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4.0 SAFETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Keywords: awareness, lost time incident (LTI), management commitment, employee

commitment, attitude, HAZOP studies, transport, accident investigation, safety triangle,
safety management systems, auditing, contractor safety, quantitative risk analysis (QRA),
procedures, environmental impact assessment (EIA), environmental impact statement
(EIS), fishing, gas venting, greenhouse effect, oil-in-water emissions, CFC gases, waste
disposal.
Introduction and commercial application : Safety and the environment have become
important elements of all parts of the field life cycle, and involve all of the technical and
support functions in an oil company. The Piper Alpha disaster in the North Sea in 1988
has resulted in a major change in the approach to management of safety of world-wide
oil and gas exploration and production activities. Companies recognise that good safety
and environmental management make economic sense and are essential to
guaranteeing long term presence in the industry.
Many techniques have been developed for management of the safety and environmental
impact of operations, and much science is applied to these areas. The objective of this
section is to demonstrate how the practising engineer can have a significant impact on
these aspects of a field development, and that safety and the environment should be
the concerns of all employees.

4.1 Safety awareness

Safety performance is measured by companies in many different ways, but one common
method is by recording the number of accidents, or lost time incidents (LTI). An LTI is an
incident which causes a person to stay away from work for one or more days. Another
measure might be the monetary cost of a safety incident. Many techniques are applied
to improve the company’s safety performance, such as writing work procedures and
equipment standards, training staff, performing safety audits, and using hazard studies
in the design of plant and equipment. These are all very valid and important techniques,
but one of the most effective methods of influencing safety performance is to raise the
level of safety awareness in staff.
One of the leaders in industrial safety management is the chemicals company, DuPont.
This company recognised that good safety performance must start with management
commitment to safety, but that the level of employee commitment ultimately determines
the safety performance. The following diagram expresses their findings:
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Low I
Low employee commitment to safety High

Figure 4.1 Safety performance and employee commitment

At point A, despite full management commitment to safety performance, with low

employee commitment to safety, the number of accidents remains high; employees
only follow procedures laid out because they feel they have to. At the other extreme,
point B, when employee commitment is high, the number of accidents reduces
dramatically; employees feel responsible for their own safety as well as that of their
colleagues. Employee commitment to safety is an attitude of mind rather than a taught
discipline, and can be enhanced by training and (less effectively) incentive schemes.
The practising engineer has an excellent opportunity to influence the safety of operations
by applying techniques such as hazard and operability studies (HAZOP) to the design
of plant layout and equipment. This technique involves determining the potential hazard
of an operation under normal and abnormal operating conditions, and considering the
probability and consequences of an accident. This type of study is now commonly applied
to new platform design and to the evaluation of refurbishment on existing platforms.
Some examples of innovations in platform design which has resulted from this type of
study are:
freefall lifeboats, launched from heat shielded slipways
emergency shutdown valves installed on the seabed and topsides in incoming
and outgoing pipelines, designed to isolate the platform from all sources of oil and
gas in an emergency
protected emergency escape routes with heat shielded stairways, to provide at
least two escape routes from any point on the platform
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physical separation of accommodation modules from the drilling / process /

compression modules (creating a pressurised ‘safe haven’). On an integrated
platform the areas are at opposite ends of the platform, and are separated by a
blast wall.
fire resistant coatings on structural members
computerised control and shutdown of process equipment

In both safety and environment issues, the engineer should try to eliminate the hazard
at source. For example, one of the most hazardous operations performed in both the
offshore and onshore environments is transport, amongst which helicopter flying has
the most incidents per hour of exposure. At feasibility study stage in, say, an offshore
development, the engineer should be considering alternatives for reducing the flying
exposure of personnel. Options to consider might include:
boat transport (catamaran, fast crew boat)
longer shifts (two weeks instead of one)
minimum manned operation
unmanned operation

Working down this list, we see more innovative approaches. The unmanned option
using computer assisted operation (discussed in Section 11.2) would improve safety of
personnel and reduce operating cost. This is an example of innovation and the use of
technology by the engineer, and is driven by an awareness of safety.
Accident investigation indicates that there are often many individual causes to an
accident, and that a series of incidents occur simultaneously to “cause” the accident.
The following figure is called the ”safety triangle’; and shows the approximate ratios of
occurrence of accidents with different severities. This is based on industrial statistics.

A fatality

100 LTls

1000 non-LTlS

10,000 near hits

100,000 unsafe acts

Figure 4.2 The safety triangle

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An LTI is a lost time incident, mentioned earlier as an accident which causes one or
more days away from work. A non-LTI injury does not result in time away from work. A
near hit (often called a near miss) is an incident which causes no injury, but had the
potential to do so (e.g. a falling object hitting the ground, but missing personnel). An
example of an unsafe act would be a poorly secured ladder, where no incident occurs,
but which potentially could have been the cause of an incident.
The safety triangle shows that there are many orders of magnitude more unsafe acts
than LTls and fatalities. A combination of unsafe acts often results in a fatality. Addressing
safety in industry should begin with the base of the triangle; trying to eliminate the
unsafe acts. This is simple to do, in theory, since most of the unsafe acts arise from
carelessness or failure to follow procedures. In practice, reducing the number of unsafe
acts requires personal commitment and safety awareness.

4.2 Safety management systems

The UK government enquiry into the Piper Alpha disaster in the North Sea in 1988 has
had a significant impact on working practices and equipment and has helped to improve
offshore safety around the world. One result has been the development of a Safety
Management System (SMS) which is a method of integrating work practices, and is a
form of quality management system. Major oil companies have each developed their
own specific SMS, to suit local environments and modes of operation, but the SMS
typically addresses the following areas (recommended by the Cullen Enquiry into the
Piper Alpha disaster):
organisational structure
management personnel standards
safety assessment
design procedures
procedures for operations, maintenance, modifications and emergencies
management of safety by contractors in respect of their work
the involvement of the workforce in safety
accident and incident reporting, investigation and follow-up
monitoring and auditing the operation of the system
systematic reappraisal of the system
It is important that the SMS is not a stand-alone system, but that it is integrated into the
working methods of a company. Some of the above elements of an SMS will be
discussed.
Auditing the operation of a system may be done by an external audit team composed of
qualified people from within or outside the operating company. However, involvement
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of the workforce in the audit will improve the level of information, assist with gaining
commitment,and make the implementationof recommendationseasier. This is consistent
with the commitment of employees mentioned in Section 4.1.
Contractors perform much of the operational work on behalf of the oil company, because
they can supply the specialist skills required. Contractor teams may range from individuals
to large groups, and their tasks may take days or months. The contractors are therefore
the group with the highest exposure to the operations, and often the least familiar with
the particular practices on an installation, since they move between oil companies, and
between installations. Special attention must be given to incorporating the contractors
into the prevailing SMS by familiarising them with a new location and work practices.
This may be achieved through a safety induction training course.
Design procedures are developed with the intention of improving the safety of equipment.
Tools used in this step are hazard and operability studies and quantitative risk analysis
(QRA). The following scheme may be used:

potential hazards

Evaluate likelihood and

consequences of hazard I
Apply risk reduction
measures I
In the first step, a screening process will be applied to separate the major potential
hazards; these will be addressed in more detail. QRA techniques are used to evaluate
the extent of the risk arising from hazards with the potential to cause major accidents,
based on the prediction of the likelihood and magnitude of the event. This assessment
will be based on engineering judgement and statistics of previous performance. Where
necessary, risk reduction measures will be applied until the level of risk is acceptable.
This of course is an emotive subject, since it implies placing a value on human life.
Procedures are written to ensure that activities are performed in a systematic way.
Accident investigation shows that the majority of accidents occur because procedures
are not followed, and this contributes mostly to the base of the safety triangle introduced
at the end of Section 4.1.
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4.3 Environment
Management of the environmental impact of projects is of major concern in the oil and
gas industry, not only to meet the legislative requirements in host countries, but is also
viewed as good business because it is:

cost effective
providing a competitive edge
essential to ensuring continued operations in an area
helpful in gaining future operations in an area

The environmental performance of companies within the industry is normally subject to

the legislative requirements of the host government, but is increasingly becoming
scrutinised by the public, as available information and general levels of awareness
increase. Major companies see responsible management of the environmental aspects
of their operations as crucial to the future of their business. The approval of loans from
major banks for project finance is usually conditional on acceptable environmental
manage ment.
Environmental vulnerability varies considerably from area to area. For example the
North Sea, which is displaced into the Atlantic over a two year period, is a much more
robust area than the Caspian Sea which is enclosed. Regional standards should reflect
those differences.

4.3.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The objective of an EIA is to document the potential physical, biological, social and
health effects of a planned activity. This will enable decision makers to determine whether
an activity is acceptable and if not, identify possible alternatives. Typically, EIA's will be
carried out for
seismic
exploration and appraisal drilling
development drilling and facilities installation
decommissioning and abandonment

To allow objectivity of the findings, EIA's are usually carried out by independent specialists
or organisations. It will involve not only scientific experts, but also require consultation
with official and representative bodies such as the government ministries for the
environment, fisheries, food, agriculture, and local water authorities. In activities which
may impact on local population (terminals, refineries, access roads, land developments)
local representatives of the inhabitants may be consulted, and the public affairs function
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within the company may become involved. Early consultation and maximising the use
of local knowledge (e.g. universities) is usually of benefit.

Base Line
Study

Planned
Activity

Revise planned
activity

Is impact
acceptable?
I I

Perform
Activity

Figure 4.3 Application of an EIA

The time taken to complete a base line study and EIA should not be underestimated.
The baseline study describes and inventorises the natural initial flora, fauna, the aquatic
life, land and seabed conditions prior to any activity. In seasonal climates, the baseline
study may need to cover the whole year. The duration of an EIA depends upon the size
and type of area under study, and the previous work done in the area, but may typically
take six months. The EIA is often an essential step in project development and should
not be omitted from the planning schedule.
The results of the assessment are documented in an Environmental lmpact Statement
(€IS), which discusses the beneficial and adverse impacts considered to result from
the activity. The report is one component of the information upon which the decision
maker ultimately makes a choice. A final decision can be made with due regard being
paid to the likely consequences of adopting a particular course of action, and where
necessary by introducing appropriate monitoring programs.
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4.3.2 The EIA Process
Essentially EIA is a systematic process that examines the environmental consequences
of development actions, in advance. The emphasis of EIA is on prevention. The role of
EIA has changed with time. Originally it was regarded very much as a defensive tool
whereas now it is moving to apply techniques which can add positive value to the
environment and society in general. The EIA should be regarded as a process which is
constantly changing in response to shifting environmental pressures.
In the early stages of an EIA a baseline study is carried out, usually following the scoping
stage (see below). The baseline study consists of a description of those.aspects of the
physical, biological and social environment which could be affected by a proposed
development. It is a ‘before project’ audit. However, baseline studies may be required
again later on in the project, for instance to help refine impact predictions. Baseline
studies can account for a significant part of the overall EIA cost since they require
extensive field studies.
Certain key stages in the EIA process have been adopted by many countries. These
broad stages reflect what is considered to be good practice within environmental
assessment and include:
Screening: undertaken to decide which projects should be subject to environmental
assessment. Screening may be partly determined by local EIA regulations. Criteria
used include threshold, size of project, and sensitivity of the environment.
Scoping: identifies, at an early stage, the most significant issues to be included in
the EIA. Many early ElAs were criticised because they were encyclopaedic and
included irrelevant information.
Consideration of alternatives: seeks to ensure that the proposer has considered
other feasible options including location, scales, processes, layouts, operating
conditions and the “no action” option.
Project description: includes a clarification of the purpose and rationale of the
project.
€ /A Preparation: is the scientific and objective analysis of the scale, significance
and importance of impacts identified. Various methods have been developed, in
relation to baseline studies; impact identification; prediction; evaluation and
mitigation, to execute this task.
Public consultationand participation:aims to assure the quality, comprehensiveness
and effectiveness of the EIA, as well as to ensure that the public’s views are
adequately taken into consideration in the decision-making process.
€IS presentation: a vital step in the process, the documentation serves to
communicate the findings of the EIA process to interested parties.
Review: involves a systematic appraisal by a government agency or independent
review panel.
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Decision-making on the project involves a consideration by the relevant authority
of the EIS (including consultation responses) together with any material
considerations.
Monitoring: is normally adopted as a mechanism to check that any conditions
imposed on the project are being enforced or to check the quality of the affected
environment.
Audifing:follows on from monitoring.Auditing is being developed to test the scientific
accuracy of impact predictions and as a check on environmental management
practices. It can involve comparing actual outcomes with predicted outcomes,
and can be used to assess the quality of predictions and the effectiveness of
mitigation. It provides vital feedback into the EIA process.

(Section 4.3.2 courtesy of CORDAH)

4.4 Current environmental concerns

The following section outlines some of the current environmental concerns in the world’s
mature oil and gas development areas.

Gas venting and flaring

Gas venting has historically been used in some countries as a means of disposal for
excess associated gas. The release of methane into the atmosphere contributes to the
greenhouse effect, which is an alleged cause of global warming. Greenhouse gases
act like glass in a greenhouse: they allow ultra-violet and visible radiation from the sun
to reach the earth’s surface, but trap part of the infra-red energy that is reflected back.
Flaring the gas emits carbon dioxide and water vapour into the air, and the CO, is also
a greenhouse gas, though less harmful than methane. Much effort is now being spent
in trying to gather excess gas and to make commercial use of it where possible, or
otherwise to re-inject it into reservoirs. These are the concerns of both petroleum and
surface engineers at the feasibility study stage of a field. Some countries, such as
Norway, have introduced a carbon tax, which penalises companies for venting or flaring
gas.

Oil in water emissions

When water is produced along with oil, the separation of water from oil invariably leaves
some water in the oil. The current oil-in-water emission limit into the sea is commonly
40 ppm. Oily water disposal occurs on processing platforms, some drilling platforms,
and at oil terminals. The quality of water disposed from terminals remains an area of
scrutiny, especially since the terminals are often near to local habitation and leisure
resorts. If the engineer can find a means of reducing the produced water at source (e.g.
water shut-off or reinjection of produced water into reservoirs) then the surface handling
problem is much reduced.
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CFC gases
Chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFCs) are good fire fighting agents, but when released cause
depletion of the ozone layer, which in turn contributes to global warming. CFC systems
are gradually being phased out of the oil and gas industry, and are being replaced by
less harmful alternatives.

Waste disposal

The oil and gas industry produces much waste material, such as scrap metal, human
waste, unspent chemicals, oily sludges and radiation. All of the incoming streams to a
facility such as a production platform end up somewhere, and only a few of the outgoing
streams are useful product. It is one of the responsibilities of the engineer to try to limit
the amount of incoming material which will finally become waste material.
An example of reducing waste is slim hole drilling, in which a smaller than conventional
hole is drilled. This reduces the amount of waste generated as drill cuttings, and is also
cheaper than conventional drilling. Drill cuttings may be reinjected into the annulus of
wells, or ground up and injected into underground reservoirs. These are examples of
innovative thinking on behalf of the engineer, for which an awareness of environmental
issues is required.