
Figure 12- 1. Elevation view
- r - - - - - - - - - - - -70.00"- - - - - - - - - - - - - ; (
2.oo· + '1(- - - - - - - - - - - - ss.oo·-------------.~2-oo·
2.00' l .,
~--~------- --------------------- -----------------------------------------1
I
I
-ROOF
EDGE (TYP.)
;AREA OF SOLAR PANEL
INSTALLATION ......-BUILDING EDGE
r ROOFRIDGE 1-' ~ BELOW
35.00' 31 .oo· H--------------f-------.~-/

/ _____+-1
I t
NORTH
2.00'
.- - -~- -1"'-----
____________-__ _____ _____-__ __ __ ____ ___-___ __ ________-__-_____
- -________
-' 1
Figure 12-2. Plan view
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7·16 233

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Psrollelto the Roof Surface
on Builcfin9s of All Heights and Roof SlopO{; - Single Famffy R<MidlinCo
Chapter 30, Wind Loads: Components and Cladding, has been utilized in previous editions of ASCE 7 to
determine wind load on solar panel systems on the l'OOf. Section 30. I 3. Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings
of AIJ Heights with Flat Roofs or Gable or Hip Roofs with .Slopes Less than 7°, refers to .Section 29.4.3.
Se.ctiou 29.4.3. Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All Heights witll Flat Roofs or Gable or Hip Roofs
with Slopes Less than 7°, does not apply to our structure except where referred to in Secrion 29.4.4 or
C29.4.4. Section 29.4.4, Rooftop Solar Panels Pamlld to the Roof Surface on Buildings of All Heights nnd
R oof Slopes. and accompanying com mentary is used for design of th is example.
Figure J2- 3 is an illustration of the 31-pnnd layout on the roof. No punels arc located in the overhung
area of the roof shown bel ween the roof edge and bui !ding edge. For this example, the solar panels are
attached ~o the panel suppo11 structure (racking str ucture). l11e support stntc ture for a panel consists of four
connection points to a rnil (two on each side of the solar pnnel), two raLls oriented in the east-west direction
per paneJ mw, and attachment)) from the rail to the roof.
Section C29.4.4 state": "Panels around the edge of the an·ay may experience bigbcr wind loads. D1e
definition of these exposed pands is the same as for tilted pands in Section 19.4.3."
S ection C29.4.3 states: "Rooftop equipment and structures , such as HVAC u nits, screens, or penthouses,
can provide some sheltering bcndits to solar army::; located directly downwind of the object; conversely,
however. the regions around edges of such structures can have accelerated wind flow under varied wind
d irections. Accordingly, the edge iucrease factor ignores such strucrures and is calculated based on the
distance to the building edge or adjacent array, neglecting any intervening rooftop stmctmes. This results in
the panels adjacem to rooftop objects being designed for higher wind loads to account for the accelerated
wind tlow." For the purposes of wi.ud design. reviewing the placement of solar panels ou me roof and
neglecting the rooftop equipment obstructions will yield a minimum des ign per code.
-f5.50'1
r···r.+ ..........................
19 57' '
*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:
1-/
r ROOF CENTER ( ROOF RIDGE
I
~~gg: (TYP)
!'!' -b..-..-....._...~._....._...L. .._.. ~~m ..-mr~~~~~GEDGE

• I.
1' - - 2.00'
I
. .
NORTH
J'--.l'--
J ' - - - - - - - -- - - - - -70.00' - - - - - - -- - - - - --J'
LEGEND
D SOLAR P/INEL
12;:;:] MISSING PANEL
Figure 12- 3. Array top view

Design Example 12 • Rooftop So/or Panels Pata/lalto t11e Roof St11face
on Buildings of All Hulghts and Roof S/opos - Slnglo Family Rot;/donco
2.1 CODE DESIGN APPLICABILITY
Before beginning the design, verify that the army fulls within the bounds of the application of Sections
29.4.4 and C29.4.4.
Table 12-1. Code design applicabilily
Pam meter
Parameter Met'? Why Is t.be Parameter Met?
Determine from Sectiou 26.2.
Enclosed or pnrtiully enclosed SEAOC PV2-2017 indicates that the
I Yes
building same methodology mny be applied lo
open buildings (Section 5.3.4)
Stated in design. Within a tolerance
of2°. SEAOC PV2-2017 also
2 Paoel::; parallel to roof surface Yes indicates that the heights 11 1 nnd 11 2
should have a difference of le..~sthan
or equal to I in.
TI1e distance from the top of the
solar panel to the cop or the roof is
5 in. (SEAOC PV2-2017 Section
3 Yes 5.2.2 state!> "h 1 and 112 • a~ defined in
surface (h2) to top of panel is 10 in
ASCE 7- 16, nre measured from the
roof surf:~ce to the top surfnce of the
panel.")
The solar panel gap between panels
is 0.75 in. in each direction. SEAOC
PV2-2017 permits additioonl
4 Minimum panel gap of 0.25 in Yes reductions to the solar array pressure
for solar panel gaps of 0.75 in or
greater with a maximum height above
the roof surface (h2 ) of 5 in or less.
The smallest edge distance is 3. 19 ft
from rhe roof edge which is greater
5 Minimum edge distance 2112 Yes
than the minimum edge distance of
2/~ or 10 in.
Maximum panel length of 6.7 f£ The length of the panel is 78 in

6 Yes
(80.4 i n) (6.5 ft).
Wind Design Manual Bssed on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7-16 235

Deslgn Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to /he Roof Surface
on Buildin9s of All Heights and Roof SlopcJS - Single Family R&Sid<inco
2.2 VELOCITY PRESSURE 'fl.
Scclion 29.2.1 refers to Chupter 26 for wind lond pummcters. The velocity pressure, q11 • is culculuted from
Section 26.10 usi ng the following five variables:
Velocity pressure exposure coefficient (Kt, Section 26.10. 1)
Topographic factor (K::r. Section 26.8.2)

Wind dlreetionality factor ( Ktl, Section 26.6)
Ground elevation factor (K• . Section 26.9)
Basic wind speed (V, Section 26.5)
To determine tile velocity expos w-e c·oefficient K:, lltilize Section 26.1 0.1. which men refers to Table
26. I 0- ~ . The bullding is located iJ1 Exposure B and bas a height above ground level (mean roof height, h)
of 14.38 ft. According to the notes on Table 26.10-1, since the structure is being designed per Chapter 29 in
Exposu.re B. and the height of the building is 14.38 fee t. use a K: coefficient of 0.57.
To determine the topographic factor K:~, use Section 26.8.2. Since the buiJdLng is located at level grade and
not near a ridge, hill. or escnrpm~nt, per Section 26.8.2. utilize a Kv == 1.0.
K~ = 1.0
To detenn iue we wind directionality factor K". use Section 26.6. which refers to Table 26.6-1 for
determination of K.r The tenn that defines the structure mos t accurately is "RoofTop Equipment," which
has a Kd of 0.£5.
K" = 0.85
To determine the ground elevation factor Kc. use Section 26.9. The at-grade elevation ar the site of the
building is 800 feet above sea level. In Table 26.9- 1, the elevation fal ls between 0 feet and 1,000 feet.
Conservativdy. K~ can b<! taken as 1.00 per Note I: it can be interpolated ; or it can be calculated from the
equation in Note 2 as showu below.
K. == e-o.o:oo?~::!~l Table 26.9-l

K = e-o.o:OO.I&tllOO 6'tl
<
K, = 0.97

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Peml/el to t11e Roof Swfece
on Buildings of All Holgtlts and Roof Slopos - Slnglo Family Ros/dvllco
TI1e basic wiud s peed. V. can be obtained frottl Section 26.5. The Section refers to Figures 26.5- 1B and
26.5-2B for Risk ll Category buildings and structures. In lhis example, the buiJding h designated as Risk
Category IT. and therefore, from Section C29J.1, the solar array located on thnt building is dcsignntcd as
Risk Category ll. From interpolation or Figure 26.5- 1B. the basic wind speed is 107 mph for the a.m\y and
buildiug . As an aJterualive, ~ ite-. peci tic wind speeds can be obtained from www.ntcouncil.ot'g/windspced.
']'his is a free rc.sourcc thal cnn be uti lized for design outside of special wind region ~ . Another tool avuilublc
is http://ascetools.onlinc/. (ln this laller resource. in addition to basic wind speed, the user wiU also be able
lo det ermine ~ ite-specitic d.ata pertaining to seismic accelerations, flood zone, base flood elevation, ground
snow load, rain load, t5unnmi-lond risk, n:nd icc thickness with concurrent temperature nnd gust speed.)
V = 107 mph
The velocity pressure for the roof structure can now be detennined u sin~ Eq uation 26.10-l.
qr, = 0.00256I(K,K11KrV 2 (lb/ft 2); V in mi/h Eq 26.10-1

q,, - 0.00256 X (0.57) X ( 1.0) X (0.85) X (0.97) X ( 107 mi/h) 2
q, = 13.77 lb/if
2.3 DETERMINING EFFECTIVE WIND AREAS
Next. determine the effective area(s). A. to the part of the structure to be analyzed. From Section 26.2.
lbe effective area is detined as " [t]he area used to determine tJJe external pressure coefficient (GCP) and
r(GC..,) ...." For rooftop solar arrays, lhc dfcctivc wind arcn in Fig . 29.7-7 is equal to the tributary nrcn
f or the struc tural ekmcnt being considered. except Lhat the wid th of Lhe effcclivt: wind an: need not be less
man onc-rhird its length. For cladding fasteners, the effective wind area shall not be greater than the area
that is tributary to nn individual fa..«tcncr." Also from Sec tion 26.2, cladding fasteners arc "[c] lements of .. .
rool'top slruclure.s and equipment that do not qunli fy as part of the MWFRS (Main Wind Force Resisting
System)." The effective areas for this example are calculated below. (Rail I is the northern most east-west
running rail and Rai.l 5 is the soutbem-most east-west running mil.)
Effective area w a solar panel

Solar Panel - A = 78 in X 39 in = 2 1. 13 ft 2
Effective area w ..:onnection from [he solar panel w the rail

2 2
1,4 Solar Panel - A = 2 1.13 ft X 1/.s = 5.28 ft
2
¥2 Solar Panel- A = 21.13 ft X lJz = l 0 .57 ft 2
Effective area lO a rail

2 2
Rail 1 - A = lJ2 X panel urcu X 8 panels = lJz X 78 in X 39 in X 8 = 12, 168 in = 84.5 ft
Raii 2- A = Y2 X panel area X 17 panels= V2 X 78 in X 39 in X 17 = 25,857 in 2 = 179.6 ft 2
Rail 3 - A = lJz X panel area X 15 panels= lf 2 X 78 in X 39 in X 15 = 22,815 in2 = 158.4 fl 2
2 2
Rail 4 -A= lJz X panel area X 14 panels = Yz X 78 in X 39 in X 14 = 21,294 in = 147.9 ft
2 2
RailS -A = Y2 X panel area X 8 panels= ¥2 X 78 in X 39 in X 8 = 12, 168 in = 84.5 ft

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar P8nels P8rol/el to the Roof St1rlace
on Buildings of All Heights <lnd Roof Slopas - Single Famffy Ro.sidoncu
Loading area co a couoeclioo from the rail to the roof

Based on the tributary area of the rail to the roof. See Table 12- 2 for calcularion of effective
area per connector. Figure 12---4 was utilized to determine the appropriate urea for each
l.'onnector to the roof. For r.UI and connection point description. sec Figure 12-7.
----- ROOF
EDGE (TYP.)
19.57'
t
NORTii
~---------------------------70.00'--------------------------~
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL TRUSS SUPPORT
- NON·EXPOSED PANEL ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· TRIBUTARY AREA

TO CONNECTION
~ MISSING PANEL RAIL TO ROOF
COI\NECTION
Figure 12--4. 1\rrayframing vieiV
Areas to the effective area connectors are tabulated in Table 12- 2.

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solor Panels Pata/Jel to /11e Roof St11face
on Buildings of All Holghts and Roof Slopos - Slnglo Family Rosldvnco
Table 12-2. E_(fecJi ve area (A) for rail 10 roof connection
Effective Tributurv Roof

Area Description
Connection Are;~ (if)
Cl. Cl2. C49. C60 4.60
C2-C3. C5. C8. C I 0-C II. C34. C50-C51. C53-C55. C59 8.63
C4.C9. C28.C33. C40 , C52 8.67
C6-C7 3.28
Cl 3. C24-C25. C36-C37. C48 9.2 1
Cl4-Cl5. C l7, C20, C22-C23, C26, C30-C3l, C38, C42-C43 17.27
Cl6, C21 17.33
C l8-C19 11.92
C27,C39 16.59
C29, C32, C4 1 15.9 1
C35, C47 14.59
C44 14.56
C46, CS8 7.96
C56 7.28
C45,C57 NA
Tribut.ary areas have been computed to each rai Vconncction. T hese areas will need to be dctcm1ined to
compute some of the variables in Equation 29.4-7.
2.4 EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT GCP
To determine the GC1, for the exam ple structure. Section 29.4.4 refe rs to the Components and Cladding
sections for roofs, Figures 30.3-2A-I through 30.3-7 or 30.5-1. This example will utilize Figure 30.3-2C for
Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Buildings with Gable Roofs with a roof slope greater than 20 degrees and
less lhao or equal to 27 degrees £har are less than or equal to 60 feet in mean roof height (h).
First, determine the zones for the building. They are I , 2 n, 2e, 2r, 3n, and 3e from Figure 30.3-2C. Then,
detem1ine the edge d istance. a. as specified in Notes a and 6.
Fmm Note 6: '·lf overhangs exist, the lesser horizonml dimension of the building shall not include any
overhang dimension, but the edge distance. a. shall be measured fxom the outside edge of Lhe overhang."
The roof overhang is 24 inches, so the least horizontal dimens ion of the building for the purposes of
calculating the edge distance is 35 feet - (2 feet by 2 sides) = 3 1 feeL
Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to /he Root Surface
on Buildin9s or All Heights M'ld Roof Slopos - Single F-Jmfly R&Siduncu
F rom Note a. we edge dis ranee should be calculated as "l 0% least horizontal di mens ion or 0.4h whi<.:l\ever
is smaller, but not Jess than either 4% of lens! horizontal dimension or 3 fl. if an overhang exists, rhe edge
distance s huiJ be mcu.sured from outside edge of the ove rhung . The horizontul dimensions used to compute
th e edge distance shall not indude any overhang distances." The edge dist an~:e is calculated as :
a = the smaller of Figure 30J-2C
a J 0% X 31 rt • 3 .1 ft or
a = 0.4 X 14.38 ft = 5.75 ft but not~~~ than the larger of
a ~ 4% X 3 1 ft ~ 1.24ft or
a= 3ft
The s maller of 3. 1 feet or 5.75 feet is 3.1 feet. but not less than either (or bot:h of) 1.24 fee t ot· 3 fee l. By
chis calculation, th e edge d istance, a, is equal to 3.1 feet.
a = 3.I ft
The roof zones can now be drawn, and G C1, factors cun be determined. Since the syste m is not located over
an overhang. the " 0 \•erhang'' GC1, graph is not needed, only the " Roof" GCP graph .
D imension d 1 is larger than dimension a. The array should be a minimum of d 1 from the edges and ridge
of the roof. O nly Zone l GC, s will need to be computed for the array. The o ther zones will need to be
c omputed in the verification of the overall roof from Section 29.4.4. items I and 2.
The GC, factors. shown in Table 12- 3. can now be obtained based on their effective area..~. The slopes of the
lines be tween the effective wind area of 20 square f eet and 300 s quare fee t for uplift and 2 square feet and
100 square feet for downward forces for this examp le problem, based on Figure 30.3-2C, arc shown below:
Uplift--? - 1.5 + (O og 1 oA ~ - log 1020)/(log 1020 - log 111300) X (- 1.5 - (- 0.8)))

Dm.vrrwurd --? 0.7 + ((log 11A - log 102)/(log 102 - log10100) X (0.7 - 0.3))

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Pata//elto t11e Roof Swfece
on Buildings of All Hoigtlts and Roof Slopos - Slnglo Family Rosldvnc:e
Tobie 12-3. GC1, calculation
Area Description Elfcctivc Area (fe) cc,, (Uplift) GC1, (Downward)
Panel 21.1 3 - 1.49 0.46
Panel connection to ruil

5 .28 -1 .50 0.60
(~ Pane l)
Panel connection Lo rail

10.57 - 1.50 0.53
(Yi Panel)
Rail 1 84.5 - 1.13 0.32
Rai l 2 179.6 - 0.93 0.30
Rill! 3 158.4 - 0.97 0.30
Rail4 147.9 - 0 .98 0.30
Rai lS 84.5 - 1.13 0.32
R ail connection to roof 4.60-11.92 - 1.50 0.6 1
Rail connection to roof 14.52-17.33 - 1.50 0.50
2.5 EXPOSURE FACTOR 'Y£ §29.4.4
From Section 26.3, Symbols, the following definitions should be observed in determining d 1 and d 2 •
''d1 = for rooftop solar arrays. horizontal dista nce orthogonal to the panel edge to an adjacent panel or
the building edge, ignoring any rooftop equipment in Fig. 29.4-7, in ft (m)."
''d1 = for rooftop solar an·ays, horizontal distance from the edge of one panel to the nearest edge ill the
next row of panels in Fig. 29.4-7."
Ft•om Section 29.4.4, £he exposure factor, '1£> for solar panel.s can be determined by considering wind from
all directions in rhe following way:
''yE = array edge factor = 1.5 for uplift loads on panels that at'C exposed aud those within a distance
1.5(LP) f rom Lbe end of a row at an exposed edge of the array; 'YF. = 1.0 cl.scwhcrc for uplift londs and
for aU downward loads. as illustrated in Fig. 29.4-7. A panel is defined as exposed if d 1 to the roof edge
> 0.511 and one of lhe following applies:
I . d 1 to the adjacent array> 4 feet ( 1.22 m) or
2. d 2 to £he next adjacent panel > 4 feet ( 1.22 m)."
Since the solar pane'Js are in a landscape orientation w ith the smaller of the two dimensions parallel with the
slope. lhe length of the panel. Lr is equal to 39 inches.
LP = 39 in
1.5LP - 58.5 in
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI 7-16 241
on Bui/din9s or All Heights <md Roof Slopos - Single Pamfly R&Sidlinco
E xJ}osed s olar panels for upliJr are also defined wllere the distance d 1 is greater tllan 0.511 to a building edge
and greater than 4 feer to the oext adjacent army or panel. Distance d2 to non-exposed so.lar panels is less
t bnn or cquulto 4 feel in the North-South direction (from row to row). For lhis example:
To determine the distance d 1 and c/2, [he foilowin.g variables have been det\ned:
11 = 14.38 feet
0.511 = 7.19 feet
112 = 5 inches
2112 = 10 inches
4 feet
From Section C29.4.4, "Panels around the edge of the anay may experience higher wind loads. The
definition of these exposed panels is tbe same ns for tilted panc.ls in Section 29.4.3."
The horizontal distance onbogooal to rh e panel edge 10 ttn adjacem panel or building edge, ignoring any
rooftop equipment, d 1 occurs in areas that arc less thnn 7. 19 feet from the roof edge in this case. The
horizontal distance from the edge of one panellO the nearest edge in the next row. d 2 • should be less than 4
feeL Lengths of d 2 that are 4 feet or greater in (his example would be considered exposed solar panels. At
tbe end of tbe row of ao exposed edge, a panel cun ul.so be considered exposed if it faU.s withi n 1.5 of the
panel cbord length. or l.5L1,. Exposed solar panels shou ld be assigned <ln expo~ure factor, '{p;, of 1.5. and
non-exr>osed solar panels should be ass igned an exposure fa(.'tor of 1.0.
After determining the wind loads for each of the areas, Figure.-; 12-5 and 12-6 cun be generated.
e
0.5h
19.57'
2h,
0.83'
..1'--+--+-3.1 o·
..1'-------,.J--7. 19'
)t----- - - - - - - - - - - - - -70.00' - - - - - - - - - - - - ---;Y
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL MIN. PANEL EDGE

DISTANCE LINE
D NON-EXPOSED PANEL
PANEL EXPOSURE
~ MISSING PANEL UNE
WIND ZONE
@ Wl NDZONE
LINE
Figure 12-5. Array top view with defined areas
Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Patal/elto L11e Roof Sutfece
on Bllildlngs of All Hoi!Jhls and Roof Slopos - Slnglo Family Ros/dvnco
ROOF RIDGE
~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2&~~~~~~~ ~
~2 I ROOF
EDGE (iYP.)
'R3
r- ~~~~~2;~~~~~4=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
t
NORTH
LEGEND
I22ZJ EXPOSED PANEL __ • _ MIN. PANEL EDGE

DISTANCE U NE
D NON-EXPOSED PANEL
PANEL EXPOSURE
- - - LINE
C'8:'J MISSING PANEL
· - - - • WIND ZONE
@ WINDZONE
LINE
Figure 12-6. Array framing view with dejined GC1,/acrors 011 panels
Since all of the panels are located a di stance from the roof of "a" o r greater, they are located in Zone 1 for
!the external pressure cot:.fficient. From Figure 12- 6. the following has been provided to help the reader
understand £he reasoning behind £he selection of exposed or non-exposed for each panel.
Exposed Solar Pands:
• The edge of the solar p;mel located i n C7-R2 f.rom the south direction is greater than a distance
o f O.Sh from the south direction, and there is no next udjuccnt solur pancllg:rcatcr than 4 feet)
to the south.
• The edge of the solar panels located in C2-R3, C4-R I, C6-R3, and C6-R4 from the cast
direction is greater than a distance of O.Sh from the cast, and there is no a(ljacent solar pan el
cgreater than 4 feet) to the east.
• The edge of the solar panels locut.ed in C4-R3. C6-R I. C8-R4. and C9-R3 from the west
direction is greater than a distance of O.Sh from the west, and £here is no adjacent solar panel
{greater than 4 feel) to the west

on Buildill9S of All Heights imd Roof Slopos - Sing/~ PcJmfly R&SidlinCo
Non-Exposed Solar Panels:
• The edge o f the solar panels located in Cl, C2-R 1, C2-R4, C3-R I , C4-R4, C5-R4, C7-R I ,
C8-R I. C9-R I. C9-R2. and C9-R4 are less than a distance of 0.511 in directions where no oLhcr
solar panel exi t and hnve solar panels on all ot.her sides .
• The edge o f the solar panels located in C2-R2, C4-R2. C5-R3, and C 6-R2 have solar panels on
all sides and are 11ot located a distance of 1.5L1, l'r on\ the end of a w w.
• Tht tdge o f Lhe .solar pantls located in C3-R2 and C8-R2 do not hnve a .solar panel to the
outh: however. the distance lO the next solar panel is Jess than 4 feet. and the solar panel is
s urrounded by solar panels on all the other sides.
• The edge of the solar panellocared i n C3-R4 from rhe sou them edge is less than 0.511 and is
Jess than 4 feet from the next adjacent solar panel ro the north.
• 111e edge of Lhe solar panel located i n C5-R2 from Lhe north direction is a distance of less than
0.5/t 10 rhe panel edge and is SUITounded by :;olur panels on the other sides.
The above figure and text show how to define an exposed or non-exposed panel as stated per ASCE 7-1 6.
R efer to Design Example 13, Section 2.8, for fwther discussion.
2.6 SOLAR ARRAY PRESSURE EQUALIZATION FACTOR "Y,, FIGURE 29.4-8
The solar array pressure equalization fac tor, Yu• us shown in Figure 29.4-8, cnn be utilized for aU slopes
that are flush to roof. Depending on the effecLive wind area defined in Section 26.2, "[t]he area used to
detemline the external pressLtre coefficients (GC,) and (GCm) .. . . For rooft op solar arrays. the effective
wind area in Fig. 29.4-7 is equal to tbe tributary area for rhe structural element being cons·iderecl, except
that the width of the effective wind need not be less than one-third its ltngth. For cladding fuslcntrs, the
effective wind area shall not be greater than the area that is tributary to an individual fastener." Also from
Section 26.2, cladding fasteners are "le]lements of ... rooftop structures and equipment that do not qualify
as part of the MWFRS tMain Wind Force Resisting System)." The solar array pressure equalization fac tor
wiD change depending on effective area.
The slope of rh e line behvecn the effective wind area of J 0 square feet and 100 square feet is

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Peta//elto t11e Roof Swfece
on Buildings of All Hoigtlts and Roof Slopos - Slnglo FMilly Rosldot~co
Table 12--4. Pressure equafizttlion fctc:tor y,,
Area Description Elfcctivc Area (fe)

"'a
Panc.l 21.13 0.67
Panel Connection to Rail ('.4 Panel) 5.28 0.80
Panel Connection to Rai l (V2 Panel) I 0.57 0.79
RuiJ 1 84.5 0.43
Ruil2 179.6 0.40
Ruil 3 158.4 0.40
Rail4 147.9 0.40
Rail 5 84.5 0.43
Cl , Cl2, C49, C60 4.60 0.80
C2-C3, CS, C8, ClO-Cll. C34, CSO-CSI. C53·C55, C59 8.63 0.80
C4, C9, C28, C33, C40, C52 8.67 0.80
C6·C7 3.28 0.80
Cl3. C24-C25, C36-C37. C48 9.21 0.80

'-
0
0 Cl4-CI5. Cl7. C23. C26. C30. C38. C42-C43 17.27 0.7 1
~
.9
r:!
0
·.c
CI6.C21 17.33
I 0.70
'->
u
CI8-Cl9 11.92 0.77
c::
c::
0 C27. C39 16.59 0.7 1
u
:-:::;
~ C29. C32. C4 1 15.9 1 0.72
~
C35. C47 14.59 0.73
C44 14.56 0.73
C46.C58 7.96 0.80
C56 7.28 0.80
I C45, C57 NA NA
SEAOC PV2-2017. Section 5.3.5. Pressure equalization factor for arrays with grealer porosiry. includes an
updated figure to calculate the pressure equalization factor based on a smaller 111 distan~:e and a larger gap
between modules.

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to the Roof Surface
on Builcfin9s or All Heights tmd Roof Slopo~ - Single Famffy R<Midonco
2 .7 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
Once all of the variables for the design arc calculated, the design wind press ure for the rooftop solar panels.
supp011 tr ucture (racking strucrure). a.nd componenTs per Equation 29.4-7 c.an be determined.
Eq. 29.4-7
Figure 12- 7 shows the 31 panels, 5 missing panels, the 90 panel connectors (less the missing 6 from the
missing panels) to the rails, and t he five rails. Other graphics and mblcs have been provided for the mil
connection ~o roof design.
LEGEND
- PANEL UPLIFT i'c:,. 1.5 (El!posed)

LJ PANEL UPLIFT y~ == 1,0 (Not Expo.sed)
~ MISSING PANEL
~ PANEL TO RAIL CONNECTION
Figure 12- 7. Solar array depiction showing pane/to rail cOJmecrion
S olar panel manufacturers typically h ave specifications for each paneL For the purposes of slnlctural
design, the engineer wiJJ need to review these specifications to determine the correct placement of supports,
the number of and type of adequate supports, and check the tested panel pressures. Table 12--5 shows wind
l oad on Lhe paneL
Design Example 12 • Rooftop So/or Panels Pata//elto tile Roof Swface
on B"ildings of All Holghts and Roof Slopos - Slnglo Family Ro~ldvnco
Table 12-5. Sular panel design wind load calwlation (uplift and dmvmvord only)
Design Adju1.1~d Loud on

A.re<l q~ Effective
GC1, 'Y!l '(,, Pressure Design Solar Pane l
Description (psf) Area (f~)
(psf) Pa·essure" (p f) (lbs)
Solar panel 1.5 - 20.62 - 20.62 21.13 - 435.70

13.77 -1.49 0.67
(Uplift) I -1 3.75 - 16.00 21.13 -338.08
Solar panel
13.77 0.46 l 0.67 4.24 16.00 21.13 338.08
(Downward)
+-from Secl.ion 29.7, Minimum Design Wind Loading, the design wind force cannot be less than 16 psf
{or - 16 psf for uplift) unless wind tunnel testing is performed per Chapter 3 1.
2.7.2 Solar Panel to Rail Connection Design
Figure 12- 7 was used to determine the design pressmes on rhe collnect.ion from the solar panel ro the rail.
For the purposes of this cxumpJc, paods hHve been supported at quarter points (on the long side of the solar
panel, connections occur a distance of length of 0.25*Lr.wei fTom each end of the solar panel). Solar pancls
with connectors that have no adjacent solar panel will have an effective area of one quat1er of a solar panel.
Solar panels that share a connector (thut have a solar panel to the north of the connector and a solar panel to
th e south of the connector) will have an effective area of one half of a solar panel. The results of the fig ure
are summarized in Table I 2- 6.
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI7-16 247

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to the Roof Surface
on Bui/cfin9s of All Heights Md Roof SlopCN; - Singlo Family R<Midcmcu
Tctble 12-6. Solar panello rail connection design wind load culculation (uplift and downward pressures)
Dc!'i!Jn Ad ju.,lcd L oMI w

Solar Pnnol lo R11.il Connection lf: Effcct i~'l:
GC" YP. y" PtC!'3llfC Dc>i11n Connection
LOC'.ation (p!>f)
Pr ~~<.~urc• (psf) Ar-.:a (ft1)
(1>-<;1) (ll>~)
CI-C6. CI3-Cil~. C27-C28.

C4J-C42. C5J-C52. CS9·C&J. 13.77 - 1.50 1.0 cu;o - 16.52 - 16.52 5.2ll - 1!7.25
C73·CS2, CS9·C90 {Uplifl}
CI-C6, CI3-CIS. C27-C2S,
C41-C42, C5 1-C52, C59-C60, 13.77 0.60 1.0 0.80 6.61 16.00 5.28 84.48
C73-C82. C89-C90 (D own wOld)
C9-C t0. C67-C68. C85-C86 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

C 19·C24. C33-Cl8. C.4S·C46.
13.77 -1.50 1.0 0.79 -16.32 -t 6.32 t0.57 - 172.48
CS5·C56. C63 ·C~ (Upl!l\)
CJ9-C24. C33·C3l!. C45·C46.
13.77 0.53 1.0 0.79 - 5.77 16.00 t0.57 t69. t2
C55·CS6. C63-C64 (Downw:u-d)
C25·C26, C29·C31.. C39·C40,

C43-C44, C47-C48, C53-C54, ( I+ 1.5)12
13.77 - 1.50 0.79 -20.40 -20..10 10.57 -2 15.63
C57-CSB. C6 1-C62. C71-C72 = 1.2.5"·
(Uplift)
C25·C26. C29·C32. C39·C40.

C4.~·C44., 017-018, C53-C54,
C57-C58. C6 1-C62. C71-C72
13.17 0.53 1.0 0.79 - 5.77 16.00 10.57 169. 12
(Downwun.l)
C?-C8. C l t -CI2. C49-C50.

C69-C70. CS3·C84. C87·C88 13.77 - 1.50 u 0.80 - 24.79 - 24.79 5.28 - 130.87
(Uplift)
C7·CS, C l l -Cl 2, C49-C50,

C69-C70. C83-CS4. C87-C8 8 13.77 0.60 1.0 0.80 6.61 16.00 5.28 84.48
(Downw:ud)
C65·C66 (Uplift) 13.77 - 1.50 1.5 0.79 -24.48 -2.4.118 10.57 -258.75
C65-C66 (Downwcud) 13.77 0.60 1.0 0.79 6.53 16.00 10.57 169.12
~From Section 29.7. M inimum Design Wind Loading. the design wind force canno t be less than 16 psf (or
- 16 psf for uplift) unless wind tunnel testing is performed per Cbapter 31.
* *The connector anaching the solar panels consists of one solar panel that is designated as exposed and
another that is non-exposed. Averagin g the two, tbe exposure coefficient is equal to 1.25.
2 .7.3 Rail Design
D epending on how the solar panel is connected to the rail. the rail design can be do ne several different
ways. F or the p urposes of tbis example, lhe connector transfers tile load to the rail so poi nt loads are
appropriate for the design in both the upward and downward direction. For this exan1ple, to get an
appmpriate point load. the effective area of the rail should be used to obtain Lbe correct pressure, but the
area of tbe connector from rhe panel to the rai I should be used to get the correct point load on the rail.
Figure 12-7 was utilized to determine tbe design pressures on the connection from the solar panel to the
mil. The results are summarized in Table 12- 7.
24 8 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC a nd ASCE/S E I 7-16

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Pata//81/o tile Roof Surface
on Buildings of All Holghts and Roof Slop os - Slnglo Family Ros/dV!Ico
Table 12-7. Rail design wind load calculation (uplift and downward pres~·ures)
Adjusted Solru P.u1cl

Design Effll~'lil'<l Point
'lc Destgn h > Rnil
Pancllo Rail Connection LoCJJlion GC~ '(,; "l. PrcSiurc Rall AI'I~.II L<.tml
(p..<f) Pn:s<u rc• Connection
(P..' fl (rtl) (lb~)
lpsf) An:u(frlJ
C I-C6. C t:l-C IS, C7J-C82,
13.77 - 1.13 1.0 0.43 - 6.69 -1 6.00 84.5 5.28 -84.43
C89-C90 (Uplifl )
CI·C6, CJ3-C I8, C7J-C82,
13.77 0.32 1.0 0.43 1.89 16.00 84.5 5.28 84.48
C89-C90 (Downwnrd)
R:ril
I nnd C7-C8. Cl 1-C I2, C83-C84.
13.77 - 1.13 1.5 0.43 - !0.04 - 18.67 84j 5.28 - 84.4 8
Rail S C87-C88 \Uplift)
C7-C8, C l I-C I2. C83-C84, 84_~
13.77 0.32 1.0 0.43 1.89 16.00 5.28 84.48
Cfi7-C88 ( 0 1>11'111\'!Htl)
C<.I-CIO. C.B5-C86 ~A NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
CI 9-C24. C33-C36 (Uplifl) 13.77 -0.93 1.0 0.40 -5.12 - 16.00 179.6 10.57 -1 69. 12
CI 9-C26, C.U-C36 (Downwnrd) 13.77 0.3 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 179.6 10.57 169.12
C27-C2~ (Uplifl ) 13.77 - 0.93 1.0 0.40 - 5.12 - 16.00 179.6 5.28 - 84.4 ~
Ru.i l 2
Cl7-C28 (Downw!l rd) 13.77 0.3 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 179.6 5.28 84.4&
C25-C26. C29-C32 (Upltfl) 13.77 - 0.93 1.25 0.40 -6.40 - 16.00 179.6 10.57 - 169. 12
C25-C26. C.29-C32 (Down word) 13.77 0.30 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 179.6 10.57 169. 12
C37-C38, C45-C46 (Uplift) 13.77 -0.97 1.0 0.40 -5.34 -16.00 158.44 10.57 - 169. 12
C37-C38, C45-C46 (Downwnrd) 13.77 0.30 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 158A4 10.57 169.12
C4 1-012. C5 1-C52 (Uplin) 13.77 - 0.97 1.0 0.40 - 5.34 - 16.00 158.44 5.28 - 84.4t!
C4 J-C42. C51-C52 (Downw:ud) 13.77 0.30 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 158.44 5.28 84.48.
C39·C40. C4 3-C44 , C4 7-C48.
13.77 - 0.97 1.25 0.40 - 6.68 - 16.00 158.44 10.57 - 169.1 2
R:til 3 C53·C54 (Uplifl)
09-C40. C43·C4.d. C4.7-C48.
13.77 0.30 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 158.44 10.57 169. 12
C53-C54 (Downward)
C49·CSO (Uplifl ) 13.77 - 0.97 1.5 0.40 - 8.01 - 16.00 158A4 5.28 - 84.43
C49-C50 (Downward) 13.77 0.30 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 158.44 5.28 84.48.
C67-C68 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Nt\
C55-C56. C63-C64 (Uplift) 13.77 - 0.98 1.0 0.40 -5.40 - 16.00 147.88 10.57 - 169.12
C55-C56, C63-C64 (Downwnrd) 13.77 0.30 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 147 .88 10 .57 169. 12
C.S9-C60 (Uplin) 13.77 - 0.98 1.0 0.40 - 5.40 - 16.00 147.88 5.28 - 84.48
C59·C60 (Downw:ud) 13.77 0.30 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 147.88 5.28 84.48
C57-C58. C6l -C62, C71-C72 - 6.75 (47.88
!3.77 - 0.98 1.25 0.40 - 16.00 10.57 - 169. 12
Rail 4 (Uplifl)
C57-C58. C6 1·C62. C71 ·C72
13.77 0.30 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 147.88 10.57 169. 12
(Do\\'nward)
C65-C66 (Uplin) 13.77 - 0.98 1.5 0.40 - 8. 10 - 16. 19 147.B8 10.57 - 169. 12
C65-C66 (Downw:ud) 13.77 0.30 1.0 0.40 1.65 16.00 147.88 10.57 169.12
C85-C86 lA NA Nt\ NA NA NA NA NA NA
.,From Section 29.7, Minimum Design Wind Loading, the design wind force cannot be less than 16 psf
(or - 16 psf for uplift) unless wind tunnel testing is performed per Chapter 3 1.
on Buildi119S or All Heights {)n<f Roof SlopcN; - Sing/0 Pamfly R<Midunco
Th:is example probleru assumes thut each of the tivc rails is continuous. The poim loads above should be
applied at their appropriate locations (shown in Figure 12-7) to calculate tbe adequacy of the rail to which
t hey 11re applied.
2.7.4 Rail to Roof Connection Design
For simplicity in this example problem, the tributary area of the solar panel to the roof attachment
connector has been used co determine the load to the roof attachment connector and roof. l t is likely
t bat a clcta iJod structural analysis of t.lhe rail utilizing the rail properties would give !urger point louds at
the connectors ncar the end of the rows and smaller point loads near the center for this example. The
m ethod used i.n this example, however. will give more of an averaged loading to each of tbe connectors
Lundcrest1mati ng loading at the ends of the mils and overestimating the loading in the middle of the mils).
The sum of the reactions over the kngth of the beam, whichever wuy the unulysis is performed, should be
equal for lhis example problem.
Figure 12-4 was utilized to determine the design pressures on the connection from the solar puncl to the
rail. This figure shows how the tributary area to each connector was determined.
ROOF RIDGE
- - ROOF
EDGE (TYP.)
19.57'
t
NORTH
) ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70.00' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . Y
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL - - - - TRUSS SUPPORT
D NON-EXPOSED PANEL ·· · · •· · •· · · •· TRIBUTARY AREA

TO CONNECTlON
~ MISSING Phi\.'E L RAll TO ROOF
CONNECTlON
Figure 12-8. Arrayframing view
Figure 12- 9 shows the 3 1 panels. 5 missing panels. the 60 connectors from the rail to the roof and Lheir
approximate location, and the five rails.
Design Example 12 • Rooftop So/or Ponels Potallelto the Roof Sutfece
on Buildings of All Holghts vnd Roof Slopos - Slnglo Fvmlly Ros/dvnco
LEGEND
- MODULE UPLIFT Yr,~ 1 . 5 (Exposed)

L) MODULE UPLIFT Yli = 1.0 (Not ExposQdj
~ M ISSING MODULE
R9Qj PANEL TO RAIL CONNECT.ION
Figure 12- 9. Solar array depicrion showing rail ro roof con neelions
Table 12- 8 shows a prutial a nalys is o f the connector from the rai l to the roof. nibutnry areas where both
exposed nnd non-exposed pnncls exist hove varying exposure coefficients dependent on the oibutary area.
For example. if the tributary are.1 to a connee Lion is 4.6 square feel and half of that area is exposed and the
other half is not, the exposure coeffi cient would be equal to 1.25. C alculations for all of rhe connections
have not been provided, but connections CI, CI2, C49, and C60 nrc shown in Table 12- 8.
Table 12-8. Rail to roof connecrion design wind load calcularion (uplift and downward pressures)
Adjusted Effective Panel to Rai l

D esign
Area qz Design Tributary Roof Conncctioo
GC, Yr: "{, Pressure
Descriplion (psf) Pressure* Connection Point Load
(psf)
(p f) Area (ft2) (lbs)
Cl. C l2. C49.

13.77 - 1.5 1.0 0.8 -16.52 -16.52 4.60 -75.99
C60 (Uplift)
Cl. Cl2,
C49. C60 13.77 0.6 1.0 0.8 6.6 1 16.00 4.60 73.58
(Downward)
*From Section 29.7, Minimum Design Wind Loading, the design wind force cannot be less than 16 psf
(or - 16 psf for uplift) unless wind runnel lesting is perfonned per Chapter 31.
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI 7-16 251
Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solar Panels Pam/lei to the Roof Surface
on Buildings of All Heights ilnd Roof SloprJ{; - Single Family R&Sidlinco
Once rbe loads for all of tile connectiou.s (C1 tllrough C60) llave been computed. the loads should be
a pplied to tl1e structure to de termine adequacy of the array on the building. Further require m ents are
djsrusscd in Section 2 .8 below.
2.8 ROOF DESIGN
Uliliz.ing the wind loads with the appropriate combi-nations listed i-n Chapter 2. Combinations of L oads.
c heck that the solar panels (based ou the manufacturer spec ifications), sola r panel connection to rails, rails,
raJJ to roof connections, and roof loads arc appropriate for the structure.
J:o litis check, per Section 29.4.4, the roof sho uld be des igned for both of the following cases:
1. The case where solar collectors arc present. Wind loads acting on solar collectors in accordance
with tllis section shall be applied simlll!aneously with roof w ind loads specified in other
sections acting on areas of the roof not covered by the plan projection of solar collectors. For
this case, mof wind loads specified in o ther sections need not be applied on areas of the roof
t~overed by the plan proj ection of solar col lectors .
2. Cases whe re the solar amlys have been re moved .
F or Case ] , the wind load within rhe roof area of the solar panels has been compmed. T he wind load to the
remainder of the roof would need to be determi ne d and applied simulta neou sly to the building to determine
adequacy of the building for the solar array(~) .
C ase 2 sh ould be reviewed for adequ:ucy of rhe s tn 1c ture to resist wind londs.
Checking these two cases with rhe appropriate load combinatio ns sho uld ensure safe des ign of the billlding/
s ULJcture.
The follow ing items were not addressed in this example, bm s hollld be reviewed and/or performed dllring
design as appropriate:
• Analysis of exis ting buildi-ng for strucntral adequacy. Consideration s hould be give n to rhe
building support structu re below the s olar an-ay to mini mize impact o n existing framing, if
possible. ln most cases, the e ngineer of record for the building has a set lirrut on the average
loacL tota l load. and/or poi-nt ~oad to the roof (typically consisting of dead load and s now load
c ombinations). Additiono.J load may meilll renovation of the s truct11re for additio nal capacity.
• R eview o f o the r loadjng conditions such as s now. seis mic. dead. flood. e tc .. and the appropriate
load combinations on the arrays and building.
• Wind loading applica tion on the buildings in the area around the .solar panels .
• Setbacks not pertaining to v.rind design such a tire or s hading.
• N o n-rectangular shaped buildings. which are discussed in more de ta il in Section C29.4. 1 (see
Figure C29.4- 1), and the SEAOC PV2-20 17 document.

Design Example 12 • Rooftop Solor Panels Patal/elto tile Roof Stl!f8ce
on Buildings of All Holghts and Roof Slopos - Slnglo Family Rosldvnco
4. References
American Society of Civil Engineers/Structural Engineering Institu te (ASCE/SEI) 2016. "Minimum Desig n
Loads for Buildings ar1d Olher Slrucmres" ASCE 7- 16. publ ished by American Society of Civil Engineers .
2017.
Structural Engin ee1~ Association of California (SEAOC) Solar PhotovoiLa.ic SysteJTls Committee 2017.
" Wind Design for Solar Arrays.. SEAOC PV2-20l 7 published by Srrucmral Engineers Association of
Cali fomiu. 2017.

Design Example 13
Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to Roof Surface
on Buildings of all Heights and Roof Slopes -
Sports Complex
OVERVIEW ASCE7
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) Standard
M inimum Design Loads und Associated C riteria for Buildings und other Structures, 20 I 6 Edition, (ASCE
7 -16) has provided new guidance for the calculation of rooftop solnr panels parallel to the roof s urface
on buildings of all heights ood mof slopes (Sections 29.4.4 and C29.4.4). Please refer to cbe overviews in
Design Examples I 0 and 12 for uddirional di:;cussion.
OUTLINE
1. Bu-i lding G eometry and L oaru
2. Wind Design
3. Item Not Addressed in This Design Example
4. References
• B uiJding
o Location - e-nclosed sports complex in Hoffman E5tatcs, ll...
o Grade around building - level

o Elcvatjon - 800 feet above sea level
o Surrounding area - Hat open grassland with scattered obstructions having heights generally
less [han 30 feet [see Figure C26.7-6(a)l
o Mean roof height /z- 27.5 feel
o Roof pitch - 5: 12 (22.62 degrees)
o Gable roof
o D imensions - 120 feel by 150 feel
o Roof sttucturc - truss spaced at 48 inches on ccnlcr
o Roof cover - metal roof panel

o Building roof overhung- 2 feet (horizontal projection from plan view)
o Risk Category ll
Wind Design Manual B.ssed on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 255
Design Example 13 • Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to Roof Surface
on Builcfi119S of u/1 HtHghts tlnd Roof Slopos - Sports Complex
• Solar panel
o Dimensions - 39 inches by 78 incbcs
• Solar an'1!y
o Flush to roof
o Ma.:<:imum height of panel above mof 1!2 - I0 inches from the pan of t11e metal roof panel to
lhe top of the solar panel (Section C29 .4.4)
o Gap between pands - 0.75 inches (North-South and East-West directions) (puncl edge to
adjacent pauel edge)
o Risk Category ll - sumc us building per Section C29.3. 1
o Solar panel orientation- landscape and portrait
65.00'
r
h =- 27.501
~
15.00
J
2.00' ·L 116.00' L
n ' 2.00'
120.00'
Figure 13-1. Elevation view

on B11ildlngs of all Hoights 8nd Roof Slopvs - Sports Compfax
~-------------------------- 1ro_oo· ------------------------~r

r-------------------------------------,
ROOF EDGE
BUILDING EDGE
ROOf' PliCH
1W.OO'H--------------------------------------L-----------------------H
I
t
NORTH
I
I
I
I
I
ARRAY 1E
I
I
I
I
D ARRAY 2W
I
I
I
I
L------------------------------------- ~
Figure 13- 2. Plan view
Chapter 30. Wind Loads: Components and Cladding. has been utilized in previous editions of the ASCE
7 to detennine wind load on solar panel systems on the roof. Section 30. 13, Rooftop Solar Panels for
Buildings of All Heights with Flat Roofs or Gable or Hip Roofs with Slopes Less than 7°, refers to Section
29.4.3_
Section 29A.3, Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All Heights with Flat Roofs or Guble or Hip Roofs
with Slopes Less than 7 ° does not apply to our structure except where referred to in Section 29.4.4 or
C29.4.4. Section 29.4.4, Rooftop Solar Panels ParalJelto the Roof Swface on Bui ldLngs of All Heights and
Roof Slopes and accompanying commentary is used for design of this example. OnJy the design of the solar
panels is discussed.
Section C29.4.4 states: ''Pa!ilels around the edge of the array moy experience higher wind loads. The
definition of these exposed panels is the same as for tilted panels in Section 29A.3."

Design Example 13 • Rooftop Soler Panels Parallel to Roof Swface
or all Heights tlnd Roof Slopos - Sports Complex
on Buildir>9s
S ectiou C29.4.3 states: "Rooftop equipment aud strudtt.rcs. such as HVAC Llttits. screens. or penthouses.
can provide some sheltering benefits to solar arrays located directly downwind of the object; conversely.
however, the regions around edges of such structure,~ can hnve accderuled w ind flow unde.r vnricd wind
direclions. At~cordingly. the edge increase factor ignores such structures and is calculated based on the
di tance to lhe building edge or udjucent array. ucglcctiDg any imervening rooftop structure~ . This resulrs in
t he panels adjacent to rooftop objects being designed for higher wind louds to account for the ucccleruted
wind flow." For Lhe purposes of wind design. reviewing the placement of solar panels on tbe roof and
fleglecting the rooftop equipment obstmctions will yield a minimum design per code.
The following is an illustration of the arrays of solur panels on the roof that must now be analy7.ed.
_.f::I_fi.O f ' r! rROOF CENTER
I
/ROOF RIDGE
IT
~l :
:-22$'
.:
,
•
r.. .,~-.. .~J'-
-i'
IY
~
I 18.96. X
XX
:t
I
I
NORTH
~~ ~ 11 X I
65.00' I ! XIXIX >< : -----:~~ (TYP.)
3.00'_To lX :: ~OTIJJ:IJ ~~BUILDING EDGE
~ I !X DDJJJJJ I
'''
11.6a·
r
11.63'
1
•
1
I
'
' - - ----
L- --~----~---+------------------~
. - I:J<-2.00'
f:--:--- 30.69' -----;
LEGEND
D SOLAR PANEL
~ MISSING PJ\NEL
Figure 13- 3. Array top view
Design Example 13 • Rooftop Solar Panels Perallelto Roof Surfece
on B11lldlngs of all Hoights and Roof Slopvs - Sports Con\ofi)X
2.1 CODE DESIGN A PPLICABILITY
Before beginning the design, verify that the system falls within the bounds of the application of Sections
29.4.4 and C29.4.4.
Table 13-1. Code design applicability
Pan:tmclcr
Parameter Met'? Wh.y Is the Panuuctcr Met?
Stated iu design. Deiennine from
Enclosed or pnrtinlly enclosed
I Yes indicates that the same methodology
building
may be applied IO open buildings
(Section 5.3.4)
Staled in design. Within a wlernnce

of2°. SEAOC PV2-2017 also
2 Panels para llel to roof surface Yc.s indicates that the heights h 1 and h2
should have a difference of less tl1an
or equal to 1 in.
The dista nce (rom the top of the

solur pand to the top of the roof is
10 in. SEAOC PV2-2017. Section
3 Yes 5.2.2 states ''h 1 and 112 , as defined in
surface (11'2) to top of panel is 10 in
ASCE 7-16, are measured from the
roof surface to the lop surface of !he
panel:·
ll1e solar panel gap between panels

is 0.75 in. in each direction. SEAOC
PV2-2017 permits additional
4 Minimum panel gap of 0.25 in Yes reductions to tlle solar array pressure
for solar panel gaps of 0.75 in. or
greater witll a maximum height above
the roof. urface (h2) of 5 in. or les s.
The smallest edge distance is 5.0 I ft

from rhe roof edge, which is greater
5 Miuirnum edge distance 211 2 Yes
than the minimum edge distance of
2h2 or 20 in.
Maximum panel lengtll of 6.7 ft The lengtll of the panel i~ 78 in.

6 Yes
(80.4 in) (6.5 ft).

Design Example 13 • Rooftop Solar Panels Perallelto Roof Surface
on Builcfin9s or all Heights ilnd Roof Slopos - Sports Complox
2.2 VELOCITY PRESSURE q11
Scclion 29.2.1 refers to Churter 26 for wind parameters. The velocity prcs~ure, q1, is culculutcd from
Section 26.10 utilizing the fol lowing five variables.
Velocity pressure exposure coefficient (K! , Section 26.10.1)

Topographic factor {K" . Section 26.8.2)
Wind dLrcctionality factor (K11 , Sccrjon 26.6)
Ground elevation factor (Kt . Section 26.9)
Basic wind speed (\I, Section 26.5)
To determine me velocity expos w-e coefficient K,. use Section 26.1 0.1. which then refers to Table 26.10-
1. Our building is located in Exposure C and bas a height above ground level (mean roof height, h) of
27.5 feeL Reviewi ng the notes on Tublc 26.10- 1, since our building is being designed per Chapter 29 in
Exposure C. and the building height is 27.5 feet. use a coefficient of 0.96 (interpo lated between heights of
2 5 and 30 for Exposure C).
To dderminc the topographic factor Kq. use Section 26.8.2. Since our building is located nt level grudc and
not near a ridge, hill. or escarpment. per Section 26.8.2. we may utilize a Krr - 1.0.
To detennine the wind directionality factor Kd, use Section 26.6, which tells us to view Thblc 26.6-1 for
determination of K,1• The te.rm that defines our structure most accurately is "Roof Top Equipment" category,
which bas a K,; of 0.85.
K,; = 0.85
To determine the ground elevaLion factor K~, use Section 26.9. The elevation at the site of our building is
800 fec.t above sc.a level. Utilizing Table 26.9-1, our devation falls between 0 and 1.000. We could use u K,
of 1.00 conservatively per Note I. or we can calculate K. from the equation in Note 2. From Note 2 and the
following equation, we can calculate tbe Kc for our site.
Table 26.9-1
K = e- oo:oo:&t\!00 ft>
•

Design Example 13 • Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to Roof S11tfece
on Bill/dings of all Hoights and Roof Slopvs - Sports Cofi\Of<tx
TI1e basic wiud speed. V. can be obtained from Section 26.5. The section refers 10 Figures 26.5-1B and
26.5-2B for Risk ll Cntegory buildings and structures. In this example, the building is designated as Risk
Category IT. and, therefore, from Section C29. :u, the solar arruy locnted on thut building is dcsignatc.d as
Risk Category ll. From interpohuion or Figure 26.5-IB. tl1c basic wind speed is I 07 mph for the a.rray and
building. As an aJteruative, _ite-.pecitic wind speeds can be obtained from www.ntcouncil.ot'g/windspeed.
']"his is a free resource that cnn be utilized for design outside of special wind region~ . Another tool avui luble
is http://ascetoots.online/. (ln this latter resource. in addition to basic wind speed, the user wiU also be able
10 determine_ ite-specitic d.ata pertaining to seismic accelermions, flood zone, base flood elevation, ground
snow load, rain load, t5unnnJ.i-Joad mk, and icc thickness with concurrent temperature and gust speed.)
V = 107 mph
The velocity pressure for the roof structure can now be detenn.ined usin~ Equation 26.10-1.
qr, = 0.00256/(K,KnKrV 2 (lb/fl 2); V 1n mi/h Eq 26.10-1

q,, - 0.00256 X (0.96) X ( 1.0) X (0.85) X (0.97) X (107 mi/11) 2
q,1 = 23.20 lb/ft2 (psf)
2.3 DETERMINING EFFECTIVE WIND AREAS
Next. determine tl1e effective area to the part of the structure. to be analyzed. For the p urposes of this
example, the foLlowing has been calculated for the effective area for the panel (see additional illformarion Ln
Design Example 12 Section 2.3):
Effective a.t\'!.a w a solar panel

Solar Panel - A = 78 in X 39 in = 21.13 f12
2.4 EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT GCP
To determine the GCP for the example stnlcture. refer to Section 29.4.4. which refers to the Components
and Cladding sections for roofs. Figures 30.3-2A-I through 30.3-7 or 30.5-1. This example will utilize
Figure 30.3-2C for Enclosed and PaniaUy Enclosed Buildings with Gable Roofs w.ith a roof slope greater
than 20 degrees and lcs.s than or equul to 27 degrees that are less tlum or equal to 60 feet in mc.an roof
height (h).
First, determine the zones for the building. They arc I, 2 n, 2c, 2r, 3n, and 3c from Figure 30.3-2C.
Determine the edge distance, a. as specified in Notes a and 6.
From ote 6: '1f overhangs exist, the lesser horizonral dimension of the building shall not include any
overtumg dimension. but the edge distance. a, shall be measured from the outside edge of the overhang."
Our roof overhang is 24 inches, so the least horizontal dimension of the building for the purposes of
cn.lculaling the edge distance is 120 feet - (2 feet by 2 sides) = 116 feet.

on Buildi119S or all Heights tlnd Roof Slopos - Sports Complex
F rom Note a. tlle edge distance should be calculated as "l 0% least horizontal dimens ion or 0 .4h whicllever
is smaller, but not Jess lhun either 4% of least horizontal dimension or 3 fl. if an overhang exists, the edge
distance shal] be measured f rom outside edge of the overhung. The horizontul dimensions used to compute
the edge distanc-e shall not indude any overhang distances." From this we calculate our edge disll\ncc as
a = the smaller of Figure 30.3-2C

a I0% X 116 f t 11.6 ft or
a = 0.4 X 27.5 ft = 11 ft but not less lban the larger of
a ~ 4% x 116 n = 4 .64 fc or
a=3ft
The smaller of I 1.6 feet or I I feet is II feet. but nor less than eitlter (or both of) 4.64 feet or 3 feet. By d1is
calculation, our edge distance, a, is e.qualro 11 feet.
a= I I feet
The roof zones can now be drawn, ar11d GC,. factors can be determined. Since the system is not located over
an overlla.ng. the "Overhang'' GC1, graph is not needed. only the "RooF' GCP graph.
The array should be a minimum of d 1 from the edges und ridge of the roof. Zones 3r, 2n, 2r, nnd 1 will need
to be computed for the olar arrays. T he other zones will need to be computed in the verification of the
over-aU roof from Section 29.4.4, items 1 and 2.
The following GCPfactors can now he obtained based on their effective areas.
Table 13-2. GCJ! ca!CII!ation
Area Description Ar ea (fe) GCP (Uplift) GCP (Downward)

Pancl lZonc 3r) 21. 13 - 2 .4 1 0.46
Panel (Zone 2r and 2n) 21.13 -2.14 0.46
Pa nel (Zone 1) 21.13 - 1.49 0.46
Design Example 13 • Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to Roof Surlece
on Buildings of all Hoights and Roof Slopvs - Sports Con\ofr.tx
2.5 EXPOSURE FACTOR "Yr.
From Section 26.3, Symbols, the. following definitions should be observed in determining d 1 and d 2 •
"d1 = for t'Oo:ftop solur arrays. boriz.ontal distance ortllogonn.l to the panel edge to an adjacem panel or
the building edge, ignodng any rooftop equipment in Fig. 29.4-7, in ft lm)."
"d2 = for moflop solar arrays, horizontal distance from the edge of one panel to the nearest edge in the
next row of panels in Fig. 29.4-7."
Fl'Om Section 29.4.4. the exposure factor. Y£· for solar pru1els can be determined by considering wind fl'Om
aUdLrcctions in the following way:
.. Yr: array edge factor • 1.5 for uplift loads on panels that are exposed and those within a distance
1.5(LP) from the end of a row at an exposed edge of the army; 'YE = 1.0 elsewhere for uplift loads nod
for aU downward loads, as illustrated in Fig. 29.4-7. A punc.I is ddined us exposcd if d 1 to the roof cdge
> 0.5/z and one of the following applies:
I . d 1 to the adjacent army> 4 feat (1.22 m) or
2. d 2 to the next adjacent panel > 4 feet ( L22 m)."
Some of the panels arc in landscape orientation, witb the smaUcr of the two dimensions parallel with the
slope. The length of the panel. L/1. is equal to 39 inches.
LP = 39 inches
l.5LP = 58.5 inches
The majority of the panels arc in portrait orientation, with the larger of the two dimensions purnlJel with tbe
slope. The length of the panel. L/1. is equal to 78 inches.
LP = 78 inches
l.5LP = 117 inches
Exposed solar pane ls are also defined where the di.stance d 1 is greater than 0.511 to u building edge and
greater than 4 feet to the next adjacent array. The next adjacent army becomes the next adjacent panel
wbere gaps exceed 4 feet. Distance d2 to non-exposed solar panels is less than or equal to 4 feet in the
norlb-soU[h direction (from row to row). For our s ite:
To determine the distance d 1 and d2 • the following variables have been defined:
h = 27.5 feet
0.5/r = 13.75 feet

h1 = 10 inches
2112 = 20 inches
4 feet
Design Example 13 • Rooftop Soler P8nels f>arellelto Roof Surface
on Buildin9s or all f-lclghts tltld Robf Slopos - Sports Complex
F rom Section C29.4.4. ''Panels around lbe edge of the array may experience higher wind loads. The
definition of rh ese exposed panels i~> the same as for tilted panels in Section 2 9.4.3."
The horizontal disLance orthogonal to the panel edge lOan adjacent panel or building edge. ignoring any
roonop equipment, d 1• occurs in areas that are less rhan 13.75 feet from !he roof edge in this case. The
norizont.ul distance from the edge of one punel to the nearest edge in the next row, d1 , should be less thun 4
feet. Lengtlu; or d2 that are 4 feet or greater in this example would be considered exposed solar panels. At
rbe end of the mw of an exposed edge, a panel can also be considered exposed if i£ falls w ithin 1.5 of the
panel chord length. or 1.5L1,. Exposed solar panels sbould be assigned un expoliure factor, 'IF:• of 1.5, and
non-exposed l>olar panels should be assigned un exposure factor of 1.0.
After dctcm1ining the wind louds for each of the different urcns, Figure 13-4 can be generated.
( ROOF RIDGE
t
NORTH
ss.oo·
LEGEND
!222J EXPOSED PANEL MIN. PANEL EDGE

DISTANCE LINE
E::] NON-EXPOSED PANEL
PANEL EXPOSURE
~ MISSING PAN!!L UNE
• - - - ' VI1NDZONE
@ WINDZONE
UNE
Figure 13-4. Array top view
Design Example 13 • Rooftop Solllr Panels Psrsllalto Roof Swfece
on 8(11/dlngs of all Hoights and Roof Slopvs - Sports Compfi)X
I .. C_1---r-C
_2--r-C
_ 3__,...C
_4___,.._
C_5 -r--
C_6 ....,..,.-
C""7 7--r7""
C___,87""T"""7C_9"7"1
I R1 @@@@@@
I
R2
R3
ARRAY 1W
LEGEND
..
~
C8J
EXPOSED PANEL
NON~ EXPOSED
MISSING PANEL
PANEL
- - - - MIN. PANEL EDGE
---
DISTANCE LINE
PANEL EXPOSURE
LINE
.............. WIND ZONE
@ WIND ZONE
LINE
Figure 13-Sa. Array 1 W rop view
Arrsy 1W- Exposed Solar Panels:
o The edges of the solar panels located in C9-R I and C9-R2 do not have a solar panel to the east.
the distance from the east edge of the building is greater than 0.511, and tbe distance to the next
adjacent array is gre;atcr than 4 feet.
o The edges of rhe solar panels located in C7-R I, C8-R I, C7-R2. and C8-R2 are within a distan<:e
of I.SLr (due to their portrait orientation) from the end of tile row of an exposed solar panel
edge and are therefore exposed.
o The edges of the solar panels located in R3 do not have an adjacent solar panel to the south, the
distance from the south edge of the building is greater than O.Sh. and the distance to the next
adjacent array (d 1) or solar panel (d 2) is greater than 4 feeL

on Builcfi119S o( all Heights tlnd Roof Slopos - SportS Complex
Array l W- Non-Ex)Xlsed Solar Panels:
• The edges of the solar punels located in C 1-R I, Cl-R2, C2-R 1, C3-R 1, C4-R I, CS-R I, nnd C6-
R I are less than a distant:e of O.Sh in direcLions where there is no adjacent solar panel and have
solar panel on all other cides.
• The edges of the ~o la.r panels located in C2-R2, C3-R2, C4-R2. C5-R2. and C6- R2 have solar
panels on all sides and are not located a distance of 1 .SL" from the end of a row.
ARRAY 1E
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL
- -- -
MIN. PANEL EDGE
DISTANCE LINE
NON-EXPOSED PANEL
---
PANEL EXPOSURE
IX] MISSING PANEL LINE
·-·---· ....... . WIND ZONE
@ WIND ZONE
LINE
Figure 13- 5b. Array 1E rop view
Design Example 13 • Rooftop Solar Panels Perallelto Roof Swf9ce
on B11ildlngs of &II Hoighls and Roof S/opvs - Sports Complox
Army 1E - Exposed Solar Panels:
o The edges of the solar panels locntc:.d in C I do not hnvc u ~o l llr pnncl to the wtst, tht distuncc:.
from the west edge of the building is greater than O.Sh. and the distance to the next adjacent
array is gremer than 4 feet.
o The edges of the solar panels located in R8 and C3-R7 do nut have a solar panel to !he south,
the distance from the south edge of the bu.ilding is greater than O.Sh, and the distance to the next
adjacent um~y (d 1) or solar panel (d 2) is grcntcr thnn 4 feet.
o The edge of the solar panel located in C2-R3 does not have a solar panel to the south. the
distance fro m the south edge of the panel to the south edge of the building is greater thun 0.511,
and !he distnncc to the next adjacent solar puncl is grcuter than 4 feet (dJ.
o The edge of the so.l ar panel located in C2-R6 does not have a solar panel to the north, the
distance from the north edge of the panel to the north edge of tht building is greater than 0.5h
feet. and the distance to the next adjacent solar pane l is gremer than 4 feet (d2) .
o The edge of the solar puncllocatcd in C4-R5 docs not have a solur panel to the west, the
distance from the west edge of the building is greater than 0.511. and the gap between solar
panels to lhe west is greater than 4 feet.
Array 1E- on-Exposed Solar Panels:
o The edge of the solar panel located in C3-R4 does not have an adjacent solar puncl to the west
or south and is located a ruslance of 0.5h from the cast and soulh building edges; however, tht
dis tance (d2) to the sourh to the next adjacent solar panel is less than 4 feet. rhe gap w the west
is less than 4 feet, aud tbe solar panel has adjacent solar panels to rbe north and lO the cast.
o The edges of the solar panels located in C2-R l. C3-Rl. C4--Rl. C5-Rl. C5-R2. C5-R3. C5-
R4, C5-R5, C5-R6, and C5-R7 are less rhan a distance of 0.511 in directions where rhere is no
adjacent solar panel and have solar panels on ull other sides.
o The edges of the solar panels located i.n C2-R2, C2-R7, C3-R2, C3-R3, C4--R2, C4--R3, C4-R4,
C4-R6, and C4-R7 have solar panels on all sides and arc not located a distance of 1.5L1, from
the end of a row.
o The edge of the solar panel located in C3-R6 does not have an adjacent solar panel to the north
and is located a rustance of 0.5h from the north edge of the building: however, the solar panel
has adjacent solar panels on all other sides. it is not located a distance of I.SL,, from the end of
a row, and lhe distance to the next adjacent solar panel (d2) 'to the north (next adjacent row) is 4
feet or less.
Deslgn Example 13 • Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to Roof Surlace
on Buildin9s or all Heights ;.lnd Roof Slopos - Sports Complox
ARRAY 2W
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL
----
MIN. PANEL EDGE
DISTANCE LINE
c=J NON-EXPOSED PANEL
- - - PANEL EXPOSURE
~ MISSING PANEL LINE
....... .. .... .. WIND ZONE
@ WIND ZONE
LINE
Figure J3- 5c. An'(IY 2\V top view
Arrny 2W- Exposed Solar Panels:
• The edges of the solar panels located in R I do not have a solar panel to the north, the distance
from the north edge of the bu1lding is greater than O.Sh. and the distance to the next adjacent
array is greater than 4 feet to the no1tJ1.
• The edge of the solar panel located i n Cl-R2 does not have a solar panel to the west, tbe
distance from the west edge of the building is greater than O.Sh, aod the distance to the next
adjat.;eut auay is greater than 4 feet to the west.
• The edges of the solar panels located in C2-R2 and C3-R2 arc \Vi thin a distance of 1.5LP(due to
their portrait orientation) from the end of the row of an exposed solar panel edge.
Array 2W- Non-Exposed Solar Panels:
• The edges of the solar panels located in C4-R2, C5-R2. and C6-R2 are less than a distance of
0.517 in directions where no other solar panels exist and have so.lar panels on all other s ides.
• The edge of the solar panel located i n C7-R2 is less t.han a distance of 0.5h in the south
direction, it bas adjacent solar panels to the north and west, and the next adjacent array is 4 feet
or less from the solar panel to the cast.

Design Example 13 • Rooftop Solllr Panels Psrsllalto Roof Swfece
on 8(11/dlngs of all Hoights and Roof Slopos - Sports Compfi)X
ARRAY 2E
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL
- ---
MIN. PANEL EDGE
DISTANCE LINE
NON-EXPOSED PANEL
- - - PAN EL EXPOSURE
IZl MISSING PANEL LINE
·-------------- WIND ZONE
@ WIND ZONE
LINE
Figure 13- 5d. Array 2£ top view
AITlily 2E - Exposed Solar Pands:
• The edges of the solar panels located in R l do not have a solar panel ro the north, the dist.·mce
from the north edge of the building is grcuter than 0.5h, und the distance to the next adjacent
array is greater than 4 feet to the north.
• The edge of the solru- panel located in C l-R2 docs not have a solar panel to the wc.st, the
distance from the west edge of the building is greater lhan O.Sh. and the distance to the next
adjacent array is greater than 4 feet to the wes1.
• T he edge of the solar panel located in C7-R2 does not have a solar panel to the ens t, the
di lance from the east edge of the building is greater than 0.517. and the distance to the next
adjacent a rray is greater than 4 feet to the enst.
• The edges of the solar panels located in C2-R2. C3-R2. C5-R2. and C6-R2 are within a distance
of I.SL,. (due lo their portrait orientation) from the end of the row of an exposed solar panel
edge.

on Buildin gs of u/1 Heights tlnd Roof Slopos - Sports Complex
Array 2E - Non-Exposed Solar Panels:
• The edge of lhe solar puncl locntcd in C4-R2 is lt.~s than u disLnnce of 0.5h in directions where
no Olher solar panels exist and has solar panels on <\II other sides.
ARRAY 3C
LEGEND
~ EXPOSED PANEL
---- MIN. PAN EL EDGE
DISTANCE LINE
CJ NON-EXPOSED PANEL
PANEL EXPOSURE
---
[Zl MISSING PAN EL LINE
. --------- . .. . WIND ZONE
@ WIND ZONE
LINE
Figure 13-5e. Array 3C top view
D&slgn Example 13 • Rooftop SolAr Panels Parallel /o Roof Swf9ce
on Bill/dings of all Hoighls and Roof Slopvs - Sports Conlpf~Jx
Array 3C - Exposed Solar Pauels:
o The edges of the solur panels locntc.:.d in R l and C6-R2 do not have.:. a solur punelto the.:. north,
the di~tance from the north edge of the building is greater than O.Sh. and the distance to the next
adjacent array is greater than 4 feet to t11e north.
o The edgC$ uf the solar panels located in C 11 and Cl O-R2 do not have a solar panel to the ea.sL
the distance from the easr edge of the building is gTcater than O.Sh, and the distance to the next
adjacent a rray is greater than 4 feet.
o T he edges ofthe solar panels located in C2-R2. C l ·R3 . and Cl -R4 do uot have a solar panel to
the west, the dista nce from the west edge of the building is greater than O.Sh, nnd the distance
to the next adjacent array is greater thun 4 feet and therefore is exposed.
o C3-R2. C4-R2. C8-R2. C9-R2. C2-R3. C2-R4, C3-R3. C9-R4, Cl0-R4, C9-R5, C1 0-R5 , C9-
R6, and Cl O-R6 within a distn ncc of l.SL" (due to their portTnit orientn tion) from the end of the
row of an exposed solar panel edge.
o The edges of the solur pane ls C4-R3, C5-R3, and C6-R3 arc greater than a dista nce O.Sh from
east edge of Lbe building. and the distan ce to the next acljacent solar panel to the east is greater
than 4 feet.
• The edge o f the solar panel Cl O-R3 is greater than a distance 0.511 from east edge of the
building. and the distance to the next adjacent solar panel to t11e east is greater than 4 feet: it is
a lso a distance l.SL, from an exposed edge.
o The edges of the solar panels C7-R2, C8-R2. C9-R2. and C3-R3 are a distance of 0.511 [rom rhe
south edge of the building, and the distance (d2) to the next adjacent solar panel to the south is
greater than 4 feet.
o The edges of the solar panels C7-R4, C8-R4, C9-R4, and C3-R5 are a distance of 0.511 from the
north edge of the building, und the distance (d2 ) to the next adjacent solar pane l to the north is
greater than 4 feeL
o The edges of the solar panels CS-RS and C7-RS arc greater than a distance ofO.Sh from the
south edge of the building. and there is no adjacent solar panel to the south.
Array 3C- Non-Exposed Solar Pane ls:
o The edges of the solar panels located in C2-R6. C3 -R6. C4-R6. C6-R6. and C8-R6 are less tl1an
a distance of 0.511 in directions where no od1er solar panels exist and have solar panels on aU
other sides , or solar panels are u distance less thun or equal to four fett from the next adjacent
solar panel.
o The edges of the solar panels located in C I-RS and C1 -R6 urc less than a dista nce of 0.511 in the
south direction, it has adjacent solar panels to the north and west. and the next adjacent array is
4 feet or less from the solar panel to the east.
o The edges of the solar panels located in C5-R2. C5-R4. C6-R4. C2-RS. C4-R5. C6-R5. and C8-
R5 have solar panels on all sides and are not located a distance of I.SLPf rom the end of a row.
on Buildin9s or all Heights tlnd Roof Slopos - Sports Complex
• The edge o f t.be solar pune11ocated at C4-R4 is a distance of O.Sh from lhe west side of the
butldtng where LlO solw" pane£ exists; however, the distance to the next adjacent to the west solar
panel is less thnn or equal to 4 feet to the ea~l and is not located a distance of 1.5L1, fro m the
end of a row.
The above figures und text show how to define nn exposed or non-cxpo~cd panel us stntcd per ASCE 7-16.
See Section 2.8 for further discussion.
2.6 SOLAR ARRAY PRESSURE EQUALIZATION FACTOR y, FIGURE 29.4-8
The solar array pressure equalization factor. Y,,. as shown in Figure 29.4-8, can be util ized for all slopes
chat arc flush w roof. Depending on the effective wind area defined in Section 26.2, "lt)bc area used to
determine the external pressure coefl1cient (GL"',) and (GC"). ... For roofiop solur arrays, the effec tive
w ind area in Fig. 29.4-7 is equal to the uibutary area for £he structural element being considered, except
char the widtb of the effective wind are need not be less than one-third its length. For cladding fasteners, tile
d fecLive wind area shall not be greater than the arcn that is tributary to an individual fastener." Also from
S e.ction 26.2. dadding faste.ners are "[e]le ments of . . . rooftop structures and equipment that do not qualify
as pan of the MWFRS (Main \Vind Force Resisting System):· The solar array pres_ure equali zation factor
v.>ill chtmgc depending on the effective urea.
The slope of cbe line between the effective wind area of 10 square feet and 100 square feet is
Table 13-3. Pressure equalization f actor ya
Area Description Effective Area (W) "(.,
Solur Panel 21.1 3 0.67
SEAOC P\12-201 7, Section 53.5, Pressure equalization factor for am1ys with greater porosity, includes an
u pdated figure to calculate the pressure equalization factor based on a smaller 112 distance and a larger gap
between rhe modules.
2.7 DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
O nce all of the variables for our design have been c.alculatcd, the d esign w ind pressure for the rooftop solar
panels per Equation 29,4-7 can be determined.
Eq 29.4-7
S olar panel manufacturers typically bave specifications for each panel. For the purposes of structural
d esign. the engineer will need to review these specifications to determine the correct placement of supports,
tbe number of and type of adequate supports, and to check tested panel pressures. Table I 3-4 shows Lhe
v.rind load on the panel. For design loads for attachment to the mils and supporting building, set: the method
s hown in De..~ign Example 12.
272 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7· 16

Design Example 13 • Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to Roof StJrlece
on B(li/dlngs of all Hoights and Roof Slopos - Sports Con\of&x
Table 13-4. Soltrr panel design wind load calculation (uplift and downward pressures)
De.sign Adjusted Loud on

Area Description
q,, GC1, Presmre Pressure*
Effective
Soh\.r Pane l
(psf) 'YJ; 'Yu Area (fr>
(psf) (psf) (lbs)
Solar panel (UpHft) 1.5 -56.19 - 56.19 21.13 -1.187.33

23.20 - 2 .41 0.67
(Zone 3) I - 37.46 - 37.46 2l.l3 - 79 1.55
Solar panel (Downward)

2.1.20 0.46 I 0.67 7.15 16.00 21.1 3 338.08
(Zone 3)
Solar panel tUplift) 1.5 - 49.90 -49.90 2l.l 3 - J ,054Jl

23.20 - 2.14 0.67
(Zone 2) I - 33.26 - 33.26 2 1.13 - 702.87
Solar panel (Downward)

23.20 0.46 1 0.67 7.15 16.00 21.13 338.08
(Zone 2)
Solar panel (Uplift) 1.5 -34.74 -34.74 21.13 -734.07

23.20 - 1.49 0.67
(Zone J ) 1 - 23.1 6 - 23.16 21.13 - 489.38
So lar panel (Downward)

(Zone 1) 23.20 1 0.46 1 0.67 7 .15 16.00 21.13 338.08
*'From Section 29.7, Minimum Design Wind Lauding, the design wind force cannot be le.ss than 16 psf
(or - J6 psf for upliJt) unless wind tunnel testing is perfonned per Chapter 31.
2.8 DISCUSSION
SEAOC PV2-2017, Section 5.2, Recommended additional requirements (not included in ASCE. 7- 16), und
Section 5.3. Optional retinements (not included in ASCE 7- 16). include an alternate method to calculate th e
array edge factor distances. ln rhese alternate methods, from Section 5.2.3. Definition of exposed panels for
array edge factor,
''Panels shall ~ considered exposed if the distance to the next adjacem array is greater than 2112 .
Commentary: The edge factor provisions for flush-mounted panels in ASCE 7-16 were copied from
tbose for lilted panels on flat roofs. which in tum were based on provisions in the SEAOC PV2-2012.
Some of rhe simpl ifications introduced io ASCE 7-16 for tilted panels are not appropriate for flat
panels. For fiat panels close to the roof, edge factors will apply for distances less than the 4 ft limit
specified in ASCE 7-16."
In addition, from Section 5.3.3, Width of array perimeter strip for applying array edge factor,
"For flush-mounted panels, 'Yt:. may be taken as 1.5 for the portion of the exposed panels that is within a
distance of 2h2 !'rom the edge of the army.
Commentary: ASCE 7-16 Section 29.4.4 (flush-mounted arrays) defines the width of the array
perimeter strip for applying the array edge factor 'fF: in the some wny that is defined in Section 29.4.3
(tilted panels on flat roofs): J .5 times the panel chord length, Lr. However. for flush-mounted arrays,

on Buildill9S o( all Heights tlnd Roof Slopos - Sports Corrlp/ex
the height h1 of the top of rhe pauel.s above Lhe roof s urface is more i.nfiueutialtha u the panel chord
lengtl1 . (Also Lp is not well-defined for the continuous s urfuce created by Mush-mounted panels.)
Thu)l. for Hush-mounted array~. we recommend defining the array perimeter s trip in tenns of the height
h1 of the 'op of the panels above tlle roof surface. For flush-mounted sys tems, elevated pressures at
urruy cdg~ arc largely the result of flow separation from Lhc roof and rcuttnchmcnt on the top of the
panels, which occurs over a dis tance roughly 2h2 from the edge of Lhe arr..ty."
If S ection 29.4.4 of the ASCE 7-16 were to be reworded in tem1s of the SEAOC P V2-2017, 'IF. would likely
be written as follows:
1£ = array edge factor= 1.5 for upUft loads on panels that ure exposed nnd those within u distance
2/r 2 from the end of a row <lt an exposed edge of the array: Yr: = 1.0 elsewhere for uplift lollds and for
a[] downward loads. as illustrated in Fig. 29.4-7. A panel is defined as exposed if d 1 10 the roof edge>
0.511 and one of the fol lowing applies:
1. d1 to the adjacent array > 21!1 or
2. d2 lo the next adjacenr pa uel > 2112•
The following ilems were not addressed in this example. bm should be reviewed and/or performed during
design m; appropriate:
• Analysis of existing bui.lding for structural adequacy. Consideration should be given to lhe
bu~l ding support structure below the solar array to minimize impact on existing framing. ii'
possible. In most cases, the engineer of record for the building has u set limit on the average
load, total load. and/or point Load to the roof (typ.ically consisting of dead load and s now load
combinations). AdditiouuJ load may mean renovation of the s truct11re for additional capaciry.
• R eview of other loading conditions such as snow. .seismic. dead. flood. etc .. and the appropriate
load combinations on the arrays and bu.ilding.
• Wind loading application on Ghe buildings in the area around the solar panels .
• Setbacks not pertaining to v.rind design s ut.:b as tire or shading.
• Non-rectangular shaped builclings. which are discussed in more detail in Section C29.4.1 (see
Figure C29.4-l), and tbe SEAOC PV2-2017 document.
4. References
American Society of Civil EngineersJStructural Engineering lns titure (ASCE/SEI) 2016. "Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures" ASCE 7-16, published by American Socicry of Civil Engineers,
2017.
Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) Solar Phowvoltak Systems Committee 2017.
·'Wi.nd Design for Solar Arrays" SEAOC PV2-2017 publis hed by Structuml Engineers Assodation of
C alifornia, 201 7.
Design Example 14
Seismic Design of a Low-Profile Unattached
Solar PV System on a Low-Slope Roof
OVERVIEW
This example considers sei.!.lnic design only. See Design Examples I0 through 13 and SEAOC PV2-20 17.
Wind De~ ign for Solar Arrays, for wind design examples. The building l'oof must also be evaluated to resis t
gravity loads imposed by the solnr arruy (not addressed in this example).
OUTLINE
1. Solar Array Geometry and Loads
2. Seismic Desig n
3. Discussion
4. References
1. Solar Array Geometry and Loads ASCE7

A low-profile solar array is to be located on a building with a low-slope roof. The array will be unanached
(no s tr uctural at1achments between the array and the roof str ucture). Wind loads on the array are resisted by
the self -weight of the arrny, consisting of photovoltaic modules, the array racking system, and ballast.
The buiJding is a one-story warehouse, assigned to Risk Category li in accordance with lBC Table 1604.5.
The maximum roof slope is Yz in 12. The short period seismic des ign parameter S0 5 is 1.0 at the project site.
in accordance with Chapter II.
Deslgn Example 14 • Seismic Design of a Low-ProfJ/e Ut~ttaclled Solar PV System on B Low-Slope Roof
~ ROOFEDOE
-=-==- ~-==l- -= =- -~ . -- ___ :[_ __ _

-- -· --- FIXED OBJECT
(E.G. MECHANICAL UNID
78", TYP. .------,r-----r::: L : l. -=- -=
~-=::¢:=~~::t:~-ll-
r- ADJACENT ARRAY
----~-
NORTH
0
ROOF PLAN
Figure 14-1. Array
The array consists of I 0 rows of 10 modules each. The modules are tilted toward the south with their high
t north) edge 12 inches above [he roof and low lsouth) edge 8 inches above the roof. Support~. consisting
of steel pans holding concrete ballast blocks. are located between row.s at each corner of each module.
s ucb that 1) a support at the corner of the array connects to one module, 2) supports around the edges of
the array connect to two modules eac h, nnd 3) supports at the interior of the arruy connect to four modules
each. Supports are spaced at 45 jnches on center in the north-south direction and 78 inches on center in the
ea5 r-west direction.
Two aluminum framing members run east-west direclly beneath each row of modules. Modules are fastened
(O rbe alutni.uum members. and the alwninum members are fastened ro tllc array supports. One aluminum
framing member runs north-south nt each support, connecting the supports in the nonh-south dircctjon.
This example uses the term "racking system" to refer to the structural components of th~ array. including
£he alumjnum framing members and tlle array supports.
Each module weighs 41 pounds. The self-weight of the racking system (excluding modules and ballast) is
19 pounds per module. The total weight of ballast for the array to resist wind loads is 16.000 pounds. The
ballast is distributed over the array with greater ballast near array comers and edges, and Jess ballast at the
array interior. The greatest b11llast weight at any support is 185 pounds.
Design Example 14 • Seismic Design of a Low-Prot/le Unlltteche<l Sol11r PV System on a Low-slope l~oof
2. Seismic Design ASCE7
2.1 EVALUATE SEISMIC REQUIREMENTS FOR PERMITTING UNATTACHED

SOLAR ARRAYS ON THE ROOF §13.6.12
Section 13.6. 12 pcm1its unattached solar urruys "on Risk Category I, IT, nnd ill sLructures six stories or
fewer in height and having maximum roof slope equal to or less than I in 20." The building in this example
is Risk Category 11. It is one story. The roof has maximum slope Y2 in 12 (2.4 degrees), which is less than
the l in 20 (2.9 degrees) limit.
Therefore. the bui lding in 1his example meets the seismic requi1-emem of Section 13.6. 12 for permitting
unuUnchcd .solar array::; on tbc roof.
2.2 EVALUATE WHETHER THE ARRAY IS ADEQUATELY LOW-PROFILE

§13.6.12, EXCEPTION ITEM 1
Sectiou 13.6.12. Exception Item I requires that "rhe height of the center of mass of any panel above rhe
roof surface is less lban bulf the lcast spacing in plan of tbe panel supports, bur in no case greater than 3
ft." For the army in this exumplt, the minimum plan .spacing of supports is 45 inches. The average height
of modules above the roof is (12 inches + 8 incbes)/2 - 10 inches. Ballast blocks are located in tbe array
supports, so the height of lhe center of mass of the array is less tlmn I 0 inches, which is less than 3 feet and
less than half of 45 inchc:.s.
Therefore. the array in this example meets the requirements of Secu.ion 13.6.12. Exception Item I. by
inspection.
The purpose of Sectiou 13.6.12, E xceptiou Item I is to eusw·e tbut tl1e array is adequately 1ow-protile such
tbat the response of lhe array to earthquake shaking consists of sticking and sliding, rather than toppling.
lf needc.d. more detailed calculations could be performed considering the relative:. weight and height of the
modules. the balla.~r and the array components. but in this case. as in most cases of low-profile arrnys with
ballast located near the roof surface, such calculations are not needed.
2.3 DETERMINE THE DESIGN SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT 8, 1,, OFTHE ARRAY

The building is a Risk Category II structure, so the seismic importance factor lr for the building is 1.0 per
Table 1.5-2. The desi.g n seis m.ic displacement is calculated in accordtmce with Equation 13.6-1.
On1..., = 5/r(SDS - 0.4)2 ~ 2 feet Eq 13.6- 1

= 5( 1.0)(1.0 - 0.4l :::: 2 feet
= 1.8 feet 2 2 feet
The calculated value of 1.8 feet per Equation I 3.6-1 is less than the minimum of 2 feet, so o.,. ..,. = 2 fee t.
o"'' ,. = 2 feet
Per Section 13.6. 12, Exccp6on Item 2, smaller design seismic di sp~acement 0111, , is permitted to be
determined by shake-table testing or nonlinear response-history analysis. 8n1., may not be taken less than 80
1
percent of lhe value calculated per Equation 13.6- J unless validated by independent peer review.

Deslgn Example 14 • Seismic Design of 8 Low-Pronte Ut~ttsclled Solflr PV System on 8 Low-Slope Roof
2 .4 DETERMINE THE MINIMUM SEPARATION BETWEEN ADJACENT ARRAYS

S ection 13.6. 12. Exception Item 2 requires that the minimum sepamtiotl between adjacent armys shall be
taken as 0.58"1'"'
0.58"1,,, => 0.5(2 feet)

= 1 foot
0.5o..,.,. = I foot
2.5 DETERMINE THE MINIMUM SEPARATION BETWEEN THE ARRAY

AND A FIXED OBJECT ON THE ROOF §13.6.12, EXCEPTION ITEM 2
Section 13.6.12, Exception Item 2 requires that the minimum sepamtion between the army and a fixed
object on th e roof shall be taken as I.OoR"'' .
1.08...1, , = l .0{2 feet)

= 2 feet
2 .6 DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT THAT MUST BE

ACCOMMODATED BY ALL ELECTRICAL CABLES THAT LEAD FROM ONE ARRAY
T O ANOTHER ARRAY, OR FROM AN ARRAY TO A FIXED POINT ON THE ROOF
Section 13.6.12, Exceptiou Item 5 requires that all electrical cables that lead from one array to another
array, or f rom an army to a fixed point on the roof, must be designed to accommodate dift'crcntiul
movements between cable connection points at least equal to 1.08,,1.,..
1.08"1v, = l .0(2 feet)

= 2 feet
s.lfl'' - 2 feet
2.7 DETERMINE THE MINIMUM SEPARATION BETWEEN THE ARRAY

AND THE ROOF EDGE §13.6.12, EXCEPTION ITEM 6
Section 13.6.12, Exception Irem 6 requires that the minimum separation between the array and the roof
edge shall be taken as 2.00"',.,.
2.0o"1v, = 2.0(2 feel) :::: 4 feet

= 4 feet
Design Example 14 • Seismic Design of a Low-Protlle Unatlacl!e<l Sol11r PV System on a Low-slope l~oof
TI1e calculated value of 4 feet is equal w tbe Ltllilirnum of 4 feet. so 28,11,.. 4 feer.
28.11',. = 4 fee t
Typical ly, other requi rements, such as flre tlghter access, will require a minimum clemunce around the roof
edge at lca~i this large, so in most cas~ more det.ailcd calculutions arc not needed. Alternatively. for a roof
edge that is bounded by a curb or parapet not less than 12 inches high and designed to resist a concentrated
load of 0.2Svs times the weight of the array, the minimum separarion between the array nod the parapet
mny be reduced to l.OD.,r•· (minimum sepumtion between the urrny and u fixed object). The use of 1.08,\uo·
is less ·common than 2.00.11),.. because fi refighter access requirements often govern the setback and because
common conditions muke it difficult ro rationally evaluate the parapet's resistance to impact force. T he
example below shows culculutions for a special case where rutional analysis is pructicnl. For the array in
this example. Lbe weight lV}J of Lbe array is
WP = (1 00 modules)(41 lb/module + 19 lbs. rncking) + 16 ,000 bniJast

- 22.000 lb
To usc 1. 08"'~',. separation from a parapet, the parapet would need to be designed to resist
o.2SD.swp = o.2( l.0)(22.ooo Jb)

= 4,400 lb
This force is applied to the parape t at the height of the modules ( I 0 inches).
lf any edges of the array are not parallel to the adjacent parapet or if there are steps in the array and/or roof
edge that could cause the poim of impact between the array and the parapet to be concer\U'ated at one or a
few points along the horiz.ontallcngth of the parapet, then the parnpet would need to be checked for this
concentrated force.
lf all array edges are parallel to the adjuceot parapet, and there are no steps in the array or roof edge,
~he force is resisted by a length of parapet equal to the length of the short side of the army (10 rows of
45 inches = 450 inches o 37.5 feet). So. to use l .08,<v1• separation f rom a parapet. the parapet would need
to resi.st a lateral force equal to
4.400 lb/37 .5 feet 117 pounds per foot or parapet length
2.8 DETERMINE THE REQUIRED SEISMIC INTERCONNECTION

STRENGTH WITHIN THE ARRAY §13.6.12, EXCEPTION ITEM 3
Section 13.6.12, Exception Item 3 requires that the array have seism ic interconnection strength to resist
a horizontal force of 0.2S05~\If'l across any section cut by a vertical plane. where r¥,,1 is the weight of the
smaller of lhe two portions. For the array in this example, the worst-case section occurs at the center of the
array, \\o'berc the weights W pi on the two sides of the section arc equal.
wpl = w;.;2
= (22,000 lb)/2
11.000 lb

Design Example 14 • Seismic Design of a Low-Pro/Jie Ut'l8118clled Solar PV System on a Low-Slope Roof
The intercou.neclion force acros~ this section is
0.2SnsWpJ = 0.2( I.O)t)l ,000 ]b)

= 2.200 lb
]n the eust-wcst direction, 20 aluminu m framing mcmbt!rS cross the section ( two per row). so each
aluminum frnming member and its connections mnst have capacity greater than or equal to
c2,2oo lb)no = 11 o Jb
ln the north-soucb direction. 11 alumlnum frami ng members cross tbe section (one for each of the 11
supports per row), so ench aluminum framing member and its connections must have capacity greater than
or equal w
(2,2(10 lb)/1 1 = 200 l b
F or oU1er shapes of arrays te.g .. non-rectangular), the critical eclion for seis mic interconnection strength
m ay not necessarily occur at the center o f the army, so it is necessary to check other potential critical
sections. For example, narrower sections of arrays often require interconnection forces from a large portion
of the array to be resisted by the relatively small quantiry of s trucruml members that cross the ~ection.
2.9 DETERMINE THE REQUIRED STRENGTH OF MEMBERS WITHIN

THE ARRAY TO TRANSMIT SEISMIC FORCES TO EACH SUPPORT
S ection 13.6. 12. Exception Item 4 requires that members within the array must have strength to transmit
seismic forces "from the center of mass of each component to locations of friction resi.stance equal to the
lesser of Ff' from Section 13.3.1 and 0.6"~.,. where W1, is tbe weight of each component." For the uuay in
t his example. the nonstructural component force Fr is calculated per Equation 13.3-1. a P is 1.0. and RPis
1.5 per Table 13.6- l for "other mechanical or electrical components.''
F, ~
0.4a S W (
( ~:) ' 1+ 2 f. )
s 1.65, 1, W, 2c 0.350 ,1,W, Eq 13.3- 1
0.4(1.0)(1.0)\V
F ~ P (1+2):::: 1.6(1.0)( 1.0)1¥1, <== 0.3( l.O)(l.O)Wr
, 1.::~
1.0
The calcu lated force FPis greater than 0.6WI', so design for 0.6\V" .
For each s upp011, l\1~ is the weight Lr~bUiary to that support. For the worst-case suppon. the tributary weight
is 185 lbs of ballast., plus one 41-lb module, plus 19 lbs racking.
0.6WP = 0.6(185 + 4 1 + 19)

= 14 71bs
Design Example 14 • Seismic Design of s Low-Profile Unatlsche<l Solar PV System on a Low-slope l~oof
For tbe an-ay in this exa.mple. 147 lbs is an upper-bound estiltlate of the seismic lateral force w be
transferred through friction 10 the roof at each support. Because the ballast is located directly at the support
the seismic force from the mass of the bullnst docs not need to be curried through the mcking system. The
seismic lateral force to be cil.rried through the racking system at eal.:h support is
0.6WP = 0.6(4 1 + 19)

36 lbs
3. Discussion
The intent of the ASCE 7-16 provisions for seismic design of unatL<lchcd solar arrays is to e nsure that
• Arrays of modules arc low profile and have adequate stmctmal scismk interconnection such
that they respond to earthquake shaking by sticking and sliding on the roof surface, not toppling
and not breaking strucmral components witllin the array.
• Seismic displucements of arrays are limited by friction between the am1y and the roof s urface.
• Adequate clearance around each array and flexibility of electrical connections are provided to
safdy accommodate earthquake displacements of the array.
SEAOC PVI. Structural Seismic Requirements and Commentary for Rooftop Solar Photovollaic Arrays.
formed the basis for the provisions of ASCE 7-16 provisions for seismic design of unattached solar arruys.
While the SEAOC PV 1 provisions were modified and not all incorporated into ASCE 7-16. SEAOC PV 1
commentary provides fw1.her discussion of the intem and reasoning of lhe provisions.
4. References
American Society of Civil Engineers/Structural Engineering Instinue ( ASCEJSE[) 2016. "Minimum Desig n
Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Orher Structures'' ASCE 7-16, published by A merican
Society of Civil Engineers, 2017.
Structu ral Engineers Association of Californi a (SEAOC) Solar Photovoltaic Systems Committee 2017.
·'Wind Design for Solar Arrays" SEAOC PY2-2017, publis hed by Structurnl Engineers Association o f
California. 2017.
Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) Solar Photovoltnic Systems Committee 2012.
" Wind Design for Low-Profi le Solar Photovoltaic Arrays on Flat Roofs" SEAOC PV2-2012. published by
Structural Engineers Association of California. 2012.
Structurnl Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) Solur Photovolta.ic Systems Committee 2012.
"Strucrural Seismic Requirements and Commentary for R ooftop Solar Phorovolraic Arrays" SEAOC PY 1-
2012, published by Structural Engineers Association of Calliomja, 2012.
Wind Design Manual B.ssed on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI7-16 281

Design Example 15
Consideration of Gravity Loads on Existing
Roofs Supporting Solar PV Arrays
OVERVIEW
When solar photovoltait (PV) systems are installed on existing roofs. the s tructural capacity of the roof
w carry l hese new loads needs robe considered. While most sol ar PV systems are quite light, rangi ng
from 2.5 to 4.0 psf including support components (from the Structurnl Technical Appendix for Residential
Rooftop Solar lnstaUations Figure A2.1 . an appendix to the Califomia Solar Pennilling Guidebook,
reproduced here <1$ Figure 15-l), increasing roof design loads by m ore than five percent rypically triggers
s tructurnl. evaluation, and stn1ctural strengthening where appropriate (2018/memationa/ Existing Building
Code, Sections 706.2 and 806.2, 2016 Ca/(f'omia £l;isting Building Code. Section 403.3). One notable
excepliou to dJ]s trigger is Building Imegrared Pbotovoltaic (BIPV) systems. which may qual ify as a second
Juyer of roof covering weighing less than 3 psf. where tructural evaluation is not required (20 I~ IEBC
Seclion 70 6.2. Exception 2 , and 806.2, Exctption 2).
OUTLINE
1. Design ConsideraLions
2. Example: Existing Wood-Frumcd Roofs
3. Generalization of Loading
4. Evaluation Triggers
5. Summary of Roof Joist Gravity Evu.luntion
6. Conclusions
7. References
Wind Design Manual B.ssed on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 283
Design Example 15 • Consideration of Grsvlty Loads on Exlstlng Roofs Supporting Solor PV Arrays
18
16
QJ Solar PV
u 14
1: •solar Thermal
QJ
-c 12
·-u
c 10
b.O
8
·--c
~ 6
E
ro
U) 4
2
0
20 22 24 26 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4
Panel Weight Per' Square Foot

Figure 15- 1. His1ogram of rypical solar PV and solar ther111al panel weighrs. Suppol'l
con~.p01zen1s suclz as moums (swnd-o.ff's), clips. and rails may add 0.5 10 1.0 psf 10 !he
panel ~~·eights shown a/;wve. Ballast. if used. i.s not included in Jhe weights shown.
1. Design Considerations
11 .1 ROOF LIVE LOADS
The 2018/nremalional Building Code (IBC) Section 1607. 13.5. 1 recog11ize.s that rypical roof live loads
tworkcrs nod construction matcrial.s) arc not placed on top of, or uodemcath, low profi le solar PV systems,
allowing roof live loads to be omi tted where the distance between the unders ide of modules and top of roof
is not mol'e than 24 inches. This is illuslrated in Figure 15- 2. Where snow loads are nonexistent or small.
offset roof live load can provide significant st111ctural reserve capacity for supporting solar PV arrays. Roof
live load p rovisions have been in the building code.s for many years, since the first edition of the Unifomz
Building Code {'UBC) was puhlished i n 1927. ln fact, the roof live load in the 1927 UBC was 30 psf for ftat
roofs, siguificantly more than tbe 20 psf used in cunent buiJding codes.
Design Example 15 • Consklerstlon of Gravity Loads on ExJstlng Roofs S11pportlng Solar PV Arrays
TYPICAL ROOF LIVE LOADS NOT

REQUIRED TO BE APPLIED
CONCURRENTLY WITH PV LOADS
MAX. CLEAR
HEIGHT= 24"
TYPICAL ROOF LIVE LOADS NOT

REQUIRED TO BE APPLI ED
CONCURRENTLY WITH PV LOADS
MAX. CLEAR
HEIGHT= 24"
Figure 15- 2. Roof live load can be omilled where the clear distance from top of roof
ro underside ofpanels is no more //l(tn 24 inches. Source: SEAOC PV-3
1.2 ROOF LIVE LOAD OFFSET
For areas of solar arrays with an underside clearance of no more than 24 inches dear. the removal of roof
live loads can be thought of .as creating a reserve structural capacity that c:Ul be used to support tbe solar
array. For steel and concrete members that were originally properly designed and have not since detcriornted,
Ibis reserve capacity to support low PV arrays can be in the range of 12 to 20 psf, depending on the live
load tributary area. For wood-framed roofs, the different load duration factors for dead load only (CD= 0.9)
and dead p lus Jjve load combinations (CD = 1.25) need to be considered. TI1c PV system weight that can
be offset by roof live load can be calculated algebraically by adjusting the sum of the dead load of the roof
(DLRaoF) and the dead load of the PV system (D ,.v) for long-term load duration, then setting that quanliry
equal to the duration-adjusted sum of lhe dead load of the roof and the roof live load (LL1100F), as follows:
(DLROOF + D rv)/0.9 (DLRoOF + LLflooF)/ 1.25
Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on existing Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
Where 0.9 and 1.25 are load duration factors from NDS Table 2.3.2. Solving for DL1•11:
area i small (i.e .. LLnooF = 20 p~O. and £he roof selJ-weight (DL1100F) is IS psf. then the
]f the tributary
mllXimum amount of roof live loud thut can be offset by a PV system is therefore 0.72(20) - 0.28( 15)
= 10.2 psf. However. the code-allowed structural capacity of wood members has changed significantly
over the decades, so tbe reserve strucmral capacity may be significantly less, or even non-existem, from a
modem code perspective, us discussed later in this cxampJe. It is also important to recognize that most solar
PV support systems do not load the w of uniformly, im>tead exerting concentrated loads on some members
whiJe _kipping over od1ers.
11.3 CONCENTRATED LOADS
S olar PV arrays are often suppo1ied on a system of mounts (stand-ot:fs) and rails to which the solar panels
Lmodule.s) nrc fastened. In such instnnccs , simply evaluating the stmcturul framing to curry the uveruge
uniform load of the solar PV system is not appropriate. The mounts impose concentrated loads where they
occur. For instance, compared to a uniform load of perhaps 3.5 p. f. a rail sys tem with mounts at six feet
on center, located on a wood-framed roof with ruftcn; at 24 inches on center, will impose loads three times
greater on every third rafter. while skipping over two out or three r.:tfters. This concentrated load effect is
somewhat mitigated by lhe tendency of the roof sheathing to compel adjacent rafters to share loads with the
rafter carrying the mount, as shown iill Figure 15-3. This "Concentrated Loud Sharing Factor" is quantified
:i n the California Structural Technical Appendix for Residential Rooftop Solar Installations (20 15) and is
discussed in some detail huer in tills exiilltple.
Figure 15- 3. Tt1 wood-framed roofs, roof sheathing imerconnects raj1ers so flwf a
concentrafed load 011 one rafter fends to be shared with adjacent rafters.
11.4 CONCRETE SLAB AND STEEL-FRAMED ROOFS
Because concrete and steel design has sl1ifted from Allowable Stress Design (a.k.a. Working Stress Design)
~o Strength Design (a.k.a. Load and Resistance Factor Design. LRFD), modest increases in flexural capacity
can sometimes be found when evaluating existing concrete and steel-framed roofs using Strength Des ign
and appropriate material strengths. It is impona m lO recognize that prior to 1980, reinforciJlg and souctural
s tcd yidd stresses were often significantly lower than grade.s typically usc:d today. For existing buildings
dating back as far as the year 1900. ASCE 41-13 provides good guidance for nominal (default lower-bound)
concrete compressive sn·engths and concrete reinforcing yield and tens ile sn·engths (Tables I 0-2 ro I0-4), as
well as for structural steel and rivet steel yield and tensile strengths (Tables 9-2 to 9-4). Expected slrcnglhs
can be considerably higher than nominal strengths. as shown in ASCE 41-13 Tables 9-3 and 10-I. but
s houJd not be relied upon for gravity design unless verified by in sicu testing.

Design Example 15 • Conskleratlon of Gravity Loads on Existing Roots Supporting Solar PV Armys
1.5 WOOD-FRAMED ROOFS
Prior Lo the 1991 National Desis n Specification fo r Wood Cons/merion ( 1991 NDS) thut wa.s referenced
by the 1994 Uniform Building Code (and s imi lar vi mage BOCA und SBC codes). allowable wood s tresses
were based on clcur grain wood values of small specimens thut were reduced to thcorclicully account for
th!! influence of knots and other defects according to their species group and gruding. Bu.scd on two decades
of ''Ingrade testing" research on full-size lumber specimens with l<rlots and other defects. the allowable
wood stresses used in the model codes changed :tfter the 1991 NDS wn.s published. Tbese changes in the
wood provisions of the model codes had the greatest impact on Douglas Fir-Larch (DF-L), with .smaller
effeets on Sprttee-Pine-Fir (SPF) (Madsen. 1992) and Southern Pine (SP). T he detailed examples below
will illu trate the effects of these code changes.
1.5.1 Timber 'I'russes
Whlle thjs example focuses on roof joists or rafters, aiJowable tensiJe s tresses for tbc bottom chords of
timber trusses have changed significantly. Most nota bly, prior to the mid-1 960s. the allowublc tension
s tress. F,. was assumed to be equal to rhe bending s tress. F1, . while subsequent research found that F, should
be about one haiJ of Fb (1997 NDS Commentary, Section 4.2.3 .2). A s a result, the bollom chords of wood
trusses designed prior to 1970 are us ually found to be significantly overstressed under modern codes. Many
1ension fracture failltres of pre- 1970s wood tn1ss bonom chords h<We been observed over the years. most
notably in bows tring tn1sses. Interestingly, such failures very rarely result in roof collapse, demonstratiJJg
the toughness of wood framing and roof membrane redundancy effects.
1.6 CHANGES SINCE ORIGINAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
In reviewing existing roofs to carry new solar arrays. the s tructural engineer needs to be alert to changes in
dead loads aud stmcmral capaciry that might have occurred subsequent to origiual design and construction.
These include, but arc not Jimjtcd to
• Addition of s tructural loads. including the following:

o Accumulation of one or more new roof coverings over original roof (rc-roonng without tear-off)
o Addition of loads hanging from the underside of roof framing. s uch as acoustic or gypsum
board ceilings.
• Deterioration of structural capacity. including tbt following:

o Corrosion of concrete reinforcing, structural s teel and steel decJ.."ing
o Decay of wood members
o Holes cut through existing structural members, such as coring through ex isting reinforcing
and cutting holes through steel beam webs or fl anges, or through wood members
o Modification of u:usses. s uch as removal of diagonal web members.

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
1 .7 NOMENCLATURE
]n the di~cussi on below. the following terms are used interchangeably:
• mount = stand-off = f oot
• roof j oist ~ rafter
• girder = major beam
• panel = module (an array is an assemblage or panels or modules)
2. Example: Existing Wood-Framed Roofs
2.Ll Location
To examine rhe effects of the 1991 N DS changes on wood-framed roofs, two types of roof structures in
three regions of the country will be cx:1mincd. T he three regions, with their associated snow loads, wind
J oad~ and most commonly used framing lumber. are
• Region I: West Coast

o Coast and vaUey of California. Southwest Oregon (CA. OR)
c ASCE 7- 16 snow load: 0-5 psf
o ASCE 7- 16 wi nd design speed: 95 mph
o Original design code: 1991 UBC
o F raming lumber: Douglas Fir-Larch (D F-L). No. l
• Region 2: Lower Midwest

o Missouri. ntinois, I ndiana. Ohio (MO. IL, IN. OH)
o ASCE 7-16 snow load: 20 psf
o ASCE 7- 16 wind design speed: 107 mph

o Original design code: I 991 BOCA
o F raming lumber: Spruce-Pine-Fir (SP F), No. 1
• Region 3: South
a Inland Texas. Louisiana. Mississippi, Alabama. Georgia
o ASCE 7-16 snow load: 0-5 psf
o ASCE 7-16 wind des-ign speed: 115 mph
o Original design code: 1991 SBC
o Framing lumber: Southern Pine (SP). No. 1
Design Example 16 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting Solar PV Atmys
TI1e two types of roof structures are
o Building A: Commercial, short span roof joists
o Roof joist pan between girder : 11 feet
<> Roof johts: 2 by 6 nt 24 inchc.') o.c. (Regions 1 und ~)or ut 16 inches o.c. (Region 2)
o Roof Slope: lf2 inch per foot
o Building B: Commercial, long sptm roof joists
o Roof joist span berween girders: 18 feet
<> Roof joists: 2 by 10 at 24 inches o.c. (Regions 1 a nd 3) or nt 16 inches o.c. (Region 2)
o Roof Slope: lf2 irlch per foot
All buildings were built in 1996 and desigm:d in 1995 based on the 1991 model code for iL~ region (UBC,
BOCA. or SBC). As a result. all were designed prior to the 1991 NUS. when lumber allowable stresses
changed con~idera bly. TI1e design code used for a building is typica lly an edi1ion severn} yean; earUer tha n
the date of construction.
The ex.isti11g designs described below a re aU based on the 1991 UBC or equjvalent BOCA or SBC model
oodles.
2.1.2 Solar PV Load Cases
As illustrated in Figure 15---4. the following lhree solar PV arrays, and hence PV load pallems, are
considered:
1. PV-1 Load Case: A flat army weighing 3.5 psf, with ponds in portmit mode, supported by
rail.-;. with mounts on every 3rd rnfter {i.e .. 6 feet. 0 inches o.c. for Regions 1 and 3) or 4th
rafter (i .e., 5 feet., 4 inches o.c. for R egion 2).
2. PV-2 Load Case: A low tilted rail-supported array weighing 3.5 psf. with 22-inch wide spaces
between rows of panels, with 40-inch wide panels in la ndscape mode, supporred by moums on
every 3rd rafter (i.e., 6 feet, 0 inches o.c. for Regions 1 and 3) or 4th rafter (i.e., 5 feet, 4 inches
o.c. for Region 2).
3. PV-3 Load Case: A low liJtcd ballasted array weighing I 0 psf over the combined area of panels
and rows of block trays between tl1e pa nels. Thc panels are in 40-inch wide landscape mode.
the block trdys are 22-inches wide berween panels. and the blocks are evenly spaced along the
block trays. Some ballasted systems distribute the blocks unevenly, clustering b.locks near panel
comers and thereby creating concenlrutcd loads on some joists w hile skipping others. If the
array were rotated 90 degrees. the rows of block trays would exert concentrated loads on some
roof joists, while "kipping over others, simjjar to the PV-1 and PV-2 rail-supported examples.
ln all cases. the roof dead load is assumed to be 15 psf.
Figure 15-5 s hows Building A and the PV-1 load case I for Regions 1 and 3 (Region 2 is similar with
miters at 16 inches o.c. and mounts at 5 feet, 4 inches o.c.).

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Grsvlty Loads on existing Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
PV PANEL (60 CELL, 4o•x 66'', FLAT SLOPE , PORTRAIT MODE)

SUPPORT RAIL
MOUNT/STAND-OFF @ 5'-4" OR 6'·0"' O.C.
48"
k 11 '·0"
II
Q]~-----P.....
V---.1. . .;;;LO=--A;;,;;;;,D_..C;;..;,A. ;.;;;S;;..;;;;E--.
PV PANEL (60 OR 72 CELL, 40'' WIDE , LANDSCAPE MODE)
SUPPORT RAIL
MOUNT/ STAN D-OFF @ 5'-4" OR 6 '·0· O.C.
11 ' -0" l
Jl
QJ~--~P_..V~-2~LO~A~D~C~A~SE~-
PV PANEL (60 OR 72 CELL, 40'' WIDE, LANDSCAPE MODE)
UNIFORMLY SPACED BALLAST BLOCKS IN TRAY
29" 22" 40"
11 '-0''
[2Jfo-----=-P..:...V-..=;3-=L~O;..:..A:.::;D....:C~A~S::;..:E--.
I PV LOAD CASES (BLDG A SHOWN, B SIM.) I

Figure 15--4. Three kinds ofP V arrays and associated load cases

Design Example 15 • Conslderstlon of Gravity Loads on Exlstlng Roofs Supporting Solar PV Armys
PV PANEL (60 CELL, 40"x 66", FLAT SLOPE)

SUPPORT RAIL
MOUNT/STAND·OFF@ 5'·4· OR 6' ·0" O.C.
ROOF SHEATHING
ROOF JOIST, 2x6 @ 16" OR 24" O.C.
17'
r;;l ROOF SECTION

~~---------
GIRDER
II
,0 II
, .--..
c II
. ~
<Do
"-..c
Ocn
!;: te
J9
IO(o ,_.
II
b-
,c II
' ~
<Do
'-..c
o en
~ ~
-.:to
I ·0
lo~
11 ' -0"
~ ROOF PARTIAL PLAN

~-----
BLDG A, PV-1 LOAD CASE
Figure 15-5. Commercial Building A roofframing. supporang PV- 1 type of array and loading
Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7· 16 291

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on existing Roofs Supporting Solar PV Arrays
2 .1.3 Wind Ve.locity Pressure ASCE7
For cukulating wind londs, both buildings arc tnll $inglc-story Risk Category IT structures wi th u mcnn roof
height or 20 feet. located in Exposure C sites (i.e .. within 500 yards of open gr<isslands or fie lds). so per
Table 26.1 O· l, K~ = 0.90. Tile buildings are uot ou or uear hills that could create topographic effects (i.e.,
K:J = 1.00), and dccrcusing air density nt incrensing clevurion is ignored (i.e., Kc = 1.00). Per Tublc 26.6-1 ,
the wind directionality factor, K,;. is 0.85. Per equation 26.10-1. the velocity pressure for Lhc Lhree regions.
with design wind speeds of95, 107, and 1 15 mph respectively, is therefore
q: = 0.00256K~ K~,K,1 K,.V

2
= 0 .00256(0.90)\1.00)(0.85)( 1.00)(95. 107. I l Si= 17.7 . 22.4. 25.9 psf
2 .1.4 Wind Down load on Origina l Building, a nd Uncovered Ar eas l3ctween PV Panels
P er rhe Section 26.2 definition of effective wind area. the roof joist effective wind area is the length of
tbe jojst times one third its length. i.e., for Building A : (11 ft)(l 1 ft)/3 = 40.3 If and for Building B:
ti 8 ft)(l8 ft)/3 = l 08 ft2 . Per Figure 30.3-2A, noting that wind down \positive) GC1, is the snme for all
z ones of the roof. and interpolating aaoss the 1og 10 of eft'ective wind area
Bui lding A: GCP = 0.3- O.ll)og 1040.3- log 10 10)/(log 10 100 - log 1n10) = 0.24
Building B: Effective wind area 108 ttl> 100 Fr. hence GC/} • 0.20
Per Equati on 30.3-1:
Building A : PAST> = 0.6qh(GC11 +I - GCP,) = 0.6r11,(0.24 + 0. 18)

= 0.6q1,(0.42) = 0 .25(17.7, 22.4, 2 5.9) = 4.5, 5.6, 6.5 psf
Building B: PA.~ - 0.6q1,(GC11 +I- GCI',) - 0.6q11(0.20 + 0. 18)

= 0.6q1,(0.38) = 0.23(17.7, 22.4, 25.9) = 4.0, 5.1, 5.9 psf
For the original building. p11so must be greater than 0.6(16 psf) = 9.6 psf, so the downward pressure for
bolb buildings A and B in all three regions is 9.6 psf. For the areas between PV panels, consideration of
v,.ind direction may in some ci.rcumstances allow pressures lower than 9.6 psf to be applied between panels
for Regions L 2. and 3 respectively (see the PV-2 and PV-3 cases below).
2 .2 WIND DOWN LOAD ON JOISTS FOR THE PV-1 LOAD CASE

( FLAT PANELS PARALLEL TO FLAT ROOF) ASCE7
P er Section 29.4.4 and Equation 29.4-7, and noting that the wind down loads from the panels arc imposed
on roof joisl$ that are s ubject lo building envelope internal pressures:
Per Secti on 29.4.4. Ye == 1.0 for all downward loads. The wind pressures on the panels are imposed where
t he mounts ,occur, on every third or fourth joist, creati ng a 6-foot tributary widlh for Regions 1 and 3
v,.ilh joists at 24 inches o.c. and a 5.33-foot tributary width for Region 2 with joists at 16 inches o.c. The
=
effective wind area for Building A in Regions I and 3 is therefore 6 feet by 11 feet 66 square feet.
while the effective area for Region 2 is 5.33 feet by 11 feet= 58.7 square feet. Per Figure 29.4-8, and
interpolating across log10 arCJ:J:
Regions I and 3: Y., = 0.8- 0.4(log 1066- log 10 10)/(log 10 100- log 10 10) = 0.472
Region 2: Yu = 0_8- 0 .4(log1058.7 - log 10 10)/(log 10 100- log 10 10) = 0.493
Design Example 15 • Conskleratlon of Grevlty Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting Solar PV Atmys
Since tbe building envelope internal pressures apply only to tlle ir1dividual joist's tributary widtl1. that is. the
joist spacing, and since wind loads are appl ied via mounts 10 every third joist (Regions 1 and 3) or to every
fourth joist (Region 2), then the GC, , needs to be reduced to reAect the narrower tributnry width, thnt is,
divided by 3 for Regions I and 3. and divided by 4 for Region 2. Therefore.
Region 1: PAm= 0.6 q,.,[(GC~) Y1iYn - GC,1] = 0.6(17.7)(0.472 + 0. 18/3) = 5.6 psf = > 9.6 p~f min
Region2: p 11 s_0 0.6 q11[(GCI') YriYu - GC1,1] 0.6(22.4)(0.493 + 0.18/4) • 7.2 psf > 9.6 psf min
Region 3: PAm = 0.6 q,..[(GC,) YF.Yn - GC,,] = 0.6(25 .9)(0.472 + 0.1 8/3) = 8.3 psf => 9.6 psf min
Since Building B bas longer joist spans and therefore larger effective wind areas, the calculated ASD
downward pressure will be even lower thun for Building A, so the 9.6 psf minimum wind pressure wil l also
control.
There are two areas of ambiguity in ASCB 7-16 related 10 the f>V-1 load case where panels have no tilt
and are parallel to a flat roof: ( I) while Sl!ction 29.4.4 and Figure 29.4-8 do not distinguish between wind
up and wind down loads, the pressure reductions in Figure 29.4-8 are based on air-permeable cladding
research (hat appears to only smdy the negative pre sures of wind up loads exerted on solar panels
(Stenabaugh, 20 15, Stenabaugh ct al. 2 015), and (2) downward pressures can either be culculutcd bused
on Section 29.4.4 and Figure 29.4-8 as shown above. or based on Seaion 29.4.3 and Figure 29.4-7 where
w = 0°, The latter approach wiU result in higher wind down loads.
2.3 WIND DOWN LOAD ON JOISTS FOR THE PV-2 LOAD CASE ASCE 7
Since the panels are tilted, a nd not parullel to the low slope roof, Section 29.4.3 appl ies bccnusc:
1. Roof slope 8 • 2.4o. which is less than 7o.
2 . Panel chord h~ngth (mw width), L1, = 40 inches = 3.3 ft, which is less than 6.7 ft,
3. Solar panel tilt w = 10°, which is less thnn 35°,
4. Panel short end heiglhl h 1 = 8" = 0.67 ft, which is less than 2 ft. and
5. Panel tall end height, h2 = 15" = 1.25 ft, which is less than 4 tl,
6. Gaps between panels are 0.75", which is greater than 0.25".
7. Spacing between panels are 22" = 1.83 ft. which is less than 6.7 ft. and
8. The panels distance to tbe roof edge is at least the Larger of 2(112 - hf'l) = 2( 15" - 24'') = 0''
and 4 ft.
The wind pressure coeffi ciellt for tlle tilled panels. GCm. is a product of three y factors and a nominal
pressure coefficient (GC.,,).,c..,· The"{ factors urc
Yr = min(l.2, 0.9 + h1, 1h). where parapet height hP, = 2ft. so min( l.2, 0.9 + 2/20) = 1.0
'{,. = m!L,(0.6 + 0.06 LP' 0.8), where panel row width Lf' = 3.33, so max [0.6 + 0.06(3 .33). 0.8] = 0.8
Ye = 1.0 since loads are downward
Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on E!.x/stlng Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
The calculation of (GC"')'""' is a flll.lction of nonnolized effective wind area. whkh is defined by t.be
fo()tnotes of Fjgure 29.4-7. For Regions 1 and 3, the panels ' mounts are located on every third joist, while
for Region 2 the mounts loud every fourth joist. In Bui lding A the roof j oists urc I t feet long, whiJe for
Building B the roof joists are 18 feet long. The panels only cover 40 inches of every 62-im.:h length along
lhe joists, so the panel coverage ratio is (40"/62"), Per the definitions in Section 26.2, elfective wind area
need not be less than joist length times one third of joi::;t length, which for Building A i::; I 12/3 = 40.3 f\.2 ,
2
and for Building B is 182/3 = 108 ft . Therefore the effective wind areas, A. for loads on the roof joists are
BuiJding A, Regions l and 3: A = (40"/62")(6 ft)(ll ft) = 42.6 ft2

Bui lding A. Re&rion 2: A =(40"/62H)(5.33 ft)(l l ft) = 30.8 ft2• but need not be less than 40.3 ft 2
2
Building B, Regions I & 3: A = (40"/62")(6 ft)( I 8ft)= 69.7 f\ , but need not be less than 108ft
Building B, Region 2: A = (40"/62")(5.33 ft)(l8 ft) = 61.9 ft2 • but need not be less th un l 08 ft2
Per ibe footnotes to Figure 29.4-7, the effective wi nd arcn is nommlized by :::1 factor that depends on L6 ,
where Lb is the minimum of 0.4(hiV1 /.s. h. or W5 • For the bui ldings considered in this example, h = 20.
w~,. = 180ft. and Ws = 120ft. :>o 0.4(hWL)05 = 24ft. and Lb = 20ft (controlled by h = 20ft) . Note thm
t here is an error in the first printing of ASCE 7- 16 for the equation listed in footnote 3. Sec SEAOC PV-2
for the. correct equation. The normalized effective wind area is
Building A. Regions I and 3: A, - 2.5(42.6 fl2) = 107 ft2

Bui lding A, Region 2: A11 = 2.5~40.3 ft
2
) = l Olttl
2
BuiJding B. Regions 1 & 3: A., = 2.5(108 Fe)= 270 ft
BuiJdi:ng B, Region 2: A = 2.S(l08 ft2 ) = 270 ft2
11
For this example we will assume that distance between the inside face of p<u-apet and the nearest panel can
be as litHe as aen feer. This means that some of rhe panels, and the joists supporring them, will be in a Zone
3 comer area per Figure 29.4-7, which extends 2/z = 40 feet from the comer in cuch direction. ·n,c roof
zonation for the tilted panels on flat roofs differs signiticanlly from roof zonation for typical component
and cladding loads. as shown in ASCE 7-16 F igure 30.3-2A and this example's Figme 15- 6. SEAOC-PV2
cxplaillS that one of tbe main reasons for tbe difference between tbe zones for tilted panels and standard
roof components is Lhat smal l. tightly curled separation bubbles extending far in from the roof edge have a
greater effect on tilted solar pauels than flat roof compouents.
For brevity, in the wind c;ilculntions below the values for Building A only are shown. with the
understanding that Building B calculations will be simi lar. with larger normalized effective wind areas and
somewhat lower wind pressures. Per tbe two (GCm)"'"' graphs in Figure 29.4-7. and interpolutiug across
log 10 area and between the (J) = so :md ro = 15° graphs, the values for Building A arc
Zone 3, Regions 1 and 3, CJl = so:

(GC,.,)n<\,. = 2.3- L8(log10 107 - log 10 1)/(log 10500- log 10 1) = 0.947
Zone 3. Regions I and 3. w ~ 15°:
(OCru)""" = 3.5- 2.7(1oglf}l07- log 10 l)/(log 10SOO- log 10 1) = 1.470
Zone 3. Regions I and 3. CJ) = 10° interpolation:
(GC.,,)nnw = l0.947 + 1.470)/2 = 1.2 J

Design Example 15 • Conskleratlon of Gravity Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting Solar PV Atmys
Zone 3. Region 2. ro 5°:

(GCrn)n"'" = 2.3 - J .~(log 10 10 1 - log 10 1)/(log 10500 - log 10 1) = 0.963
Zone 3. Region 2, ro = 15°:

=
(GCn,)n'"" 3.5 - 2.7(1og10 101 - log 10 1)/(log 10SOO - log 10 1) = 1.495
Zone 3. Region 2, <1> = 10° intcrpolution:
(GC,,.)n,,,. = (0.963 + 1.495)!2 = 1.23
Per Equations 29.4-5 and 29.4-6, and noting that the roof joists u.rc also subject to building envelope
internal pressures GCJI,. but only over one joist width while the mount spacing is 3 or 4 joists widths (hence
=
GCl', 0.18/3 for Regions 1 and 3, and 0. 18/4 for Region 2). d1e downward pressLLres on tile panels for
Building A arc
Zone 3. Region 1:
PASo = 0 .6 q,J('Y,Y.-Yc(GCm)A•uu - CCI"] = 0.6( 17.7 psf)[(1.00)(0.80)(1.00)(1.21)
+ 0.18/3)] = 10.9 psf
Zone 3. Region 2:
PA'5D = 0.6 q,J('/1,YrYE(GCm),...,..,- GCI"'J = 0.6(22 .4 psf)[(J .00)(0 .80)(1.00)(1.23)
+ 0.18/4)] = 13.8 psf
Zone 3, Region 3:
PA.SD = 0.6 qiJ('Y,Y/YJ..GCm)/Q3, - GCI"'] = 0.6(25.9 psf)[(l.00)(0.80)(1.00)(1.21)
+ 0. 18/3)] = 16.0psf
Shifting to Building B, the (GC",)~"'" vulues for Regions l , 2, and 3 arc
Zone 3. Regions I & 3. co SO:

(GC"')"""' = 2.3 - 1.8(1og1n270 - log 10 l)/(log10500 - Jog 10 1) = 0.678
Zone 3. Regions I & 3. ro = 15°:
=
(GC"')nm• 3.5 - 2.7(log, 0270 - log 10 l )/(log 10SOO - v log, 0 1) = 1.068
Zone 3, Regions I & 3, co = I 0° interpolation:
(GC,,)~·"'" = (0.678 + 1.068)/2 = 0.87
And tile downward wind pressures on the solar PV panels for both P V-2 and PV-3 cases for Building B arc
Zone 3. Region l:
PASo = 0.6 q,J('/1,YrYJ..GCm),"'"' - GC,j = 0.6(17.7 pst)[(J.00)(0.80)( J.00)(0.873)
+ 0. 18/3)] = 8.1 psf = > 9.6 psf minimum
Zone 3, Region 2:
p,\Sf) = 0.6 qiJ('/1,YrYJ..GCm).,,.. - GC,j = 0.6(22.4 psf)[(l.00)(0.80)(1.00)(0.873)
+ 0.18/4)1 = 10.0 psf
Zone 3, Region 3:
PASD= 0 .6 q~[('(1,y,yJ,.GCn,},...,., - GC0 ) = 0.6(25.9 psf)((l.00)(0.80)(1.00)(0.873)
+ 0.18/3)] = 11.8 psf
Deslgn Example 15 • Consideration of Gmvlty Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
·~. t 1'
--
2h = 40'-0' ~
~
1 80' -0"
~
" 2h = 40'-<Y' t
9
~
II
..t:.
~
r---
0
---
0 _:0l MEAN ROOF HEIGHT,
h . 20' -(Y'
PARAPET HEIGHT,
h.. = 2'-0'
~
~
0~
0 I
8 0
~ - ~- ---
9
0
"7"
I
.c.
N
0 0 0
ROOF ZONES FOR TILTED SOLAR PANELS
0 BASED ON FIGURE 29.4-7
I
t 2h . 40'·0" 1'
180'-0"
..-
, Zh • 40'·0· t,
1
,
9 [P=--0_ - - - - (0 -
0 - "r- - -~
~ I -~r- 0.2h=4' ·<:Y'
II I - ·- - - - - - - ~ ---
~ I II , I I
I .c9 0.6h= I, 0.6h=
~ I (.0-
· N 12'-0'' ... 1 1 z·-o··
I 0.-
I I I I
081 0 1~0
I
I I I
I MEAN ROOF HEIGHT.
~ I I I
9 I h • Z0'-0"
~ I
L - - -- - -- - - - _j I
-
• - -- - 0 - - - --~ PARAPET HEIGHT,
z·-o·
£.
N
11-:-G- 0
h., =
f8l-:R~O~O~F-=Z~O~N.=.E.=.S..:..F~O;.:..;R:..:.A.:.:.R~E....A.:.::::S:..:.N~O~T:...C.=.O
~ V=.:ER~E=.:D::;....:::;B..:..Y~S~O~L;:..:A~R..:.P..:..A:.:..;N:.=E.:.LS::::....._
~ BASED ON FIGURE 30.2-2A
Figure 15- 6. Flat roofwind zones for areas (A ) covered by solar panel, and (B) no t covered by solar panels

Design Example 15 • Consklef8tlon of Grevlty Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting Solar PV Anays
TI1e waxituum downward pressure on the pu.nels occurs ~vhen the wi.nd approaches from the low s ide of the
panels, which creates u tendency toward negative uptit) pressure on the spaces between panels. Therefore,
instead of using the minimum 9.6 psf ASD design pre..~sure between rows of panels, the uctuul mlculated
downward ASD pressures applied to the spacc.s between panels are 4.5. 5.6. and 6.5 psf for Building A
in Regions l, 2, and 3 wirh windspecds of95, 107, and 115 mph respectively, and 4 .0,5.1 and 5.9 psffor
Building B.
2.4 WIND DOWN LOAD ON JOISTS FOR THE PV-3 LOAD CASE ASCE7
For the PV-3 load case, the panels bear on al l joists uniformly. so the tributary width is the typical jois t
spacing. and the effective w.ind area for tbe j oists are joi t length times one-third the jo ist length. which
equals 40.3 square feet for Building A and 108 square feet for Building B, as s hown previously. For
Building A, the culculutions are very similar Lo the PV-2loud case, except thut A, = 2.5(40.3) = 10 1 square
feet instead of 107 square. feet for Regions I and 3. so the re.suJting press ures for PY·3 are very similar to
PV-2. For Building B, the results are identical to the PV-2 loud case because for both PV-2 and P V-3, the
effective wind area is I08 square feet and the normalized effective wind area is 270 !:>quare feet.
2.5 WIND UPLIFT ON ROOF JOISTS ASCE 7
Wind uplift pressures are considerably greater than wind downward pressures. Per Section 29.4.4. for the
panels lhemselves, the edge coefficient Y£ is 1.0 for wind down but 1.5 for wind up. For the roof areas
between panels, per Figure 30.3-2A, the a bsolute vulucs of the GC1, coefficients arc greater for wind up than
wind down.
PV-1 , Region ~:
p,1,•.A.'!J = 0.6 q,,[(GCp'fY£tu - GC,.1] = 0.6(25.9)(1.5 X 0.472 + 0.18/3) = I 1.9 psfup
The roof self-weight and the PV self-weight will somewhat offset these loads, but per ASD load
combinution 7, only 60 percent o f these dead loads may be used to resist the uplift. F urthermore, whi le the
wind uplift acts over Lhe mount spacing of s ix feet (three joist spaces). the dead load acts over onl y one joist
spacing width of rwo feet. As discus ed later in this example, the dead load can be increaced a bit to reRect
dead loads carried by adjacent joists by assuming a concentrated loud $hnring factor of I .42. The net wind
uplift is therefore
PV-1 , Region ~:
P,u<u,o..-\s.v = 11.9 psf wind up- 0.6 ( 1.42/3)(3.5 psf PV + 15 psf DL) = 6.7 psf net up
The absolute value of tbe net upwnrd pressure from ASD load combination 7 is signiJicantly less tl1rrn the
downward load combination cases (D + L, D + S. D + 0.6W, D + 0.75(0.6W + S)) and is thcrefore not
lhe controllit1g load case for the roof joists in tlte PV-1 load case.
Because tilted panels can act as wind catchers, the wind uplifts for the PV-2 and PV-3 tilted panels load
cases are significantly greater per the provisions of Section 29.4.3. instead of the parallel-to-roof provisions
of Section 29.4.4. As shown earlier, for Zone 3, Building A, Region 3, with a panel tilt of 10 degrees:
PV-2. Zone 3. Regions I and 3. <u = I 0-degree interpolation: (GC,.,),,u = (0.947 + 1.470)/2 = 1.2 1
PV-2, Zone 3, R egion 3:
= 0.6 q1,[(Yp'Yc'YF.(GC,.),"-"'- GCJ.lll
P ASD = 0.6(25.9 psf) (( 1.00)(0.80)(1.50)(1.21) + 0.1 8/3) = 23.5 psf
Design Example 15 • Consideration of Grevlty Loads on !Existing Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arreys
Sitttila:r to the PV· l load ClL~e. the panel uplift act~ over three joist spaces (si.x feet). while the rcsistiug dead
Joad acts over a single joist space (two feet), so dead loud is reduced by (2/6 = 113) unci increased by the
concentn.tted loud sharing factor or 1.42.
PV-2 , Region 3:
p,.,1 ~,·.Asn =
23.5 psfwind up - 0.6 ( 1.4213)(3.5 psfPV + 15 psf DL) = 18.3 psf nct up
This uplift load could control the joist design, especially considering that with uplift the bottom edge of
tbc joist is in compression and is laterally nnbrnccd agllinst lateral torsional buckjjng. Thjs d iffers from the
downward loud ca.ses. where the top edge of the joist is laterally br.:tccd by the roof sheathing when that
edge is in compre:>.sion. lf strengthening is required, it may be as ~ imple as bracing the bonom edge of the
joists, using X-bracing or solid blocking.
The perceptive reader wiU question whemer the I 0 psf ballast load in the PV-3 load case is sufficient to
hold the panels down. Wind tlplit't on ballasted syst'ems are outside of the scope of this example, but two
things can be noted: ( I ) perimeter cowlings/wind shields that block most of the wind from running under
the edge panels can mitigate or even eliminate the Ye <= 1.5 edge uplift factor. and (2) some ballasted
ystems allow some upwa1·d movement (momentary j ump up) from the roof smi'ace, which can result in
a lnrgc effective wind urea when calculating 'Yo: If net uplift occurs even with these con~idcrntion ~, then
positive anchorage to roof structure may be used to augment the balllL~tcd panels. especially around the
perimeter of rhe array.
2.5.1 Wind Uplift on Mounts ASCE 7, 2018 NDS
The wi nd uplift load calculations on rhc mounts, which support rai ls under the PV modules, require
different assumptions. There is a smuJier effeclive wind area, no building envelope internal pressure GCI'1
values. and only lhe dead load of the panels (without the roof assembly below) to resist uplifr. For both
rbc PV-1 and PV-2 cases, the effective wind area is (40"'12)(1 ' /12")(6.00 ft or 5.33 ft) = I 0 ft2 or 8.9 fr
for Regions 1 and 3 and Region 2, respectively, and the nonnalized effective area A, = 2.5A = 25 ft 1 and
22.3 ft 2• respeL'tivcly. While both the PV-1 and PV-2 configur.~.tions are supported by mounts and rails. PV-2
is studied be low because its tilted panels will have greater wind uplifts than the PV- 1 system with panels
paral lel do the roof.
For tbe PV-2 load case i.n Zone 3, per me two (GCm)'""'' graphs in Figure 29.4-7, and interpolatiJ1g across
log 10 area and between mew= 5-dcgrce and w = IS-degree graphs:
PV-2. Zone 3. Regions 1 and 3. w = 5°;

(GCr,)nm• = 2.3 - 1.8(1og 1025- log 10 1)/(logll)500- log 10 1) = 1.37
PV 2, Zone 3. Regions I and 3. w = 15°:
(GC,)nm• = 3.5- 2.7(log 1025 - log 10 l )/(log 10500 - log 10 l ) = 2.10
PV-2, Zone 3, Regions .1 and 3, w = 10° interpolation:
( 1.37 + 2.10)/2 1.74
PV-2, Zone 3, Region 2, u) = 5°:

(GC,)""'• = 2.3 - 1.8(log 1022.3 - log 10 1)/(log 10500 - log 10 1) = 1.40
PV 2, Zone 3, Region 2, w = )5°:
(GC,,)n"" = 3.5- 2.7(log1022.3- log 10 1)/(log 10500 - log10 1) = 2.15
PV-2, Zone 3. Regions 2, <u = 10° interpolation:
U.40 + 2.15)12 = 1.78
Design E:xsmple 16 • Consklelstlon of Grevity Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting Solar PV Atmys
Remembering that for uplift. y" 1.5 for many areas o f anay. lhe net wind uplift pressures for Regions I.
2, and 3 are
PV-2. Zone 3 . Region I :

PASo= 0.6 q,,(Y"Y/ Yti(GCrn),.,.lf\,) - 0.6D,.v
= 0.6( 17.7 psf)( 1.0)(0.80)( 1.50)( 1.74) - 0.6(3.5 psf) = 20.1 psf
PV-2. Zone 3. Region 2:
PASD = 0.6 q,,("(J!'fc'frf.GCrn)uuo,) - 0.6DLp\1
= 0.6(22.4 p.si)( I.0)(0.80)(1.50)(1.78) - 0.6(3.5 psf) = 26.6 psf
PV-2. Zone 3, Region 3:
P.tsD = 0.6 qr,l.'Y1,'Yr'Yrf.GCm),,'",)- 0.6DLpv
= 0.6(25.9 psf)(L0)(0.80)(1.50)(1.74) - 0.6(3.5 psf) = 30.3 psf
And the uplift forces on lhe mounts are
2
PV-2.Zone3.Regio n I:P,1,1,Lw ..""'1111,1 "" 20.1 psf( IOI'l ) "" 201 lbs
= 26.6 psf (8.9 ft2 ) = 237 lbs
PV-2, Zone 3, Region 2: P,1,1A..\D.Jt.,mtv/
PV-2. Zone 3. Region 3: P,1,\ASD~'"'-M = 30.3 psf ( 10 t'l ) = 303 1bs
2
These uplitl.loads can be compared against a ty pical mount with a single -Y.c.-inch diameter by 3-inch long
lag screw wilh an asymmetric prying factor of 2. embedded at least 2 inches into the wood with a net
thread length of 1 17'1" inches from the 2018 NOS Appendix Table L2. Per the 2018 NOS Table 12.2A. the
withdrawal values W, in lbs per inch, are
Region 1. Douglas Fir-Larch. G • 0.49. W 258 lbs!in.

Region 2, Spruce-Pine-Fir, G = 0.42, W = 205 lbs/ in.
Region 3. Southern Pine. G - 0.55, W - 307 lbs/in.
The lag screw c-apacities arc the product of ( W)(loud duration fnctor)(net thread length)/(prying fac tor), and
can be checked against demand as follows:
PV-2, Zone 3, Region 1:

[P.._,....1IDn\'"" uy = 258(1.6)( 1.&n/2 = 373 lbs] > [P"1u ,s J>dc111.:.•'•1 = 201 lbs] . OK
PV-2, Zone 3. Region 2:
fP.._,v\Slh•\lu>"ily = 205 ( 1.6)( 1.81'')/2 = 2971bs] > f P upASD d"'"""l = 237 Jbs], OK
PV-2. Zone 3, Region 3:
IP'\t\IL\I>f'\tm·.!J_,. = 307{1.6)(1.81")/2 = 445lbs] > ( P "f'JISDdomnol = 303Jbs], OK
The Region 2 case. with medium wind speeds and relatively low de nsity lumber. has the highest demand/
capacity ratio (237/297 = 0.80) and smallest reserve uplift capacity. If rributary areas to the mounts were
a bit larger (e.g., if the panels were in portnut mode instead of landscape mode), then a mount base with
longer Jag screws or a base with two symmetrically located fasteners might be required.

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on existing Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
2.6 SNOW LOADS ASCE7
Per Section 7.3. the original buildings, with low slope roofs and without collectors, have snow loads that are
(he greater of p1 and p ",. For typical imaallations, C0 , c,. and It factors are all assumed to be one. Snow loads
arc Lhc maximum of either p1 or P:n· The flat surface "now loud is p1 = 0.7C4 C,I,P,{ = 0.7 (5 pst) = 3.5 psf
for Regions I and 3. and 0.7 (20 psi) = 14 psf for Region 2. However, the minimum snow loud is larger
with p 01 " ' l ,p_1• .:::1 5 psf for Regions l and 3. ru1d 20 psf for Region 2.
P er Section 7 .l 0, rain-on-snow surcburgc loads need lo be considered when the slope, in degrees , is less
lhan W/50. where W is Lhe distance from ridge to eave. Assuming the ridge runs lengthwise along the
midwidrh of {he building, W is 60 feet and the triggering s lope is 60 fee t/SO feet = I .2 degrees, which i
Jess than the actuul slope of nrctan(O. 5/ 12) = 2.4 degrees, so a 5 psf ruin-on-snow s urcharge loud docs not
need to be considered.
Because the parapet is onJy two feet tall, parapet drifts will usually extend no more tbnn four times the
parapet height (.i.e. 8 feel) from the edge of the building . and so parapet drifls are not considered in this
example.
Per the Commentary Section C7.8, snow accumulating at the base of tilted panels (the PV-2 and PV-3 lond
cases) should be cousidered: "the extra snow that might fall on the collectors and then slide onto the roof
s hould be computed using the 'All Other Surfaces' curve in Fig. 7.4- J b. Tbis value should be applied as a
uniform load on the roof at Lhc base of each collector ove.r an arcu of about 2 ft wide along the length of the
collet' tor.'' Thm uniform load is p1. not P,.- since a.~ noted in Section 7.3.4. "[ p,.,] ... is a separate uniform
load case . . . [rbat] need not be used .. . in combination with driJt, liding, unbnlanced or partial loads." For
t he flat roof surfaces, p1 = 0.7p?., and for the 10 degree tilted PV surfm:cs, C, = 1.0 and p, = 0.7 p1 . Noting
that the panels are 40 inches wide.. and the open rows are 22 inches wide, the snow load in the open rows
berween p anels is p1 + p ,(40"/22") = (I + 1.82)(0.7)P,f = I .97p~ . For designing the roof members, only the
accumulated snow load between the panels needs to be considered. Tbc C7.8 coiDIDcntary explains: ''the
collectors should be designed to sustain a load calculnted by using the 'Unobstructed Slippery Surfaces'
curve in Fig. 7 .4-l a. This last load should nru be used in the design of the roof because the heavier load the
s liding snow from collectors has already been considered." This 1.97pKload over 22 inches is equivalent to
a uniform load of (22"!62")1.97p8 = 0.7P;.·
\Vhi.Je tbe 1.97p~ load at the base of the panels follows tbe commentmy·s direction, it implies an unrealistic
depth of snow be.twcen tbc pands. Per Equation 7.7- 1, the snow density is 14 .6 pcf for Pg = 5 psf (Regions
1 and 3) and 16.6 pcf for p~. = 20 psf (Region 2). For Region 2. this implies a drift 28 inches deep fitting
in a space only 22 inches wide between tl1e panel rows, occurring at the base of a panel where the low end
of the panel is only 8 inches above the roof and Lhe high end is only 15 inches above the roof. The uvcruge
load of 0.7pf. may be more realis tic. where the drift accumulates at the base of the panel and th en extends
up the height of rhe panel. Since the average load 0.7px is less than p.,, and s ince the tilted panels are so low
that they are essentially large corrugations in the roof surface, it is reasonable and conservative to add Pm
to the panel system self-weight, instead of 0.7p~· Therefore. p,., = pRis the controlling snow load case for
Regions l, 2, and 3. and for roof areas with and without PV panel coverage. for all three PV configuration
cases (PV-1 , PV-2 and PV-3).
3. Generalization of Loading
The demand momem generated by the load patteru shown for solar array PV-1, imposed on the roof joists
that occur at 6 feet, 0 inches on center, is 770 ft-l bs. This is remarkably close to 771 ft-lbs, which is the
wL218 moment calculated from a "smeared" uniform load. where 111 = [(2 f!)(l5 psf) + (6 ft)(3.5 psf)]
2
=51 plfand therefore w L /8 =(51 pl.f)( ll fti/8 = 771 ft-1bs. Poinr loads are smeared along the length of
Design Example 15 • Conskleratlon of Gravity Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting Solar PV Arrays
lhe joist but are nm ~meared perpendicular to the joi~l. so that concentrated loads are correctly ca.lculated
for mounts that loud some joists and skip over others. As long as the mount spncing pamllelto tbe joistll is
no more than hniJ as long ll5 the joist spnn, the smeared unifom1 loud will cnlculute very similar moments.
A.s shown in Figure 15-7. using a cOnl\ervative simplified model where panels are supported by mounts
at their ends. where the mount pacing is halJ the joist length, tl.le highest momeut tJJnt can be generated
is where the mounts at the p·uncl ends arc located ut the V.: L und %L points on the joist, and the resulting
moment is only 12.5 percent higher than the smeared 1rL2/ 8 momenl. Other ltalf-span load pauerns exactly
1
yjeJd the smeared wL 18 moment. When the panel length and mount spacing is ~horler than half the joist
length, even the wo.rst loud pattern's maximum moment will be closer to the smeared wL2/8 moment.
PANEL WIDTH PANEL W IDTH PANEL WI DT H

U2 U3 U4
M..PU4+Pilb(wU4)(tJ4)+
M=PU4=(\\UL)(tJ4)=1.000{wL'IB) M=Pa=(wU3)(U3)=\~l'l9=0.889jWL~/8}
iiiii
(wU4}(U4)=1 .000{Wl}/8}
~ .111..... .l'.ll..... ~ ~
U2 U2
PV PANEL ., PV PANEL
U4 U4 U4 U4
ROOF JOIST
I\(QPU4+Paw(wt..J6)(U4)+ M:Po•PR::(WU4)(U8)+
M"Pa..(wU2)(U<1).. 1.000(vA.'/8) (viLI3)(U6)={'/~}wL=1 . 111 {WL' /8} (\vU4)(3U8): 1.000fWL'/8)
m._ ill._ .I.'LI..... li'l1..... ill._ ~ ll!L ~ .ll!.l.....
;u• ~
2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4
i u•;
2
,, U6 ~
i u~, LIB; (
U2 U3 U3
1
! 1U4(! tB
M::('/,1Pabf7+Pab!l=("/~t\uU2)('/,)('/.)L
+(wV2)('1,JPIJL-1.125(wL~f8}
i U2 i i t u·r·rt
m._ m_ .I.'LI..... .I.'LI..... l!d..... ~
4 4 <I 4
U16
UBi 3UB i3U16
Fig11re 15-7. Momen rs on joists resulting from concenTrated loads from PV pmrelmoums, demonstrating
thar for panel width (i.e.. panel mounr spacing) equalro or less rhan one half ofjoist length, the
1
moments.from panel smeared loads (equivalelllunifonn loa ds, w) will closely approximate wL /8.
3.1 COMPARISON OF GENERALIZED LOADS
The smc.arcd Joads arc calculated below for aU three loud cases in Rcgjons 1 and 3. R egion 2 has a similar
sel of calculations, where 1.33 feel (rafters at J 6 inches o.c.) replaces 2 feet (rafters at 24 inches o.c.). and
5.33 feet (mounts at 5 feet. 4 inches o.c.) replaces 6 feet (mounts ac 6 feet. 0 inches o.c.). and where ground
snow load, Ps• is 20 psf instead of 5 psf.
Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting Solar PV Arrays
The calculations mbulmed belmv are for Building A. The calculations for Building B are similar. wilh
slightly lower wind pressures due to larger nom1ulized effective wind areas . Regions 1, 2, and/or 3 are Jisred
after the load combination description, so that, for instance, the loud combination wJJ-'- \V. I<'~J represents deud
load plus wind load in Regions I and! 3. Refer to Figures J 5-4 and J5-5 for ill ustrations of loads PV-1. PV-
2, and PV-3. W represents rhe downward wind load on a flat roof. w,v represems lhe downwurd componem
from \lri.nd impo~ed on either Aat PV panels (PV-1 loud case) or tilted PV panels (PV-2 and PV- ~ loud
cases).
Table 15- 1. Load combinations
LonrlCombo,
Rl'gion(s}
D L, s w Df-V w,.v Cnlculnlion "'· pii
Wum~J.I~ 15 (2 fl)(l5 p.•t) 30.0

>
~ 15 20 (2ft)( 15 psf + 20 p.<f) 70.0
\~ 1>--Lt. lld
1
0
z 1110,1. Il L! 15 5 (2 ft)( IS r-'r + s p;l) 40.0
:i.·
6
~
111o-...... II<' 15 9.6 (2 (t)( 15 psf + 9.6 ps(} 49.2
Q
0
:r: \ t'n t- 1.!U'- JI1 . t1!t 15 5 9.6 (2 ft)(l.'i p!i + 0.75(5 psf + 9.6 p~f)) 51.9
""o· .1;\(11 • L•l. lk.l

15 20 9.6 (2 ft}( l5 psf + 0 .75(9.6 p.-;i + 20 P-'Ol 74.4
""rJ«~.,,, IA:S 15 3.5 (2 fl)( 15 psf} + (6 ft)(3.5 psi) 51.0

~
I ...."
~ V.tHi.. lt<.l 15 5 3.5 (2 flltl 5 p.~f) + (6 (t)!3.5 psf + 5 P-'0 81.0
I> \fltJ tW, 1/t.:J 15 3.5 9.6 (2 ft)(l5 psf) + (6 ft)(3.5 psf + 9.6 psf) 108.6
11
'/Jr.llll"'-fll.t~< 15 5 3.5 9.6 (2 ft1(15 p!i) + (6 fl)(3:5 psf + 0.75(5 p.~f + 9.6 p.<()) 116.7
"''oru>,. l oti 15 3.5 (2 fll( 15 p"f) + (6 ft)(J.S p..<f)(4!Y'/ 62'') 43.5
(2ft)( 15 p~l) + (6 f t}(3.5 p.l-f)(40"/62'')

15 20 3.5 57.7
WD""' Lr. IILJ + (2 (1)(20 p!J)(22"/62")
15 5 3.5
c2 ftl<IS p,~o + (6 ft)(3.s p..!J' +s p;0<40"/62') 66.5
~
Vlo •>; l t.d
+ (2 ft )(5 p.if}(22"/62')
."...
c
N 15 6.5 3.5 16.0
(2 tiX 15 r-~1) + (6ti)(3.5 p!d' + 16.0 f"0(40"/62') I 10.1
nrp... u'.J
> + (2 ft)(6.5 psf)(22"/62~)
~
(2 fl)( 15 p:;.-1) + (6 0)(3.5 p..<f PV
..../), 1.1:.}'\"11\ 3 15 5 6-~ 3.5 16.0 + 0.75(5 psf + 16.0 ps())(40"/62'") 110.6
+ (2 ft)(0.7 5)(5 psf + 6.5 psf)(22./62")
(2 ft)(l5 p!S> + (6 ft )(3.5 psf + 0.75(16.0 p!tf))
Wo.,.. ~(~•Lrl. J 15 20 6.5 3.5 16.0
(40''/62') + (2 !t)(0.75)(6.5 p..~( + 20 psf)(22. /62")
1o.u
""ow1.1t-.t 15 10 (2 it)( IS pJ..t) + (2 ft)( JO psi) 50.0
n·n- u . tk.J 15 20 10 (2 ftl( IS sf) + (2 !))( I 0 p.it} + (2 ft)(20 psf)(22"/62") 64.2
~
VID..L.$. 1/..:.1 15 5
I 10 (2 fl)( IS psf) + (2 11)( I 0 p~f) + (2 ft)(5 psf) 60.0
"
c
..:l (2 itX 15 1:.>f + I0 psf) + (2ft)( 16.0 l:.>f)(40"/62"')
IS 6.5 10 16.0 75.S
1U()4U',l
+ (2 ft)(6_~ pl'l)(22"/ 62")
li tA·D..,_i$~S.,...Jl)..3 15 5 6-~ 10 16.0

(2 ft)( 15 p.sf + I 0 p~ + (2 ft)(O. 75)(5 p.s! + 16.0 psf)
(40"J6r> + c2flJC0.75lC5 psf + 6.5 psfl (22"16Y>
76.6
I Wo t .?:<'f't IJ1,) 15 20 6.5 10 16.0

(2 ft)(IS r•f + 10 Pl-fl + (2 ft)(0.7SJ(I6.o p it)
(40"/62'') + (2 ft)(0.75)(6.5 p;;f + 20 p!'f)(2Z"/62")
79.8
Design Example 15 • Conskleratlon of Grevlty Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting Solar PV Armys
3.2 CONCENTRATED LOAD SHARING FACTOR
Loud cases PV-1 and PV-2 represent arrays supported by mounts spaced at 6 feet, 0 inches or 5 feel, 4
inches ont·emer. This creates a concentrated load on every third joist (Regions I and 3) or fourth joisr
{Region 2), while skipping over rafters between the mounts. However, ns shovm in Figure 15-3, the
sheathing interconnects the rnfters. imposing dcformution computihility so that the loaded rafter cannot
deflect downward without sharing part of its load with adjacent rafters to each side. The concentrated
load-sharing factor, Cct..sF• can be thought of as the number of rafters that effectively re"-ist the concentrated
load. This is a difl'crent cfl'cct from the repetitive member factor, Cr. C, rcAee~ the statistical phenomenon
that the expected 5 percent tail lower bound strength for three members is greater than that for a single
member; that is, the statistic dispersion around the mean strength is tighter for three members than one.
Using the standard deviation of bending strength for specific lu mber groups nnd grades, it cnn be shown
lhat C,. = 1.15 or greater can be based entirely on load sharing among three rafters. noting the standard
error of the mean of three rafters is the standard deviation djvided by the square root of three. Article 5 of
ASTM D6555 and the associated commentary bas a general discussion of tllli; topic. A spcciJ:lc example
of calculating the statistical C, is included in the California Structural Technical Appendix. That example
shows that the ~ tali stical C, ';;;) 1.20 for Dougl as Fir-Larch No.2 is well above the code C, c 1.1 5. A third
cllect, composite ~ction, is not part of the concenmued load-sharing factor CcLSF or the srutisrical repetitive
membtr fuctor C, described above. Composite action between the sheathing and rafters is n very signil1cant
yet unaccounted for source of reserve strength in typical wood roof rafter systems. as demonstrated by
nesting (Campos Varela, 2013; Dwyer et al, 2011 ).
3D analysis of concentrated loads on sheathed roof rafters show that CCLst is a fu nction of the relative
stiffness between . hemhing and rafters, where the stifl'ness ratio is ex.pressed as (El!L\h,:miu/(EJIL-~)icA,,'
and where L for sheathing is the distance between joists and L for the joist is its spun (California Structural
Technical. Appendix). The results are summari.zed in Figure 15-8. Assuming the roof sheathing is 1'l.11 inch
{'h inch nominal) plywood, per rhe NDS the minimum El stiffness is 125,000 lb-in 2/ft. For rafters at 24
inches o.c. (Regions 1 and 3), the sheathing stiffness, Elle = 125,000/24J = 9.04, while for rafters at 16
inches o.c_ (Region 2). the sheathing stiffness is 125.000/ 163 = 30.5.

Deslgn Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
Concentrated Load Sharing Factor as a Function of

Sheathing/Rafter Relative Stiffness Ratio
(concentrated load at every nth rafter)
2.5
lL
u
d
n =4
L...'
0
t:i
ro
u... 2.0
0.0
c:
' L:
ro
..c.
Vl
"0
ro
0
_J
"0
Q)
1.5
+-'
ro
L...
+-'
c:
Q)
u
c:
0
u
1.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
3 3
Sheathing/Rafter Stiffness Ratio {EI/L )shtg/{EI/L )rftr
Figure 15- l?. Concentrated Load S//(/ring Factor as a funcTion oft he shearhing!rcifter relaTive si(ffness raTio
The relative stiffness ratios are sbown in Table 15-2. For the Region 1 and 3 cases, for bot.h Buildi_ngs A
and B the shcathing/mftc:r stiffness ratios are 0.59 and 0.54 re.spectively. Therefore, per Figure 15-8 for n
- 3. lhe corresponding Concentrated Load Sharing Factors. CCLsl'· are aboul 1.43 and 1.41. For Region 2
the ratios are 2.41 and 2.22. For 11 = 4, the corresponding CCI-~F are about 1.84 and 1.81. See the California
Structural Technical Appendix for addilional informalion.
Table 15-2. Sheathing/rafter relaJive st~ffness ratios fo r calculating CCI-'F
Ri!glol] 1& 3 R~ton 1·

DF·L No.1, SP No. l SPF No 1
rqfto~ ~-, 24" o.c. r;.ftors oat 16" o.<:.
~ of I'<! ItOI$ (p~) 1.700,000 1,..400,000
(1/e of sh~1hlns (lb/!nl :9.04 90 5
r3ftl!l' si:lc &

l~ngth I = b<f'/ H ratw L rnfter El/l7 EI/LJ r.lt~ n Cos. r;.ft.Y EVLJ EI/L1 rotlo n Ca.9
4
ln In lb/ rt ndlm ndlm lb/ ln ndlm ndlm
2 • tix:U '·O" 20.80 Bl. 15.37 0.59 3 J,<\3 12.66 2A1 i\ l..84
2 X 10 X '18'- 0' 98.93 216 16.69 0.54 3 J .<11 ~3.74 2.22 .q i 81

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on Exlstfng Roots Supporting Solar PV Arrays
Because rhe Cr 1s 11 are so similar for building~ A aud B. in the analysis below t.hey are aver.1gcd. so tbat
for Regions 1 and 3, Cct-sF = J .42, and for Region 2 CcLSF = 1.82. The concentrated loud sharing factor is
only applied Lo thut portion of the louds imposed by the mount/stand-off. The cust:s below ure shown for
Building A. Building B loads are identical for dead and dead plus snow load combinmions. and slightly
maller for loud combinations that include wiJ1d . l11e tabulated smeared unifonn load, w, can be reduced by
Ca.sF for the PV-1 and PV-2 loud cuscs as follows:
1able 15-3. Smeared unifonn load
Load Combo,
Region(~>)
JJ .L, s w IJM' IVrv C,nlcul3ciou w, piC
"'o-.tri'-' 15 3.5 (2 I) )( I 5 po~() + (6 fl)(3.5 p~l)/1.42 44.~
Wonv. l 15 3.5 ( 1.33 ft)( 15 po~() + (5.33 ft)(3.5 p>f)/ 1.82 30.3
~~D ! I..Ihl 15 5 3.5 (2 ft)( 15 1"-'t) i" (6 it)(3.5 pl'f i" 5 psf)/1.42 65.9
"'<>
'0 "'o l.S J 15 20 3.5 ( 1.33 It)( 15 psf) i" (5.33 (t)(3.5 p~f i" 20 p5J)/1.82 88.9
...
Q
-
>
c.
M·o ·•·· 11..-1
Wn ... a·. J
15
15
3.5
3.5
9.6
9.6
(2 It)( IS p~f)
( 1.33 ft)(I S p~
+ (6 ftl(3.S 1"-'i +
+ (S.33 fl /(3..5 p~f +
9.6 1~1')/1 .42
9.6 p;J)/1.82
8S.4
S!l.4
(2 f1)(15 p~t) i" (6 ft)(3.5 p.!J

wD._ 1H5•Ul lA 1 15 5 3.5 9.6 91.1
+ 0.75(5 p.sJ + 9.6 p.sf))/1.42
(1.33 fl)(l5 psi)+ (5.3~ fl)(3 .5 psf

"'"tJ• 7~15• II) ~ IS 20 35 9.6 95.3
+ 0.75(20 p!d' + 9.6 psf))/1.82
'M'lJ.alt.I&J l5 3.5 (2ft)( 15 psf) + (6 11)(3.5 p;;f)(4(Y'/62')11.42 39.5
wocn..y. ~ 15 3.5 u.33 ft)(J 5 psf) + (5.33 ft)(3.5 pl\[)(40./62")/1.82 26.6
(2 ft)(l5 p~ + (6 ft)(3.5 p..<f)(4(Y'/62')11.~2
WI>-lr. 14.' 15 20 3.5 53.7
i" (2 ft)(20 psf)(22"/62")
( 1.33 ft)( 15 p~ + (5.33 ft)(3.5 p!'J)(40"'/ 62°)/ 1.82

'''nt IJ, ! 15 20 3.5 36. 1
+ (133 ft)(20 p!()(22"/62")
~ (2ft)( l .'i plJ) i" (6 ft)(3.5 J"'f i" 5 !"'()(4(Y'/62")/l.d2
s
...<>
N
0 WOJ.$..1~1 IS 3.5
+ (2 fl)(5 pif)(22"/62') S5.7
;> ( 1.33 ft)( IS psi) + (5.33 H)(3.5 ps~ + 20 p~t)

c. 1Vf>-4.S.! 15 20 3.5
(40"/62.)/ 1.82 + ( 1.33 ft)(20 psf)(22."/62')
71.1
+ (6 11)(3.5 p;;f + 16.0 p~

(2 ft)( IS p~
"'I>-16'.) 15 65 3.5 16.0
(40'JGnii A2 + <2 ~"•><6-'i p!'f)(22"/62°>
87.8
(2 ft)( 15 psf) + (6 f1 )(3.5 p:."f + 0.75(5 p!d' + 16.0 psf))

' 1'fr .b!St Ul..l 15 5 6_'i 3.5 16.0 88.6
{II(Y'/ 62') / 1.42 i" (2 ft)(0.75)(5 p~f + 6_'i p&f)(l!•/ 62")
(2 1i)(l 5 p;.f) + (6 ft)(3.S t>cli + 0.75{16.0 p;;t))

WD-l ~(JT-IJ}. 1 15 10 6.5 3.5 16.0 86.<1
(40"/62")/ 1.42 + (2 ftX0.75)(9.6 psf + 20 psf)(22"/62')

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on E!.x/stlng Roofs Supporting Solar PV Arrays
3.3 COMPARING LOAD CASES
]Lis useful for the engineer to identify the controlling loud case for a pwticular army and building. For
instance, for the PV-2 array. it is not immediately evident which load combination control:~ (D + L,, D + S,
D + W, etc:.), becuu e the lumber cupucity lond duration fuctors differ. To compurc these lond combinntions
on an equal footing, loud case..-; cun be adjusted by loud-duration factors to normalize the loads to a given
dw-aliou. To normalize to pemianent dead load (CD "" 0.90). tbe l oad cases for Region 2 can be adjus ted as
follows:
Region 2 Building A without PV. normalized to dead load:
)\//) = 20.0 plJ (0.90/0.90) = 20.0 plf

IVD+Lt = 46.7 p)f (0.90/1.25) = 33.6 plf
w 0 ,. 5 = 46.7 plf (0.90/1. IS) = 36.5 plf (control]jn.g load case w/o PV)
IVv-w = 32.8 plf (0.90/1.60) = 18.5 plf
IVD .. 075{11' t· S') = 49.6 pJf(0.90/1.60) = 27.9 plf
IVD + 0.75{11'+&) = 49.6 plf (0.90/1.60) = 27.9 p)f
Region 2 Building A with PV-2 solar panels, adjusted for concennated load sharing factor and
normalized to dcnd load:
IV/) = 26.6 p)f (0.90/0.90) = 26.6 plf

WD +I.r = 36.1 plf (0.90/1.25) = 26.0 plf
w1)_,_S • 71.1 plf (0.90/1. 15) • 55.6 plf (coutrolli11g Joad case with PV-2 array)
WD -dV = 49.9 ptf (0.90/1.60) = 28.1 plf
IVD +0.'/5(\Y+SJ ==: 79.5 plf (0.90/ 1.60)""' 44.7 plf
I\I/H0.75(11"+ £.,j = 51. 1 plf (0.90/ 1.60) = 28.8 plf
The orig-inal dead plus s now load. adjusted for load duration. equals 36.5 plf. while the new PV-2 array's
worst load combination, dead plus snow, adjusted for load duration, is 55.6 plf, witll an increase facror of
55.6136.5 = 1.52. If the load combin:ations were not adjusted for load duration factor, then the greatest
l oad comhinations are dead p lus snow plus wind. with an increase factor of79.5/49.6 = 1.60. While not
adjusti.tl.g for load duration t i.e .. the 1.60 ratio) is teclUlicaUy incorrect. under both scenarios. the ratio
i ncrease is substantially greater than 1.05 (i.e., 5 pt:rccnt), so per the 20 18 lEBC Sections 706.2 and 806.2,
the roof joists need lobe evaluated and possibly strengthened.
Table 15-4 summarizes the adjustment for load dmaLion and identification of the con !rolling load for the
t hree PV configurations tPV- l, -2, and -3) imposed on both buildings A and B. located in any of three
regions tRegions 1. 2. and 3). The controlling load cases are identified by boJd texl. O ne immediately sees
that a U tbe PV configurations increase the controll ing load in Region 2 , which is subject to a 20 psf ground
snow load. The increase is most pronounced for the rail supported cases PV-1 and PV-2, where the rails
span 5 feet, 4 nnches to a mount located at every fourth joisl. In other regions. controlling loads remain very
similar to the original building without solar panels.
F or Buildi ngs A and B in both Regions I and 3. the PV-1 controlling D + S duration-adjusted load of
51.6 psfis only slightly greater than the original building's controlling D + L, duration-adjusted load of
50.4 psf, indicating a load increase ratio of only 51.6/50.4 = 1.02, so evaluation of the roof j oists would not
be required, since the increase is less than 5 percent.

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on Existing Roofs Supportlll'g Solar PV Armys
For the PV-2 case. tbe controlling load case shifts from dead plus snow in Region 1. to we load
combination D + 0.75(5 + \V) in Region 3, where tilted panels receive signjflcant downward wind loads .
These controlling loods arc Jess than the original building londs without PV. so further investigation is not
required in Regions 1 and 3. but it is required in Region 2 due to the heavier snow loads concentrating on
, orne roof joi ts but not others (see Tables 15- 3 <md 15-4).
Reviewing Table 15- 2 for the ballasted PV-3 case in Regions 1 and 3. lhe dead loud case controls. and
essemialJy matches the original dead p.lus roof live load case when both cases are ll(Uusted for load duration
factor. In Region 2, the dc11d + snow loud combination case is greater than the originul building without PV,
so further investigation is required (see Table.~ 15-5 and 15-6).
Table 15-4. Equivalent uniform joist loads. both corrected and uncorrected
for load duration,Jor Commerdal Buildings A and B
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D•l, ~J.7 0..~~ 077 M .l OSI/UJ. l\7l :.J,'l O,!)/l25 38.7 o.n
1>'-S Sf.7 <\..Q/US ll 71.1 t!.'J/U5 LSl ss ,1 D..1tus .!3.6 0.36
ocw 72:.1 o.9/l w lRS on S~ft D.!J]l6C l\77 ~7 8 0..9/L&:l 16.D O..'ll
o •o.7;tW•s.J Til 0.9/1.~ 4 19 Otn &II> 0.9/l.r,{) 171 Hlr, 0!.1/1 00 H I
o • o ntiV•t.l J.l.,o 0.?/1,(0 d{l.fJ 0111 $.U 0.0/1-ti<J 0.10 tli 4 onjl fA .tllO 0-!)~
PV·:Z w/ ttsF, 811!!1 8
D ;~~>..S M/11!!0 078 2613 09f0.90 ~.s 0.13 'J.9.5 09/0~J 0.111
OIL, ~' 0.9/1-15 077 M.l 0.'1/l.l_S. }4..0 l\71 H .7 QJ.l/1.7~ p7
O•S 5S..7 0.0/ I. IS lL..b 7U O.~}U5 ~.8 l..Y $ 5_7 09/US 0.96
0.1\1 6!>.S M/l.'W 017 47.9 0.9/1.'>0 27.0 (\7~ 1!>3 09/l&l o;:s
0 • O.J.SIW•S) 14.1 0.9/IJIO (\l(J 74/J o.•lt&M 41.9 1.70 7!1.7 0.!1/Wl I •
D •O.J'ii\V..U 71~ 0.?/l.Jro OJlO lb:J O:JflJJO ~1.? o:n 77.5 09/l.IIO OJll/
P.V·3 &d A
0 S'.\0 D.\'}1).!!0 5llJl 313 0.9/0.90 3D l\!11 .£M U9/!l.9l II.~
Oil, 6-l- 2 t\9/U!> A(-J. Dill 4U1 O.Q/U.5 .t0..8 O.i\4 fA.1 M/Ln o.n
D•S 6<1-Cl t\9/US 47.0 Q_gj 60/J 0.9{1...15 47.0 ug ~OD OD/I...IS 0.93.
D+W 1/7-S 0.9/!Ml J(.S 071 as osn11q 1$.~ (170 1S.S 0 ~JI. GQ ~Jj).
D • O>~tW•~) ~4 0.9/bO JE 9 a.11 1>1.1 O!lf! f>O 1>.1 0.~ 1Gf. 0 9/1.fA '0.!1
ll• 07~11/•W 7U D.9/L'W 10.7 QB.J SJ3 0.9/l.ESJ 27.8 (\Jtj 79.11 0 9/1 00 MG
Q 51>.0 (1.?,~?0 J J.l o.~.~~ l l.l lClD O!l/ll$1 il"'1
&:..2 (\9/.L lS O.!IZ 4l1l 0~/US »& So! '? 09/J..?; on
JiO.a <1.9/J.u; D 'I.J QJJJ 0.<>/US 4'7.0 (.Q O 0.11/l..n !1.9~
()oW 6.5-2 0.9/LW 0.-73 +13 0.9/1.60 1·1.? @.~ OIJ/l.fiJ om
0 • OJ ; IIY•S) 6!\9 (\!YV-ll fU1 Hh 0-'Jfl.f'..() 3-113 7lJ 09/l&l OEO
D•OT:IW•I.J 11.1 M/UO OIIQ .;37 0.9/UlO 77~ ' IS 2 P 9/LW 0~

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Grevlty Loads on C:.xlstlng Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
3.4 DEMAND-CAPACITY RATIOS (DCRS)
Tables 15-5 and 15-6 show stre.~st:s <tnd demandlcupucity ratios for Buildings A and B rcsptctivtly. As an
example or rhe calculations behi nd a typical cell in these tables. we show the detailed cak ul ution for the
DCR for tbc D + S load combi.ontion for Building A, Region 2, for the PV-2 array.
The PV-2 t~onfiguratiou has low Lilt panels iu landscape mode (i.e. the short parte! direcLiou 40-inch width)
with 22-iocb open rows in between. The panels are supported by rails that nm perpendicular to the roof
joists and span to mounts at 5 feet, 4 inches on center, bearing on every fourth joist (the joists urc spaced
at 16 inches o n center). Per the concentrated load discussion <lbove. the concentrated load shari ng factor
is 1.82. which reduces the mount loads on the joist because the load is shared with adjacent joist$. The
cquiva'lcnt uniform load on every fourth joist thnt supports the mounts is therefore
w0 . s. Rc~;,.. 2 = (1.33 ft)( l 5 psf) + (5.33 f t)(3.5 psf PV + 20 psf S)(40"/62'')/ 1.82
+ (1.33 ft)(20 psfS)(22"/62") = 73.9 plf
Penhe NDS Supplement Table 4A for Spruce-Pine-Fir No. I. the normal load duration allowable bending
u·ess, F.,, is 875 psi. For repetitive 2 by 6 joists under snow load, the adjusted allowuble bending stress
capacity is
To calculate actual ASD bending st.ress. we note that the moment is
M = wL2/8 = [(73.9plf')/12][ 111\ X 12]2 /8 = 13,413 in-lbs
And we note that the section modulus for a 2 by 6 is
The ASD bending stress demand is therefore
fb MI S - 13.413n.56 • 1.774 psi
The demand/capacity ratio. DCR, is therefore
Ji,IF/, = 1.774 psi/1.504 psi = 1.18
Because the DCR is significantly greater than one. the mounts should be spaced more closely. at 4'-0" on
center. This would reduce the uniform load to
= (1.33 ft)~ 15 psf DL) + (4.00 ft)(3 .5 psf P V + 20 psf S)(40"/62")/ 1.82 + (1.33 ft)(20 psf S)
H ' 0 1. 5 . Rq:ku 2
t 22"/62") = 62.8 plf = >fi, = 1.506 psi (which approximately equals F;, = 1.504 psi).
Allemalivcly, to avoid overloading some joists while skipping over others, the mounts at 5-foot, 4-inch
spacing can be shifted from an orthogona l parrem to a staggered panern. as illustrated i n Figure 15-9.
Design Example 15 • Conskleratlon of Gmvlty Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting SoiHr PV Atmys
Table 15-5. Commercial Building A show in~ lo£rd cases and resu/Jing
stresses,jb, and Demand Capaciry Rarios, DCRs
Vlc>t co~n Lower Mldwen lnlond South
Ri<,!;ion CoJ!.tJI CA &. OR 1\10, II... IN, OH lX, L/1, MS. Al &. GA
ASCE 7-16 Sno'N U»d 0·5 pH 20pJI 0·5 plf
A.<cc 7-16 D~\u1 Wmd ~ 95 mph l07 mph US mph
Yl!~r B\ill 1996 LO% 1996
Y""' Deslsncd/Appro\'Cd 1995 1995 1995
Oe!i Un Code 1991 UBC 1991 BOCA 1991 sse
BLDG B; Commero\:11 BulldlnR, Roof S\opr. 1/2' PI'J foot, 11'•!1' roof jo\:;t !p;ln b<:tWI!:CMtlrde.r~
Jolu Slm :>nd SJ!~Ing 2 ~ 6 (ijl 24. 0 .( . 2 X6 l)jll6'' O.C. 1x6@24' o.c.
l umb=!r Spcd e!' Group & Grndc Dous ~lr·larch llo. 1 Spru~Plnc·Fir No. 1 Southern Pine flo. 1
ExlrtinJ: Roof Vllth No Solar PV c, VI psi OCR w pli OCR \V p!J OCR
Pt~-W~ r;, D•L. FP.perttlve mern~ 1.00 1750 1100 1350
IBC 2018 Fb', D-l, rope!lt1vo mombcr' 1.00 1495 1308 15!>3
IEx~nc fr' D+l, l.ZS 70.0 1680 0.90 46.7 1120 0.68 70.0 1680 0.87
Ex~tlnu 1,. !><-S 1.15 40.0 960 0.56 46.7 1120 0.74 40.0 960 0.54
EXIsting t,. O• W 1.60 49.2 U81 0.49 32.8 m 0.38 49.2 U81 0.48
~x<ltlng 1 ,
1
t:n0.7SIVhS) 1.60 49.4 U!!6 o.so 49.G ll90 0.57 4.9.4 l.l8G 0.48
l!.xl<tln~ f . D<O.!!>I\1/~L) U iO 7U 1786 0.75 49.6 1190 O.S'/ 74.4 1786 0.72
Fl&t P«neh (PV l.ohd Cs~ t) '-'
NeNFtl 0 0.90 44.B 1075 0.80 30.3 nG 0.62 4U 1075 0.77
NeN Fv D•l. 1.25 44.B 1075 0.58 30.3 726 OA4 44.8 1075 0.55
N~N F._. DtS 1.15 65.9 1582 0.92 88.9 213.3 1.42 65.9 L<.gl 0.89
New fv D+W 1.60 BSA 2().18 0.86 58.4 1401 0.67 8$.4 2<»8 0.82
Ne'N F" D->0.75(\V•S) 1.60 91.1 2l85 0.91 95.3 2287 1.09 91.1 21.85 0.88
NeN F., D+0.7S(W• lJ 1.60 75.2 3805 0.75 51 A 1ll3 0.59 75.2 1.805 0.73
low Tltttd PJ~neh, Spaotd Row~ (PV load Ce~ 2) "'
Ne'N Ftl D 0.90 3 9.5 949 0.71 26.6 6'39 0.54 99.5 'M9 0.68
Nt-N F., D• l, 1.25 53.7 1290 0.69 36.1 866 0.53 53.7 1290 0.66
N~N F,.. DtS 1.15 55.7 1336 0.7R n .9 1774 1.18 55.7 H.~ 0.7S
Nc-N Ftl D·t W 1.60 72.4 1739 0.73 SSA 132.9 0.63 87.8 2106 0.85
,Ne'N F" 0+0.75(\V•$) l.GO 77.1 18Sl 0.77 83.6 2007 0.96 88.6 2126 0.86
1\'eNF D•0.7S(W•lJ 74.9 1.60
1797 0.75 55.3 L~6 0.63 86.4 2073 0.83
low Tllttd P.tneh, Spactd Row~ ~.sttd Sy~em (PV Loijd C8~ 3) u.•
Ne'N F.., D 0.90 50.0 1100 0.89 33.3 800 0.68 50.0 1100 0.86
Ne'N F" D• L, 1.25 64.2 1541 0.82 30.8 740 0,45 64.2 1541 0.79
1\'t'H Fv D•S 1.15 60.0 1440 0.84 4 7.0 1127 0.75 60.0 1440 0.81
N~NftJ Dt-W 1.60 67.5 1620 0.68 25.5 612 0.29 75.5 lEl3 0.73
Ne'N Fv D+0.75(W+S) l.GO 70.6 1695 0.71 35.1 1!41 0.40 76.6 1840 0.74
Ne'N F11 D•0.75(W•L,I 1.60 73.8 1770 0.74 27.8 667 0.32 79.8 1915 0.77
'For DF-L& SP1: fb' =F. (C_=L15)1C,=l.10I(C0 =1.00); for SP: Fb' =Fb!Cr=l.l.S)ICD=LOO)
' Roof DE-4<1 Lo~d -15 p;-1; PV ~d Lo~d - 3..5 p;f: Roof Uve Load- 20 p1l; Sno'N Wd - 5 p!J for R~tiOnl 1 & 3, ~ 20 prl tor ReeJon 2
'PV ~f-we't!ht. sno'N and wind load$ from panel~ onto mounts are reduced by the Con<ent lilted l..ood Shari'~! F~~etor, Ca.v
• B~ll~ d~~d IQ.;~d I~ 10 pd•.:1/orogcd o>Jor combl<led p~n~~ :>nd b:t'I.:Is:tlr.ly rows. bntwoon p;~ncls
Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on E><lstlng Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
Tctble 15-6. Commercial Building B showing load casi!S und resulling

srr·esses, jb, and Demand CapaciTy Rarios, DCRs
Wen conn LOIVIJI lllld1V8~ lnl~nd South
~on Co~ tl.~ CA !1. Oil 11\0, IL, IN, OH lX, l/1, M~ Ill & Gfl
ASCE 7-16 Snow lcud 0 ·5 pjf 20 pJI 0-5 plf
;\.<.Cf 7 ·1GDM \:1'1 Wond ~peed 95 mph 107 mph 115 mph
V~¥Bvlll 1996 1996 1996
Yc.M Dcdgncd/Apprm~ 1995 1995 1995
Oe!IUn Code 1991 uac 1991 BOCA 1991 SBC
BLDG 8 : Commcr®l Building, Roof stovc.l/7. ' per loot 18'·0 ' roof jo ist Jp;Jn betwe-en ~rdcrs
Join Slzn :.nd Spl::lng 2 )( 10 <ill 24' o.c. 2 ~ 10@ 16' o . c. 2 X 10 @ 24• O.C.
l umber Specie~ Group & G111dc OougFir·~ rch No.l Spru~·Pine ·Pir No.1 Souther n Pin e llo. l
ExlrttnJ: Roof with No Solor PV c, V/ PII OCR 1'/ psi OCR IV p:J OCR
Pr;;-199'l F,', O+L, repettnve n101r1' * ' 1.00 1750 lWO 1350
IBC 20 lB Fb', Drl., rupc:it1vc member' 1.00 12&5 ll07 1108
Exlstlnc f.- D+l, l.Z!> 70 .0 1590 1.01 46.7 l06o u.n 7U.U 1589 LOS
b:lstln~ r•. I).I.S 1.15 40.0 909 0 .62 46.7 1060 0.83 40.0 960 0.69
Ex<stlng 1,. D• W 1.60 4 9 .2 IllS 0 .55 32.8 745 0.4 2 49.2 1-181 0.61
Ex<!:nng 1, 0-tO.J:.j\1/tS) 1.60 49.~ 1122 o.ss 49.6 1127 0.64 49.4 ll.SG 0.61
Ex<StinR f • 0-tO.~IV/+L ) !.GO 711.4 1690 0.84 49.6 U27 0.64 74.4 1786 0.92
Fl&t PM>ell (PV Lo&d Cb~ 1) u
New F.., D 0.90 44.8 1018 0 .89 30.3 687 0.69 44.8 1018 0 .94
Nt-H F"' D•l, L25 44.8 1018 O.M 30.3 687 0 .50 44.8 1018 0.67
~H ftJ 0 +5 LlS 65.9 1498 1.03 88.9 201.9 1.59 65.9 1493 I.OS
New FtJ Dt\V 1.60 85.G 1939 0.9G 58.4 1327 0.75 8S.4 1939 1.00
New F., D+0.7S(W+S) 1.60 91.1 2069 1 .02 95.3 2165 1.22 91.1 2069 1.07
New F.., D•0.75(W•l) 1.60 75.2 1709 0.&4 51,4 U67 0 .66 75.2 1709 0.88
Lowlllt~d PMr~ell, Spa~ Row~ (PV Lood Col-e 2) u
Ne-H Ftl 0 0 .90 39.5 898 0. 79 26.6 60S 0.61 39.5 898 0.8:1
NeoN F., D•L, 1.25 5 3.7 1221 0.77 36.1 820 0 .59 53.7 122 1 0.81
1\'«'N F'-' DtS 1.l5 55.7 1 764 OJ!7 73.9 1676 1.32 'i5.7 1JG4 0.91
New F.., 0-t\V 1.60 68.5 1557 0.77 47.9 1059 0.61 75.9 1724 0.89
New F., D+0.7 5[W+S) l.GO 74.2 lC.SS o,ss 78.0 1m 1.00 79.7 l.8ll 0.94
NeoN F•• D•0.75(W•lJ 1.60 71.9 163-5 0.61 49.7 U29 0 .64 77.5 17 50 0 .91
Low lllttd PMr~ell, Sp&~ Row~ B.s114~ted Sy~tem (PV Load ca~ S) ,_,_..
1\'e-N Ft1 0 0.90 50.0 lHG 1.00 33.3 757 0.76 50.0 1136 l .OS
New F., D•L, 1.25 64.2 1458 0.92 30.8 700 0 .51 64.2 1458 0 .97
~H F,_. DtS l.LS 60.0 136 3 0 .94 47.0 1067 0.&4 60.0 1363 0.93
III<I"H F,.. 0+\V 1.60 65.2 1482 0.73 44.3 1007 057 69.4 1577 0.82
Ne'H F., 0+0.75(W+S) 1.60 68.9 1566 0.77 61.6 1399 0.79 72.1 1637 o.a.s
New Ft1 D+0.75(W+l,J 1.60 72.1 1637 0 .81 48.7 U 06 0 .62 75.2 1709 0.88
'For OF-L &SM: F; =F. IC,=l..lS)IC,=l.lO)(C0 =1.00); for $1>: Fb' =FbiCr.:l.lS)ICO=L OO)
' Roof ~<ld Lo;,rl ·15 P>f; PV ~<ld Loi¥.1 - 3.5 P>f: Rool Uve lo~d- 20 prr: Snow t.ood - 5 p!J lor RGgi011> 1 & 3, - 20 prl for R>Jglon 2
• PV \elf.....e uht. ' now end wind loa~i from panels onto mounu me reduoe-d by the Concentrdted Load Shbrin! F.!>Ctor, Co.v
• 8~1~ do<:ld lo~d I~ 10 psf, .:mu~god ova r com~ p;.nr.l~ .:m d b.:>ll~rt tr.)y row:; botwoon p;~noll'

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on Exlstlng Roots Supporting Solar PV Arrnys
4. Evaluation Triggers
4.1 GRAVITY TRIGGER-ROOF JOISTS
As mentioned at the outset of this example. the requirement to evaluate a member is triggered when tiH~
design loud incrcnses by more than 5 percent In Regions I and 3, where s now lands are small (px = 5 pllf),
the controlling original design load is dead plus roof live load, so thmlow protile solar arrays. less thari
24 inches off the roof, can in ~orne cases actually reduce the design load on particular members. In
comparing loud combinati ons, both the original and new design loud combinations s hould be normalized to
the same load duration factor. In this example. all load combinations are normalized to long term dead load
{C0 = 0 .9).
Table 15--4 summarizes the percent increase or decrease of loads on the roof joists for the different regions
and PV arrays considered. lll arrays PV- 1 and PV-2. the roof joists that are cons idered are the ones that
are loaded by mounts/stand-offs. To compare load changes, new/original load rntios arc used, which arc
adjusted for load dun1tion and consider the concentrated loud sharing factor. Table 15-4 shows that in
Regions 1 and 3 for all PV cases. the percent inne ase is less than 5 percent. so evaluation is not required.
The roof joists onJy need lo be evaluated where PV-1 or PV-2 arrays arc inswUed in snow country (Region
2), where an orthogonal mount luyout concentrates snow londs onto every fourth joist (as opposed to a
"staggered" moumlayout which distributes the snow loads quasi-uniformJy across the roof joists). As
shown in Table 15-4, the orthogonal mount layom results in stress increase factors significantly greater than
1.05.
4.2 GRAVITY TRIGGERS-GIRDERS AND COLUMNS
Assuming that the girders and columns have a tributary area !urger than 600 square feet, the 20-psf live
load cousidet-ed for joists is reduced to 12 psf for girders and columns. thereby reduci.ng the live load offset
reserve strength cap-acity of the girders and columns. Assuming the girders and columns ure wood, and
normalizing to dead load duration. the original and new design loads on a s meared psf basis are as follows.
For PY- 1 we have assumed that the an<ty covers 90 percent of the tributary area. with I 0 percent allocated
¢o access aisles.
Regions 1 and 3:
Original Structure Design Criteria: Po+I. = (IS psf D + 12 p sf L)(0.90/ !.25) = I 9.4 psf
PV- 1: PD • s = [0.90( 15 psf D + 3.5 psfPV + 5 psf S)
+ 0.10(15 psf D + 5 psfS)](0.90/ 1.15) = 18.1 psf
P Y-2: Pv -'- s = ( 15 p-sf D + 3.5 psfPV(4CY'/62v) + 5 psf 5)(0.90/ 1.15) = 17.4 psf
PV-3: pD·•s = (1 5 psf D + 10psf PV + 5 psfS)(0 .90/1.15) == 23.5 psf (+2 1%)
Region 2:
Original Structure Des:ig11 Criteria: Po+L = (15 p f D + 20 p sf S)(0.90/1.15) = 27.4 psf

PV-1: Pv-s = [0.90( 15 psf D + 3.5 psfPV + 20 psf S)
+ 0.10( 15 psf D + 20psfS)](0.90/ 1.15) • 29.9 psf (+ 9%)
PV-2: Pv-.s = (15 psf D + 3.5 psf PY(4CY'/62v) + 20 psf S)(0.90/ l.J 5) = 29.2 psf ( +6%)
PV-3: PD"'-S = (15 psf D + 10 psfPV + 20 psfS)(0.90/1.1 5) = 35.2 psf( +29%)
Design Example 15 • Consideration of Grevlty Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting $olor PV Arrays
For wood girders and colttrrtn~. strucrural evaluation per currem code allowable stresses will be required
for the ballasted system (PY-3) as welJ as all arrays in snow country (Region 2). Because tjmber column
allownblc stresses were reduced significantly when NDS 1991 was codincd (NDS 1997 commentnry), the
engineer may find that the timber columns need to be strengthened because design loads huve increased
while llilowable capacity has decreased.
]f the girders and colllllUlS are steel, the wood load dw·ation correction would not be applied, but Lhe results
are similar, trigge1ing an evaluation for the baiJUBted systems and all arrays in snow counuy.
4.3 FOUNDATIONS
Foundations arc typically designed to control setllomcnts, with nllownblo soU bearing louds calibrated to
allow !A-inch to Yz-incb .settlement. Ultimate loads are typically three to four times allowublc soil bearing
pressures. so modes£ increases ~n bearing loads will normally 01tly create small incrememal increases in
settlement.. ln the past, some jurisdictions, such as San Francisco, California, have allowed up to 25 percent
increases in foundation det~d loads without triggering a structural evaluation. In the examples given. the
ballasted system jn heavy snow counlr)'. with a 29 percent increase in column and foundation loads. would
warrant f urrher evaluation of the foot.ings by the stn1ctmal engineer, including review of concrete punching
s hear and flexural reinforcing us well as soil bearing pressure.
4.4 SEISMIC TRIGGERS
Per IEBC Se.l'lion 806.3. increasing lateral loads by more than I 0 percent triggers a seismic evaluation.
]f the evaluatiou indicates uoncompliance with seismic criteria for existing buildings. then lateral
strengthening will be required. For the calculations below, we assume the foiJowing: a ti lt up building
v,.ith 6-inch concrete walls 16 feet tall. 120 feet longest plan dimension (smeared wall m<L~s = 2 X 75 psf
X 8 ftJ 120 fr • I 0 psf. and total smeared mass • I 0 psf + 15 psf • 25 psf). We also assume thm the P Y
array areas (including, for the PV-2 a nd PV-3 arrays, the narrow 22-incb rows between modules) cover
80 percent of the total roof area. The increase in seismic lauds is approximately
PY-J : l0.80(1 5 psf + 3.5 psf) + 0.20( 15 psf) + 10 psf = 27.8 psf)/25 psf = I. II (+ I I%)
PV-2: [0.80(15 psf + 3.5 psf (40"/62"')) + 0.20(15 psf) + 10 psf = 26.8 psf]/25 psf = 1.07( + 7%)
PV-3: [0.80(15 psf + 10 psf) + 0.20(15 psf) + 10 psf = 33 psf]/25 psf = 1.32 (+32%)
If the building were longer and/or the exterior walls were light-framed walls instead of concrete tilt-up
walls. then the increase in seismic mass and later'cl.l forces would be even greater. Therefore. large scale
arrays covering most of a commercial roof can often trigger a seismic evaluation, and potenliaiJy a seismic
retrofit.
5. Summary of Roof Joist Gravity Evaluation
While evaluation of roof joists is only required for the PV-l and PV-2 arrays in snow country (Region 2).
all combinations of array type and region are evaluated in this example. Tables 15-5 (Building A) and 15-6
03uilding B) summarize allowable F~ and demandfi, bending su-esses and associated Demand Capacity
Ratios (DCRs) for the roof joists under typical dead plus roof live load, according to both the pre 1994 code
and the current ASCE 7!IBC, for the three regions and fmming lumber studied (West Coast = DF-L. Lower
Midwest = SPF. and Inland South = SP). The bending stresses and DCRs for load cases PY- 1. PY-2. and
P V-3 are then summarized. Tables 15-5 and 15-6 summarize the DCRs for ready comparison between
cases, for Buildings A and B respectively. The results in these tables focus on bending stre..~ses.

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Gravity Loads on Exlstlng Roots Supporting Solar PV Arrnys
U1bles 15-4 through 15-6 orily examine bending stre~ses ou roof joists. and do nor address shear.
connection cupacity, deflections, or ponding. These additional topics are discussed briefly below.
5.1 SHEAR
Shear is not addrcs$cd because the spun/depth rutio for the joists urc 24 (Building A) und 23.4 (Building B),
a range where bending sLres.s and deflection are Lbe controUing design criteria. quite unlike s pan/depth
ratios less than about 12 where shear stres~es may control (Breyer et al., 201 5, p. 294).
5.2 CONNECTIONS
Joist connections urc not assumed or checked in rhis example. Connections arc likely to be line unless
shullow hangers are used for deeper joists, such as when a U26 hunger is used for a 2 by 10 joist in which
case the hangers ~hould be checked by referring w older engineering catalogs.
5.3 DEFLECTIONS
Defl ection results are not shown in this example, but should be checked, especially for wood members with
spun/depth ratios lhut exceed 20. 2018 TBC Table 1604.3 service deflections arc bused on L, + 0.5D, whic h
check~ deflections from instantaneous live load plus long term dead load creep Lbat occurs after and in
addition 10 initial dead load deflection. This code provision is pragmaric, reflecting conventional installation
practices , si_nce most g1ulums arc cambered, and solid sawn members arc installed "crown up," usually
u\Ilctlling out initial dead load deflection. The deflection limits for roofs are also less stringent than floors.
ranging from Ul20 for roofs with no ceilings to L/240 for roof~ with brittle ceilings.
The engineer should recognize that total deflection is actually L, + I .SD for initially dry wood members,
and Lr + 2.0D for initially unseasoned members (NDS, Section 3.5). The added weight of a PV array
wiU add an incremental1.5D deflection ( nor O.SD). Assuming the solid sawn roof members were in.i(ially
unseasoned, the code deflection limits should be checked against L,_ + I .OD~z~wnl + O. SDI'Y~ and actual total
deflection will beL, + 2.0D,uuud + J.5DI>'v' Since PV arrays lower than 24 inches above the roof offset live
loads while simultaneously adding dead loads that are typically much smaller than live loads, the net effect
of some PV arrays can be a net decrease in "code deflection ~," even though dead loud deflections incrcusc.
5.4 PONDING
Especially for near-flat roofs. with slopes equal to or less than 1A-inch per foot. and with wood members
with span/depth ratios exceedi11g 20. resistance to ponding should be checked. A good discussion is fou nd
in a two-part article in Srruct.ure magazine by Coffman (August and September 20 17). During a site visit
~o inform ponding calculations. the engineer may want to measure 't he difl'erence between primary and
secondary outlets at the roof drains. as well as visually reviewing the roof for ponding stains and checking
lbe sag in major girders by osing a band-held laser level.
5.5 DISCUSSION OFTABLES 15-5 AND 15-6
5.5.1 Joist Depth
ln general, DCRs in Table 15-6 are higher for Building B , wjth the deeper 2 by 10 joists, than the DCRs
in Table 15-5 for Building A, because under current code the form factor CF is significunt.ly lower for 2 by
I Os compared to 2 by 6s ( 1.1 vs 1.3). so allowable stresses arc 1.3/1 .1 = 18 percent higher for Building A.
while DCRs are lower by the same proportion.
Design Example 15 • Consideration of Grsvlly Loads on Existing Roofs Supporting So/or PV Arrays
PV PANEL
I
SUPPORT RAIL
MOUNT/STAND-OFF
{STAGGERED LAYOUT)
GIRDER
II ; I( II II II II
/ I
:v
II n II n II
II II II II II II
II II I II II Ll
II II II II II II
II II II II II II
II II II II II II
o-
. c II II II II II II
-<Do~
"-..C ' ' II
o en II II II II II II
~ :::
, o JL 11 u II IL u
-LO(o'
......_-
II II II II II II
II II II II II II
I I
II II II II II II
b- II II II II II II
' c
' ~
<Do II II II II II II
"-..C
0 C/) II II II' rl II 1r
~ :::
,o II II lJ II II u
-
LO(o
I
II II II II II II
......_-
II II II II II II
II II II II II II
11 '-0"
ROOF PARTIAL PLAN
STAGGERED MOUNT LAYOUT
Figure 15-9. A sraggered mounJ layour ereales a quasi-uniform load 0 11 rfJe roofjoists (Building A is
shown, Building B similar). Compare this To Figure 15-5, wlliclz shows rhe orrhogonal mounJiayow used
in this example problem that creatf!..l· concen/rated loads on some joists while skipping over oJI!ers.

Design Example 15 • Consl<leratlon of Gravity Loads on Exlstlng Roofs Supporting Solar PV Armys
5.5.2 Concentrated Loads
In the PV-1 lond cu.~;c., rai l-supported arruys with mounts every six feet crentc concentrated londs thut
result in DCRs greater than 1.00 if load sharing with adjacent nl.fter.> is not considered. When the load-
llwing factor i considered, DCRs drop considerably. However. the moderate snow loads found in Region
2 overwhelm j oist cupncity even when the concentrated loud sharing fuctor is considered. Where snow
loads ext:eed 5 10 10 psf, mount layout needs to shift to a stagger pnttem to create a quasi-uniform loading
pattem. as shown in Figure 15- 9.
5.5.3 DCRs Greater than One
Where Tables 15-5 and 15-6 s how DC Rs greater than one, the designer cnn usual ly achieve lower DCRs
lby increasing the number of moun\5 to reduce the tributary loading to existing overstressed members and
rechecking w see if rhe resulting DCRs are Jess rhan one. Alternatively, an opposire strategy can be mken,
where new members are added or existing members are strengthened, which often allows an even greater
sp-acing between mount.~; . For bullusted syskms where DCRs excct:d one, somt: systems may allow the
modules and bal lasts tto be spaced farther ap<U1. Otherwise. strength ening the existing roof strucLUre or
changing to a direct-attachment mount system may be the only alternatives. DCRs more than 1.00 but
less than or equal to 1.05 nmy he considered acceptable by ~ome bui lding officials. For instance, the 20 I 5
IEBC commentary to Section 807.4 states: ''Allowing overstresses of up to 5 percent in existing structural
members has been a long-standing rule of thumb used by stn1ctural engi11eers."'
6. Conclusions
Several lhings can be learned from this example:
I . The mounts/stand-o ffs under rail-supported armys crente concentrated loads on individual
joists that are signi ficant.ly greater than lhe average dead load weight o f the array.
2. The Concentrated Load Sharing Factor, Ca.sF• partially mjtigutcs conccntnllcd loads from
mounL.;Jstand-offs under rail-supported systems.
3. Snow loml.s have <m cspeciaiJy severe impact on rail-supported systems, concentrating snow
loads from a large area of PV panels onto a single joist. This efl'cct can be almost entirely
mitigated by using a staggered mount layoUl instead of an orthogonal mouur layout.
4. Wind uplift loads are significantly higher than wind clown loads on tilted panels on Rat roofs,
due to the edge effect factor.
5. In the PV load cases studied in th is example. d!!ad load plus wind down never controls, and
the dead load plus wind down plus snow load combination only controls in one instance. For
regions where design wind speed exceeds 115 mph, wind wiJJ be more likely to control the
evaluntion and potential required strengthening of roof j ois ts.
6. Gravity load strucn ual evaluation is triggered if desig11 load increases m ore than 5 percenr.
The reference controlling load combination of the original structure w ithout an array is
typically dead plus roof live load. For wood members, both the reference design load and new
PV design load should be normalized by appropriate load duration facror ratios.
Wind Design Manual B.ssed on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7-16 315

Design Example 15 • Consideration of Grevlty Loads on E!.xlstlng Roofs Supporting Solar PV Arrays
7. Rail-suppotted arrays with orthogonal mount l ayours ofteu trigger evalualiou of joisrs.
especially in s now country. Ba11asted systems often trigger evalnarion of girden;, columns, and
even footings.
8. The allownble s tresses of tensile wood members (e.g., bottom chords of timber trusses)
were greatly reduced in the 1960s. Lumber al lowable bending stresses for some specie~
group~ (especially Douglas Fir-Larch). and for deeper members, decreased signi ficantly after
publication of the 1991 NDS . This affects stn1ctures built before the lare 1990s where added
PV loads arc great enough to trigger structural cvaluntion of roof members. The uJJowuble
w mpressive stress of timber columns also decreased somewhat in l.he 1991 and later editions
of the NDS.
9. Seismic evaluation of the entire structure is often triggered by ballasted systems, and
sometimes even by rail-suppotted arrays.
10. In reviewing existi ng s tr uctures intended to support new solar arrays, the structural engineer
shou.ld be on the lookout for
• Structural detcrlomtion and accumulated dumugc.
• Accumulated loads (e.g .. reroofing over existing roofs with no tear-off).

• M ccb:mical equipment above, and ceiling:;, ducts, nre mains, and miscellaneous utiliries
bdow. loading the same membcn; as the solar PV array.
• Defl ections and ponding effects.
7. References
ASCE 7-16. l'vlinimwn Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 2016. \All article, sec1ion and equation numbers called out in this example reference ASCE 7 - 16
unless otherwise noted.)
ASCE 41 - 13. Seismic E valuation and Reu·ofit of E xisting Buildings, American Society of Civil E ngineers,
2013.
ASTM D6555-03 (20 14). Standard Guide for Evaluating System Effects in Repetitive-Member Wood
Assembl ies. ASTM Intermnionul, 2014.
Breyer. D ., C obeen. K .. Fridley, K., Pollock. D. 2015. Design ofWood Structures, ASDILRFD. Seventh Ed.
McGraw H iJ] Educatjou.
California Solar Pem1itting Guidebook Spring 2015. Written by the OPR Solar Permitting Task Force
and published by California Govemor"s Office of Planning and Research (OPR): www.opr.ca .gov/docs/
Califomiu_Solur_pcm:titting__Guidcbook_Spring_2015.pdf
··caliJoruia Structural Technical Appendix for Residential Rooftop Solar Ins tallations.. January 2015.
Written by the OPR Solar Pcrn1itting Task Force and published by the Cali fornia Governor's Office of
P lanning and Research (OPR): www.opr.ca.gov/docs/Solar_Structural_ Technicul_Appendix.pdf
Campos Varela, LA., 2013. Reconsidering ComposiTe Action on S1rength of Wood Roof Sys1ems . Master of
Scieooe Thesis, Civil Engineering Deparlment, University of New Mexico.

Design E.xemple 15 • Consklerntlon of Gravity Loads on Exlstlng Roots Supporting Solar PV Arrays
Coffrua.n. Scort D .. 2017. "J /4 iu 12 Desigt\ Slope and Water Drairwge." Structure magaziue, August 2017.
Dwyer, S., et ul. December 201 1. '·Structural Considerations for Solar lnstnllers: An Approach for Smull,
Simplified Solar Installations 1n Madison. WI." Sandia NaL1onal Laboratories Report: SAND20 11-9066.
TBC, 20 18. /memarimwl Huild ing Code, Tntcmationul Code Council (lCC), Washington, DC, 2017.
IEBC. 2018. Tmernarivnal Exis1ing Bui.lding Code, International Code Council (lCC), Washington, DC,
2017.
Madsen. Borg 1992. "Structural Behaviotlr of Timber." Published by Timber Engineering Ltd .. North
Vancouver, British Columbi a, Cunnda.
NOS 1997 Commentwy: National Design Specification for Wood Construction. American Fores t and Paper
Association, Washington, DC, 1997.
NOS. 2018. National Design Specijimtion for Wood Construction, American Wood Coun<.;i I. Leesburg.
Virgini a, 2017.
SEAOC PV2-2017. ' 'Wind Design for Solar Arrays," wrillen by the SEAOC Solar PV Systems Commit1ee
and l}Ublisbed by Stluctural Engineers A~sodmi on of California (SEAOC).
SEAOC PV3-20 18 (March 28 draft). " Gravity Dc~;gn Loacb; for Rooftop Solar Photovol!aic Arrays,"
wrinen by the SEAOC Sola.r PV Systems Comtttinee in preparmion for subm.irtal to the SlructuraJ
Engineers Association of California (SEAOC).
Stenabaugh. S. et al .. 2015. "\\find loads on photovoltaic arrays mounted parallel to sloped roofs on low-
TiS€ building." Jo unw.l of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 139, pp. 16-26.
Stenabaugh. Sarah E lizabeth. 2015. Design Loads for Solar Modules Mounted Parallel to the Roof ofa
Low-Rise Building. PhD Thesis. University of Western Omario, CaJ1ada ( 166 pp).
UBC. 1991 . Unijom1 Building Code. Intematjonal Conference of Building Ofticials. Whiuier. California.
Design Example 16
Carport Solar PV Systems
OVERVIEW
Tbjs example shows tbc appJjcution of ASCE 7-16 and the 2018IBC to an open-grid carport structure
supporting a photovoltnic (PV) panel system. A majority of carport systems supporting PV panels full into
lh e open-grid category since they lack a u·aditional diaphragm. The main frame of the structu.res often
resembles the shape of the le tter T or an upside down Lin e levarion. n1ese frames most often consist
of sLrucLural steel or bui lt up cold-formed steel columns and cro~s beams spaced ut 18 feet to 35 feet on
center. Spanning between th e f rames are cold-formed C- or Z-shuped purlins that directly support the PV
panels. These purl.ins may be simply supported at each cross bew11, or d1ey may run continuous over the
b eam with cantilevers and splices adjusted for economy. Curporl strucn1rcs with multiple layers of purl in
framing ~urlins and sub-purlins. or rails) are outside the scope of this exam pi<:. The overall length of these
strucn1res varies depending on site constraints, economy. and Lhe desired system size. but will typically
b e at least 50 feet and cnn be upwards of 200 feet in length. T he carport roof tilts vary between 5 and I 0
degrees for most projects in the U.S. Larger til ts are more eHicicnt from an energy production standpoint,
but economy and aesthetics are d iminished for strucmres of this size with larger tilt ang les. Lower tilts are
also beneficial in snow regio ns to mitigate the hazard of snow sliding off the leadi ng edge.
The si.ngle-story open-grid carport system in Figures 16-l and 16-2 is a "T" sryle system with strucmral
, teel columns and cross beams. The panels are supported with cold-fom1ed C-shaped pur tins in a
portrait oricntntion (lhe long side of the pund is perpendicu"lar to tbc purlin). This design example makes
simplifying assumptions to fadlitate and abbreviate the calculation.s. Notes are made when necessary to
describe me assumptions.
OUTLINE
1. Buj lding Geometry and Loads
2 . Additional Considerations
Wind Design Manual B.ased on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 319

Design t=xemple 16 • Carport So.'-<Jr PV Systems
~
I
,. 10' ~
~
L J1 ' · G' ~ 10' G' .
L EO.
IYP.
EO. EO l
l
TYP. TYP.
-,
1
,..-- -
f- 1-
1/ v 19 G/1 CONT. FASCIA

TRI\CK. TYP. EAENO
~ v- (Mil X IVT' 2..5 PSF)

PV PAII.'E.lS
0
w
-lfo I 1- -
~ ~
><
'"r= I -
~
~
l
- 10DCO ..,
/ -i' I - 1-
0
....
~ ) t -{2) p URUNS P(JR RO'I/ O'
IWI ELS LOCATED PER ~!Fit'S
RECOliMENDI\TIONS.
'---
_._ / I
~LOCKJNO AS SHO\\otl
FOR EACH PURUNf>.IJR.
TYP.
tl
Cl) FRAMING PLAN
!CJJ..E: Nre
Figure 16-1. Framing plan
320 Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI 7·16

oesl!l" '"""'~' 16 • corf>O'' so•r pV SY'"""
\ ))1'<> COC"t;. pl':ll

r''l-1~~'~ aRJIOE
Design Example 16 • Carport So.tsr PV Systems
Panel .Size: g 1.5 inches by 42 inches

Carport Size: 52 feeL 6 inches by 41 feeL 0 inches
D e <1d Loads:
PV panels 2.5 psf per manufacturer
Misc. electrical components 0.5 psf assumed
Cold-formed purlim; l .5 psf C12 by 4 by 14 gage
Column 70 plf approximation
Beam so plf approximation
Distributed Live Load: 12 psf §4. 17.3
C oncentrated Live Loud: :IOOib Table 4-1
Seismic and Site Pararncters:
Mavpcd spectral response accelerations (5 percent critical damping, Site Class D )
S, = 2.1g at 0.2-s econd response 5 1 = 0.93g at !-second response

Fa= 1.0 F.,= 1.5
S MS = 2.1 g SM I = 1.4g
SDs = 1.40g SDI = 0.93g
l = l.O (Occupancy Cate.g ory ll)
Total se.ismic weight = approximately 12 ,500 lb

Wind and Site D ata:
Basic w ind speed, V = I 00 mph (Occupancy Category ll)
Exposure Category C
Velocity pres ure exposure coefticiem at 17 feet, 6 inches. Kh = 0. 87 Table 26.10-1
Topographic factor, K~1 = 1.0

Wmd clireclionality factor. K, 0.85
Ground elevation factor, K.. = 1.0
Fundamental period in each plan direction (N/S and EIW) < I second
Ground s now load, Ps = 0 psf
Design Example 16 • Cllrport Solar PV Systems
1.2 ROOF LIVE LOADS ASCE 7
In ac-cordance w ith Section 4 .1 7.3. open-grid roof structures s upporting PV panels are required to support
lhe u nifom' and concenu·med roof live loads specified in Table 4- I. The structure in this example docs not
contain a roof deck, and a re duced roof live lond of 12 psf is pom1illed.
D 1.stn'butcd l 1ve
' Iond to purI'ms, 111,
, ut11111
== 12 psf x -S-Ill
.- - == 40.75 p I"t
l.Sin
12ft x2
Distributed live loud to cross beums, w-=s t=t.~

52
= 12 psf x ~ ft =315 plf
'J'llis roof l.ivc loud i.s generally not applied in combinntion with wind loads. Even though a combination
of wind and roof live load.~ is required in ASCE 7, it is recognized that the probabi lity of this combinalion
occurring for this type of strucrure is nearly zero. Load combinations are addressed in more detail later in
lb.is de. igo example.
1.3 SEISMIC DESIGN FORCES
Wind forces control the carport frame design in the north-south direction (column strong-axis bending)
for this example. In the east- west direction, the transverse wind loads generated are typically lower
rhan the seismic forces and will most likely not govern the frame design. 11)e transverse wind loads can
b e ca'lculatcd using Sections 27 .3.2 and 28.:1.5. T rnnsvcrsc structmc design is out.sidc the scope of this
examp le. The following elements shouJd be closely examined in a complete design: column weak-a."< is
bendiug. beam weak-ax.is bending. torsion/warping. purlln transfer forces. beam to colunm connection. and
the weak-axis bending and torsion of cold-formed purllns.
The seismic behavior and design of an open-grid carport system is not well researched or addressed in
curreut codes. Currently, there are at least three accepted metlJods of seismic design depending on the
3uthority ha,.;ng jurisdiction. In the c11se where: detailed code guidance is not given, it is the responsibility
of the engineer of record to use experience and judgment in selecting a method for analy!lis. One common
approach is to follow Chapter 15 of ASCE 7 and select an inverted pendulum type strucrure and proceed
with the seismic modification factors in Table 15.4. Another common method is to follow Chapter 12:
select a steel ordinary cantiJ.ever column as the lateral system and proceed with the seismic modifkation
factors in Table 12.2- l. The response modiJkariou factor of an inverted pendulum is 2, and l])e response
modification factor of un ordinary cantilever column is 1.25.
Additionally. the columns, which comprise tbe main seismic-force- resisting system, are dominated by
bending action and are ligbtly loaded with ax.ial force. They will likely exhibit the ductility and over-
slrength associated with pure bending of an ordinary moment frame beam rather than an axially loaded
co.lumn. E ither system's selection will yield appropriate and reasorlably conservative designs.
The third and far less common method is to designate the system as a special cantilever column system. In
practice. £be Bit requirements in the AJSC Seismic Provisions for this system typically exclude aJI practical
wide fl ange colunm sizes rhat would be desired for a carporl. Very l arge carport systems may benefit from
this lateral system if hcuvy columns meeting the B/t requirements arc required by the wind design or if
significantly improved seismic ductility is desired.
Design Example 16 • Carport So.\!Jr PV Systems
F or this example the carport will be classified as a building structure with a srcel ordinary cantilever
c olumn lateral system with the following response parameter.s:
Respon.-;c Modification Factor. R =1.25 Table 12.2- l.G-2

OvcrstTcnglh Factor, n,, = .1.25
Deflection Amplification FacLor, C,1 = 1.25
Base Sht!ar. Ve:o- = (SRns) W = (lAO)

1.25
(12.5 kips)= 1
4kips Eq 12.8-1
- --
1 .. 1.00
Redundancy Factor. p 1.3 (l>olh direction because of Lbe number o f columns)
Shear per Column, VEQmt = 7 kips
Overturning MomenL per Column. M~>x.k.,1 = 7 kips( l 2' + 2.5') = 101.5 ftkip
besign Shear per Column, vtT 0;, = VF.q,-,,~ i1,, = 7 kips( 1.25) = 8.75 kips
Design M oment per Column. M11_~.v, = Msa1,,rf2~.~ = 101.5 ftkip( 1.25) = 126.9 ft.kip
1 .4 WIND DESIGN FORCES (MWFRS) ASCE7
The main frame and all elements below will be designated as pan of the Main Wind Force Resisti ng System
tMWFRS) and will follow the methoos of C hapter 27. In accordance with Secrion 30.2.3, if the tributary
arc<.~ of the element under considerat-ion exceeds 700 square feet. then design muy proceed using MWFRS
methods. Cross beams exceed Lhis minimum value with a tribmary area of 1.077 square fee r. 111ere is a
good deal of judgment required for rhis as it may be prudent on smuller t:arports w design the cross beams
osing both Component~ and C ludding (C&C) pressures and MWFRS pressures if this arcu requiremen t is
DOL meL
The MWFRS design pressures an: obtained in accordance wid1 Section 27.3.2 for open buildings with
monoslope, piLched, or troughed f ree roofs. This carporL is classified <U: a monoslope roof strucLure.
2
Velocity Pressure, qn = O.OOZ56K1,K.,KaJ(Y
= 0.00256(0.875)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)1002 = 19.1 psf §26.10.2
G usl Effect Factor, G = 0.85 (period less thun I second) §26.1 1. 1
The net pressure coefficients are obt.:'lined using Figure 27.3-4. T his fi g ure shows a table of pressure
coefficients for Lwo wind d ir ections (0 degrees and 180 degrees) and two cases (A and B) resultin g in four
v,.ind load cases. Winds from 0 degrees generally result in uplift (negative) pressures, and wincb; from
180 degrees resulL en downward (positive) pressures. In terms of column axial forces. Case A produces
maxilmum uplift for 0 degrees and maxi mum down load for 180 degrees. Wind loads associated with Case
B produce maximum unb-alanced wind pressures, or column moments. T he table also conLn.ins a column for
obstructed w~nd fl ow which is defined as containing more than SO percent blockage from items below the
canopy. The commentary clari.fies that the blockage is based on the cross-sectional area of the canopy along
the length. It can be shown for most carports that the cross scclion is less than 50 percent obstructed with
vehicles present.
Cross-sectional arc.n at leading edge per 8-foot cnr stall = 14 feet, 0 inches clear by 8 feet, 0 inches = 112
square feeL
3 24 Wind Design Manual Based on 2 0181BC and ASCE/SEt 7-16

Design Example 16 • Carport Solar PV Systems
M aximWl:l lleight of arl SUV is approxirnmely 5 feet. 10 iucbcs and the maximurtl width is approximately 6
feet, 8 inche_.
The obstructed area pet' smll "" (5.83 feet by 6.67 feet) "" 39 square feet
The percentage of urcu b lockage = 39 square feet/] 12 squurc feet = 35 percent < 50 percent per Figure
27.3-4 Footnote 2.
The wind flow is cJas.sificd as Clear.
Table 16- 1 shows the uet pressure coef ficients for a JQ..degree pitch and Clear wind flow. I nterpolation
bctw<Xlo 7.5 degrees and 15 degrees was perfom1ed to obtain these values.
Table 16-1. MWFRS ner pressure coefficients for Clear wind flow, C,v
'Y = oo 'I = 180°

Roof A ngle Load C ase
C,vw C,w_ C,vw CNL
A - 0.6 - 1.0 0.9 1.5
7.50
B - 1.4 0.0 1.6 0.3
A -0.70 -1.10 1.03 1.53
10°
B -1.57 0.0 1.67 0.40
A -0.9 -1.3 1.3 1.6
15°
B -1.9 0.0 1.8 0.6
Table 16-2 shows the uet design pressures after applying E quation 27.3-2. p "" q1,GC,v
Table 16- 2. MWFRS net design pressures f or Clear wind flow. p
'Y = oo '( = 180°

R oof Angle L oad Case
P.vw P.w. Pi'rw P,w.
A - 11.4 psf - 17. 8 p sf 16.8 psf 24 .9 psf
100
B - 25.4 psf 0.0 psf 27.0 psf 6.5 ps f
In addition to lhe design pressures s hown above. Figure 27.3-7 also provides net pressure coefficie nts for
free roofs with the wind load ing approach angle at 90 degrees and 270 degrees. For most practical PV
carpon geometries and clear wind ftows, the values in this table will not govern nny portion o f the design.
These values s hould be evaluated in a complete design to connm w hether they govern.
Design example 16 • Ca1pon So.wr PV Systems
The distributed wind loading actiug ou the cross beams from the MWFRS londs is as follows:
w .l lt'Jn =-11.4psf( -
52.5
-
ft) =-300plf
2
w 11 _u·_A,.. =- 17.8 psf ( -52.52- ft) = -468 plf
w,, l t-XI ,1, -24

- .9 r·( 52
ps - .5ft\_
- )- 654 pIt'
2
w 11_ 100._,1.., = 16.8 psf (

52
; fl J= 441 plf
w, 0 _hi= -25.4 psf ( -52.5

- ft) = -667 pu·
2
w H_o -~'" =0 psi. ( -52.52- ft ) =O p1J.

W 11 I~> ru =
52.5
6.5 psf ( - -
ft) = 171 plf
2
lVH_ IW'_II•n- -
- ?7 sf( 52.5
p ~ 2
fi) -709 lf
- p
Figure 16-3 summarizes the net design pressures d istribution on the eros_ beam.
'1'\INOO~
1&Y
Figure 16-3. MWFRS wind loading diagram

Design Example 16 • Carport So/or PV Systems
1.5 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS (MWFRS) ASCE 7
TI:tis example will be. using the Allowable Stress Design (ASD) loud combinations. The three ASD loud
combinations that will be con >idered in this example from Section 2.4.1 are as follows:
D + L,
D + 0.6W
0.6D + 0.6\V
The dead and sei. mic load combinations have been omilled to simplify the example, These three. along
with all other combinations thnt could potentially govern, should be evnluntccl in a complete design. This
example docs not examine serviceability, but a complete design should.
1.6 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR MWFRS
Multiple wind load cases e nd up adding complexity to the carport des ign. As was shown in the previous
seclion, the three combLnations expand into nine loadLog scenarios . The Components and Clndding wind
loads v.rill add two more cuses. If snow loads an: present, thc;n tht: d t:.signer must consider roof snow, drift
s uow. and unbalanced snow Ln every wmbiuatiou of possible wind load. AI!bough the geometry of these
"t:ructures is somewhat simple, it is also the geometry that mukes them so susceptible to forces of nature,
more so than many other more conventional slruclurcs. For this reason, it is crucial to incorpomte ull of the
relevant seismic. w ind, and snow load combinations into the design.
A lack of good book-keeping can lcud to computntion errors, as cun the overwhelming datu that cun come
from a computer model with between 50 and 100 loud combinations. when it is not always obvious what
combinations will govern. The followi ng calcu.lation is for D + 0.6(W='' 8 180,):
52 5
D =s psr ( ~ ' )+ 50 plf =181.25 plf
0 .6\VB_I SO'_h,_v = (0.6) 17 1 pJ f COS JQ" = JOJ pJf
0.6wB_ISO'_oiU = (0.6) J71 plf sin 10° = 18 plf
0.6w8 _ 1sa'_lo"'- '' = (0.6)709 plfcos 10" = 419 plf
0.6w8 _ 1sa·_;,••.J = (0.6)709 plf sin I 0° = 74 plf
PI= 419 plf (20.5') + 101 plf(20.5') + 18 1.25 plf (4 1') = 18.09l lb
VI = 18 plf (20.5') = 369lb
V1 = 74 plf (20.5') = 1.517 Ib
M 1 = (10lplf+ _, ( -20.5')
. l 81.25plf)(20.)) - cos l O0 + 369 lb ( -20.5'
- ) smiO
. 0
=59,0 56tUb
2 2
M1 =(419 p it'+ 181.25 pU')(2o.s')eo~s' }os wo+ 1.517 lbeo~s' }in 10" 128,775 ftlb
Pc = 18,091 Lbs + 12'(70 plf) = 18,93l lb

V< = 1.517 lbs + 369 lbs - 1.882 lb
M.- = 128,775 l't.lb - 59,056 ft .lb + I ,882 lb (12.67 ' ) = 93,564 fLlb

Design Example 16 • Carport So.~9r PV Systems
F or simplicity. lhe distributed loads are assumed to act through the centerline. of the beam and colunu1. Tlus
assumption will produce conservative results for this particular load combination. However, it will produce
slightly unconscrvative re.._'illlts for some other loud combinations. This is due to the locution where the
resultant horizonlal wind shear acLS 1>elative to lhe beam L~enterline. The imerc.stcd reader should develop a
detailed free-body diagram to understand thjs concept better.
Pc
Vc Me
Figure J()-4. Appliedforce diagram
Table 16-3 contains a summ<U)' of the forces for each load combination.
Table 16-3. Joint loads
Beam-Column Top of Pier

Load Combination p vi vl Ml M2 PC vc M,.
<.kips) <.k ips) (kips) (ft-k.ip.") (ft-kips) (kips) (kips) (ft.-kips)
D 7.43 0.00 0.00 38.09 1.86 8.27 0.00 0.00
D + Lli>OO 20.35 0.00 0.00 104.27 41.31 28.62 0.00 0.00
D+0.6Wur - 1.85 -0.64 - 1.00 0.36 - 20.82 - 1.01 - 1.64 41.92
D + 0.6\1/,uro- 20.69 1.40 0.94 120.49 93 .68 21 .53 2.34 - 2.82
D + 0.6\V 8 _0' -0.65 - 1.42 0.00 -45.98 38.09 0. 19 - 1.42 -66.02
D + 0.6WB_ISO' 18.08 0 .36 1.51 59.60 127.44 18.92 -1.88 - 91.64
0.6D + 0.6W4_w -4.83 -0.64 -1.00 -14.88 24.65 -4.32 1.64 -18.79
0.6D + 0.6W,~_ 1 &~r 17.72 1.40 0.94 105.26 25.46 18.22 - 2.34 50.1 7
0.6D + 0.6W8_0• -3.62 - 1.42 0.00 -61.21 22.85 -3.11 1.42 -66.02
0.6D + 0.6W8 _ 180, 15. 11 0.36 1.51 44.36 37.24 15.61 - 1.88 -16.67
1.7 WIND DESIGN FORCES (C&C) ASCE 7
The purlins and aD associated purlin and pnnd atlllchments are designatt:d as Components and Cladding
and will follow the methods of Chapter 30.
The Components and C ladding design presHurcHarc obtained in nccordum:c with Section 30.7 for open
buildir!gs with monoslope. pitched. or troughed free roofs.
Design Wind Pressure, p = q~ G C.~· Eq 30 .7 -1
Velocity Pressure. (fJ, = 0.00256K1, K~,K,1 V 2
2
= 0.00256(0.875)( 1.0)(0.85) I 00 = 19. 1 psf Eq 26. 10- 1
Gus t Effect Factor, G = 0.85 (period less than I second, column so·ong direction) §26. 1 I
The net pressure coefficienLS (C,,.) are obtained using interpolation of Figure 30.7-1 : see Table 16--4.
lr/L = (- 17.5' HI top of pnncl)/(4 1' cos 10°) = 0.43 < I, : . Figure 30.7- 1 applies
a least of 10%(41 ' ) 4.1 ' and 0.411 0.4(17.5') • 7'. but not less than 4%(41') 1.64' or 3'
:. a = 4.1 '
1
[4'-:~·~4:1.~ ~, 1
31 ' - 6' ' 10'- 6'
f
To-- -..........-
TYP TYf>"
I
l ZONE3
ZONE 2
.
0
Figure 16- 5. Summary of C& C z.ones

Design Example 16 • Carport So.~IJI' PV Systems
Table 16-4. c &C Ill!I pressure coe:[]icie/1/S for Clear willd}low. eN
I Roor
Anglt:
Efrectivc Wi nd Area
Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone I
Down Up Down Up Down Up

:s; 16.81 fl? 3.2 - 4.2 2.4 - 2. 1 1.6 -1.4
I 7.50 > 16.81 ft 2 ::::; 67.24 ft2

I 2.4 - 2. 1 2.4 - 2.1 1.6 - 1.4
> 67.24 ft 2 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4

;5;16.81 ft2 3.33 -4.07 2.50 -2.37 1.67 -1.57
I 10° > 16.81 ft 2 :s; 67.24 ft 2 2.50 -237 2.50 -2.37 1.67 - 1.57
> 67.24 re 1.67 - 1.57 1.67 -1.57 1.67 - 1.57
:S 16.~ l ft 2
3.6 -3.8 2.7 - 2.9 1.8 -1.9
2 2
15° > 16.8 1 ft :s 67.24 fr 2.7 -2.9 2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9
> 67.24 fl 2 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9
Table 16- 5. C&C net design pressures for Clear wine/flow, p
Roof Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1

Effective Wind Area
Angle D own Up Down Up Down Up
=::; 16.81 ft2 54 psf - 66 psf 4 1 psf - 39 psf 28 psf - 26 psf
100 > 16.8 1 ft1 =::; 67.24 fl2 41 psf - 39 psf 41 psf - 39 psf 28 psf - 26 psf
2
>6724 ft 28 psf - 26 psf 28 psf - 26 psf 28 psf - 26 psf
The effective area is defined in Chapter 26 as the "span length multiplied by an effective width that need not
be less than one-third the span length . For cladding fasteners. the effecti ve wind area shall not be greater
than the area that is tributary to an individual fastener."

Design Example 16 • Ctlrport Solar PV Systems
TI1e effective area and fot'Ces of variou~ Components :u1d Cladding are as follows:
o Panel to purlin fastener:
A<.IJ = 81.5"(42") = 5.95 ft 2

( 144 ~: }4)
Upward wind force, F . '{>. lllwl = 5.95 f~( - 66 psf) = 393 lbs
Downward wind force, F,r,~ .,.,1,.1 = 5.95 ft2(54 psf) = 322 lhs
o Cold-formed pw'Lin c::ullilever:
Upward wind djstribured load. w1\)1, \\\\I J = rs" l

2 1 2~
• (- 39 psf) =- 133 plf
ft
Down wan! wiod <lis~ibuted load, w"'· """ ~ ( J.S"

2 12
10
l(
41 psi) = 140 plf
t ft
o Cold-fom1cd purlin interior spun:
rl
3 5
Ad! = 1. ' (31.5' ) =331 ft 2
3
5
Upwarr! wind di><tributod load, wnp, n \nu
., = "· (-26 pst) = -89 plf
2 12m
ft
o Purlinto beam connection:

81 5" ( "] _, \1 2
A<fi = ( .. ) .) ;::> +10.5') =l.{9.2 ft
2 12 m -
ft
Upward wind force, F,.p. ulli1 = 89.21't\ -26 psf) = - 2,320 lbs
2
Downward wind force, F,m_ wmd = 89.2 ft (28 psf) = 2,500 lbs
Many designer.:; of these types of systems would design Lhe entire purl in span including the cantilever
using the larger effective wind area for simpl icity. In many cases, this is acceptable, and the cantilever will
not govern the overall purlin design.ln some cases, using the smuJler effective urc.u (larger wind pressure)
for the cantilever will reduce the positive mid-span moment in the adjacent bay and may lead to a non-
conservative design. This will occur if the cantilever is short and the adjacent bay is long. In this example.
applying the higher wind pressure on the cantilever and the lower wind pressure on the interior span will
govern the design.
Wind Design Manual B.ssed on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7-16 331

Design Example 16 • Carport So.~9r PV Systems
1.8 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS (C&C)
Distributed Jouds to the purlins based on specific load combinalion.s arc provided below. The local y axis is
parallel ao rhe purlin web (minor axis). aud the local z axis is perpendicular to rhe purl in web (major axis).
Positive values arc in the direction of gravity. All wind loads act parallel to tbe local y nxis. For simplicity,
the higher z.one 213 pressures on the cantilever wi ll be assumed to act across. the ent-ire length of the
Tributmy.. Wid!h0 .," '" =

( 2 1 2~
4
ft
l
c.antiJever in lieu of we 8-foot. 2-iutb zoue shown in Figure I 6-5.
(81.:>_, ) = 3.4 ft
Wuyv = 4 .5 psf(3.4 ft)co:>(IO-o) = 15.07 p lf

Wuzv • 4 .5 psf(3.4 ft)si.n(l0°) • 2.66 plf
WyD+I.r = (4.5 psf + 12 pst)(3.4 ft)cos(l0°) = 55.25 plf
Wz,v +l.r = (4.5 psf + 12 psf)(3.4 fl)sin( l0°) = 9.75 plf
Interior Span Purlin Loading
= 0.6(15.07 plf) - 0.6(89 plf) = -

l\tyf) (\[) 1 Llbll~_ml 44.36 plf
Wzu.f.o+ll.61111._,n1 = 0.6(2.66 pli) = 1.60 plf
Wy D ·I0611'ol'lunr = 15.07 plf + 0.6(95 plf) = 72.07 pl f

l11JZD+U.6lll\11.ftt = 2.66 plf
Cantilever Purl in Loadi11g
ll,)·I).(,O~·U.6111lp_l\llll = 0.6(15.07 plf)- 0 .6( 133 plf) = -70.76 p)f

HlzO.&.l +l) 61111 .,_,.m1 = 0.6(2.66 plf) = 1.60 plf
Thy D+0.6U\fu_,..,.1 = 15.07 p}f + 0.6(140 p}f) = 99.07 p}f
lVuz D+ O..sl\1-1\,_am = 2.66 plf

Table I 6-6 provides a summary of the above calcu Iated loads.
Table 16-6. Disoibuted loads (y-axis/z-axis) plf
Load Combination Left Cantilever Interior Span Right Cantilever
Wn 15.07/2.66 15.0712.66 15.07/2.66
WD+ lr 55.25/9.75 55.25/9.75 55.25/9.75
Wo.w+o.6n~. -70.76/1.60 -44.36/ 1.60 -70.76/ 1.60
WD+ 0.611'<M 99.07/2.66 72.07/2.66 99.07/2.66
By inspection, the positive "'-i nd pressure Components and Claddjng loading will govern the purlin design.

10'- 6'' 10'- 6"
1
/ y-axis, typ.
w (pit) 1
I
I r z-axis. typ.
99.07 / 2.66
72.07 I 2.66
II I I I I I I I I l I I l l I I I I I
1
1136 / 42
V (lbs) 1041 I 28
I -1041 I -28
M (ft-lbs)
3480 I 184
-5466 I -1 47
Figure 16---6. Load, shew; and bending moment diagrams fo r D + 0.6Wa\•
Design tensiou on panel fastener:
TMn+ o.6U':o.p = 5.95 fr x 0.6( -66 psf + 2.5 psf cos 10°) = - 227 lbs
In addition to the fastener forces generated by superimposed loading. the render should also take into
consideration the impact to the panel attachment that arises from the vertical and lateral deflec tion of the
purlins. If the detlecLions are excessive they may lead to movement of attachmenls that utilize friction
clamps possibly causing panels lO become dislodged from the framing.
Design Example 16 • Carpon So.\rlr PV Systems
2. Additional Considerations
2.1 FOUNDATIONS
The three most common options for open-grid cnrport structure founclations are drilled cuS1ein-pluce
concrete piers, spread foundations, and driven steel piles. Drilled piers provide significnntlaternl capacity
and are easily adaptable to a m ultitude of !>oil conditions. Large overtuming moments in combination
with net upward vertical reactions typicany lead to very large spread found ations to satisfy stability
requirements . If underground utilities arc present or cti~covcrcd during construction. u shallow foundation
may be required. Driven steel pile:; are less common, but they can provide significant savings on large-
scale projects that con. ist of clay and sandy oils. Steel piles can be installed faster. using less material. and
typically produce no spoils.
2.2 WIND LOADS ACTING ON BEAMS, COLUMNS, AND PURLINS
For simplicity, this example does not jnclude wind loading on the face of be.ams, column.s, and purlins. In
pral~tice, rhis load. while present to some degree. typ.ically will not govern. I n the hurricane- prone regions
of the southeast where seismic loads are smu.ll and wind loads are very large, H would be prudent to
apply wind loads to tbe beam and column faces in order to evaluate transverse wind drifts and dinphmgm
displacemenL<;. aloug wilh member forces. The. wind loading on Solid F reestanding Walls and Solid Signs
in Section 29.3 , while not directly applicable, will likely provide a conservative estimate of these forces.
2 .3 SNOW LOADING
This design example docs not focus on snow loading. The snow-loading conditions depicted should be
unde.rstood well and closely evaluated when snow loads are present.
Unbalanced snow loading on the cross beam is caused by redistribution of sn ow due to geometry and wind.
This load case typically places I 00 percent of the snow load on one side of the main frame and 50 percent
on the other (Figure 16-7).
Figure 16-7. Unbalanced snow-loading diagmm

Design Example 16 • Carpott Solar PV Sys/ems
Prutial loading is caused by variation iu snow fall along witll redistribution of snow loads caused by wind.
Partial snow loading io analogous w skip Live loading; however, the applicarion requirements are sUghtly
differe nt and more prescriptive. This louding condition will often control Lhe design of the purlins hut will
not impact the mllin frame or foundation design. There are three detailed cases outlined in ASCE 7 Lhat Me
depic ted below for the example problem (Figure 16 8). Case 3 resulls in multiple cases and is a function of
the number of spans for u continuous purl in system. Our example results in the fcwe~t number of cases for
lhe Case 3 condition.
CASE 1
100% EXT SPAN I I
5
11111111111f lllllllll rlfmRmlsllllllll l lf 1111111 11 1
CASE2 ~
50% EXT SPAN

I 100% OTHER SPANS 1
II I I I I I I I I lf 11 11111 11 1111111 1111111111 11111111111 111
l CASE 3 I
I 100% TWO ADJACEN.T SPANS I
Figure 16- 8. Partial snow-loading diagram
2.4 CARPORTS WITH A TILT LESS THAN 5 DEGREES
For carport structures with a tilt less than 5 degrees. Section 27.3.2 has an additional requireme nt of
including wind loadiug ou fascia member:;. For struc tures with tilts la rger than 5 degrees, it is understood
that the fascia wind load will likely be inco n~cquential relative to the horizontal component of wind load
lhat is generated across the roof surface. For structures with tilts less than 5 degrees, there arc linlc to no
horizontal wind forces gene·rated using the open roof s tmcntre loading tables. and this fascia load may be
important to consider, especially if the site is located w here seis mic loads are very low. ln the case of an
open-grid carport structure. a fascia should be considered a ny member that projects below lhe roof surface
at or near lhe perimeter of rhe structure. This would conservatively include any edge beams or purl ins. For
s tructures containing a 0-degree lilt, it is likely more practical and accurate to consider wind loading on
transverse frames in both directions, even if the transverse frames in one direction are purl ins.

O!sagln ~ U5 • Ottpori $aJar PV SystemtJ
2.5 WINO lOADING ON TRANSVERSE FRAMES
Om; ampuu..m ,--ucu,~kroauun 111111 was 11111 ;u.ld~~ m dP:• a..amplc •~ UIUt.' v~r~~ w111d hmd1115 1.111 fnumr'i
~ In~ 'odt ~-y..- l e>. Ihi,; )(}n~l itl 1t w~ -e-Ither nc~"tcd bca,u ..c at J1d not guv<:rn over :-chmK
..
load~ ot the •1nd SoxhnJ on Solid t~· 'C~I:.lndi •l ~ W;a.Us ..and .Sohd SlJn:( 1n Scc11on '29.~ wu... u~cd 10
~ fOR'o.. ASCE 7 ha~~ odded ~• Jmras;l'otph to Scc1ioa: 27..3.2 to ~pcdlicull y uddi'C$11 lh<: tron1Wc:t'~
w.nd ~ l.b:a ~ 10 be ~i~ted by lh(: MWFRS. TbtdeWkd ttq1.1art1ncnL'! arc shown in S<!<.'tion 28.3.5:
lbc ""Jndt~arr$1f!J1i hcanl :md ShU\IId n()l be neglecti!d
336 \"&14 ()esjgn ~ Besod on 2013 ISC and ASCfJS:Ef 7-16

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WIND DESIGN

Structural Engineers Assodation of California (SEAOC)

Regional Offices: Eastern Regional Office (BIRMLNGHAM)

Pirst Printing : A ugust 201 8

Inquiries and Suggestions for Improvement

Structural Engineers Association of Calif orni a (SEAOC)

SEAOC, at its sole discretion, mny issue w ritten ermta.

Preface to lhc Wind Design Manual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Wlnd Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/ SEI?-16 V

Dt>s ign Example 13

vi Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 iBC and ASCEJSEi7·16

General topics 4 examples

James S. Lai, SE, F. SEAOC, F. ASCE

Wind Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/SEI 7· 16 ix

X Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 1BC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 xi

Production and art was provided by tbe International Code CounciL

x ii Wind Design Manual Ba9ed on 2018 IBC and ASCEISEI 7-16

The following abbreviations are used within the references:

Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI7-1 6 xiii

Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 XV

An enclosure clnss:ificution is a way of assigning a clussineatioo to a building to determine the appropri;:ttc

Wlnd Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/ SEI?-16 1

2. Design Exnmplc Problem 1n

3. Design Example Problem lb

This condition is expres. ed for each wall by the equation

§26.2. Table 26.13-1

These conditions are expressed by the following equations:

A,., > 1.10A01 §26.2, Table 26.13- 1

2 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

n us condiliou is expressed for each wall by the following equation:

An< 0.01.4.~, or 4 ft:!: (whichever is s mullcr) §26.2. Tnblc 26. 1:1-l

E nclosure Inte rna l Interna l P ressure

A0 is less them the s maller of 0.01 A8 or +0.18

O p·en buildings Each wall is at least 80 percent open Negligible 0.00

VVInd Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/ SEI?-16 3

2. Design Example Problem 1a

Enclosure class.i ficalion on an agricultural building willllarge openings.

2.1 DETERMINATION OF ENCLOSURE

Step 1: Identify lhc openings

Opening Size, A.,

Side walls (2) 2 X (100' X 30') = 6,000 ft 2

Step 2: Check Open Building Requ irements

An open building is one in which each wall js at least 80 percent open.

Step 3: Check Partially Enclosed Building Requirements

Wlnd Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16 5

Step 4: Check E nclosed Building Requirements

Percentage < 4rr

Step 5: Check Partially Open B uililing Req11irements

6 Wind Design Manual Based on 2018 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-16

3. Design Example Problem 1b

3.1 DETERMINATION OF ENCLOSURE

Step 1: Identify the openings

Opening Size, A"

Windward wall 200' X 25' = 5,000 ft2

Step 2: Check Open Building Requjrements

An open building is one in which each wall is at least 80 percent open.

Leeward wall Of~ 200' X 25' = 5 ,000 tr 0 No

VVInd Design Manual Based on 20181BC and ASCE/ SEI?-16 7

S tep 3: Check Partia/Jy Encl.osed Building Requirements

Leeward wall 0 ft2 5.ooo fr 0

Roof ortl 2ooft x 75 ft = 15.ooo rr 0

Balance of btlilding envelope 4.500 rt2 24.500 If 18