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Crash Course Notes 2
Crash Course Notes 2
Crash Course Notes 2
A motor unit is made up of a single nerve cell or neuron and the grouping of muscle fibers
innervated by the neuron. When a motor neuron receives a signal from the brain, it stimulates all
of the muscles cells in its motor unit at the same time. The number of muscle fibers within a
motor unit varies. The strength of a muscle contraction is determined by the size and number of
motor units being stimulated.
Motor Pool
All of the motor units within a muscle are considered a motor pool. There are often multiple
sizes of motor unit within a motor pool as a means of modulating the precision and force
produced by a single muscle. For example, a small motor unit in the biceps can be activated for
small precise movements, while a larger motor unit can be activated to facilitate more forceful
actions.
Wave Summation (a.k.a. frequency summation) and Tetanization- this results from stimulating a
muscle cell before it has relaxed from a previous stimulus.
This causes the contractions to build on one another producing a wave pattern or, if the stimuli
are high frequency, a sustained contraction called tetanic or tetanus.
Tetanus is perfectly normal and in fact is the way you maintain a sustained contraction.
The Skeleton
Its structural framework of the body: Supports soft tissues; Provides attachment points for
tendons of skeletal muscle; Protects important internal organs
Assistance in Movement: Skeletal muscle attaches to bone as muscle contraction pulls on bone
producing movement
Mineral Homeostasis: Bone tissue stores several minerals (mainly Calcium and Phosphorus)
Blood Cell Production: Red bone marrow produces red blood cells (erythrocytes); White blood
cells (leucocytes); Platelets (thrombocytes)
Triglyceride Storage: Triglycerides are a type of fat found in your blood; Triglycerides serves as
a potential chemical energy
The Axial skeleton provides the main area of support for the body and includes the cranium,
vertebral column and the rib cage.
The Appendicular skeleton consists of the remaining appendages (or connecting limbs)
• The Structure of the Vertebral Column
The vertebral column consists of 33 bones. 24 of them are slightly moveable individual bones
and unfused while the remaining 9 fused together
There are 5 principal areas of the vertebral column: The Cervical vertebrae, the Thoracic
vertebrae, the Lumbar vertebrae, the Sacral vertebrae and the Coccyx
• Bone
Compact bone or hard bone forms the surface layers of all bones and the whole cylindrical shaft
of long bones.
Surrounding compact bone is the periosteum which enables tendons to attach to the bone.
There are 5 types of bones in the human body: Short, long, irregular, flat, sesamoid.
• Joints
Where two or more bones meet, an articulation or joint exists
Joints are classified according to the degree of movement permitted
• Classification of Joints
Fibrous Joints - The bones of fibrous joints are held together by fibrous connective tissue. There
is no cavity, or space, present between the bones, so most fibrous joints do not move at all.
Cartilaginous Joints - Cartilaginous joints are those in which the bones are connected by
cartilage. They have no joint cavity and may be found between the vertebrae.
Synovial Joints - Synovial joints are the only joints that have a space between the adjoining
bones. This space, referred to as the synovial (or joint) cavity, is filled with synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid lubricates the joint, reducing friction between the bones and allowing for greater
movement. Synovial joints are capable of the greatest movement of the three structural joint
types
• Types of Movement at Joints
There are six basic types of movement that are caused by muscle actions
1. Flexion- Decrease in the angle between two bones at a joint
2. Extension- Increase in the angle between two bones at a joint
3. Abduction- Movement of a limb away from the midline of the body
4. Adduction- Movement of a limb towards the midline of the body
5. Rotation- Circular movement where the bone is moved around a central axis
6. Circumduction- A movement where the end of the bone makes a circle and a cone shape
is formed. It is a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and rotation.
• Nervous System
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that
connect these organs with the rest of the body.
The brain and spinal cord form the control center known as the central nervous system (CNS),
where information is evaluated and decisions made.
The sensory nerves and sense organs of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) monitor conditions
inside and outside of the body and send this information to the CNS.
Neurons
Neurons, also known as nerve cells, communicate within the body by transmitting
electrochemical signals.
• 3 Types of Neurons
Afferent neurons. Also known as sensory neurons, afferent neurons transmit sensory signals to
the central nervous system from receptors in the body.
Efferent neurons. Also known as motor neurons, efferent neurons transmit signals from the
central nervous system to effectors in the body such as muscles and glands.
Interneurons. Interneurons form complex networks within the central nervous system to integrate
the information received from afferent neurons and to direct the function of the body through
efferent neurons.
• Functions
Sensory. The sensory function of the nervous system involves collecting information from
sensory receptors that monitor the body’s internal and external conditions. These signals are then
passed on to the central nervous system (CNS) for further processing by afferent neurons (and
nerves).
Integration. The processing of the many sensory signals that are passed into the CNS at any
given time. These signals are evaluated, compared, used for decision making, discarded or
committed to memory as deemed appropriate. Integration is performed by internuerons.
Motor. Once the networks of interneurons in the CNS evaluate sensory information and decide
on an action, they stimulate efferent neurons. Efferent neurons (also called motor neurons) carry
signals from the CNS through the nerves of the peripheral nervous system to effector cells the
effector then releases a hormone or moves a part of the body to respond to the stimulus.
There are 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system in the body: the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions.
1. Sympathetic. The sympathetic division forms the body’s “fight or flight” response to
stress, danger, excitement, exercise, emotions, and embarrassment. The sympathetic
division increases respiration and heart rate, releases adrenaline and other stress
hormones, and decreases digestion to cope with these situations.
2. Parasympathetic. The parasympathetic division forms the body’s “rest and digest”
response when the body is relaxed, resting, or feeding. The parasympathetic works to
undo the work of the sympathetic division after a stressful situation. Among other
functions, the parasympathetic division works to decrease respiration and heart rate,
increase digestion, and permit the elimination of wastes.
Circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart is Pulmonary
Circulation.
Circulation from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart is Systemic
Circulation
To ensure a smooth passage and one directional flow, a number of special valves exist
Diastole occurs when the chamber is filling with blood while the heart is relaxing (0.5 secs) and
systole occurs when the chamber is emptying blood when the heart contracts (0.3 secs)
• Functions of Blood
Transportation of nutrients such as glucose, and oxygen
Protecting and fighting disease through the interaction with the lymphatic system
The maintenance of homeostasis, including temperature regulation and maintenance of the acid-
base (pH) balance
• Composition of Blood
Plasma (55%)- This is a pale yellow fluid composed of 90% water, 8% proteins and 2% salts/
hormones/ nutrients
Erythrocytes- These are red blood cells. They contain haemoglobin which is an iron rich
protein that is responsible for all of the oxygen transport in blood.
Leucocytes- These are white blood cells and are involves in combating infection. Although
significantly larger than red blood cells, white blood cells are fewer in number
Thrombocytes- These are also called platelets and are small bits of cytoplasm derived from
bone marrow, which play an important role in blood clotting
Erythrocytes, leucocytes and thrombocytes make up 45% of blood
• Blood Viscosity
Viscosity refers to the thickness of blood and its resistance to flow
The more viscous a fluid, the more resistant it is to flow. E.g. Honey is more viscous than water
Viscosity increases when plasma content decreases due to dehydration
• Blood Vessels
There are 5 different types of blood vessels in the body that link together to form the vascular
system.
1. Arteries- Vessels that carry blood away from the heart
2. Arterioles- A smaller branch of arteries
3. Veins- Vessels that carry blood towards from the heart. They have special valves that
allow blood to flow in one direction
4. Venules- A smaller branch of veins
5. Capillaries- The smallest of the blood vessels that connect arterioles to venules. The
exchange of gas exchange and nutrients take place here.
There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of
respiration.
The airway, which includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and
bronchioles, carries air between the lungs and the body’s exterior.
The lungs act as the functional units of the respiratory system by passing oxygen into the
body and carbon dioxide out of the body.
The muscles of respiration, including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, work together
to act as a pump, pushing air into and out of the lungs during breathing.
Outside, where the air pressure is greater, you suck in air in and inhale. The air then expands
your lungs like a pair of balloons. When your diaphragm relaxes, the cavity inside your body
gets smaller again. Your muscles squeeze your rib cage and your lungs begin to collapse as the
air is pushed up and out your body in an exhale.
• Muscular System
Why muscles?
Muscle tissue is responsible for movement in humans.
Muscles rely on contractile fibers to create motion.
In humans, muscles attach to the skeletal system to produce motion.
Comprises 45% of the total body weight
Over 600 muscles in the human body
Muscle tissue is also found inside of the heart, digestive organs, and blood vessels
The muscle that produces any particular movement of the body is known as an agonist or prime
mover.
The agonist always pairs with an antagonist muscle that produces the opposite effect on the same
bones.
In addition to the agonist/antagonist pairing, other muscles work to support the movements of the
agonist. Synergists are muscles that help to stabilize a movement and reduce extraneous
movements.
They are usually found in regions near the agonist and often connect to the same bones.
Muscle tone is a natural condition in which a skeletal muscle stays partially contracted at all
times. Muscle tone provides a slight tension on the muscle to prevent damage to the muscle and
joints from sudden movements, and also helps to maintain the body’s posture. All muscles
maintain some amount of muscle tone at all times, unless the muscle has been disconnected from
the central nervous system due to nerve damage.
• Myofibril
A myofibril is also known as a muscle fiber. It is a basic rod-like unit of a muscle cell.
Muscles are composed of cylindrical cells called muscle fibers in striated muscle and these
cells in turn contain many chains of myofibrils.
Relaxed Muscle
Contracted Muscle
• Action potential
Action potentials are those electrical impulses that send signals around your body
When you want your hand to move, your brain sends signals through your nerves to your hand
telling the muscles to contract.
An AP is created by the movement of sodium and potassium ions through the membrane of
neurons.
• What is the endocrine system?
The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and
mood, among other things
It affects bodily activities by releasing chemical messages called hormones into the blood stream
from glands
• Functions of the endocrine system
Control the internal environment by regulating its chemical composition and volume
Respond to environmental changes to help the body cope with emergencies e.g. stress, infections
Help regulate organic metabolism and energy balance
Contribute to the management of growth and development
Hypothalamus - This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its
main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
The pituitary gland or master gland is the control centre of our hormonal system. It produces
many hormones, some of which in turn control other hormonal glands. During exercise, the
pituitary gland releases human growth hormone, which tells the body to increase bone, muscle
and tissue production.
The thyroid gland produces three hormones: Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3) and
Calcitonin. When thyroid hormone levels are too high, you will experience symptoms like
weight loss, tremors, anxiety, and a racing heart rate. When thyroid hormone levels are too low,
you might gain weight, become constipated, be overly sensitive to cold temperatures, and feel
fatigued or depressed
The pancreas helps digestion. It also produces insulin which controls the amount of sugar in
the blood. Exercise improves insulin sensitivity and reduces the reliance on insulin injections.
The adrenal glands produce adrenaline and prepare the body for instant action. Adrenaline
has the effect of increasing heart rate and using up more oxygen in the cells to release more
energy.
Testes are in the male. They control the production of testosterone. This hormone is
important for the development of muscle and improved performance.
Pineal: This gland makes a chemical called melatonin. It helps your body get ready to go to
sleep.
Parathyroid: This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They are important for
bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
Thymus: This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and
are crucial as a child's immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
• Key Terms
Basal metabolic rate (BMR): The amount of energy needed just to keep you alive. BMR
varies from one person to the next.
Physical activity level (PAL) OR Working energy: The amount of energy needed for physical
activity/ sport
• A Balanced Diet
Is one that gives your body the nutrition it needs to function properly.
A balanced diet consists of 7 components: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, fibre, minerals, vitamins,
water.
• Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates: sugar – biscuits, cakes, sugar
Complex carbohydrates: starch – pasta, potatoes, bread
Excess carbohydrates is stored in the body as fat
Your glycaemic index is an indication of the absorption rates of different food stuff. Foods with a
high glycaemic index can be absorbed rapidly by the body.
• Carbohydrates
Stored as glycogen in the muscles
Preferred/ Major source of energy
Broken down rapidly
Important in maximal exercise
Carbohydrates also:
Power muscle contraction
Provide fuel for the brain
Aids in fat metabolism
Protein sparing - Allows protein to be used for tissue maintenance/repair instead for energy
Monounsaturated fats can help control blood sugar and insulin levels, as well as lower
your cholesterol levels to decrease your risk of cardiovascular conditions.
Polyunsaturated fats are essential to regular body functions such as covering nerves, building
cell membranes, blood clotting, inflammation and muscle movement.
Glycogen Sparing - The body using fatty acids for energy instead of glycogen during exercise
when oxygen is available
• Water
Water allows the body to maintain a CONSTANT temperature when undertaking physical
activity.
Losses in water can cause:
Reducing the efficiency of the circulatory system (drop in blood pressure)
Loss of electrolytes like sodium, chloride and calcium
• How will I know if I am becoming dehydrated?
Warning Signs:
Headache
Fatigue
Confusion
Nausea
Muscle Cramps
Dizziness
Decreased stamina, speed, energy, muscle strength
• Vitamins
Only small amounts needed
Vitamins regulate the chemical reactions of the body
They help with growth and repair of tissue
They help to resist infections
• Minerals
Minerals are found in a variety of foods
Calcium strengthens bones which is needed for proper performance
Other minerals help with growth
• Fibre
Found in all plant cells or any food that you can grow
Fibre keeps the digestive system working correctly
Fibre helps in food absorption
Fibre makes you feel full, so you eat less
• Eat to Compete
It takes 1- 4 hours for food to leave your stomach
High Carb foods are digested quickly
High Protein foods can increase water requirements
Foods high in Fat can stay in your stomach for more than 4 hours
Best choice for pre-game meals is something high in Carbs - easy to digest and becomes quick
energy
Within 2 hours:
Drink 2-3 cups of fluid for every pound lost
Eat a high-carbohydrate meal with some protein
Example: Ham Sandwich, Rice and beans
• Special Diets
High protein
Low carb
Vegan
Gluten free
Liquid
Low fat high carb
Raw
Clean eating – free range/ non chemical foods
• What are ergogenic aids?
In the context of sport, an ergogenic aid can be broadly defined as a technique or substance used
for the purpose of enhancing performance.
Types of ergogenic aids
Psychological
Mechanical
Pharmacological
Physiological
Nutritional
• Psychological
Hypnosis
Music
Performance Enhancement Techniques (PST)
“Placebo Effect” / Superstitions
Centering
Meditation
Cheering
Imagery
• Mechanical
Clothing
Equipment
Heat and Cold Application
Improved Body Mechanics
Environment (Playing Conditions and Surface)
Weighted vests
Computers - analyse VO2 max, technique, test
• Pharmacological
Over the Counter Drugs:
Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamines, Melatonin…etc.
“Recreational” Drugs:
Alcohol, Marijuana, Cocaine…etc.
Prescription Drugs
Anabolic Steroids, Human Growth Hormones, Diuretics, Beta Blockers…etc.
• Physiological
Bicarbonate Loading: the administration of sodium bicarbonate before competing in short-
duration, high-intensity sporting events and competitions, which is intended to neutralize lactic
acid produced during anaerobic metabolism of muscles.
Blood Doping: The practice of blood doping involved athletes taking a certain amount of blood
out of their systems, and then, later, when their bodies had made up for the blood taken out,
injected back into their systems.
Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone produced by the kidney that promotes the formation of red
blood cells by the bone marrow.
Altitude Training: known as hypoxic training, involves exercising in, living in or otherwise
breathing oxygen reduced air for the purpose of improved athletic performance.
Glycerol: is most commonly used improving hydration and performance in athletes. In the blood,
it attracts water so that the water stays in the body longer. This might help an athlete exercise for
longer.
Phosphate Loading: it is claimed that phosphate loading increases the availability of phosphates
for the production of ATP and increases the potential for aerobic exercise performance.
Acupuncture
Sports Massage
Homeopathy: is a medical system based on the belief that the body can cure itself. Believe that a
substance that causes symptoms of a disease in healthy people would cure similar symptoms in
sick people. It is made from extremely small quantities of nanoparticles of substances extracted
from plants, animals or minerals. The right remedy enables a quicker recovery, reduces
inflammation, and heals bruising and sprained muscles, which in turn gets the athletes back to
training and performing sooner.
• Nutritional
Amino Acid Supplementation
Bee Pollen - It gives me energy,’ is a common report from athletes who use bee pollen to
boost performance in sports involving high, medium and even low intensities.
Carbohydrate Loading
Carnitine - use to increase the oxidation of fat during exercise and spare muscle glycogen.
Coenzyme Q-10CoQ10 is found concentrated inside the mitochondria, or ‘powerhouses’ of
the cells where it plays a vital role in the creation of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the body’s
energy ‘currency’. This can improve energy and decrease muscle aches and pains in people
Creatine Phosphate.
• Energy
Energy is the capacity of the body to perform work. It can exist in many different forms
including mechanical, chemical, heat and electrical. Under certain circumstances energy can be
transferred from one form to another. For example, chemical energy found in food is transformed
into mechanical energy to enable us to move, or indeed can be transformed into potential energy
and stored in the body for use at a later date. The units of energy measurement is joules
• ATP Resynthesis
At rest or prolonged periods of exercise, ATP is resynthesized through aerobic metabolism. That
is the breakdown of carbohydrates and fats in the presence of oxygen.
There are 3 basic energy systems that control the replenishment of ATP. The system that the body
uses is largely dependent on how immediate the energy is required, how intense the activity is
and whether or not oxygen is present.
The 3 systems are:
The A Lactic or ATP-PC system
The Lactic Acid System
The Aerobic System
• Energy Continuum
The energy systems rarely work in isolation
The body supplies energy continuously (hence ‘continuum’) as long as activity occurs.
All 3 energy systems occur continuously, but the proportion of energy produced by each system
changes as the exercise continues.
The intensity and duration of the activities is the main determining factor for which system is
predominant.
It is fairly easy to know the dominant energy system for the marathon and shot put, but other
sports are not so easy.
So we use the Energy Continuum to show how the body changes between the 3 systems for
activities that exceed the limits of one or more systems, or for activities that experience changing
levels of intensity.
• Thresholds
= point at which a particular energy system is unable to provide energy
• Fitness
Dick (1989) “…the successful adaptation to the stressors of one’s lifestyle..”
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), physical fitness is defined
as “…the ability to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness, without undue fatigue, and with
ample energy to enjoy leisure-time pursuits and respond to emergencies.”
● Components of Fitness
Health-related components
Are physiologically based and determine the ability of an individual to meet the physical
demands of the activity: Strength, speed, cardio- respiratory (aerobic capacity), muscular
endurance, flexibility and body composition are all health related factors
Skill/Performance-related components
Are based upon the neuromuscular system and determine how successfully a person can perform
a specific skill: Agility, balance, coordination, reaction time and power are all skill related factors
• Strength
The ability of the body to apply a force. It is the maximum force that can be developed in a
muscle or group of muscle during a single maximal contraction. There are 3 classifications of
strength:
Maximum strength (the greatest force that is possible in a single maximum contraction)
Elastic strength (the ability to overcome a resistance with a fast contraction)
Strength endurance (the ability to express force many times over)
• Measuring Strength
Handgrip Dynamometer
1 Repetition Maximum Test (1RM test)
Disadvantage: The validity of the handgrip test has been questioned since it only indicates
strength of muscles in the forearm
• Muscular Endurance
The ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain repeated contractions against a resistance
for an extended period of time.
• Speed
The ability to put body parts into motion quickly, or the maximum rate that a person can move
over a specific distance.
• Measuring Speed
30m Sprint
Disadvantages: The test is maximal therefore relies on the motivation level of the athlete
The test is only a prediction of aerobic fitness
Tests may favor subjects more used to running
• Flexibility
The range of movement possible at a joint. It is determined by the elasticity of ligaments and
tendons, strength of surrounding muscles and the shape of articulating bones
• Measuring Flexibility
Sit and Reach Test
Advantages: East to administer
There is plenty of data for comparison
Disadvantages: The test only measures flexibility in the region of the lower back and hamstrings
The extent to which the subject is warmed up may affect results
• Goniometer
Advantage: Gives a very objective reading that can be used to assess improvement
• Body Composition
Is concerned with the physiological make-up of the body with regards to the relative amount and
distribution of muscle and fat.
Hydrostatic weighing
Bioelectrical impedance
Body Mass Index
Skin Fold measures
• Skill/Performance-related components
Agility
Balance
Coordination
Reaction time
Power
• Agility
The ability to move and change direction and position of the body quickly and effectively under
control.
Balance, coordination, speed and flexibility are closely related to agility
• Measuring Agility
Illinois Agility Run
Advantage: The testing procedure is simple to administer with little equipment required
A widely used test with easily accessible rating
Disadvantages: Since agility is influenced by other factors (speed, balance, etc.), the validity of
the test scores could be questioned
The test is not sport specific
• Balance
The maintenance of the center of mass over the base of support. This can be while the body is
static or dynamic.
• Measuring Balance
Stalk test
Balance Board
• Coordination
The interaction of the motor and nervous system and is the ability to perform motor task
accurately and effectively.
Coordination is normally improved through proper practice
• Reaction Time
The time taken to initiate a response to a given stimulus. Reaction time is dependent on the
ability of an individual to process info and initiate a response by the neuro-muscular system.
Advantage: The testing procedure is simple and easy to administer with little equipment required
• Measuring Power
Standing Broad Jump
Exercise is an activity requiring physical effort, carried out to sustain or improve health and
fitness (It improves your heart and lung power).
Recreation is an activity that people engage in during their free time, that people enjoy, and
that people recognize as having socially redeeming values.
Reduces Depression
Exercise and recreation can help alleviate depression. Participating in recreation activities
provides many with experiences they look forward to and enjoy. Recreation activities also reduce
alienation, loneliness and isolation, all of which contribute to depression. Recreation provides a
social atmosphere that draws people out of their houses and into community life.
Relieves Stress
Positive and enjoyable recreation experiences can decrease stress, anxiety and psychological
tensions.
Strengthens Communities
Park and recreation opportunities are essential for strengthening and maintaining a healthy
community.
Reduces Crime
Well-maintained parks and recreation facilities help reduce crime in a community.
Encourages Volunteerism
Participation in recreation activities promotes volunteerism. Park and recreation agencies rely on
volunteers to ensure the delivery of programs and services.
Unites Families
Families that recreate together tend to be closer and more cohesive, and have a greater chance of
staying together.
• Principles of Training
S – Specificity
P – Progression
O – Overload
R – Reversibility
T – Tedium (V- Variance)
• Specificity
The law of specificity suggest that training should be relevant and appropriate to the sport and
the individual. E.g. the majority of a swimmer training should be pool-base work
The rule suggest that the training should not only take the muscles, fiber type and action into
consideration but also the Energy system which is predominately stressed.
• Progressive Overload
This rule considers the intensity of the training. For improvement and adaptation to occur the
training must be increased over the training period to ensure that the body is pushed beyond its
normal rhythm (no pain no gain). Increases must be gradual so that the athlete avoids a plateau in
performance or, worse, injury.
• F.I.T.T.
Frequency - is increased by training a greater number of times each week.
Intensity - Increasing the difficulty of the exercise you do. Intensity is increased by lifting a
greater resistance, such as with weight training, or by training at a higher percentage of
maximum heart rate (maxHR).
Time - Increasing the length of time that you are training for each session. You can also
manipulate time by reducing recovery times or by completing a greater number of sets or
repetitions (also known as reps).
Type - Increase the difficulty of the training you are doing. For example progress from walking to
running.
• Reversibility
Also known as regression or detraining it is very simple “if you don’t use it you lose it”.
Basically if you stop training then the improvements you have made will be reversed.
The body systems reverse or de-adapt if training stops or is significantly reduced.
• Variance (Tedium)
Variety is the spice of life. Try to vary your training, to keep you interested and to give your body
a different challenge.
Use variance to prevent boredom, staleness and injury through training it is necessary that the
training programme employs a range of training methods.
• Individual Differences/Needs
All athletes are different. Training must be related to the athlete's age and gender, their injury
status and fitness level. Any training that fails to be relevant to the individual will fail to motivate
the athlete and will prove to be unsuccessful in the long term.
• Moderation
To prevent overtraining it is essential that the training programme is planned sufficiently well to
include a variation in training intensities and regular rest days.
Physical adaptations occur during the recovery and non-active period of the training cycle.
Therefore athletes must achieve the right amount of rest between sessions.
• Overtraining
If an athlete does not have sufficient rest periods then they are at risk of overtraining. This is
when the body does not have time to adapt to the training and as a result the fitness of the athlete
declines and they are more at risk of becoming ill or injured.
Stages of the Warm up
1. Raising the HR, increasing the speed of oxygen delivery to the muscles and raising body
temperature
2. Mobility or stretching exercises
3. Sport specific or skill related component
Cool Down
A proper cool down prevents unnecessary discomfort after exercise. It involved
performing some kind of light continuous exercise where the heart rate remains elevated
A cool down limits the effects of DOMS (Delayed onset of muscle soreness)
The final part of a cool down should involve a period of stretching activity which should
facilitate and improve flexibility.
Advantages of this method of training is that great distances can be covered without the lactate
build up associated with anaerobic training methods because athletes can go long periods of time
using this method injury to muscles and joints are very common, it can be very monotonous and
not necessarily sport specific for team games.
● Plyometrics
Muscles generate more force when they have been previously stretched. Plyometrics enables this
to occur by taking the muscle through an eccentric phase before a powerful concentric phase
Bounding, hopping, leaping, skipping and push-ups with claps are all examples of this
• SAQ Training
SAQ stands for speed, agility and quickness
Central to this activity are resistance drills, perhaps using bungee ropes, ladder drills to improve
leg speed and jumping activities to improve leg speed and strength
• Mobility Training
A training method employed to improve flexibility
The method of stretching used in mobility training should center on the connective tissue and the
muscle tissue acting upon the joint, as these tissues have been shown to elongate following a
period of regular and repeated stretching
Three types of stretching are:
Active stretching
Passive stretching
Dynamic stretching
• Altitude Training
This is a method of training based on the principle that with an increase in altitude, the partial
pressure of oxygen (pO2) in the atmosphere decreases by half, causing the body to adapt by
increasing red blood cells mass and hemoglobin levels to cope with the lower pO2
Athletes keep the effects of training after returning to sea level
The disadvantages of altitude training is that it is very expensive and altitude training sometimes
causes altitude sickness
• Sociological Aspects of Sports
What is Sport?
“A well established, officially governed competitive physical activity in which participants are
motivated by internal and external rewards”
Sport: competitive games that are won or lost on the basis of physical skills and played according
to specific rules.
• Sports as an Institution
Sports as an institution should be classed as other fundamental institutions (family, economics,
politics, religion, education, communication, law, and healthcare).
Physical games have be played as a part of human culture for thousands of years.
Social changes caused industrial revolution gave rise to modern sports.
Sport as a social institution is distinguished by characteristics such as secularization, equality,
specialization, rationalization, bureaucratization, and quantification
• As recreation
Recreation activities play an important role in communities. Their many benefits include
improving the health and well-being of individuals, contributing to the empowerment of
individuals, and promoting the development of inclusive communities.
Recreation activities may involve individuals, small groups, teams or whole communities and are
relevant to people of all different ages, abilities and levels of skill
The types of recreation activities people participate in vary greatly depending on local context,
and tend to reflect the social systems and cultural values.
• As entertainment
Sports entertainment is a type of spectacle which presents an ostensibly competitive event using
a high level of theatrical flourish and extravagant presentation, with the purpose of entertaining
an audience.
Unlike typical sports, which are conducted for competition, sportsmanship, physical exercise or
personal recreation, the primary product of sports entertainment is performance for an audience's
benefit, thus they are never practiced privately. Commonly, but not in all cases, the outcomes are
predetermined; as this is an open secret, it is not considered to be match fixing.
• As business/industry
The sport industry is a market in which people, activities, business, and organizations involved in
producing, facilitating, promoting, or organizing any activity, experience, or business enterprise
focused on sports
It is the market in which the businesses or products offered to its buyers are sports related and
may be goods, services, people, places, or ideas
• For a healthy nation
Playing sports contributes to muscle development, coordination, cardiovascular health and
numerous other benefits associated with disease prevention
Participation in sport helps ward of chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
cancer, hypertension, obesity, depression and osteoporosis.
Governments around the world have invested heavily into sport to promote a healthier nation,
thus increasing a nation’s life expectancy and reduction of the health bill at public hospitals. A
healthy nation will also encourage the increase in the pensionable age of a nation
• As a legacy
Legacy is about life and living. It's about learning from the past, living in the present, and
building for the future.
Sport leaves a legacy for us to learn from. Past and present sport heroes and teams create a
feeling of pride that nations and fans are able to appreciate and follow. Current teams and fans
feel a sense of pride and strive to emulate or do better than past accomplishments
• Sport theory
What is a theory?
A set of principles on which the practice of an activity is based
Theories help us to ask questions, seek answers, make decisions, and evaluate what we do.
Without theories we lack the frameworks we need to make sense out of life and learn from our
experiences.
• Functionalist Theory
According to functionalism, society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in
harmony to maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the whole. Each of the social
institutions contributes important functions for society.
Sports are studied in terms of their contributions to the system. Research "focuses on positive
outcomes for individuals and society"
This theory is popular because it assumes that shared values and agreement are the basis for
social order. Everyone from the garbage man to the wealthy business man has a part to play, and
when everyone plays his/ her part, the society will function perfectly
Those with power and influence often prefer it because it emphasizes stability and
equilibrium in society
Functionalist theory suggest that sport has 5 major social functions (Stevenson & Nixon 1972):
1. Social emotional- sport assists with managing everyday frustration and helps the athlete
feel part of something
2. Socialization- sports allows us to gain self-discipline and self-control. Values found in
achieving something and team work are also gained.
3. Integration- sport helps us to adapt and adjust positively to group situations and dynamics
(group identification)
4. Political- sport produces national identity and generates national pride
5. Social mobility- sport is an avenue for social mobility through the acquisition of wealth
and prestige
Sport is viewed as having a positive function in society. Among other things, sport:
Transmits cultural values.
Is educational.
Provides a release for physical and psychological pressures.
Provides a feeling of group membership.
Provides a means of social mobility.
Generates a sense of personal competition.
• Herbert Blumer (1969) proposed 3 tenants to explain the symbolic interactionist theory:
1. We act based on the meaning that we give something
2. We give meaning to things based on our social interactions. Persons may view things
differently
3. Meaning can change
• Critical Theories
Society involves cultural production, power relations, & ideological struggles
Sports are social constructions that change as power relations change and as narratives and
discourses change
Research focuses the meaning and organizations of sports, and on sports as sites for cultural
transformation. The relationship between sports and society is never set once and for all. Sports
change as historical conditions and political and economic forces change.
Those who use them assume that sports are more than reflections of society, and they study:
Struggles over the organization & meaning of sports
The narratives and images people use to construct and give meaning to sports
Whose voices and perspectives are used in narratives about sports in society?
How dominant narratives, images, and power relations can be disrupted to promote
progressive changes
Lack clear guidelines for assessing forms of resistance and the value of ideas and actions
in producing social transformation
Have not given enough attention to connections between gender and other categories of
experience
• Figurational Theory
The concept of figurations was developed by the sociologist Norbert Elias to convey the
shifting links between people as the nature and extent of their interdependencies change over
time. It became known as figurational or process sociology
In the figurational theory Elias showed that there are interdependent interlocking parts of
society that goes through processes which brings about change. These processes creates patterns
which we must analyze and understand to bring out change
• Figurational in sports
A view of the relationship between sport and politics that suggests that sport is used to promote
common values held essential for the integration and development of a society. Thus, sport helps
to maintain social order.
Elias believed that an increase in social pressures refined manners and was forcing people to
have more self-control.
This self-control was linked to the decreasing need for participating in or seeing violent acts and
a decrease in pleasure gained from such acts. This is known as “the threshold of repugnance”
The threshold of repugnance decreased and caused a change in sports. “civilization of sports”
The civilizing process can relate to sports in what Elias called “sportization of pastimes”
This occurred when more refined classes started to emerge.
Norms - Set of beliefs, feelings, and attitudes commonly shared by group members.
Roles - the various parts played by group members.
Status - Status is “a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by
others.”
Cohesiveness – Social and Task cohesion
1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
5. Adjourning
“Group dynamics is concerned with the interactions or forces among group members in a
social situation.”
The members of the group must have a strong sense of belonging to the group
The barrier between the leaders and those to be led must be broken down.
The more attraction a group is to its members, the greater influence it would exercise on
its members.
The greater the prestige of the group member in the eyes of other members, the greater
influence that member can exercise on the group.
The successful efforts to change individuals participation in the group would result in
making them confirm to the norms of the group.
A strong pressure for change can be established in the group by creating a shared
perception by the members for that need for change.
• Fandom
Fandom can be defined or explained as the state of being a fan or all that encompasses
fan culture and fan behaviour in general, or the study of fans and fan behaviour
A fan is an enthusiastic follower of a sport or entertainment or an enthusiastic admirer (as
of a celebrity)
Sports Fandom - Fandom relates more to the “culture” rather than just liking a team. Fandom is a
source of identity, belonging and passion. Fandom is a subculture composed of fans
characterized by a feeling of empathy and camaraderie with others who share a common interest.
1. Fans tend to identify with a team. Thus, when a team wins or loses, one tends to respond
as if they themselves have won or lost.
2. Fans typically are interested in even minor details of the object(s) of their fandom and
spend a significant portion of their time and energy involved with their interest.
3. Winning can precipitate symptoms of mania as well as a loss of self-control.
4. Through identification and projection, fans are able to personally feel a part of their team.
There is a sense of belonging, both to the team, as well as to other fans of the team.
5. It has been well established that people derive self-esteem benefits from simple
associations with successful others. Strong identification with a specific sports team
provides a buffer from feelings of depression and alienation, and at the same time, fosters
feelings of belongingness and self-worth.
6. Sports fans also desire to involve themselves externally through constant social
interaction with fellow fans
• Youth Sports
Athletic endeavours that provide children (ages 4- 10) and youth (ages 11- 18) with a systematic
sequence of practices and contests.
The father of the Olympics, Baron Pierre de Courbertin, was not too fond of women’s
participation in the Olympics. He excluded them in the first modern Olympics in 1896.
At the turn of the century, many doctors believed that if women took part in sport there was a
strong chance they would become infertile, and it was a common view that sporting women
might even turn into men. Their main role in life was to marry and raise a family.
Concern for the physical strength and stamina of women led to the discouragement of female
participation in more physically intensive sports, and in some cases led to less physically
demanding female versions of male sports. Thus netball was developed out of basketball and
softball out of baseball.
Women have not only taken up roles as athletes in sport, but also as:
Officials
Agents
Sport Announcers
Scouts
Team owners
Club managers
Coaches
• Paralympics
The word “Paralympic” derives from the Greek preposition “para” (beside or alongside) and the
word “Olympic”. Its meaning is that Paralympics are the parallel Games to the Olympics and
illustrates how the two movements exists side-by-side.
• Paralympic Motto
Mind, Body, Spirit
• Paralympic Symbol
The symbol of the Paralympic Games is composed of three "agitos", colored red, blue,
and green, encircling a single point, on a white field. The agito ("I move" in Latin) is a
symbol of movement.
These three colors are the most widely represented in national flags around the world.
The three agitos encircle a center point, to emphasize "bringing athletes from all corners
of the world together and enabling them to compete".
• Special Olympics
The Special Olympics is the world's largest sports organization for children and adults with
intellectual disabilities.
The first Special Olympics games were held in July 1968 at Soldier Field in Chicago. About
1,000 athletes from the U.S. and Canada took part in the one-day event, which was a joint
venture by the Kennedy Foundation and the Chicago Park District.
• Symbol
The Special Olympics logo is based on the sculpture "Joy and Happiness to All the Children of
the World"
• The Motto
Is "let me win, but if I can't win, let me be brave in the attempt.“
• The Mission
Is to provide year-round sports training and athletic competition in a variety of Olympic-type
sports for children and adults with intellectual disabilities.
This gives them continuing opportunities to develop physical fitness, demonstrate courage,
experience joy and participate in a sharing of gifts, skills and friendship with their families, other
Special Olympics athletes and the community.
• Deviance
Any behaviour which differs from the perceived social or legal norm.
a. The “deviant” is someone whose behaviour (notably, not attitudes or beliefs) departs
from established moral standards.
b. It is possible to find examples of behaviour within sport which are considered acceptable
but would be unacceptable in wider society.
• Over-conformity
Over conformity is the act of trying to change who you are by extreme means to try to fit in and
be accepted. Not only is it changing who you are, but it is letting this change consume your life
and control you. People who over conform do not object to societal and institutional rules no
matter the circumstance.
It is possible to move away from the norm without an intention to do harm or break the rules.
This is a situation where an athlete goes too far in conforming to the rules.
1. Someone who trains or plays so hard they injure themselves.
2. Someone who plays when injured, takes risk and make sacrifices (often praised by media)
3. Normal life is neglected for the sport.
Because their actions are within the rules of the game and are simply in an attempt to
win, their deviance from the norm is seen in a positive light.
This form of deviance is harder to control because of the meaning given to sports by those in
control and the set ethics of sports.
According to Caokley (1993), the sport ethic has four core elements:
1. Athletes make sacrifices for the game.
2. Athletes strive for distinction.
3. Athletes accept risk and play through pain.
4. Athletes accept no limits in the pursuit of possibilities.
This view suggests that deviance can be relative, and that deviants are victims of a power system
which makes the rules.
• Absolute Deviancy
The other view of deviancy takes an absolute view of right and wrong, and regards
deviant behavior as morally bankrupt.
There is no special consideration for culture, gender or social class.
The solution is to establish more control by creating more rules and punishing the
perpetrators more successfully and publicly.
• Causes of Deviance
Why does deviance occur?
i. Individuals lacks the moral restraint to resist
ii. Individuals value wining ahead of prospect of punishment
iii. Rewards for winning are so great that people are prepared to risk it.
iv. Deviant behaviour is more common so less socially unacceptable
v. Governing bodies feel less able to punish, owing to commercial interests or fear of being
taken to court.
• Doping
In competitive sports, doping refers to the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs
by athletic competitors, where the term doping is widely used by organizations that regulate
sporting competitions.
• Cheating
Cheating is now expected in sports. Athletes try to win by using steroids and by cheating on drug
tests. Rules are no longer guidelines for the game but rather barriers to be overcome as new
methods of gamesmanship come up. Cheating has become a game within the games.
• Sport and the Media
a. Traditional media: Conventional forms of advertising media such as television, print,
radio, direct mail and outdoor
b. Non-traditional media: New and unorthodox media methods that create striking
advertising experiences that capture interest through their creativity and unpredictably,
hoping to command the attention of unassuming viewers
c. Social media: Innovative and contemporary digital media like the Internet, email, mobile,
blogging and social networking channels.
• Common techniques or skills sport psychologists teach to athletes for improving their
performance.
i. Arousal regulation refers to entering into and maintaining an optimal level of cognitive
and physiological activation in order to maximize performance.
ii. Goal setting is the process of systematically planning ways to achieve specific
accomplishments within a certain amount of time.
iii. Imagery (or motor imagery) can be defined as using multiple senses to create or recreate
experiences in one's mind
iv. Pre-performance routines refer to the actions and behaviors athletes use to prepare for a
game or performance. This includes pregame routines, warm up routines, and actions an
athlete will regularly do, mentally and physically, before they execute the performance.
v. Self-talk refers to the thoughts and words athletes and performers say to themselves,
usually in their minds. Self-talk phrases (or cues) are used to direct attention towards a
particular thing in order to improve focus.
• Careers in sport and exercise psychology
a. Academic Positions- Instructor of sport and exercise psychology at a university, Sport
psychologist for a university athletic department
b. Sport psychologist in private practice- Mental training consultant or sport psychologist
for a professional sport agent, Mental training consultant in private practice
c. Athlete Development- Academic coach, Athlete liaison officer
d. Exercise Psychology- Active living consultant, wellness coach
• Motivation
Motivation is a process of arousal (the level of anxiety) within an organism that helps
direct and sustain behaviour.
Motivation is linked with the concept of homeostasis. If the body develops a need then it
will strive to meet this need.
Physiological needs results in psychological drives.
• Maslow’s 1954 Hierarchy of needs
• Types of Motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation refers to behaviour that is driven by internal rewards. In other words,
the motivation to engage in a behaviour arises from within the individual because it is
intrinsically rewarding.
2. Extrinsic Motivation occurs when an athlete is motivated by external factors. This type of
motivation drives the athlete to do things for tangible or intangible rewards or pressures,
rather than for the fun of it.
3. Amotivation refers to behaviors that are neither internally nor externally based. It is the
relative absence of motivation
• Equity Theory
Adam’s Equity Theory, also known as the Equity Theory of Motivation, was developed in 1963
by John Stacey Adams.
Equity Theory is based on the idea that individuals are motivated by fairness. In simple terms,
equity theory states that if an individual identifies an inequity between themselves and a peer,
they will adjust the work they do to make the situation fair in their eyes.
Equity theory is also based on the premise that athletes will put forth a particular level of effort
that they feel compares to the reward potential.
The HBM was spelled out in terms of four constructs representing the perceived threat and net
benefits:
1. perceived susceptibility: if I play football barefoot I can get injured
2. perceived severity: injury could take me out for the season
3. perceived benefits: using a boots can prevent injury
4. perceived barriers: I do play better barefoot
Some of the popular strategies used by coaches and sport psychologists to motivate students are:
i. positive and negative feedback
ii. reinforcement
iii. social activity
iv. pep talks
• Positive and Negative feedback
Positive feedback is received when a movement is correctly performed and is used to reinforce
the action. Positive feedback can be intrinsic (from within the athlete) or extrinsic (from an
outside source) and is used to motivate performance.
Negative feedback is received when a movement is incorrect in order to prevent the incorrect
action being repeated. Negative feedback can be intrinsic of extrinsic.
• Reinforcement
Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It is based
on “law of effect”, i.e., individual’s behaviour with positive consequences tends to be repeated,
but individual’s behaviour with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows
positive and required behaviour.
Negative Reinforcement- This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative /
undesirable consequences.
• Social Activity
Youth sport participants frequently report social reasons for their involvement in sport such as
wanting to be part of a team or to be with friends (affiliation), and social sources of positive and
negative affect such as social recognition(social status) and parental pressure.
As a social activity sport provides opportunities for interpersonal interaction and the
development of social bonds with significant others.
• Pep talks
Coaches routinely use pep talks to inspire and motivate athletes this is known as “Inspirational
Tactics” in sport.
Research on the influence of pre-game pep talks has also shown increases in team efficacy.
Athletes exposed to an ‘emotional plea’ increased in team efficacy compared to those who
received information about the game or game strategy.
• Goals
A goal is an idea of the future or desired result that a person or a group of people
envisions, plans and commits to achieve.
Goal setting is one of the most important skills taught to athletes in order to help them
achieve optimal performance.
In the strategy of goal setting there are 5 types of goals an athlete can have: subjective
goals, objective goals, outcome goals, performance goals and process goals.
1. Subjective goals are not related to a specific performance in sport; these may be related to
just going out and trying one’s best
2. Objective goals are based on an athlete’s performance. For example, an objective goal of
decreasing time by 2 seconds in the 50-meter freestyle event.
3. Outcome goals are related to winning and losing or specific results of a competition.
Such as a goal to come in first place in the swim meet or to win the state championship.
4. Performance goals refer to one’s actual performance in relation to their own standard of
excellence. For example, athletes may wish to improve their first serve percentage from
50% to 60%,or improve their high jump from 6 feet 4 inches to 6 feet 10 inches
5. Process goals are usually concerned with how an athlete performs a particular skill;
displays a certain technique or carries out a specific strategy. For example, a process
goal in tennis might be to bend your knees when hitting a low shot.
• Types of Goals
There are three types of goals: based on time, focus and topic.
1. Long term goals
2. Short term goals
3. Enabling goals
• Goal Orientation
Task Goal Orientation
The goal is mastery of a particular skill. The task oriented individual continues to work for
mastery of the skill she is working on.
Ego Goal Orientation
Perceived ability is measured as a function of outperforming others as opposed to self-
improvement.
• Goal setting process
Kirschenbaum (1997) has presented the SMART acronym to help athletes set effective goals:
Goals are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and they have a specific Time frame.
SMART(ER) goal setting brings structure and track-ability into your goals and objectives.
i. Specific: What exactly do you want to achieve? The more specific your description, the
bigger the chance you'll get exactly that.
ii. Measurable: Means that you identify exactly what it is you will see, hear and feel when
you reach your goal. It means breaking your goal down into measurable elements. You'll
need concrete evidence.
iii. Attainable: Is your goal attainable? That means investigating whether the goal really is
acceptable to you. You weigh the effort, time and other costs your goal will take against
the profits and the other obligations and priorities you have in life.
iv. Realistic/Relevant: Is reaching your goal relevant to you? Decide for yourself whether
you have the personality for it, or your team has the bandwidth.
v. Timed: Install deadlines, for yourself and your team, and go after them. Keep the timeline
realistic and flexible, that way you can keep morale high.
vi. Evaluate: ensure that your goals are evaluated. By evaluating your goals regularly, you’ll
be much more likely to achieve them.
vii. Review: Simply repeat the process after the evaluation process, going through the
SMARTER model again to set new goals to help you reach your new objectives.
• Goal Setting in Sports
(Locke, 1966, 1968; Locke & Latham, 1990; 2006). They argue that goals influence
performance in four distinct ways: (a) directing attention (b) mobilizing effort, (c) enhancing
persistence, and (d) developing new learning strategies.
• Arousal
Arousal can be defined as – a general mixture of both the physiological and psychological levels
of activity that a performer experiences; these levels vary on a continuum from deep sleep to
intense excitement.
In the context of psychology, arousal is the state of being physiologically alert, awake, and
attentive. Arousal is primarily controlled by the reticular activating system (RAS) in the
brain. Simply put it is being alert, physically and mentally.
The RAS and your arousal level are influenced by a number of different things, such as your
emotions, the foods you eat, and the neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine,
and acetylcholine) in the brain.
This relationship between high or low arousal and performance is described by the Yerkes-
Dodson law. According to this law, performance suffers when arousal is either too high or too
low. There's an optimized level of arousal which will produce optimal performance (optimum
arousal)
When we are aroused we are energized and 'feel alive'. There are three ways that arousal can be
achieved: mentally, emotionally and physically.
1. Cognitive, or intellectual, arousal is about thinking and mental stimulation. This is the
state where we are exploring, learning and discovering interesting things.
2. Affective, or emotional, arousal happens when we are emotionally charged up and feel
passionate about something. We may be angry, excited, scared, joyful or feeling the
stimulation of any other emotion.
3. Physical arousal occurs where our bodies are in a heightened sense of arousal, typically
with adrenaline coursing through our system and activating our muscles. This includes
sexual arousal and the bodily activation we feel when we are engaged in sports.
• Anxiety
Anxiety is a mental state that negatively affects athletic, professional, academic and sexual
performance. It can cause fear and create an inability to concentrate on the activity at hand. It
also has physiological consequences, such as shortness of breath, sweating, a racing heart,
shakiness and dizziness.
• Activation
Activation refers to the energy levels you experience in your body and mind prior to your
performance.
Your level of activation can vary from low (deep sleep) to high (extreme excitement).
Activation involves both a physiological response (for example, increased heart rate) and
cognitive/psychological processes (for example, appraisal of a situation).
Activation levels fall into one of three categories: over-activated, optimal activation and under-
activated.
Activation levels can have both positive and negative effects on your performance if they are not
managed effectively.
• Stress
Stress: a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or demanding
circumstances; an imbalance between that demands that someone feels and his or her feelings of
capability to meet that demand; a stimulus resulting in arousal or a response to a specific
situation.
There are 2 types of stress in sport: Eustress - A positive reaction of a performer to stress,
leading to optimal arousal (good stress) and Distress- When stress becomes too much to bear or
cope with (bad stress).
• Symptoms of Stress
Physiological – Increased Heart Rate, Sweaty Hands, Muscle Tension
Cognitive – Perceptual Changes, Decision Making, Memory, Response Selection
Emotional – Violence, Withdrawal from the sporting situation, Anger
Drive Theory (Hull 1943 and Spence 1966). Drive refers to increased arousal and internal
motivation to reach a particular goal. We have primary drivers (basic needs) and secondary
drivers (money, intimacy, or social approval)
Drive Theory is the relationship between arousal and performance. Increase in arousal is
proportional to increase the performance of the player.
This is a theory of arousal that proposes a linear relationship between arousal and performance
whereas arousal increases so does the quality of performance.
Multi-dimensional Anxiety Theory predicts that an increase in worry has a negative effect on
performance. The theory is based on the premise that anxiety is multidimensional with its two
components (cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety) influencing performance differently.
The theory makes a series of predictions:
i. There will be a negative but linear relationship between cognitive anxiety and
performance
ii. There will be an inverted U relationship between somatic anxiety and performance
iii. Somatic anxiety should decline once performance begins but cognitive anxiety may
remain high if confidence is low
The cognitive component has been defined as the negative expectations and concerns about one's
ability to perform and the possible consequences of failure.
The somatic component is the physiological effects of the anxiety experience, such as an increase
in autonomic arousal with negative physiological effects, like palpitations, tense muscles,
shortness of breath, clammy hands and in some cases even nausea.
• Learning
The major goal of instruction on the field should be to equip the athlete with the type of skills
that are durable and flexible.
Learning, however, must be distinguished from performance, which is what can be observed and
measured during instruction or training.
In sport, we are able to use major theories to better understand our athletes and to apply to
various learning situations. These major theories are: Behaviourism, Cognitive and Social
Learning theory.
• Behaviourism
Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior is
shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement.
Behavioristic approach is based on stimulus-response theories.
Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new
behaviour based on environmental conditions.
In assuming that human behaviour is learned, behaviourists also hold that all behaviours
can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviours; that is, when a behaviour becomes
unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one.
A key element to this theory of learning is the rewarded response. The desired response
must be rewarded in order for learning to take place.
NOTE: It can be difficult to find examples of Classical Conditioning within the sporting world.
Something like a referee blowing the whistle signifying that play should stop is a good example.
The athletes know what to do without having to think about it.
Examples of Operant Conditioning in sport can be situations such as a football shooting practice.
The coach may direct the players to strike the ball into the right side of the goal. If this is done
they are rewarded. The area is then reduced to the top half of the right side, and then maybe the
top right hand corner only. Rewarding this behaviour strengthens the link. In Operant
Conditioning the behaviour is shaped by the coach and the player need not understand why they
are performing like this, just that they will be rewarded if they do it correctly.
Cognitive learning (by Wolfgang Kohler and Edward Tolman) is based on how a person
processes and reasons information. It revolves around many factors, including problem-solving
skills, memory retention, thinking skills and the perception of learned material.
The theory is a broad theory that explains thinking and differing mental processes and
how they are influenced by internal and external factors in order to produce learning in
individuals.
Cognitive learning also known as the Gestalt theory, The word Gestalt in German
language means ‘whole’, ‘total pattern’ or ‘configuration’.
The performer needs to understand the whole problem before performing the skill
correctly. They base their response on their previous experiences and the current situation.
Humans, especially, have the power to see the relationship between things and come up with a
solution.
An example would be the times when we try our best to come up with a solution but are
trials would prove to be fruitless. But suddenly, out of nowhere, a solution would come to us.
This is what Kohler called as insight learning.
The cognitive processes are: observing, categorizing, and forming generalizations about
our environment.
Note: The social learning theory is clearly evident in sport when young athletes mimic their
sporting heroes in style of play, mannerisms, product consumption and dress.
• Learning Skills
There are three different phases in which we learn skills. They are the cognitive phase, the
associative phase and the autonomous phase.
• Cognitive Phase
When learning a new skill we all start at the cognitive phase. At this point we learn how
to perform the skill. We create a mental picture of how the skill is performed. Trainers and
coaches are heavily depended upon as it is difficult to correct your own actions. Trainers and
coaches will:
a. Give clear demonstrations
b. Provide simple instructions
c. Have short periods for practicing
d. Give praise for the correct action
e. Emphasize the technique and not the outcome
• Associative Phase
During the associative stage, students improve their practice and get a feel for the skill.
The proper technique is learnt by this stage so concentration on practicing the skill is important.
Students make fewer errors and they are able to analyse their own movements and make
corrections. Internal feedback from our senses as well as external feedback from the coach is
used to help make corrections. Most athletes do not move beyond this stage.
• Autonomous Phase
Athletes perform the skill automatically during the autonomous stage. More
concentration is given to decisions about strategies and tactics. Watching Brian Lara skilfully and
repeatedly stroke a ball for four runs between fielders is the evidence of this phase. The use of
the coach becomes limited as they are able to detect and deal with their own errors. Coaches
assist with the finer details of the skill such as tactics and mental preparation.
One of the most important aspects of being an effective leader is the ability to influence
others to believe in the mission and the results you want to achieve.
A team can’t win unless there is buy-in on the strategic plan, and it’s the leader’s job to
ensure this happens.
Here are the Seven I’s for influencing others and building a winning team:
1. Identify the results you want.
2. Illustrate your credibility. In order to truly influence others you must demonstrate some
level of credibility so the team is more likely to believe in what you are saying.
3. Invest the time in getting to know the people you wish to influence.
4. Invite them to share their ideas.
5. Investigate options that lead you to common ground, good leaders always find ways to
achieve common ground between team members.
6. Intend an outcome that meets everyone’s needs.
7. Improvise as needed.
• Sources of Power
Power refers to the capacity to influence others. It is a force of influence and authority.
Most leaders wield power, but how power is manifested and used often differs between
leaders.
Downward power occurs when a superior influences subordinates, upward power occurs
when subordinates influence the decisions of the leader.
• Effective leadership
Effective leadership is one key element in the success of a group and virtually anyone can
learn to be an effective leader. It is generally believed that leaders are made, not born.
Sport management as effective leaders require traits such as; motivation, direction, organization,
planning, patience, flexibility, vision, energy, integrity, and people skills.
Coaches are expected to manage, motivate, be positive role models, teach safe and ethical
behaviors and implement a positive learning.
Team Captains as effective leaders require traits such as Interpersonal Relationships skills,
Mentoring and Support skills, Knowledge of Sport, Communication skills, dedication, respect,
decision making skills, self-esteem and confidence.
• Becoming a Leader
Prescribed leaders are those who are given the role of a leader by a higher authority, in
football for example; this could be a coach who is appointed by the FA to coach the England
team.
An emergent leader is an individual who has worked their way up into leadership by
gaining respect and support from the group. An example of an emergent leader is David
Beckham who became a leader of the England team before he was appointed captain; this is
because of his impressive performances and respect he earned from the group.
• Three Traditional Types of Leadership
Autocratic:
The Autocratic coach takes on an authoritative approach where you are "told" rather than "asked.
These types of coaches believe their way of doing things is the only way to succeed.
Democratic:
Democratic leadership, also known as participative leadership, is a type of leadership style in
which members of the group take a more participative role in the decision-making process.
Laissez-Faire:
Laissez-faire leadership, also known as delegative leadership, is a type of leadership style in
which leaders are hands-off and allow group members to make the decisions.
• Theories of Leadership
Multi- dimensional theory:
According to Chelladurai (1984, 1990) there are five types of leadership behaviour:
1. Training and instruction: behaviour is aimed at improving performance
2. Democratic: allows decisions to be made collectively
3. Autocratic: gives the leader personal authority
4. Social support: shows concern for the well-being of others
5. Rewarding: provides team members with positive reinforcement
These behaviours can be measured using the Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS) developed by
Chelladurai and Saleh (1980)
Chelladurai states that there are three factors that affect leader behaviour:
i. Situational characteristics- for example, whether the opposition is weak or strong
ii. Leader characteristics- such as experience, personality, etc.
iii. Group member characteristics- including age, gender and experience of the members.
There are also three types of leader behaviour:
1. Required behaviour: what the situation requires the leader to do
2. Actual behaviour: what the leader actually does, which depends upon the above
characteristics
3. Preferred behaviour: what the team members want the leader to do.
• Group Dynamics
A group is defined as “two or more people who are interacting with one another in such a manner
that each person influences and is influenced by each other person” (M.E. Shaw 1976).
Team is defined as a group of people with different skills and different tasks, who work together
on a common project, service, or goal, with a meshing of functions and mutual support.
• Social Cohesion
Cohesion acts as glue that binds and bonds individuals to a group identity and cause. Cohesion is
defined as the total field of forces that cause members to remain in a group. Cohesion comprises
both task cohesion and social cohesion:
Task Cohesion: refers to the degree to which members of a group work together to achieve
common goals, for example, to win a specific game.
Social Cohesion: reflects the degree to which members of a team like each other and interact
accordingly.
• Group Dynamics
The dynamic within the group is also an important consideration in building group
cohesion. Group cohesion is defined as “a measure of the extent to which a group works together
socially or to complete a task”. Group dynamics describes the processes within a group and
between the members of the group. This can also be described as the energy the group exhibits.
Successful groups with a dynamic have "chemistry”.
Group dynamics depends on individual personalities, but can be the product of leadership
and cohesion within a group. A clear goal and the nurturing of personalities all contribute to the
dynamic within a group.
1. Environmental factors: that binds players together are age, club membership, location etc
2. Personal factors: belief in the group, a desire to win, the social relationships within a
community etc.
3. Leadership factors: the influence of the coach or manager in building identity and affiliation
through task and social cohesion factors
4. Team factors: in relation to the group as a whole, its identity, targets set, the ability and role
of each member of the group.
• Social Facilitation
Social facilitation (Triplett 1898), or the audience effect, is the tendency for people to
perform better when in the presence of others than when alone. Compared to their performance
when alone, when in the presence of others, they tend to perform better on simple or well-
rehearsed tasks and worse on complex or new ones.
It can be defined as ‘an increase in performance produced by the mere presence of
others’. There are two types of social facilitation: co-action effects and audience effect.
Beliefs are convictions that are held as true by an individual or group, and these convictions often
influence the actions of the person that holds them.
A value is about what a person finds to be important and wants to be doing with his or her life.
Values refer to the ideologies that specific individuals and communities feel are the most
important. Values are chosen consequences that can never be fulfilled. Rather, they serve as
motivation for certain behavioural directions.
Morals are codes of conduct that has been established and agreed upon by the majority of a
society. They are standards of behaviour; principles of right and wrong.
Ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect how people make decisions and lead their
lives. Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as
moral philosophy.
BELIEFS are those things you hold to be true. Given those beliefs your estimation of the
relative importance of the "true things" are your VALUES. MORALS are a generalized feeling,
based on your values, of what is 'right' and 'wrong'. ETHICS arise when you try to codify
(organize) your morals in concrete terms.
• Moral Development
Morality - Recognition of the distinction between good and evil or between right and wrong;
respect for and obedience to the rules of right conduct; the mental disposition or characteristic of
behaving in a manner intended to produce good results
Sports are one arena in which moral development can occur. Such development happens by way
of both imitation and initiation.
A child learns how to play soccer by imitating those who are good at the sport. Similarly,
a child can learn how to be virtuous by imitating those who are morally good.
Pre-conventional morality:
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation - focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and
avoid being punished. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the
perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation - expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right
behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. It shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s
own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but
rather a “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours” mentality.
Conventional morality:
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation - children want the approval of others and act in ways
to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation - the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of
their importance in maintaining a functioning society.
Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is
“supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important.
Post-conventional morality:
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation - the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights,
and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
number of people.
Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.
• Ethics In Sports
What factors contribute to a decline in ethical behaviour?
i. Pressure to win at any cost. Players, coaches and managers jobs rely on producing
results, not on producing narrow defeats.
ii. Huge contracts and fame available to elite players.
iii. Unrealistic expectations from the fans, coaches and club owners put added pressure
onto the players to perform at a higher level.
iv. Ethical issues and the athlete
v. Cheating- Receiving a reward for ability or finding an easy way out of an unpleasant
situation by dishonest means. It is generally used for the breaking of rules to gain
unfair advantage in a competitive situation.
vi. Doping- The use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic
competitors, where the term doping is widely used by organizations that regulate
sporting competitions. It also refers to infusing, injecting or the use of any banned
foreign particle with the sole/ major aim of increasing sporting performance
vii. Gamesmanship- The use of aggressive or dubious tactics, such as psychological
intimidation or disruption of concentration, to gain an advantage over one's opponent
while still observing the rules in a sport or game. The use of expedients or morally
questionable acts to gain an advantage.
viii. Deviance- Behaviour that falls outside the norms or outside what is deemed to be
acceptable. Positive deviance is behaviour that is outside the norm but with no
intention to harm or break the rules (overtraining, sacrificing family life
playing when injured). Negative deviance is behaviour that goes against the norm and
has a detrimental effect on individuals and on society in general (Drugs, cheating,
bribery, hooliganism, illegal betting, corruption/ bungs and player violence.
ix. Commercialisation- That aspect of the sports enterprise that involves the sale, display,
or use of sport or some aspect of sport so as to produce income, in course to make the
sport better or more world class.