Earth Science Reviewer

I. Properties of Minerals

1. Color- is one of the most obvious properties of a mineral but it is often of

limited diagnostic value, especially in minerals that are not opaque.
 Idiochromatic (self-coloring)- minerals that have inherent coloration
 Allochromatic – minerals that exhibit a variety of colors or exotic
coloration

2. Luster - describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected from its
surface.
 Metallic  Pearly
 Vitreous  Earthy
 Waxy

3. Streak- refers to the color of the mineral in its powdered form, which may or may
not be the same color as the mineral.

4. Hardness - is the resistance of a mineral to scratching or abrasion by other

materials. Hardness is determined by scratching the surface of the sample with
another mineral or material of known hardness.

Mohs Hardness Scale

- standard hardness scale
- consists of ten minerals ranked in ascending order of hardness with diamond,
the hardest known substance, assigned the number 10.

5. Cleavage- refers to the characteristics tendency of many minerals to split or

separate easily along planes of weak bonding.
- Cleavage planes, as flat surfaces, are easily spotted by turning a sample in your
hand until you see a single flash of reflected light from across the mineral surface.

II. Rocks
- is a consolidated aggregate of various types of minerals or a consolidated
aggregate of multiple individual pieces of the same kind of minerals.

Three Types of Rocks

A. Igneous Rock
- Form by crystallization and solidification of molten rock (magma or lava)
- Usually found near volcanoes
- The composition of igneous rocks varies with silica content.

God Bless! -KMV

 - Silica-rich rocks contain the minerals quartz, feldspar, mica, and amphibole.
- Silica-poor rocks do not contain quartz but feldspar, olivine, and pyroxene are
relatively common.
Three factors affecting the texture of Igneous Rocks
i. The rate at which magma cools
ii. The amount of silica present
iii. The amount of dissolved gases in the magma
Two major categories of igneous rock
Extrusive Rock (volcanic rock)- molten material that solidifies at Earth’s surface
Examples: Basalt, andesite, rhyolite and obsidian
Intrusive Rock (Plutonic Rock)- molten material that solidifies beneath Earth’s surface.
- rocks that form from slowly-cooled magma have time to form large mineral
crystals (the mineral grains had sufficient time to grow large). (Phaneritic)
Examples: dunite, gabbro, diorite, and granite
B. Sedimentary Rocks
- Product of weathering of pre-existing rocks, erosion and transport of sediments
followed diagenesis and lithification.
- Usually found in seas, deserts, estuaries
- Comprised of mineral fragments and organic materials (fossils)
- Derived from sediment
Weathering- the physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rock, by which rocks
are changed upon exposure to physical, chemical and biological processes.
- Weathered material forms sediments that are classified by increasing grain size as
mud, silt, sand, and gravel.
Erosion- Sediment is removed (transported) from its place of origin by running water, winds,
and/or glaciers.
Chemical sedimentary rocks are precipitated from a solution as a result of changing physical
conditions.
Biochemical sedimentary rocks involve the actions of living organisms that cause minerals to
be precipitated from a solution or are composed of the remains of dead organisms.
Examples: Shale, Sandstone, Conglomerate and limestone
C. Metamorphic Rocks
- Protolith – parent rock

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 - Metamorphism occurs when a rock changes because of changing physical
conditions (temperature, pressure).
- The temperature range for metamorphism is approximately 200-1,000oC.
- Contact metamorphism occurs in relatively narrow zones around heat sources
(e.g., magma).
- Regional metamorphism occurs over large areas in association with the
formation of mountain belts.
- Rocks subjected to regional metamorphism may develop a texture termed
foliation.
- Metamorphism represents the changes in the composition and/or texture of a rock
that occurs in solid rocks as a result of increasing pressure and/or temperature.
Foliation- layered or banded texture in metamorphic rocks brought about by pressure.
Two Major Categories of Metamorphic Rocks
a. Non-foliated- metamorphic rocks without layering, banding or alignment
Example: marble and quartzite

b. Foliated- metamorphic rocks with layering, wavy bands or alignment due enough
heat and pressure.
Example: Slate, Phyllite, Schist, Amphibolite, Gneiss

III. Mining
- Refers to a set of processes in which useful resources are withdrawn from a stock
of any non-renewable resource.
• Ore is rock that contains economic concentrations of metallic minerals.
• Gangue are noneconomic minerals associated with ores
• Concentration factor is the increase in concentration of a mineral
required to form an ore.

Types of Mining
A. Surface mining- shallow mineral deposits are removed; materials lying over
a deposit are removed to expose the resource for processing.
- The type of surface mining used depends on the resource being sought and the
local topography.
 Open-Pit Mining – machines dig very large holes and remove metal ores,
as well as sand, gravel, and stone.

 Strip Mining- this type of mining is useful and economical for extracting
mineral deposit that lie in large horizontal beds close to the earth’s
surface.
 Area- Strip Mining- it is used when the terrain is fairly flat, a
gigantic earthmover strips away the overburden, and a power

God Bless! -KMV

 shovel – removes the mineral deposit . The resulting trench is filled
with overburden, and a new cut is made parallel to the previous
one.
 Contour-Strip Mining- it is used mostly to mine coal on hilly or
mountainous terrain. Gigantic power shovels and bulldozers cut a
series of terraces into the side of a hill. The, huge earthmovers
remove the overburden, a power shovel extracts the coal.

 Mountaintop Removal- this form of mining is commonly used,

explosives, earth movers, large power shovels, and other machines
with huge buckets, called draglines, are used to remove the top of a
mountain and expose seams of coal, which are then removed.

B. Subsurface Mining- this method is used to remove coal and metal ores that
are too deep to be extracted by surface mining. Miners dig a deep, vertical
shaft, blast open subsurface tunnels and chambers to reach the deposit, and
use machinery to remove the resource and transport it to the surface.

IV. Energy Resources

- are the opportunities an area offers to generate electricity based on its natural
conditions and circumstances.
Two Categories of Energy Resource
1. Renewable
- From an energy resources that is replaced by a natural process at a rate that is
equal to or faster than the rate at which that resource is being consumed.
- Renewable energy sources get their energy from existing flow of energy from on-
going natural processes
- Renewable energy technologies produced sustainable, clean energy from source

Examples of Renewable Energy:

a. Wind d. Ocean
b. Hydroelectric e. Tidal
c. Solar f. Geothermal

2. Non-Renewable
- An energy that does not replenish at a sufficient rate in human time scale; limited
- Energy that is replaced very slowly or not within man’s lifetime

Examples of Non-Renewable Energy:

a. Coal b. Oil and Gas

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 c. Petroleum d. Nuclear Energy

V. Water Resources
Water
- Water cycle - describes the process of continuous movement of water on, above,
and below the surface of the Earth.
- Earth’s surface is covered by 71% water
- Essential for life – can survive only a few days without water
- 97% of all water on Earth is Saltwater (marine water) and only 3% of all water on
Earth is Freshwater.
- In the 3% (freshwater), only 1% is readily available for consumption.
- Two main water resources: Saltwater and freshwater
- Hydrogeology- the field of Geology that deals with the distribution, availability,
and flow of groundwater in aquifers.
- Earth’s water budget- the total amount of water in the planet.
- Flood- is a natural event wherein an area that is usually dry is submerged under
water. Flood is also aggravated by human activities

Freshwater
Surface Water – the freshwater from precipitation and melted snow that flows across the earth’s
land surface and into lakes, wetlands, streams, rivers, estuaries and oceans.
Surface runoff – precipitation that does not infiltrate the ground or return to the atmosphere by
evaporation
• A watershed describes the total area contributing drainage to a stream or river
• The land from which surface water drains into a body of water.
• May be applied to many scales
– A large watershed is made up of many small watersheds
Groundwater – precipitation that seeps into the ground and percolates downward through
spaces into soil, gravel and rock until an impenetrable layer of rock stops.
Zone of saturation – spaces underground that are completely filled with water
Water table – top of zone of saturation
Aquifer – water saturated layers of sand, gravel or bedrock through which groundwater flows.
• Recharge slow ~ 1 meter per year

God Bless! -KMV

Use of Water
Humans directly or indirectly use about 54% of reliable runoff
Withdraw 34% of reliable runoff for:
• Agriculture – 70%
• Industry – 20%
• Domestic – 10%
Pollution Source Terminology
• Point source = pollution comes from single, fixed, often large identifiable sources
– smoke stacks
– discharge drains
– tanker spills
• Non-point source = pollution comes from dispersed sources
– agricultural runoff
– street runoff

Types of Water Pollution

• Sediment
– logging, roadbuilding, erosion
• Oxygen-demanding wastes
– human waste, storm sewers, runoff from agriculture, grazing and logging, many
others
• Disease-causing organisms
– from untreated sewage, runoff from feed lots
• Toxic chemicals
– pesticides, fertilizers, industrial chemicals
• Heavy metals
– lead, mercury
• Acids Elevated temperatures = Thermal Pollution
Growth of population

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• Supply & demand are in growing conflict – supply is finite – water management driven
by values and needs
• Increases demand/use of water
• Increases land use and changes vegetation and permeability
• Increases demand for instream values – instream flows are for people

God Bless! -KMV