Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Power Sources

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jpowsour

Review article

A review on battery thermal management in electric vehicle

application
Guodong Xia*, Lei Cao, Guanglong Bi
Key Laboratory of Enhanced Heat Transfer and Energy Conservation, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Beijing
University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, China

h i g h l i g h t s

Thermal issues at cell level and module level are discussed.

Local irreversible heat generation and local thermal resistance are discussed.

Cooling configurations and the optimization at module level are discussed.

Direct liquid cooling strategies at module level are discussed.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The global issues of energy crisis and air pollution have offered a great opportunity to develop electric
Received 27 March 2017 vehicles. However, so far, cycle life of power battery, environment adaptability, driving range and
Received in revised form charging time seems far to compare with the level of traditional vehicles with internal combustion
9 September 2017
engine. Effective battery thermal management (BTM) is absolutely essential to relieve this situation. This
Accepted 12 September 2017
paper reviews the existing literature from two levels that are cell level and battery module level. For
single battery, specific attention is paid to three important processes which are heat generation, heat
transport, and heat dissipation. For large format cell, multi-scale multi-dimensional coupled models have
Keywords:
Electric vehicle
been developed. This will facilitate the investigation on factors, such as local irreversible heat generation,
Lithium ion battery thermal resistance, current distribution, etc., that account for intrinsic temperature gradients existing in
Thermal management system cell. For battery module based on air and liquid cooling, series, series-parallel and parallel cooling
Temperature distribution configurations are discussed. Liquid cooling strategies, especially direct liquid cooling strategies, are
Cooling configuration reviewed and they may advance the battery thermal management system to a new generation.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Since late of 20th century, the environmental pollution and
energy crisis have become two global issues and transportation
sector is one of the major contributors [1]. Governments took great
efforts, including a series of preferential policies, to support electric
vehicles (EVs) for the benefit of zero emission and energy saving
[2]. In 2014, around 315,000 EVs were sold, which represented 50%
growth compared with 2013. The number was nearly 550,000
during 2015. In 2016, the global EV sales have reached 774,000, 40%
above that of 2015 [3,4].
The development of energy storage technology, especially
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xgd@bjut.edu.cn (G. Xia).
lithium ion batteries (LIBs), also greatly accelerates this battery-
driven trend for automobile industry [5]. Since Sony developed
the cells consisting of lithium cobalt oxide as a cathode and
graphite as an anode, LIBs have kept rapid growth in the sales due
to the high energy density and prolonged cycle life compared with
other rechargeable battery systems (Pb, Ni-Cd, Ni-MH) [6,7]. The
global market for LIB also have rapidly grown due to the exploding
demands of EVs in recent years, especially in China. From 2011 to
2015, global LIB production and China LIB production have climbed
from 46.63 GWh to 100.75 GWh and from 32.12 GWh to 53.62 GWh,
respectively [8]. In 2015, the production of power battery has
accounted for 28% of LIB production and it is expected that the
proportion will continue increase in the next several years.
Recent researches on new materials indicate that lithium ion
battery will continue to improve in cost, safety, energy and power
capability and will still stand out from the rest batteries in the next

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.09.046
0378-7753/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105
Nomenclature
cp specific heat capacity, J$kg1 $K1
E operating potential, V
Eoc open circuit potential, V
f frequency, Hz
I current, A
k matrix for the thermal conductivities
m parameter-estimation parameter
p experiment-design parameter
Qv volumetric heat source, W$m3
r radial coordinate, m
R overpotential resistance, U; thermal resistance, K$W1
S space, m
T temperature, K or  C
Tmax maximum battery temperature, K
b
T estimated battery temperature, K
z axial coordinate, m
Z battery impedance
b ⊥
Z modeled battery impedance
several years [9,10]. But so far, the main barriers to EVs penetration
are still specific energy, specific power, safety, cost (related to cycle
life and calendar life), low temperature performance (e.g., cold
startup in winter) and charge time [11e16].
Previous studies have shown that battery performance is
significantly affected by the temperature [17,18]. The optimal
temperature for Li-ion cells covers a range of þ15~þ35  C and this
is similar to that of human [19]. Due to the limited temperature
tolerance of components and relatively unstable chemistries,
excessive high and low temperature can both reduce the life and
threaten the safety of battery, even cause permanent damage [20].
It could be even worse when hundreds of cells are connected in
series or in parallel [21]. A long-term existence of large temperature
difference will derogate consistency of cells in a battery module
[22]. Conversely, a poor consistency will lead to varied heating ef-
fects in cells that enlarges the temperature difference further to
form a vicious circle. Moreover, the inconsistency will directly
degrade the overall performance of battery pack. For example, the
weakest cell may lead to insufficient charging and discharging of
battery pack.
In order to prolong the cycle life and maximize the capability of
power cells, a number of battery thermal management (BTM)
strategies with external cooling (or heating) such as active cooling
with air or liquid, passive cooling with phase change material and/
or heat pipe, have been developed [23e26]. From a thermal point of
view, it is preferable to use internal cooling or heating methods and
some exciting results have been reported [27,28].
In order to develop a highly effective and robust battery thermal
management system (BTMS), it is fundamentally important to gain
a deeper insight into thermal generation, thermal transport, and
heat dissipation processes [29]. This refers to two levels of research
interests that are cell and battery module, which can be seen in
Fig. 1. For single cell, thermal behavior of a cell tells that how much
heat is generated, how heat is transferred and what thermal
boundary condition is needed under steady or transient conditions.
For battery module, it is designed to dissipate the heat and manage
the heat flow to keep the battery temperature at proper range and
minimize the temperature variation between cells. Typically, the
maximum temperature difference should be controlled within 5  C
[30].
91
Greek symbols
a inlet parameter
l thermal conductivity, W$m1 $K1
n noise; kinematic viscosity, m2$s1
r density of material, kg$m3
t time, s
4 circumferential coordinate
F heat generation rate, W
Subscripts
bat battery
i component of cell
max maximum
r radial direction
tc thermal contact
4 circumferential direction
x transverse direction
y longitudinal direction
z axial direction
perpendicular to layer
In the literature, it is noted that there are rarely systematic and
comprehensive researches covering cell and module levels. This is
just the motivation of this review paper. In this paper, a review is
carried out from several aspects: (1) For cell, thermal models, heat
generation rate and the factors affecting temperature distribution
are reviewed; (2) For battery module, different cooling configura-
tions or cooling strategies are reviewed.
Among the references cited in this review paper, 7 papers were
published before 2000; 38 papers were published from 2000 to
2009; 153 papers were published from 2010 to 2017 and 126 of
them were published in recent 5 years. It can be seen that re-
searchers are becoming more and more interested in battery
thermal management. This trend just keeps the pace with the rapid
development of EVs.
2. Thermal issues at cell level
Because Li-ion cell performance is strongly linked to tempera-
ture, it is important to understand how heat is generated inside a
cell and how to dissipate heat properly [18,31]. However, the factors
influencing the thermal behavior of cell are extremely complex.
Multiple mechanisms including electricity, electrochemistry, heat
transfer are coupled, and the involved parameters change with
time, temperature, State of Charge (SoC), State of Health (SoH), etc.
Moreover, high discharge rates (above 1C) which routinely exist in
EVs may cause distinct temperature gradients, species concentra-
tion gradients and nonuniform current density in cell. The above
features exacerbate the difficulty to obtain accurate transient or
time-averaged heat generation rate of cell. More modeling and
experimental work needs to carried out to quantify the influence of
high charge/discharge rate, thus heat generation rate of cell can be
accurately predicted or measured.
2.1. Thermal models and heat generation rate of cell
Since Newman and his coworkers [32e35] conducted compre-
hensive modeling work of electrochemical systems, various
mathematical approaches have been used to understand physics in
LIB systems. The existing models, based on different physical
mechanisms, can be classified as electro-thermal model [36e42],
92 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105
Fig. 1. Thermal issues at cell and module levels.
electrochemical thermal model [43e50] and thermal runaway
model [51,52]. In terms of dimensions, the models can be catego-
rized as lumped-parameter model [36], one-dimensional model
[46,53], two-dimensional model [43,54], three-dimensional model
[50,51,55] and mixed-dimensional model [56]. Since Bandhauer
et al. [18], Wang et al. [23], Wang and Srinivasan [57], Ramadesigan
et al. [58] have made exhaustive overviews on heat generation and
thermal modeling of cell so it will be just briefly discussed in this
section.
Bernardi et al. [32] developed a general energy balanced battery
thermal model for estimating the heat generation rate of single cell
and a simplified form was written as the following equation.
dEoc
F ¼ IðEoc  EÞ  ITbat (1)
dTbat
The heat generation rate comprises two heat source terms
caused by overpotential resistance and electrical resistance (the
first term), and entropy change (the second term). The first term
represents the irreversible heat and the second term the reversible
heat. The term (Eoc-E) can be replaced by IR, where R denotes
overall resistance.
This model has been adopted by many researchers due to ease of
use and reasonable accuracy [59,60]. However, this lumped-
parameter model neglects phase change, mixing effects, gradient
and localized effects that routinely exist in large format cells
[48,61]. Multi-scale multi-dimensional multi-physics model is
well-suitable to provide a better insight on the interplay of Li-ion
battery physics [55]. The major faults of a comprehensive model
are huge computational load and time-consuming. However, the
benefit is that we can obtain knowledge of full physical field which
is almost impossible for experimental measurement. Anyhow, a
comprehensive model is favorable for the battery design purpose,
whereas a lumped model is compatible with vehicle-mounted
micro-controller used in BMS. Pesaran group [62,63], from Na-
tional Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL, U.S.), has done a pio-
neering work to establish a Multi-Scale Multi-Dimensional (MSMD)
model for predictive computer simulation of large format LIBs,
Their modeling framework can resolve thermal, electrical and
electrochemical coupled physics. Feng et al. [49] adapted a 3D
electrochemical-thermal (et) model to online internal short circuit
(ISC) detection. The results indicated that model-based parameter
estimation was indeed effective in detecting ISC, regardless of the
physical location within the cell.
Anyhow the modeling results should be validated to compare
with experimental results. In recent years, researchers are
increasingly focusing on thermal issues of battery at high C-rates
due to the popularity of electric cars. The main experimental
methods for heat generation rate measurement are accelerating
rate calorimeter (ARC) [64e67] and isothermal battery calorimeter
(IBC) [19,68e72]. The ARC method measures the heat rejected from
the battery and allows the surface temperature of battery to rise
adiabatically during operation. Therefore, it is mostly used in
thermal runaway testing [73]. However, in order to accurately
measure the heat generation rate of battery under normal opera-
tion, the temperature variation should be eliminated since the
battery performance is temperature sensitive. Pesaran and his co-
workers from NREL has designed a series of Isothermal Battery
Calorimeters [19]. The instruments can measure heat generation
rates as low as 15 mW and up to 4000 W with measuring accuracy
within ±1% and the test samples can be cell, module or pack [74].
However, it needs to emphasize that IBC method can only maintain
the battery surface at isothermal condition. For a transient process
of large-scale power cell, the measuring accuracy of IBC method
may be greatly reduced. Zhang et al. [75] proposed a paraffin phase-
change measurement method for the heat generation of cylindrical
cells. Compared with ARC and IBC, the phase change measurement
method is simpler. Besides, their results showed that the deviation
of this measurement system can be within 5% based on calibration
experiments.
It should be noted that there have been some discrepancies
between different experimental researches on heat generation rate
measurement of single cell and the gap usually cannot be validated
due to lack of data. To facilitate a gap analysis, it is suggested that
the heat generation rate measuring is carried out at several ‘stan-
dard’ temperatures in a wide operation temperature range
(20~þ50  C), and at several typical C-rates (e.g., 0.5C, 1C, 5C, etc.)
since that the battery thermal performance is closely related to
temperature and C-rate. Also the chemistry, geometry, density,
specific heat capacity of battery should be given or measured. The
temperature gradient in a cell should always be given a special
attention and it results in the difficulty of measuring transient heat
generation rate of battery at high C-rates.
 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105
2.2. Temperature gradient and localized heating effect in cell
In recent years, researchers have already realized that the spatial
non-uniformity of parameters, say temperature, current, is valuable
information to study the thermal behaviors of high power cells
[76e80]. Zhang et al. [17] reported that for a 18650 cylindrical cell
discharging at 3C rate, temperature difference between internal
and surface was about 2.5  C under natural convection and could
increase over 5  C under forced convection. Forgez et al. [81]
observed over 10  C temperature difference between internal and
surface during a 26650 cylindrical cell discharging at 6 C rate. Their
results emphasized the need for taking into account the tempera-
ture distribution in battery thermal models. Robinson et al. [82]
applied a combined experimental approach to study the tempera-
ture distribution and internal construction of a commercial
18650 cell. Obvious temperature difference across the length of cell
was observed above 0.75  C and the local heating effect at the
positive terminal was attributed to the materials and internal
contact resistances between the cell roll, PTC and safety valve. In
fact, their original intention was to indicate the localized joule
heating and radially non-uniform heat distribution induced by the
acentric current collector pin at the negative electrode. This
reminded the researchers to reconsider the impact of PTC on cell,
especially during thermal runaway [83]. Liu et al. [84] used syn-
chrotron X-ray microdiffraction to visualize the distribution of
charge in a composite electrode. Their results showed that at high
charging rate, non-uniform current distribution was evident in
electrodes and near the current collector tab. Tang et al. [85]
established an electrochemical-thermal model to analyze the dis-
tribution of the reaction current density at various parts of the
electrode and its evolution during discharging. The investigation
revealed that the conductivity of solid and liquid phases was an
important factor affecting the distribution of the reaction current
density. The above studies indicate that contact resistance and
current density are two main factors inducing localized heating
effect in large scale cells [86e90].
In summary, for large cell operating at high C-rate, observable
temperature gradients appearing in the cell is inevitable
[76e84,88e94]. Some research reported that the highest temper-
ature appeared near positive tab [76,78e80,82,89,90,93], whereas
the rest research just reported that the hot region located at the
electrode region [77,84,86,91,94] or their attention was on the
temperature difference in radial direction or between internal
location and external surface of cell [17,81,88,92].
Since current concentration near the tabs is the main contrib-
utor of significant local joule heating, it is imperative to consider
the optimization of cell design, such as number and location of tabs
[95]. Lee et al. [63], Zhao et al. [89] investigated the effect of tab
design on the performance of spirally wound cell. Their results
showed that less discrete tabs caused hot spot regions due to cur-
rent convergence. Even though continuous current collection tab
can reduce the effective tab impedance to near zero, it is not easy
for mass production of cylindrical cells with continuous current
collection [96]. Samba et al. [93] studied the impact of tab location
on large format Li-ion pouch cell. Their results showed that,
compared to the design of tabs at the same side, the cell designs
with symmetrical configurations (tabs at opposite side) could
minimize the ohmic heat and lead to more uniform active material
utilization and temperature distribution.
Because temperature gradients cannot be neglected in large
format cells, and surface-mounted temperature sensors such as
thermocouple (TC), Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) and
infrared thermography cannot monitor the internal temperature of
cells. It is necessary to propose an internal temperature measuring
method for Li-ion cell. Hande [97] developed a technique to
93
estimate the internal temperature of secondary cells by measuring
the series cell resistance at cold ambient temperatures. However
the tests were only performed on lead-acid and NiMH metal hy-
dride cells at low temperature, there is no evidence that it can be
applied to Li-ion cells and higher temperature. Srinivasan et al. [98]
demonstrated the existence of an intrinsic relationship between a
cell's internal temperature and phase shift obtained from Electro-
chemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) in the temperature range
of 20~þ66  C and in the frequency range of 40e100 Hz. This novel
temperature measurement provided a path to develop a low-cost,
rapid-responding sensor for monitoring temperature and foretell
the risk of high temperature within the cell. Due to the attractive
merits, this method has attracted much attention. Schmidt et al.
[99] modified and further developed the method presented in
Ref. [98]. Their results showed that the proposed method yields
accurate mean internal temperature even during transient opera-
tion (cool down process in the paper). Richardson et al. [100,101]
introduced the method into estimating cylindrical Li-ion cell tem-
perature distribution and validated experimentally for the first
time with an internal thermocouple.
The measurement principle of EIS-based temperature estima-
tion method is shown in Fig. 2. It implicitly incorporates two steps:
selecting excitation frequency and estimating cell temperature
based on the measured impedance [102]. Several favorable features
are essential: (1) the phase shift obtained from EIS was exclusively
dependent on the temperature in a wide range and did not depend
on SoC and some other factors [103,104]; (2) the predictable tem-
perature range is wide enough [105]; (3) noise interference can be
effectively rejected or smoothed [99,102]. In addition, an improved
method and calibration process will help to improve the estimation
accuracy.
2.3. Irreversible heat utilization under low temperature conditions
Irreversible heat generated in battery not only means valuable
electrical energy loss, but also means an extra portion of parasitic
energy will be consumed by the accessories, such as fan, pump or
compressor, of BTMS for heat dissipation. However, in winter, the
self-heating effect of irreversible heat can be helpful if it was
properly utilized. Wang and his coworkers [27,106] pointed out that
the cell performance enhancement can be realized by cell self-
heating. Moreover, they have done pioneering work on heating
strategies for Li-ion cells operating from subzero temperatures.
They introduced four criteria for heating strategy evaluation, which
are: (1) electrical energy consumption, (2) heating time, (3) effect of
heating strategy on cell life, and (4) cost. Compared to external
convective heating strategy, the internal self-heating can effectively
minimize the temperature gradient inside cell and save weight and
expense considerably [97]. They also reported a novel Li-ion battery
structure (named as all-climate battery, ACB). This kind of battery
Fig. 2. Measurement principle of EIS-based temperature estimation method [102].
94 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105
can heat itself up from 20  C to 0  C within 20 s, consuming only
3.8% of cell capacity [27]. Their technology has been used for small
scale mass production and in-vehicle testing.
2.4. Heat transfer in cell
Besides heat generation, heat transfer (or dissipation) in a cell is
another pivotal knowledge. Thermal boundary conditions and
thermophysical properties of materials in a cell, such as density,
specific heat and thermal conductivity, etc., are important factors
influencing the temperature and heat transfer in cell.
Due to that the Li-ion cell is of a multi thin layered structure and
the layers are of different thickness and made of different materials,
the thermal conductivity is anisotropic and the thermal conduc-
tivity in parallel with layers is normally one-magnitude-order
larger than that perpendicular to the layers [107e110]. Most
external cooling methods locate the heat sink in the layer-stacking
direction (eg., for cylindrical cell, the sidewall is cooled by coolant.).
This results in inevitable large temperature gradient during high
discharge C-rate, especially for large format cell. Moreover, for
prismatic and spiral wound cell, the anisotropic thermal conduc-
tivity exhibits different thermal characteristic. Gomadam et al. [111]
developed and compared three models over a wide range of design
parameters and identify that spiral heat conduction is important in
cylindrical cell. They proved that the effective thermal conductivity
at the cross section of cylindrical cell is a combination of average
radial and spiral thermal conductivities. Yang et al. [29] pointed out
that the low thermal conductivity of separator is one major barrier
for heat transfer in Li-ion cell. So they prepared a hierarchical nano/
micro Al2O3/polymer separator with 5 times of thermal conduc-
tivity compared to commercial separator which showed promising
application for improving cell performance and safety.
In order to obtain the temperature distribution in a cell, a three-
dimensional heat conduction equation needs to be solved and can
be written as [55].
vT
rcp ¼ V,ðkVTÞ þ Qv
vt
where r and cp denote density and specific heat capacity of the cell
material, respectively. k denotes the matrix for the thermal con-
ductivities of the cell material, and Qv denotes the volumetric heat
source.
Because of the anisotropic thermal conductivity of cell, the
analytical algorithm for Eq. (2) is extremely complex, especially
when the heat source is obtained from electrochemical model.
Most researchers solved Eq. (2) with numerical algorithm. North-
rop et al. [112] discussed how efficient simulation techniques and
improved algorithms could alleviate aging and safety concerns by
improving the range of variables that were predictable and
controllable in a cell in real-time within an EV. They also reviewed
the use of battery models in a battery management system (BMS).
Moreover, the commercial software such as COMSOL Multiphysics
[37,47,113] and ANSYS Multiphysics can facilitate the battery
modeling work to investigate the interplay of heat transfer and
electrochemical reactions as well.
It can be seen from Eq. (2) that specific heat, density are another
two important thermophysical parameters of battery thermal
model. Due to the specific heat capacity of materials, much heat is
stored inside the cell and it affects the transient temperature
variation in cell. Computational and experimental methods are
commonly used to obtain the specific heat capacity of certain cells
[18,107,110]. The former method computed the specific heat ca-
pacity by summing up mass weighted average heat capacity of the
materials in cell. In fact, this method ignored the electrochemical
effect. The experimental method can capture the details of heat
capacity variation since the charging/discharging of cell is a dy-
namic process. Onda et al. [114] measured the cell heat capacity
with a twin-type heat conduction calorimeter, and found that the
heat capacity was a linear function of temperature. Yu et al. [115]
measured the specific heat capacity of cell with a precise specific
heat capacity test apparatus. Standard brass sample was used to
calibrated the instrument. Their results revealed that the cell spe-
cific heat capacity was independent of discharge current. However,
the specific heat capacity lost 17.1% of the initial heat capacity
904 J $kg1 $K1) at 100% depth of discharge (DoD). The similar
results also was reported by Maleki et al. [110].
Besides low cross-plane thermal conductivity and decreased
surface-to-volume ratio of a large format cell, thermal contact
resistance (TCR) can be another main factor leading to large tem-
perature gradient, thus should not be readily neglected [116]. Yi
et al. [86] developed a three dimensional thermal model of a Li-ion
cell considering the combined effects of electrical and thermal
contact resistances between current collecting tab and lead wire.
However, they did not indicate how to quantify these resistance
parameters. Ponnappan et al. [117] carried out an experimental
program to test the TCR of a typical cell stack over a temperature
range of 20~þ50  C and pressure range from 0 to 250 psi
(1.72 MPa). In the test, the TCR varied from 0 to
9  104 m2 $K $W1 and the result showed that the TCR increased
with decreasing pressure and the effect was significant when
pressure was reduced below 100 psi. Ye et al. [118] pointed out that
the previous method for calculating the cross-plane thermal con-
ductivity with Eq. (3) based on individual thermal conductivities of
each layer of materials could overestimated the effective thermal
conductivity. In order to better capture the effect of TCR on the
effective thermal conductivity, Eq. (4), which took into account of
the TCR, was adopted for the calculation of effective thermal con-
ductivity. The bulk effective thermal conductivity of the cylindrical
cell was measured to be 0.20 W $m1 $K1 in their previous study,
while the cross-plane thermal conductivity calculated from Eq. (3)
is 0.91 W $m1 $K1. This difference can be attributed to the exis-
(2) tence of TCR.
P
Li
l⊥ ¼ P
i
Li
(3)
li
i
P
Li
0
l⊥ ¼ P Li i
P (4)
li þ Rtc;i
i i
where Li and li denote thickness and thermal conductivity of ma-
terial, respectively. Rtc,i denotes TCR between two kinds of material
contacting with each other.
2.5. Effects of boundary conditions and cooling strategies on cell
Thermal boundary conditions also impact the temperature
distribution in a cell and this has been validated by many re-
searchers. Chen et al. [107] reported that forced convection was
effective in depressing the maximum temperature, and the tem-
perature uniformity did not necessarily degrade infinitely when
forced convection was enhanced. Zhang et al. [17] carried out an in
situ measurement of radial temperature distributions in cylindrical
Li-ion cell and found that stronger cooling resulted in smaller
temperature rise but larger temperature gradient. The similar re-
sults have also been reported by Ye and Saw [39,42], Guo and White
 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105
[119], Gomadam et al. [111] and Yazdanpour et al. [120], etc.
However, Li et al. [76] examined the spatial variations of internal
temperature in large-format laminated cell with embedded ther-
mocouples and their results showed that enhancement of con-
vection heat transfer coefficient could significantly suppress both
the rise and the variation of the temperature. Panchal et al.
[121,122] experimentally investigated the effect of boundary con-
ditions on the temperature distribution of prismatic cell. They kept
the flow rate of water as constant and set inlet temperature as 5  C,
15  C, 25  C and 35  C, respectively. The results showed that as the
inlet temperature increased, temperature rise of the cell decreased.
This can be attributed to the fact that the heat generation rate of cell
decreases as the cell temperature increases [123].
Different cooling strategies may result in distinct cooling per-
formance for a cell and this has been recognized by researchers. Wu
et al. [124] used heat pipe to cool the cell. In order to improve the
heat transfer between heat pipe and cell wall, They inserted the
heat pipe into aluminum fins. Under natural convection, the tem-
perature rise of cell decreased from 47  C (without heat pipe) to
38  C (with heat pipe). However, under forced convection, the
temperature rise of cell was 27  C (without heat pipe) and 30  C
(with heat pipe), respectively. This reversal may be due to the extra
thermal resistance induced by the condenser section of the heat
pipe. They pointed out that heat pipe could maintain a uniform
temperature distribution on the surface of the battery. Van Gils
et al. [125] experimentally investigated the cooling performance of
pooling boiling by immersing a cell in the dielectric liquid, Novec
7000 produce by 3 M which is an America company. They indicated
that the cooling capacity of the fluid greatly exceeded that of air
even without boiling. In the non-boiling regime, they observed
approximately 0.7  C temperature difference between positive and
negative pole of the cell, and when the liquid around the cell
started boiling the temperature difference was eliminated. Soma-
sundaram et al. [126] numerically investigated the passive thermal
management with and without PCM at various galvanostatic
discharge rates. Compared to the case without PCM (natural con-
vection), PCM dramatically lowered the temperature rise of cell.
Sabbah et al. [127] compared the effectiveness of PCM cooling with
that of forced air cooling. The results showed that under stressful
conditions (e.g., high C-rates or high ambient temperatures), PCM
cooling outperformed forced air cooling to meet the operating
range requirements without the need for additional fan power.
Chen et al. [128] investigated four cell-cooling methods: air cooling,
direct liquid cooling, indirect liquid cooling, and fin cooling by us-
ing a large capacity Li-ion pouch. The results showed that an air-
cooling system needed 2 to 3 times of more energy than other
methods to keep the same average temperature. They also indi-
cated that indirect liquid cooling was more practical than direct
liquid cooling, though slightly less effective.
3. Thermal management at module level
A well-designed battery module should be capable of confining
the battery temperature in required range (e.g., þ15~þ35  C) and
minimizing the temperature difference between each cell. These
two tasks necessitate heat transfer enhancement. However, heat
transfer enhancement may not always be the best choice to solve
the temperature non-uniformity problem. For example, active heat
transfer enhancement techniques mean that more parasitic energy
supplied by the cells will be consumed. Cooling configuration
design, as a passive optimization technique, has attracted much
attention.
Moreover, in order to design a cooling configuration of battery
module, it needs to comprehensively consider the factors, such as
the coolant type, dimension, geometry, thermal property and
95
electrochemical characteristics of cells, etc. The normal cooling
media are air, liquid and phase change material (PCM) and the
thermophysical properties are shown in Table 1 [128e130]. Before a
cooling medium is chosen, it is suggested to make a trade-off
analysis [24,131]. Because the BTMSs based on different cooling
media may vary widely in terms of ease of use, adaptability, heat
transfer efficiency, maintenance, life, first cost and annual cost, etc.
Prismatic cell, pouch cell and cylindrical cell are the most popular
three types of cells used in EVs. Different type of cells will result in
varied packaging density, thus different cooling configuration. For
example, due to the special geometry of cylinder, cylindrical battery
modules are less compact, compared to prismatic or pouch battery
module [132]. The dimension of cell can influence the temperature
distribution in the cell. As the dimension increases, the surface area
to volume ratio decreases and more heat will be retained in battery,
thus leading to larger temperature gradient. However, increasing
the size appropriately can deliver higher energy density and reduce
the cost [133].
3.1. Air-based cooling configurations
Due to the poor heat capacity and low thermal conductivity, air
seems not proper to be used as cooling medium in BTM. However,
considering simplicity and low cost of the air-based BTMS, it is still
preferred by some Chinese and Japanese EV manufacturers and has
been used in considerable EV models such as BYD E6, Toyota Prius,
Nissan Leaf, etc. Typically, the air is driven by several fans and
directly cools the cells by flowing past the surfaces of cells. The
cooling configurations can be classified as series, series-parallel
mixed and parallel configurations.
For series cooling configuration shown in Fig. 3 (a) [134,135], the
temperature of coolant may rise significantly due to heat absorp-
tion when coolant flows past a series of cells, and this will lead to
that the cell temperature near the exit is obviously higher than that
near the inlet. Based on the above thermal resistance analyses in
Table 3, it is reasonable to adopt some techniques of convective
heat transfer enhancement, such as increasing the heat transfer
area or surface heat transfer coefficient in terms of increasing flow
rate, to reduce the temperature rise of cells. The temperature
gradient in battery module will decrease correspondingly. A opti-
mized cooling configuration, shown in Fig. 3 (b), have an enlarged
inlet, a shrunken outlet, and the cross section area of channel
contracts gradually from inlet to outlet. As the coolant flows from
inlet to outlet, flow velocity increases progressively, which implies
increasing surface heat transfer coefficient along flow path.
Compared to the simple channel shown in Fig. 3 (a), at the same
flow rate, the cell near inlet has lower surface heat transfer coef-
ficient whereas the cell near outlet has a higher surface heat
transfer coefficient, thus the maximum temperature difference
between cells decrease. However, the wedged channel needs to pay
a price of more parasitic power consumption for accelerating the
coolant. Another cooling configuration shown in Fig. 3 (c) has been
investigated in Ref. [136]. In the design, two identical fans were
placed at inlet and outlet of the tunnel and produced reciprocating
flow by activating and deactivating them in turns. Top/bottom
surfaces of the cells were mounted to the enclosure's top/bottom
walls, thus only sidewalls of the cells were cooled. 26650 cylindrical
cells were used in the work and each had a capacity of 2.5 Ah. A
combined use of hysteresis control and reciprocating cooling flow
reduced the parasitic power by 84%. Besides, compared to the series
cooling configuration shown in Fig. 3 (a) with no control and uni-
directional cooling flow, the temperature difference among cells
was reduce from 1.3  C to 0.6  C and the maximum cell temperature
slightly increased from 4.4  C to 4.9  C.
The series-parallel (S-P) mixed cooling configuration [137,138],
96 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105

Table 1
Thermophysical properties of coolants.

Property Air [130] Mineral oil [130] Silicone oil [129] Water/Glycol [130] PCM-composite [127] Novec 7000 [125]

Density (kg$m3) 1.225 924.1 920 1069 866 1400

Specific heat capacity 1006 1900 1370 3323 1980 1300
(J$kg1 $K1)
Thermal conductivity 0.0242 0.13 0.15 0.3892 16.6 0.075
(W$m1 $K1)
5 5 6
Kinematic viscosity 1.46  10 5.60  10 e 2.58  10 e 3.2  107
(m2$s1)

Fig. 3. Series cooling configurations. (a) Simple channel [30,134,135]; (b) wedged channel; (c) simple channel with reciprocating cooling [136].

shown in Fig. 4 (a), is an optimization of series cooling configura-
tion. 35 cells are configured as 5S7P where 5S indicates that every
5 cells line in series and 7P indicates that 35 cells form 7 parallel
rows. Compared to pure series cooling configuration, S-P mixed
cooling configuration has three advantages. Firstly, it avoids
configuring too many cells in one line since there are normally
hundreds of cells loading on an EV. Secondly, the temperature non-
uniformity problem can be relieved since the coolant flow path
shortens greatly. This has also been indicated in Ref. [135]. Thirdly,
the pressure drop greatly reduces due to that the flow path
shortens and the cross-sectional area of channel multiplies, which
implies less parasitic power consumption. Yang et al. [137]
compared thermal performance between aligned and staggered
cell arrangements which are shown in Fig. 4 (a) and (b). The results
showed that, under a specified air flow rate, the maximum tem-
perature rise was proportional to the longitudinal interval for the
staggered arrays, while it was in inverse for the aligned arrange-
ment. For aligned arrangement, this is attributed to the changes in
the effective heat transfer area between the cooling air and cells. A
larger longitudinal spacing can weaken influence of the stagnant
region existing between each two cells in a longitudinal row, thus
can enhance cell heat dissipation. The paper also reported that the
temperature of the front cells, namely the nearest cells to the inlet,
were much lower than that of the cells at rear row. As transverse
interval increased, maximum cell temperature rise occurred for
both aligned and staggered arrangements. Because larger trans-
verse interval led to lower air flow rate at the same inlet flow rate,
thus convective heat transfer weakened. They compared the per-
formances between the aligned battery pack (Sx ¼ 34 mm and
Sy ¼ 32 mm) and the staggered battery pack (Sx ¼ 34 mm and
Sr ¼ 34 mm). The cooling efficiency and the power requirement for
the aligned array were higher by 26.1% and lower by 54.5% than
that of the staggered array, respectively. They proposed that the
aligned arrangement with parameters of (Sx ¼ 34 mm and
Sy ¼ 32 mm) and a ¼ 0.5 was the best option for the design of
cooling system for the battery pack. a denotes an inlet parameter
and can be optimized to improve the temperature uniformity.
Mahamud et al. [139] introduced reciprocating air cooling into
aligned battery bank configuration and carried out two-
dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation.
Compared to the unidirectional flow case, the numerical results
showed that the reciprocating flow could reduce about 4  C (72%
 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105 97

Fig. 4. Series-parallel mixed cooling configuration [137,140]. (a) Aligned bank; (b) staggered bank; (c) trapezoid configuration.
98 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105

reduction) of the cell temperature difference of the battery system

and 1.5  C of the maximum cell temperature for a reciprocation
period of t ¼ 120 s. They attributed this improvement to the heat
redistribution and disturbance of the boundary layers formed on
the cells due to periodic flow reversal.
Sui et al. [140] proposed a trapezoid configuration with bigger
inlet and smaller outlet. From inlet to outlet, the cross section area
contracts linearly in the flow direction, which is similar to the
configuration shown in Fig. 3 (b). This configuration possesses two
significant merits that are beneficial to improve the temperature
uniformity of cells. Firstly, the number of cell in each array de-
creases progressively, thus the heat generated by cells, or in other
words, the heat absorbed by coolant in each array decreases
correspondingly along the flow path. Secondly, the coolant velocity
from inlet to outlet is a linearly accelerating process and this means
that the convective heat transfer between coolant and sidewall of
cells is enhanced along the flow path. Sui et al. designed a prototype
and carried out charge/discharge experiments at 1C/2C/5C/10C
rates. The environment temperature was about þ15  C and forced
air cooling was used. The maximum temperature and maximum
temperature difference in the battery pack was always
below þ40  C and 6.6  C, respectively. In order to validate this
configuration, They also compared this configuration with a pro-
totype with simple staggered configuration. Their results showed
that the latter was obviously inferior to the prototype with trape-
zoid configuration at maximum temperature difference. During a
2C discharge process, the maximum temperature difference was
12.5  C.
Zhao et al. [141] carried out a detailed parametric investigation
to study effects of ventilation types and velocities, gap spacing,
amounts of single row cells, ambient temperature, cell diameter,
etc., on the thermal management performance of battery pack.
Three kinds of cylindrical Li-ion cells (18650, 2.5 Ah; 26650, 3.2 Ah;
42110, 10 Ah) were involved in the numerical simulations. The re-
sults showed that the cell temperature difference increased with
the increase of wind speed when air inlet velocity was below
1 m s1, and then decreased with the increase of wind speed when
air inlet velocity was above 2 m $s1. From 1 to 2 m $s1, the three Fig. 5. Schematic of U-/Z-parallel configurations [146,147]. (a) Z-parallel configuration;
ventilation types experienced different transition processes. (b) U-parallel configuration.
Among the three ventilation types, when inlet velocity was below
0.4 m $s1, the type III obtained the lowest Tmax and DT. However, as
the inlet velocity exceeded 0.5 m $s1, the type I obtained the again all the branches of coolant flow past the cells from bottom to
lowest Tmax and DT. Their results also showed that reversing the top and converge again in collector [30]. For liquid coolants, this
airflow direction between adjacent rows was not necessarily will make a venting condition in case gas is carried into the battery
advisable and the gap spacing should not be too small or too large. module. Since the coolant flows past all of the cells at the same
Since the specific heat capacity of all coolants is limited, in any time, this eliminates the temperature difference between cells in a
heat exchanger devices, especially the devices with high heat flux module caused by coolant temperature rise and provides a more
or large heat transfer rate, the heat transfer deterioration due to even temperature distribution in the module. In fact, the flow
temperature rise of coolant is inevitable. This is the main reason distribution is the key factor for parallel configuration. An ideal
leading to nonuniformity temperature distribution in battery design of the distributor and collector (e.g., tilted design) can
module. The configurations shown in Fig. 3 (b) and Fig. 4 (c) imply a evenly distribute the airflow to provide uniform pressure difference
common thermal characteristic (to be specific, the surface heat between the inlet and outlet of each channel [142]. The pure par-
transfer coefficient is enhanced from inlet to outlet). Enhancing allel cooling configurations have been reported in many papers
heat transfer along the flow path can compensate the heat transfer [143e147]. Fan et al. [143] examined the effects of gap spacing and
deterioration due to temperature rise of coolant as the coolant air flow rate on cooling effectiveness of the air-cooled prismatic
flows past cells. There are also other methods to make an artificial battery module using a commercial computational fluid dynamics
enhancing heat transfer along the flow path such as increasing the code. The results indicated that temperature rise could be lowered
thermal resistance of the first several cells or decreasing that of the by reducing gap spacing between neighboring cells and a high flow
last several cells to homogenize the temperature distribution. rate can improve temperature uniformity with moderate gap
Based on above configurations and analyses, pure parallel spacing. Saw et al. [145] performed computational fluid dynamic
cooling configurations, shown in Fig. 5, may be the best option for analysis to investigate the air-cooled battery pack containing 24
minimizing the temperature difference in battery module. This pieces of 38120 cells. The spacing between the cells was 5 mm. In
kind of cooling configuration has been applied by Toyota's Prius order to equalize each branch air flow, venting holes with diameter
hybrid for its prismatic battery module. Typically, the total coolant of 15.50 mm were created on the holding plate in between four
first flows into the distributor, then splits into equal branches, then cells. In addition, tapered intake and exhaust plenums were used to
 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105
direct the cooling air flow uniformly to each row of cells. The
simulation results showed that the variations of the cell tempera-
ture were about 6  C for mass flow rate of 5 g $s1 and gradually
reduced to about 1.5  C for mass flow rate of 75 g $s1, which
proved that high flow rate improved temperature uniformity. Park
[148] made improvement to U-parallel configuration by adding
pressure relief ventilation. The results showed that, compared to
traditional U-parallel configurations, the novel design obtain more
uniform temperature and lower pressure drop in the manifolds and
coolant passages.
3.2. Liquid-based cooling configurations
Some researchers pointed out that, for large-scale cells dis-
charging at high C-rates, the cooling capacity of natural or forced
convection with air barely met the cooling requirements
[26,149,150]. Compared to air, liquid coolants (e.g., water or mixture
of water/glycol) have several merits: liquid-cooling can be 3500
times more efficient than air cooling and save up to 40% parasitic
energy [151]; liquid-cooling can reduce the noise level; battery
pack can be more compact without decreasing cooling efficiency.
However, liquid cooling also has drawbacks. Its complexity, cost,
and potential leakage make manufacturers hesitate to use it [128].
Nonetheless, it is no doubt that liquid cooling (especially direct
liquid cooling) is the first choice for mitigating the temperature
gradient in battery module. Bandhauer et al. [18] concluded that
heat rejection from Li-ion cells was not a heat flux issue, but rather
a low conductivity, high heat transfer rate problem. It means the
ideal coolants are those with high heat capacity. Heat flux in Li-ion
battery module (102e3  103 W $m2) is smaller than that of mi-
croelectronic device by about 3 order of magnitude. However, as
the energy density and power density of battery increase, heat
rejection of battery module may become a heat flux problem.
Liquid cooling can address a heat dissipation problem involving
both high heat flux and high heat transfer rate.
In general, the liquid cooling strategies can be classified as direct
and indirect cooling, or can be classified as single-phase cooling
and phase change (e.g., evaporation or boiling) cooling. For indirect
cooling, it can be further classified as tube cooling, cold plate
cooling with mini/micro channels, jacket cooling, etc. Some re-
searchers also took the heat pipe into consideration [24]. It should
be noted that the three typical cooling configurations discussed in
Section 3.1 can also be adopted in liquid cooling [146,152].
3.2.1. Liquid-based direct cooling
Compared to indirect cooling, direct cooling (e.g., liquid im-
mersion cooling) can cool the entire surface of cell and this helps
improve temperature uniformity by mitigating the local heating
effect at positive and negative electrodes [125]. In order to reach
high cooling efficiency, the potential cooling media with the char-
acteristics such as high thermal conductivity, low viscosity, high
heat capacity are preferable. However, there are several problems,
such as electrical short, electrochemical corrosion, to address. For
cell cooling, in order to avoid electrical short, the potential cooling
media must be dielectric, such as deionized water, silicon-based
oils or mineral oils [26]. In addition, for safety and health con-
cerns, non-toxic, good chemical stability and nonflammability, etc.,
should be taken into consideration.
Pesaran [26], Chen [128], Karimi [129] and Kim [130] investi-
gated the cooling efficiency of oil cooling. Pesaran [26] indicated
that, for the same flow rate, the heat-transfer rate of oil was much
higher than that of air due to thinner boundary layer and higher
fluid thermal conductivity. However, oil's higher viscosity led to
higher pressure loss and associated higher pumping power. Thus,
the oil usually kept low flow rates. Chen [128] compared the direct
99
Table 2
Parameters of different cooling strategies with the same temperature rise [128].
Item Air Mineral oil Water/Glycol
Temperature rise ( C) 8.4 8.2 8.3
Flow velocity (m$s1) 4 0.00275 0.015
Pressure drop (Pa) 148 279 189
Mass flow rate (g$s1) 0.96 0.49 0.29
Power consumption (mW) 116 0.15 0.051
air cooling, direct oil cooling and indirect water/glycol cooling.
Under the condition of the same temperature rise, the mass flow
rate, pressure drop, and power consumption are shown in Table 2. It
can be seen that direct oil cooling was still more thermal efficient
than direct air cooling even though direct oil cooling kept low flow
rate to make compromise between pressure loss and thermal
efficiency.
So far, to the authors' knowledge, liquid-based direct cooling has
not been widely applied in BTMS for mass-produced EVs. This may
be due in part to safety concern and lack of awareness of the
capability of this cooling technology. However, in recent years, the
liquid immersion cooling technology has been successfully used for
cooling data center servers [153] and power electronics, such as
Gate-Turn-Off (GTO) thyristors [154]. Toshio Endo et al. [153] built a
state-of-the-art supercomputer prototype and oil submersion
cooling was adopted. power consumption of the novel prototype
was tested and the experimental results showed that the total
power consumption was reduced by 29% compared to an air-cooled
counterpart.
Researchers are trying to push the liquid immersion cooling
route to battery thermal management [155,156]. 3M (Minnesota
Mining and Manufacturing Company) proposed two-phase im-
mersion cooling technology and supplied a broad range of thermal
management fluids [125,157]. One example is Novec 7000 [158], a
dielectric liquid containing 99.5% C3F7OCH3 which is a kind of
hydrofluoroether. The thermophysical properties of this coolant are
shown in Table 1 and the boiling point of the coolant can be as low
as þ34  C which is just in the optimal temperature range of Li-ion
battery. Hirokazu Hirano et al. [159] adopted Novec 7000 [157] for
cooling the battery module. The experimental results showed that
boiling liquid cooling kept the batteries temperature
at þ35 ± 2.5  C even the discharge C-rate was as high as 20C. This
indicates that it may be one of the most promising cooling media
for the battery module. In addition, due to the high heat capacity
and latent heat, it may help protect against thermal runaway to
improve the safety. Johnson et al. [160] experimentally investigated
the potential of liquid immersion cooling to mitigate the danger
caused by thermal runaway resulting from mechanical damage and
external heat. The tests were performed on battery packs with
18650 type Li-ion cells. One of the cells was pierced by a nail to
cause a thermal runaway event. In an unprotected standard air
atmosphere, the maximum temperature of the initiating cell soared
up to about 490  C and increased the temperature of adjacent cells
to cause a cell-to-cell cascading thermal runaway event. When the
battery pack was immersed in dielectric fluid, which was a kind of
fluorinated ketone, and performing the same nail puncture test, the
maximum temperature of the initiating cell was reduced to about
230  C and the cell-to-cell cascading thermal runaway event was
completely avoided. However, the above fluorinated organic com-
pounds are expensive, which will dramatically increase the cost of a
battery thermal management system.
Zhu et al. [161] experimentally investigated the performance of
immersion cooling using de-ionized water and it was adopted in
thermal management of concentrating photovoltaic cells. The re-
sults showed that the maximum module temperature was cooled
100 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105
Table 3
Thermal resistance analyses [162,163].
Material and cooling medium Thickness (m)
Air e e
Liquid e e
Thermal contact resistance e e
Electrical insulating coating (layer) 104
Al alloy tube 103
to 45  C at a thermal load of 940 W $m2, 17  C ambient temper-
ature and 30  C inlet temperature. The maximum temperature
difference of the module was controlled within 4  C. The cooling
capacity of the liquid immersion approach is very favorable.
However, they reported that the module performance degraded
after a period of time even at a constant resistivity of 5 MU $cm.
They assumed that either low ion concentration or electrolytic re-
action took the responsibility for performance degradation.
3.2.2. Liquid-based indirect cooling
Water is considered as one of the most efficient liquid cooling
media. However, the main barrier for direct water-cooling is the
worry of electrical short. Thus, in practice, the EV manufacturers
such as Tesla and GM would rather adopt indirect cooling. Mixture
of water and ethylene glycol is normally used as heat transfer
medium.
A thermal resistance analyses shown in Table 3 can help to
understand the difference of cooling efficiency between the cooling
strategies [162,163]. All data in Table 3 are obtained on assumption
of 1 m2 contact area between each pair of materials. For indirect
liquid cooling, the amount of extra thermal resistance due to metal
tube, electrical insulating coating and thermal resistance contact is
about 104 K $W1 [162,163]. Whereas, for directing cooling, the
thermal resistance is about 102e101 K $W1 for air and
103e102 K $W1 for liquid. It is obvious that the extra thermal
resistance in indirect cooling can barely weaken the heat transfer
when the thermal contact resistance is well controlled. Thus, for
heat dissipation of indirect liquid cooling, more attention needs to
pay on convection heat transfer and minimizing the thermal con-
tact resistance between different materials.
In general, indirect cooling can be further classified as tube
cooling, cold plate cooling with mini-/micro-channels (or fins) and
jacket cooling. According to the geometry of cells, e.g. cylindrical
cells or prismatic cells, the configurations of different heat sinks
may vary greatly. And the typical heat sinks for indirect liquid
cooling are shown in Fig. 6 [152,164e170].
The EVs manufacturer, Tesla, adopted the wavy tubes [164,165],
shown in Fig. 6 (a), for the battery cooling. It seems not a thermally
effective design from the heat transfer point of view since the cells
partially contact with the tube. And, in fact, it is a series cooling
configuration. However, it is safer based on mechanical and elec-
trical evaluation. Compared to the coolant jacket design, the
number of welding spots will be greatly reduced. What is more, all
fluid connections between the manifold and tube can be made
outside of the enclosure of battery module, thus eliminating any
potential leak points in the battery module. In addition, the space
and weight of battery module can be reduced. In order to enhance
heat transfer between cells and cooling tube, thermally conductive
yet electrically isolative materials need to be arranged to fill the
void space between cells and tube [164].
The schematic, shown in Fig. 6 (b), is a cross-section view of
coolant jacket. The coolant jacket comprises a hollow enclosure,
inlet, outlet, segregation walls, a plurality of cell apertures and the
same number of cells. Liquid coolant enters via the inlet and exits
via the outlet. The segregation walls are integrated into the
Thermal conductivity (W$m1 $K1) Thermal resistance (K$W1)
102e101
103e102
104
100 104
102 105
enclosure and guide the liquid coolant to flow though the enclo-
sure. In fact, the cell apertures are hollow cylinders and sized to fit
the cells. This design is more thermally effective than the design
shown in Fig. 6 (a) since the entire side surface of each cell contacts
with the enclosure of the battery module. In addition, the coolant
jacket is a series-parallel cooling configuration. Thus, temperature
uniformity will be improved.
It has been discussed in Section 3.1 that parallel cooling
configuration is an optimal configuration to improve temperature
uniformity. Zhao et al. [152] proposed a novel kind of parallel
cooling configuration based on mini-channel liquid cooled cylinder
(LCC) shown in Fig. 6 (c). The effects of channel quantity, mass flow
rate, flow direction and entrance size on the heat dissipation per-
formance were investigated numerically. The result showed that
the maximum temperature could be controlled under þ40  C at 5C
discharging rate. However, the local temperature difference was
difficult to reduce to below 5  C by just increasing the mass flow
rate of water. It may be due to that the diameter of 42110 cylindrical
cells is relatively large whereas the thermal conductivity in radial
direction is relative low. In fact, besides local temperature differ-
ence of single cell, it should be given a special attention to the flow
rate distributed to each LCC since that it may greatly influence the
temperature uniformity in battery module.
Cold plate with mini-channels, shown in Fig. 6 (d), removes heat
from the Li-ion battery using a thin metal plate with several liquid
channels. Due to that the plate surface is flat, it is suitable for
cooling prismatic cell and has been successfully used in the BTMS of
Chevrolet Volt [171]. The channel styles may be straight, serpentine
or in other complex forms [167,168,171,172]. Huo et al. [167]
designed cold plate with straight mini-channels and investigated
the effects of number of channels, flow direction, inlet mass flow
rate and ambient temperature on temperature rise and distribution
of the battery during discharge process. For straight channels,
convective heat transfer deteriorated along the flow direction with
the development of the boundary layer, which resulted in elevated
maximum temperature and significant temperature gradient in the
flow direction. Panchal [121] experimentally investigated the
cooling performance of cold plate with serpentine channels. The
coolant flow paths in the plate were similar to the design of
Chevrolet Volt. The results showed that increased discharge rates
between 1C and 4C and increased boundary conditions between
5  C and 35  C resulted in increased temperature contour of the
battery. However, due to that only ten thermocouples were used to
obtain the temperature distribution on cell surface, the spatial
resolution of temperature was limited. Jin et al. [168] proposed a
novel oblique mini-channel liquid cold plate as shown in Fig. 6 (d).
The conventional straight channels are obliquely cut across to form
an interrupted wall array. The oblique sections lead to redevelop-
ment of boundary layers and thus induce regeneration of entrance
effect throughout the heat sink. Their experimental results proved
that this design enhanced the performance of the conventional
channel with minimal pressure penalty. An et al. [173] proposed a
thermal management system based on flow boiling in mini-
channel. They experimentally investigated the cooling effect on
the temperature distribution and voltage distribution of prismatic
 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105
Fig. 6. Different heat sinks for indirect liquid cooling. For cylindrical cells: (a) wavy tube [164,165]; (b) coolant jacket [166]; (c) liquid cooled cylinder [152]. For prismatic cells: (d)
cold plate with mini-channels [167,168]; (e) combination of fin and cold plate with mini-channels [169,170].
battery pack. The experimental results showed that under the
boiling heat transfer mode, the temperature and temperature dif-
ference of cells were maintained around 40  C and 4  C, respec-
tively. The results also indicated that the cell voltage decreased
with the increase of flow rate due to the temperature drop. Besides,
the uniformity of voltage distribution and temperature distribution
within the battery module tended to deteriorate at higher
discharge rates [173]. Zhang [174] designed a liquid heat exchange
structure for battery pack by using aluminum flat tube bank.
Flexible graphite was used to enhance heat transfer. Their experi-
mental results showed that the maximum temperature difference
of the cell surface decreased from 7  C to 2  C after adding the
flexible graphite. Moreover, they also investigated temperature
variation rate under non-equilibrium state for the battery cooling.
And they found that the parallel flow configuration had potential to
make a good balance between the battery cooling speed and
cooling efficiency.
For large battery module or battery pack with dozens of cells,
several cold plates can be connected by distributor manifold and
collector manifold to configure as series-parallel or parallel style,
thus improving temperature uniformity within and between
modules. Teng and Yeow [175] proposed several cooling configu-
rations and they chose the parallel cooling configuration as candi-
date. For parallel configuration, besides improved temperature
uniformity, lower coolant pressure drop is another advantage that
was appreciated by them.
The combination of fin and cold plate, shown in Fig. 6 (e), is
another kind of heat sink. Fins are placed between cells and the
bases of fins connect to cold plate to form an integral heat sink. The
metal fins facilitate the heat dissipation from cells to cold plates.
Nieto et al. [169] carried out both experiments and simulations to
investigate the cooling performance of this kind of heat sink. Their
results showed that the maximum cell temperature could be
controlled below þ35  C and the maximum difference between
model predictions and experimental measurements was within
101
2  C. However, temperature dispersion of the battery module
exceeded 5  C. In fact, they adopted series cooling configuration
which single serpentine channel was arranged in the cold plate. It
has been discussed in Section 3.1 that series cooling configuration is
not suitable for mitigating the temperature gradient in battery
module. Saw et al. [170] adopted parallel straight mini-channels in
the cold plate. This may be helpful to homogenize the temperature
distribution in battery module. The work presented by Teng and
Yeow [175] strongly suggested to use parallel arrangement instead
to improve the temperature uniformity and lower the pressure
drop.
3.3. PCM-based cooling configurations
PCM cooling is a passive cooling method. Thus parasitic power
can be saved to extend the EV range. Due to the large latent heat of
phase change, the PCM was first introduced into the battery
module by Al-Hallaj and Selman [176] and a lot of work has been
conducted to validate the PCM cooling performance [177e181].
During battery discharging, the PCM serves as a heat sink. In
reverse, the PCM can release energy to heat the cells during
standby. However, in hot summer days or after several continuous
charge/discharge cycles, the PCM may melt completely and the low
thermal conductivity will become a heat transfer barrier. Therefore,
the overall battery thermal management solution must rely on
active cooling or on limiting the battery's power output (or both) to
avoid high temperatures. In cold winter, the PCM adds large ther-
mal inertia that means considerable electric energy consumption
for warming the battery module with PCM.
On one hand, some methods, such as mixing metal foam
[179e184], graphite [185,186] or fibers [187,188] with PCM, or
coupling PCM with mini-channels [189], have been applied to
improve the thermal performance of PCM so as to reduce the
temperature gradient inside battery module. However, this leads to
a certain degree of latent heat loss. On the other hand, some
102 G. Xia et al. / Journal of Power Sources 367 (2017) 90e105
research focused on investigating the thermal or mechanical
characteristic of PCM. Rao et al. [190] investigated the effect of
melting range and found that lower melting point of the PCM may
be beneficial for cooling performance. Dallaire and Gosselin [191]
developed models that considered the thermo-mechanical
coupling between the PCM and its container. They found that the
impact of volume variations during phase change was significant.
3.4. Other cooling strategies
Zhao and Zhang [192,193] experimentally validated a hydrogel
based battery cooling method and their results showed that it could
efficiently control the temperature rise in discharge tests. Mean-
while, this novel cooling strategy also possesses the merits of easy
manufacturing, compactness, and low cost. Thermoelectric cooling
seems not to interest the BTMS researchers, very few studies were
reported in recent years. Liu et al. [194] proposed a thermoelectric
coolers (TEC) combining with liquid cooling. Their results showed
that TEC kept more uniform temperature distribution than air
cooling BTMS. Even under high ambient temperature, it also
functioned well to keep the battery temperature in optimum range.
The other TEC work is a patent [195]. Rao et al. [196], Greco et al.
[197], Ye et al. [198] incorporated heat pipe into battery cooling. By
this means, they found that the thermal performance of normal
cooling strategies (e.g., air, liquid or PCM) improved significantly.
Since the heat pipes are featured with super high thermal con-
ductivity, lightweight, compact size, and zero-power consumption,
they are usually used in battery module to transfer heat from nar-
row space to a relatively uncrowded space. This facilitates
arrangement of heat exchanger.
4. Conclusion
Temperature range and temperature variation are two critical
parameters influencing the battery pack performance. The ambient
temperature may vary from 35 to þ50  C in different regions,
climates and seasons, whereas the desired temperature range of
battery is about þ15~þ35  C. In addition, battery inconsistency and
thermal boundary conditions result in temperature differences
between cells in battery pack. These major issues necessitate
carefully designed BTM. This paper reviews the existing researches
from cell level and battery module level.
For single cell, we distinguish three important processes: heat
generation, heat transport, and heat dissipation. These three pro-
cesses dominate the battery temperature. Reversible and irrevers-
ible heat generation rates have been recognized as two major heat
sources in large format cells. Multi-Scale Multi-Dimensional
coupled models have been developed to get a deeper insight into
the interplay of electrochemical and thermal process. Researchers
attributed local heating effects near electrodes, especially the
cathode, to electrical contact resistance and current concentration.
Optimized tab designs have been proposed to mitigate the localized
heating. Besides heat sources, the low thermal conductivity of
materials in battery result in intrinsic temperature gradients in cell
as well. Different cooling strategies, which mean different thermal
boundary conditions, may result in very different cooling perfor-
mance. It has been recognized that enhancing thermal boundary
conditions help to lower the average battery temperature but
enlarge temperature gradients in the battery. In order to obtain the
internal temperature of battery, EIS-based measurement technique
has been proposed and is promising to be used for internal tem-
perature monitoring.
For battery module based on fluid cooling media such as air or
liquid, cooling configurations need to carefully designed. Compared
to series configuration, parallel and mixed series-parallel
configurations have been proved to be more effective to mitigate
the temperature difference between cells. For series configurations,
the temperature variation in battery module is mainly induced by
temperature rise of coolant along the flow path. For pure parallel
configurations, the temperature variation in battery module is
mainly induced by unequal fluid rates between parallel flow paths.
This necessitates a pressure equalizing design in battery module
with parallel configuration. For series-parallel configurations, the
temperature variation in battery module may be caused by the
combination of the above two reasons. Direct liquid cooling,
especially liquid immersion cooling, emerges as a promising cool-
ing technology for BTM. Compared to indirect liquid cooling, the
cooling efficiency improves due to increased contact area between
cells and liquid coolant and removal of thermal-conduction resis-
tance and thermal contact resistance. For a liquid coolant with low
boiling point, the latent heat helps to improve the cooling capacity
further.
At present, the dominant battery cooling strategies are based on
air, liquid and PCM. As the demand of fast charging, high specific
energy, high specific power, long life of cells is increasingly urgent,
more rigorous requirements on thermal efficiency, cost, compact-
ness, lightweight, reliability, etc., have been proposed to the next
generation of BTMS.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by a research fund of the National Nat-
ural Science Foundation of China (No. 51576005).
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