PAUL NIÑO S.

LAGARE

CHAPTER 1
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS

1. Define the following fluid properties:

 Density or Mass density- is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its
volume. Thus, mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted by
the symbol (rho).

 Weight density or Specific Weight- is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to
its volume. Thus, weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density and it is
denoted by the symbol w.

 Specific Volume- is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or

volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume.

 Specific Gravity- is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a
fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. It is dimensionless
quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.

2. Differentiate between:

 (i) Liquids and gases,

 (ii) Real fluids and ideal fluids,

 (iii) Specific weight and specific volume of a fluid.

Liquids and gases- gas are well separated with no regular arrangement while liquid are close
together with no regular arrangement

Real fluids and ideal fluids- Ideal fluid do not actually exist in nature, but sometimes used for
fluid flow problems while Real fluid is a Fluid that have viscosity(μ > 0) and their motion known
as viscous flow.

Specific weight and specific volume of a fluid- the specific volume of a substance is the
proportion of the substance's volume to its mass while the particular weight (otherwise called the
unit weight) is the weight per unit volume of a material.

3. What is the difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity? State their
units of measurements.
Dynamic viscosity (also known as absolute viscosity) is the measurement of the
 fluid’s internal resistance to flow. The unit of measure for dynamic viscosity is Centipoise (cP).
On the other hand, kinematic viscosity refers to the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density. The
unit of measure of kinematic viscosity is Centistokes (cSt).

4. Explain the terms:

 (i) Dynamic viscosity, and
 (ii) Kinematic viscosity.
 Give their dimensions.

 Dynamic viscosity- is the force needed by a fluid to overcome its own internal molecular
friction so that the fluid will flow. Dynamic viscosity is also referred as absolute viscosity in
the field of fluid mechanics. The dimensions of dynamic viscosity are force × time ÷ area.

 Kinematic viscosity- is a measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow under gravitational

forces. It is determined by measuring the time in seconds, required for a fixed volume of fluid
to flow a known distance by gravity through a capillary within a calibrated viscometer at a
closely controlled temperature. The dimension is L2T -1 and the unit’s m2 s−1.

5. State the Newton’s Law of viscosity gives examples of its application.

Newton's law of viscosity states that “shear stress is directly proportional to velocity
gradient”. The shear stress between the two adjacent layers of fluid is directly proportional to the
negative value of the velocity gradient between the same two adjacent fluid layers. For example,
a solid body moving through a gas has to overcome a certain resistance which depends on the
relative velocity between fluid and solid, the shape of the solid, the density of the gas and its
viscosity.

6. Enunciate Newton’s law of viscosity. Explain the importance of viscosity in fluid

motion. What is the effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air?

Viscosity is the physical property that characterizes the flow resistance of simple fluids. The
viscosity is an intensive property of a fluid that measures its internal resistance to motion or
deformation. It plays an important role in areas such as aerodynamics and reservoir engineering
since it determines the nature of the flow of a given fluid, such as air, water or oil. The former
effect causes a decrease in the shear stress while the latter
Causes it to increase. The result is that liquids show a reduction in viscosity with increasing
temperature. With high temperatures, viscosity increases in gases and decreases in liquids, the
drag force will do the same.

7. Define Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids.

A fluid, whose viscosity does not change with the rate of deformation or shear stain
(V/Y), is called Newtonian fluid while a fluid, whose viscosity changes with the rate of
deformation or shear stain (V/Y), is called Non-Newtonian fluid.

8. What do you understand by terms?

 Isothermal process,
 Adiabatic process, and
 Universal-gas constant.

 Isothermal process- process is a type of thermodynamic process in which the temperature

of the system remains constant: ΔT = 0.

 Adiabatic process- is a type of thermodynamic process which occurs without transferring

heat or mass between the system and its surroundings.

 Universal-gas constant- the gas constant is denoted by the symbol R or R. It is equivalent

to the Boltzmann constant, but expressed in units of energy per temperature increment per
mole, i.e. The p r e s s u r e –volume p r o d u c t , rather t h a n e n e r g y p e r temperature
increment per particle.

9. Define compressibility. Prove that compressibility for a perfect gas undergoing

isothermal compression is 1/ ρ while for a perfect gas undergoing isentropic compression is
1/wρ.

Compressibility is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a

response to a pressure change.
10. Define surface tension. Prove that the relationship between surface tension and
pressure inside a droplet of liquid in excess of outside pressure is given by p= 4 σ /d.

Surface tension is the tendency of liquid surfaces to shrink into the minimum surface area
possible. Surface tension allows insects, usually denser than water, to float and slide on a water surface.
Chapter 2
Theoretical Problems

1. Define pressure. Obtain an expression for the pressure intensity at a point in a field.

Pressure is defined as the physical force exerted on an object. The force applied is
perpendicular to the surface of objects per unit area. The basic formula for pressure is F/A (Force
per unit area). Unit of pressure is Pascals (Pa).

2. State and prove the Pascal’s law.

If some pressure is applied at any point of incompressible liquid then the same pressure is
transmitted to all the points of liquid and on the walls of the container. Let us imagine an
arbitrary right angled prismatic volume in the liquid of density ρ in equilibrium as shown in
figure.

3. What do you understand by Hydrostatic Law?

A Hydrostatics Law state that rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward

direction in fluid/liquid is equal to weight density of the liquid. To prove that. Consider a three
dimensional fluid element at rest along with the forces acting on it as shown in fig.

4. Differentiate between;
 Absolute and gauge pressure,
 Simple manometer and differential manometer, and
 Piezometer and pressure gauges.
  Absolute and gauge pressure- the simplest way to explain the difference between
the two is that absolute pressure uses absolute zero as its zero point, while gauge pressure
uses atmospheric pressure as its zero point. Due to varying atmospheric pressure,
gauge pressure measurement is not precise, while absolute pressure is always definite.

 Simple manometer and differential manometer- Simple manometer has only

one liquid whereas, Differential manometer has two or more liquids. Differential manometer
differentiates between the pressure of two place and give the results as the measurement.

 Piezometer and pressure gauges- A piezometer tube cannot be used for

measuring negative or vacuum pressures. Pressure Gauge- Pressure gauges are mechanical
gauges, which embody an elastic element, that deflects under the action of the applied
pressure, and this movement when mechanically magnified, operates a pointer Fig.

5. What do you mean by vacuum pressure?

Vacuum can refer to any pressure between 0 PSIA and 14.7 PSIA and consequently must
be further defined. For applications concerned with measuring vacuum pressures over this full
range, two different approaches are often taken. Vacuum pressure is measured relative to
ambient atmospheric pressure.

6. What is a manometer? How are they classified?

Manometers are devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid, by
balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of fluid. Manometers are classified
as: Simple manometers. Piezometer.

7. What do you mean by single column manometer? How are they used for the
measurement of pressure?

Single column manometer is one modified form of U-Tube manometer. Pressure will be
measured at a point in the fluid by connecting the single column manometer with the container
filled with liquid whose pressure needs to be measured. Rise of liquid in right limb of glass tube
will provide the pressure head.
8. What is the difference between U-tube differential manometer and inverted U-tube
differential manometers? Where are they used?

Inverted U-Tube manometer is employed for the measuring of tiny pressure differences
in liquids. Inverted U-tube differential manometer are used for mensuration the vacuum pressure.
Inverted U-tube differential manometer can have one inverted U- tube contained with light-
weight liquid.

9. Distinguish between manometer and mechanical gauges. What are the different
types of mechanical pressure gauges?

A manometer is an instrument that is used to indicate and measure the pressure by using a
column of liquid. A mechanical gauge or a mechanical manometer provides a rapid and quicker
response when compared to the liquid manometers. They are used for reading higher pressure
ranges.

10. Derive an expression for the pressure at a height Z from sea-level for a static air when
the compression of the air is assured isothermal. The pressure and temperature at sea-
levels are ρo and To respectively.

Chapter 3
Theoretical Problems

1. What do you understand by Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure?

The total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface (either
plane or curved) when the fluid comes in contact with the surface. This force is always normal
to the surface. The centre of pressure is defined as the point of
application of the resultant pressure on the surface.

2. Derive an expression for the force exerted on a sub-merged vertical plane surface by
the static liquid and locate the position of centre of pressure.

3. Prove that the centre of pressure of a completely sub-merged plane surface is always
below the centre of gravity of the sub-merged surface or at most coincide with the centre of
gravity when the plane surface is horizontal.

4. Prove that the total pressure exerted by a static liquid on an inclined plane sub- merged
surface is the same as the force exerted on a vertical plane surface as long as the depth of
the center of gravity of the surface is unaltered.

5.Derive an expression for the depth of center of pressure from free surface of liquid of
an inclined plane surface sub-merged in the liquid.

6. (a). How would you determine the horizontal and vertical components of the
resultant pressure on a sub-merged curved surface?

(b). Explain the procedure of finding hydrostatic forces on curved surfaces.

7. Explain how you would find the resultant pressure on a curved immersed in a liquid.

8. Why the resultant pressure on a curved sub-merged surface is determined by first

finding horizontal and vertical forces on the curved surface? Why is the same method not
adopted for a plane inclined surface sub-merged in a liquid?

9. Describe briefly with sketches the various methods used for measuring pressure
exerted by fluids.

10. Prove that the vertical component of the resultant pressure on sub-merged curved
surface is equal to the weight of the liquid supported by the curved surface.

Chapter 4
Theoretical Problems
1. Define the terms buoyancy and center of buoyancy.

The center of buoyancy for an object is the center of mass for the fluid it displaces. When

a boat, for example, is floating in the water, the object's weight and the buoyant force exerting on

the boat are equal, and those forces are acting through the center of buoyancy and the center of

mass.

2. Explain the terms meta-center and meta-centric height.

 The vertical distance between G and M is referred to as the metacentric height. Even

with negative metacentric height, ships with certain forms can still find a position of stable

equilibrium at an angle of heel called angle of loll. The angle of loll should be corrected only

by lowering the gravity center.

3. Derive an expression for the meta-centric height of a floating body.

The metacentric height (GM) is a measurement of the initial static stability of a floating

body. It is calculated as the distance between the centre of gravity of a ship and its metacentre.

4. Show that the distance between the meta-center and center of buoyancy is given by
I
BM=
∀

where I=moment of inertia of the plan of the floating body at water surface about longitudinal

axis.

∀= volume of the body sub-merged in liquid.

5. What are the conditions of equilibrium of a floating body and a sub-merged body?

A floating or submerged body is said to be stable if it comes back to its original position

after giving a slight disturbance. The condition of stability of these bodies depends on the position

of its metacentre, centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity.

6. How will you determine the meta-centric height of a floating body experimentally?

Explain with neat sketch.

The metacentric height (GM) is a measurement of the initial static stability of a floating

body. It is calculated as the distance between the centre of gravity of a ship and its metacentre.

7. Select the correct statement:

 (a) The buoyant force for a floating body passes through the

(b) A body sub-merged in liquid is in equilibrium when:

8. Derive an expression for the time period of the oscillation of a floating body in terms of

radius of gyration and meta-centric height of the floating body.

9. Define the terms:

 Meta-centre,

 Center of buoyancy,

 Meta-centric height,

 Gauge pressure and

 Absolute Pressure.

 Meta-centre- Metacentre, also spelled metacenter, in fluid mechanics, the theoretical point at

which an imaginary vertical line passing through the centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity

intersects the imaginary vertical line through a new centre of buoyancy created when the body is

displaced, or tipped, in the water, however little.

 Center of buoyancy- the center of buoyancy is the point where if you were to take all of the

displaced fluid and hold it by that point it would remain perfectly balanced, assuming you could

hold a fluid in a fixed shape. This point is also called the center of mass.

 Meta-centric height- the metacentric height is a measurement of the initial static stability of a

floating body. It is calculated as the distance between the centre of gravity of a ship and its

metacentre. A larger metacentric height implies greater initial stability against overturning.

 Gauge pressure- gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge

pressure is positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures below

it. In fact, atmospheric pressure does add to the pressure in any fluid not enclosed in a rigid

container.
 Absolute pressure- is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure. For reasons we

will explore later, in most cases the absolute pressure in fluids cannot be negative. Fluids

push rather than pull, so the smallest absolute pressure is zero.

10. What do you understand by the hydrostatic equation? With the help of this equation,

derive the expression for the buoyancy force acting on a sub-merged body.

∂z = −gρ. This is the hydrostatic equation. The negative sign ensures that the pressure

decreases with increasing height. That is, the pressure at height z is equal to the weight of the

air in the vertical column of unit cross-sectional area lying above that level.

Chapter 5
Theoretical Problems
1. What are the methods of describing fluid flow?

There are two ways to describe the fluid motion. One is called Lagrangian, where one

follows all fluid particles and describes the variations around each fluid particle along its

trajectory. The other is Eulerian, where the variations are described at all fixed stations as a

function of time.

2. Explain the terms;

 Path Line
 Streak Line
 Stream Line
 Stream Tube

 Path line- are the trajectories that individual fluid particles follow. These can be thought of as

"recording" the path of a fluid element in the flow over a certain period. The direction the path

takes will be determined by the streamlines of the fluid at each moment in time.

 Streak line- is a curved line formed by a string of fluid particles which have passed through a

certain point. An example of a streakline is the trail of smoke from a chimney. Figure 3.5:

Streakline. A pathline is a path which a fluid particle traces.

 Stream Line- the path of imaginary particles suspended in the fluid and carried along with it.

In steady flow, the fluid is in motion but the streamlines are fixed.

 Stream tube- is a line that is tangential to the instantaneous velocity direction (velocity is a

vector, and it has a magnitude and a direction). To visualize this in a flow, we could imagine the

motion of a small marked element of fluid.

3. Distinguish between;

(i). Steady flow and un-steady flow

A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-

section) may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time on the other hand if at any

point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is described as unsteady.

(ii). Uniform and turbulent flow

A uniform flow has the same velocity everywhere. Turbulence refers to small scale

random motions superimposed on the gross flow field. It could have the same velocity

everywhere - on average. It might also be very non-uniform.

(iii). Compressible and incompressible flow

When a fluid flow is compressible, the fluid density varies with its pressure. The key

differentiation between compressible and incompressible is the velocity of the flow. A fluid such

as air that is moving slower than Mach 0.3 is considered incompressible, even though it is a

gas.

(iv). Rotational and irrational flow

Rotational flow is when the particles of fluids are all rotating about their own axis in

addition to their other movement. Irrational flow is when the individual particles are not rotating

around their axis.

(v). Laminar and turbulent flow

Laminar flow or streamline flow in pipes (or tubes) occurs when a fluid flows in parallel

layers, with no disruption between the layers. Turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by

chaotic property changes

4. Define the following and give one practical example for each;

 Laminar Flow- is characterized by fluid particles following smooth paths in

layers, with each layer moving smoothly past the adjacent layers with little or no mixing.

 Turbulent Flow- is fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and

flow velocity. It is in contrast to a laminar flow, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel

layers, with no disruption between those layers.

 Steady Flow- a flow in which the velocity of the fluid at a particular fixed point

does not change with time. — called also stationary flow. — compare uniform flow.

 Uniform Flow- fluid flowing into different parts of the fracture surface with equal

flow velocity per unit area.

5. Define the equation of continuity. Obtain an expression for continuity equation for a

three-dimensional flow.

The equation of continuity is simply a mass balance of a fluid flowing through a stationary

volume element. It states that the rate of mass accumulation in this volume

element equals the rate of mass in minus the rate of mass out.

Mass of fluid entering the face ABCD per second = Density x

velocity in x direction x Area ABCD

Mass of fluid entering the face ABCD per second = ρ x u x

dy.dz = ρ u dy.dz
Mass of fluid leaving the face EFGH per second = (ρ u dy.dz) + (∂ / ∂x) (ρ u dy.dz) dx

6. What do you understand by the term;

 Total Acceleration- is the vector sum of the tangential and centripetal accelerations, which

are perpendicular.

 Convective Acceleration- is defined as the acceleration due to convection or movement of

the fluid particle to a different part of the flow field.

 Local Acceleration- is defined as the rate of. change of velocity with respect to time at a

given point in a flow field.

7. A. Define the terms;

Velocity Potential Function- is a function whose gradient is equal to the velocity vector.

Stream Function- is defined for incompressible flows in two dimensions – as well as in

three dimensions with axisymmetric. The flow velocity components can be expressed as the

derivatives of the scalar stream function.

B. What are the conditions for flow to be irrotational?

Kelvin's theorem implies that irrotational flow will remain irrotational if the following

four restrictions are satisfied: There are no net viscous forces along C. If C moves into regions

where there are net viscous forces such as within a boundary layer that forms on a solid surface,

then the circulation changes.

8. What do you mean by equipotential line and line of constant stream function?

The streamlines ψ and equipotential lines Φ are mutually perpendicular to each other. The

stream lines are so spaced that rate of flow Q is same between each successive pair of lines. The

stream lines in flow net show the direction of flow and the
equipotential lines join the points the equal velocity potential Φ. 9.(a).

Describe the use and limitations of the flow nets.

The flow net analysis cannot be applied in the region closed to the boundary

where the effects of viscosity are predominant. The flow net is not applied to sharply diverging

flow , as the actual flow pattern is not represented by the flow net.

(b). Under what condition can one draw flow net?

Flow nets are drawn based on the boundary conditions only. They are independent of the

permeability of soil and the head causing flow. The space formed between two flow lines and

two equipotential lines is called a flow field. It should be in a square form.

10. Define the terms;

Vortex Flow- Vortices are an important part of turbulent flow. Vortices can otherwise be

known as a circular motion of a liquid. In the cases of the absence of forces, the liquid settles.

This makes the water stay still instead of moving. When they are created, vortices can move,

stretch, twist and interact in complicated ways.

Forced Vortex Flow- is caused by external forces on the fluid. It can be created by rotating

a vessel containing fluid or by paddling in fluid. Rotational flow created by impellers of a pump

is an example of a forced vortex in turbomachinery.

Free Vortex Flow- is formed when water flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the

base. The degree of the rotation depends on the initial disturbance. In a free cylindrical vortex,

the velocity varies inversely with the distance from the axis of rotation.

Chapter 6
Theoretical Problems
1. Name the different forces present in a fluid flow. For the Euler’s equation of motion,
which forces are taken into consideration?
 For the fluid flow problems, the forces acting on the fluid mass may be any one, or a
combination of the several of the following forces: Inertia force, Fi. Viscous force, Fv. Gravity
force, Fg.

In the Euler's equation of motion the forces due to the gravity and pressure are taken into
consideration. This derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a stream line
flow. Pressure force =(P + (∂p/∂s × ds)) × dA.

2. What is Euler’s equation of motion? How will you obtain Bemouli’s equation form
it?

Euler's laws of motion are equations of motion which extend Newton's laws of motion for
point particle to rigid body motion. They were formulated by Leonhard Euler about 50 years
after Isaac Newton formulated his laws.

For an incompressible fluid, ρ is constant. This is the required form of Bernoulli's

equation or energy equation, where each term represents the energy head means energy per unit
weight of the fluid.

3. Derive Bernouli’s equation for the flow of an incompressible frictionless fluid from
consideration of momentum.

4. State Bernouli’s theorem from steady flow of an incompressible fluid. Derive an

expression for Bernouli’s theorem from first principle and state the assumptions
made for such a derivation.

It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point
of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential
energy or datum energy.

5. What is a venture meter? Derive an expression for the discharge through a

Venture meter.

Venture meter is a type of flow meter that works on the principle of Bernoulli's Equation.
This device is widely used in the water, chemical, pharmaceutical, and oil & gas industries to
measure the flow rates of fluids inside a pipe.

d1 = Diameter at section 1 (Inlet section) P1

= Pressure at section 1 (Inlet section)
v1 = Velocity of fluid at section 1 (Inlet section) a 1 =
2
Area at section 1 (Inlet section) = (П/4) x d1 d2 =
Diameter at section 2
P2 = Pressure at section 2
v2 = Velocity of fluid at section 2 a2 =
2
Area at section 2 = (П/4) x d2

6. Explain the principle of venturimeter with a neat sketch. Derive the expression for
the rate of flow of fluid through it.

Venturimeter works on the principle of Bernoulli's equation i.e when velocity increases
pressure decreases . Cross section of throat is less than cross section of inlet pipe. Since the
cross -section decreases from inlet pipe to throat, the velocity of the fluid increases and hence the
pressure decreases.

7. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of venturimeter with respect to orifice-
meter.

Advantages of venturi meter:

  Less chance of getting stuck with sediment.

 The discharge coefficient is high.

 Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly.

 It can be installed vertically, horizontally, inclined.

 They are more precise and can be used for a wide range of flows.

 About 90% of the pressure drop can be recovered.

Disadvantages of venturi meter:

 They are large in size and, therefore, where space is limited, they can not be used.

 Initial costs, installation and expensive maintenance.

 Requires a long placement length. That is, the venturi meter must be driven by a straight
tube that has no connections or misalignments to avoid turbulence in the flow, for
satisfactory operation.

 It can not be used in pipes of less than 7.5 cm in diameter.

 Maintenance is not easy.

 It can not be modified to measure the pressure beyond a maximum speed

8. Define an orifice-meter. Prove that the discharge through an orifice-meter is given

by the relation

An orifice meter consists of a flat plate that has a sharp-edged hole accurately machined
in it and placed concentrically in a pipe as shown in Figure 12.4. As liquid flows through the
pipe, the flow suddenly contracts as it approaches the orifice and then suddenly expands after the
orifice back to the full pipe diameter. This forms a vena contracta or a throat immediately past
the orifice. This reduction in flow pattern at the vena contracta causes increased velocity and
hence lower pressure at the throat, similar to the venturi meter.
9. What is the pilot-tube? How will you determine the velocity at any point with the help
of pilot-tube?

A pitot tube, also known as pitot probe, is a flow measurement device used to measure
fluid flow velocity. The pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the early
18th century and was modified to its modern form in the mid-19th century by French scientist
Henry Darcy.

For a fluid with known density and measured difference between stagnation pressure and
static pressure (ΔP), as measured with a pitot tube, the fluid velocity can be calculated with the
equation: V = (2ΔP/ρ)1/2.

10. What is the difference between pilot-tube and pilot-static tube.

A pitot tube measures pitot pressure and pitot pressure only. A separate static port is
required to measure static pressure (Ps) and will usually be located on a section of the fuselage
where airflow is minimized. A pitot-static port is a combination pitot AND static port.
Chapter 7
(A) Theoretical Problems

1. Define an orifice and a mouthpiece. What is the difference between the two?

An orifice is an opening made in the side or bottom of tank, having a closed perimeter,
through which the fluid may be discharged. A mouthpiece is short tube fitted to a same size
circular opening provided in a tank so that fluid may be discharged through it.

2. Explain the classification of orifices and mouthpiece based on their shape, size
and sharpness?
Classification based on shape: Orifices are classified into small orifice and large orifice
depending upon the size of orifice and head of fluid in that orifice. Small orifice is the one in
which has the head of fluid from the centre of orifice is more than five times the depth of orifice.

3. What are hydraulic co-efficients? Name them.

Hydraulic Coefficients include Coefficient of contraction, Coefficient of velocity,
Coefficient of discharge and Coefficient of resistance.

4. Define the following co-efficients:

 Co-efficient of velocity- the ratio of actual velocity of the jet, at vena-contracta, to the
theoretical velocity is known as coefficient of velocity. , where h is the head of water at
vena-contracta. increases with the head of water.
 Co-efficient of contraction- the coefficient of contraction is defined as the ratio between
the area of the jet at the vena contracta and the area of the orifice The typical value may
be taken as 0.611 for a sharp orifice (concentric with the flow channel). The smaller the value, the
more effect the vena contracta has.
 Co-efficient of discharge- in a nozzle or other constriction, the discharge coefficient (also
known as coefficient of discharge or efflux coefficient) is the ratio of the actual discharge
to the theoretical discharge, i.e., the ratio of the mass flow rate at the discharge end of
the nozzle to that of an ideal nozzle which expands an identical .

5. Derive the expression

6. Define vena-contracta.
Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where the diameter of the stream is the least,
and fluid velocity is at its maximum, such as in the case of a stream issuing
out of a nozzle. It is a place where the cross section area is minimum.
7. Differentiate between a large and a small orifice. Obtain an expression for
discharge through a large rectangular orifice.
Small orifice is the one in which has the head of fluid from the centre of orifice is more
than five times the depth of orifice. Also the large orifice is the one which has the head is less
than five times the depth of orifice.

Discharge Through A Large Rectangular Orifice

H1 = Height of water above the top of the orifice on the upstream side H2 =
Height of water above the bottom of the orifice
H = Difference in level of water b
= Width of the orifice
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
8. What do you understand by the terms wholly sub-merged orifice and partially sub-
merged orifice?
Fully submerged orifice is one which has its whole of the outlet side submerged under
liquid so that it discharges a jet of liquid in to the liquid of the same kind. Fully submerged
orifice is also called as totally drowned orifice. Coefficient of contraction for fully submerged
orifice will be equivalent to 1 while Partially submerged orifice is the one which has its outlet
side partially submerged under liquid.

9. Prove that the expression for discharge through an external mouthpiece is given by

10. Distinguish between:

(i.) External mouthpiece and internal mouthpiece
An external mouthpiece consists of a short length of pipe fitted externally, to the orifice.
The discharge through the orifice can be increased by fitting an external mouthpiece. Internal
cylindrical mouthpiece is also known as Borda s mouthpiece. Mouthpiece tube is about 3 times
its diameter, the liquid jet after contraction in the tube touches the internal walls of the tube.
(ii). Mouthpiece running free and mouthpiece running full.
 A mouthpiece is used to measure discharge. Running free: Water jet after contraction in
mouthpiece does not touches pipe internal walls. Running full: Water jet after contraction in
mouthpiece touches pipe internal walls.

Chapter 8
(A) Theoretical Problems
1. Define the terms:
 Notch- is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a small channel
or a tank. It may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or vessel such as liquid
surface in the tank is below the level of opening.
  Weir- is a concrete or masonry structure which is constructed across the open channel
(such as a river) to change its water flow characteristics. Weirs are constructed as an
obstruction to flow of water. These are commonly used to measure the volumetric rate of
water flow, prevent flooding and make rivers navigable.
 Nappe- is a sheet or curtain of water that flows over a weir or dam. The upper and lower
water surface have well-defined characteristics that are created by the crest of a dam or
weir.
 Crest- the sheet of water flowing through a notch or over a weir is known as nappe or
vein. The bottom edge of the notch or the top of a weir over which water flows is known
as sill or crest. The height above the bottom of the tank or channel is known as crest
height.

2. How are the weirs and notches classified?

A notch is generally meant to measure the flow of water from a tank. A weir is also a
notch but it is made on a large scale. The weir is a notch cut in a dam to discharge the surplus
quantity of water. A notch is usually made of metal plate whereas a weir is made of masonry or
concrete.

3. Find an expression for the discharge over a rectangular weir in terms of head of
water over the crest of the weir.

4. Prove that the discharge through a triangular notch or weir is given by

5. What are the advantages of triangular notch or weir over rectangular notch?
A triangular notch gives much more accurate results in low discharge conditions, as
compared to the conventional rectangular notch. Also, only one reading (the head) is required to
calculate the discharge rate, making calculations much easier. However, it cannot handle large
volumes of flow rate accurately.

6. Prove that the error in discharge due to the error in the measurement of head over a

rectangular notch is given by

7. Find an expression for the time required to empty a tank of area of cross-section A. with a
rectangular notch.

8. What do you understand by “Velocity of Approach”? Find an expression for the

discharge over a rectangular weir with velocity of approach.
The average velocity of water in a channel at the point where the depth over a flow
measuring weir is recorded. The discharge over a rectangular weir, considering the velocity of
approach, is (whereH1 = H + Ha = Total height of water above the weir, H = Height of water
over the crest of the weir, and Ha = Height of water due to velocity of approach)

9. Define “end contraction” of a weir. What is the effect of end contraction on the
discharge through a weir?
 An end contraction is when the length of the weir (L) is less than the width of the
Channel and a nappe contracts either one or both sides of the weir. The effective length of the
weir in SWMM 5 is: L = Original Length - Number of End Contractions * Head over the Weir.

10. What is a Cipolletti Weir? Prove that the discharge through Cipolletti weir is
given

by
Cipolletti Weir a weir that is trapezoidal in shape with the sides inclining outward
from the base.

Chapter 9
Theoretical Problems
1. Define the terms:
Viscosity- viscosity, resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape, or
movement of neighbouring portions relative to one another. Viscosity denotes opposition to
flow. The reciprocal of the viscosity is called the fluidity, a measure of the ease of flow.
Molasses, for example, has a greater viscosity than water.
Kinematic Viscosity- is a measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow under gravitational
forces. It is determined by measuring the time in seconds, required for a fixed volume of fluid to
flow a known distance by gravity through a capillary within a calibrated viscometer at a closely
controlled temperature.
Velocity Gradient- the difference in velocity between adjacent layers of the fluid is
known as a velocity gradient and is given by v/x, where v is the velocity difference and x is the
distance between the layers.
Pressure Gradient- is a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate
the pressure increases the most rapidly around a particular location.

2. What do you mean by “Viscous Flow”?

A type of fluid flow in which there is a continuous steady motion of the particles; the
motion at a fixed point always remains constant. Also called streamline flow; laminar flow;
steady flow.

3. Derive an expression for the velocity distribution for viscous flow through a circular
pipe. Also sketch the velocity distribution and shear stress distribution across a section
of the pipe.

4. Prove that the maximum velocity in a circular pipe for viscous flow is equal to two times
the average velocity of the flow.

5. Find an expression for the loss of head of a viscous fluid flowing through a circular
pipe.
6. What is Hagen Poiseuille’s Formula? Derive an expression for Hagen Poiseuille’s
Formula.
The Hagen–Poiseuille equation, also known as the Hagen–Poiseuille law,
Poiseuille law or Poiseuille equation, is a physical law that gives the pressure drop in an
incompressible and Newtonian fluid in laminar flow flowing through a long cylindrical pipe of
constant cross section.

7. Prove that the velocity distribution for viscous flow between two parallel plates when
both plates are fixed across a section is parabolic in nature. Also prove that maximum
velocity is equal to one and a half times the average velocity.

8. Show that the difference of pressure head for a given length of the two parallel plates
which are fixed and through which viscous fluid is flowing is given by
9. Define the terms:
Kinematic Energy Correction Factor and Momentum Correction Factor
Kinematic Energy Correction Factor-Its value for a fully developed laminar pipe flow is around
2, whereas for a turbulent pipe flow it is between 1.04 to 1.11. It is usual to take it is 1 for a
turbulent flow.
Momentum Correction Factor- the flow per second based on average velocity across a
section.
10. Prove that for viscous flow through a circular pipe the kinematic energy correction
4
factor us equal to 2 while momentum correction factor =
3
Chapter 10
Theoretical Problems
1. How will you determine the loss of head due to friction in pipes by using (i) Darcy
Formula and (ii) Chezy’s Formula?
2. (a) What do you understand by the terms: Major Energy Loss and Minor Energy
Losses in pipes?
Major Energy losses: These are the losses which are due to friction and are calculated by
1. Darcy Weisbach formula 2. Chezy's Formula. Minor Energy Losses: Minor Energy Losses:
Piping systems include fittings, valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and
contractions.
(b). What do you understand by total energy line, hydraulic gradient line, pipes in series,
pipes in parallel and equivalent pipe?
Total energy line- is defined as a line joining the points representing the total head. It means the
total energy line represents the sum of (P/γ + V²/2g + Z). For ideal or non- viscous fluid there are
no losses hence TEL for that fluid is a horizontal line.
Hydraulic gradient line- is defined as a line joining all the liquid levels indicated by piezometers
connected to the pipeline throughout. If HGL is above the center of the pipeline, the pressure is
positive and HGL is below the center of the pipeline, the pressure is negative.
Pipes in series- pipes are said to be in series if they are connected end to end (in continuation with
each other) so that the fluid flows in a continuous line without any branching. The volume rate of
flow through the pipes in series is the same throughout. Pipes in parallel- pipes are said to be in
parallel when they are so connected that the flow from a pipe branches or divides into two or more
separate pipes and then reunite into a single pipe. In this arrangement the loss of head from section
1-1 to section 2-2 is equal to the loss of head in any one of the branch pipes.
Equivalent pipe- refer to imaginary pipes which are used to determine the head loss and flow of
discharge considering that the flow of discharge and head loss in the actual piping system is
same as that of the equivalent pipe.

3. (a). Derive an expression for the loss of head due to: (i) Sudden enlargement (ii).
Sudden Contraction of a pipe.
Head loss due to sudden contraction=head loss upto vena contracta + head loss due to
sudden enlargement. Due to sudden enlargement turbulent eddies are formed at the corner of the
enlargement of the pipe section. The formation of eddies cause loss of energy in form of heat to
the surrounding.
(b). Obtain expression for head loss in a sudden expansion in the pipe. List all the
assumptions made in the derivation.
 This minimum cross section is known as vena contracta and Ac is the area of cross
section at vena contracta. Formation of eddies takes place between the vena contract and pipe
wall. Head loss due to sudden contraction=head loss upto vena contracta + head loss due to
sudden enlargement.

4. Define and explain the terms:

(i) Hydraulic Gradient Line- is defined as a line joining all the liquid levels indicated by
piezometers connected to the pipeline throughout. If HGL is above the center of the pipeline, the
pressure is positive and HGL is below the center of the pipeline, the pressure is negative.
Total Energy Line- is defined as a line joining the points representing the total head. It
means the total energy line represents the sum of (P/γ + V²/2g + Z). For ideal or non- viscous
fluid there are no losses hence TEL for that fluid is a horizontal line.

5. Show that the loss of head due to sudden expansion in pipe line is a function of
velocity head.

6. What is a syphon? On what principle it works?

Syphon is a long bent pipe which is used to Coney liquid from a reservoir at a higher
elevation when the two are separated by a high level ground or hill. Syphon is long bent pipe
which is used to transfer liquid from a reservoir at it higher elevation to another reservoir at a
lower level when the two reservoirs.

7. What is a compound pipe? What will be loss of head when pipes are connected
in series?
A compound pipe as described above, wherein the cross-sectional dimension is a diameter
of a circular pipe. Preferably, the inner pipe comprises an alloy steel, for example, nickel
alloy. The volume rate of flow through the pipes in series is the same throughout. In this
arrangement the rate of discharge Q is the same in all the pipes.
Ignoring secondary losses the total loss of head is equal to the sum of the friction losses in the
individual pipes.

8. Explain the terms:

Pipes in parallel- pipes are said to be in parallel when they are so connected that the flow
from a pipe branches or divides into two or more separate pipes and then reunite into a single
pipe. In this arrangement the loss of head from section 1-1 to section 2-2 is equal to the loss of
head in any one of the branch pipes.
Equivalent pipe- refer to imaginary pipes which are used to determine the head loss and
flow of discharge considering that the flow of discharge and head loss in the actual piping system
is same as that of the equivalent pipe.
Equivalent size of the pipe- the pipe of uniform diameter having loss of head and discharge
equal to the loss of head and discharge of a compound pipe, consisting of several pipe of different
length and diameters. Now, Let L1 = Length of pipe 1 and d1 = dia.

9. Final an expression for the power transmission through pipes. What is the condition
for maximum transmission of power and corresponding efficiency of transmission?

10. Prove that the head loss due to friction is equal to one-third of the total head at inlet
for maximum power transmission through pipes or nozzles.