J. K. McKay B.A., B.Sc.Tech., C.Eng., lanchester University Institute {Hof Science and Technology BUILDING CONSTRUCTION VOLUME FOUR THIRD EDITION (METRIC) With drawings by the author THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE BOOK SOCIETY AND LONGMANLongriin Group Limited London Asocatd companies, branches and representatives throughout the wort ‘This dion © Lorgman Group Limited, 1975, Alright reer No part oft puiation may (ceropaduced, stored in etievl ye, oF ‘erated in any form or by any meses, setroni, Imecnaieal, photocopying rearing or otherwie, ‘without the prio perlon ofthe Gopyight nner. First publited 198% “Tired pression 1963 Scand edton 1967 ‘Second ipreson 1868, “deo (atc) blades for ELBS 1076 Printed in Great tin by WhitsbleLtho Ud rae Stohenon VALENCY THEORY STEEL DESIGNERS MANUAL Science srupents\\ i be 1 PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION The production of thi mettic eiion completes the mewicition and updating ofthe four Bulding Contraction "Revsions have been made to all chapters and ave been pricy extensive in the following: Inthe section on stechnumed constraction becnve welding has almowe ently replaced svting, the deta ip he Fires show he Increasing use of welded joins, The retfored cance section hae been reawtcen to ike account ofthe deigh theory of imi sete which hat veplced the elie theory. Chapter on fee protetin hasbeen rcomposed inthe ligne fnew lealation, Details of en industalined baling satan are given in Chapter, Chapter 10, which inclades ‘arcs of and waste installations, has bee extended Inthis book, which is concerned ith the more advance bling echiguc, ti imporant that uptodate systems ancillsrated wis ute same tive giving adequate coverage of Ode, wel proved sytem which must for pert of the voeabulry of those engaged inthe bulingsndustey so long as thst per cen of expenditure devoted to repa, Isintenance and teconstvetin, reno ec eye y hi Bok andthe companion oleh ag of mot of he Fier revel : ass JK. Mo PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION Many inquire hve been made rpuding he dae of publition of this book, Ie wes orginly tended, after Volume Into complete the subsequent volumes within a retonble pri, bi for sever enone thi ws not posible, Thee Preparcion Was delayed by the wa, and wea ie beeame pouble fo make fresh star, was found thts numberof Competed fllpage drawings lated det of constriction that had become aolte dug the intervening Yes. “These drawings and the rlevan Seseiptive mater were Tejeted, Agi war dificale to ates which ofthe Rew ineoduced balding techniques and ruterias would beable to wihand toe tex of times some of them bave not strived beyond a short emewgency pedod. tc was decided therefore to defer the preprstion of Volume 1V nth a lets pete cou be obeaned Fore, when ths secs of textbooks was fire planned, wat aniipte that each ofthe later volumes would be devoed to one of the yee of an approved advanced couse. This is Row though undesirable are would ene fertin amount of duplation, would break continuity and would aot be the best arrangement fr easy reference. {this connection in view ofthe se of the previous volume in other Earopesn counties, an ho im Ain and Asi, the present one has noe been lived to bling pratice at home. For ceample wach open tnber framed rool quired, a plaed laminated one (Fig 60) ikely co be prefered inthe United Kingdom nad of ee older type 59) which ore wal where there pent ippiy of large bask ibePREFACE Following the treatment in anicr volumes alternatives, as many ab space permitd, fave bean given of cero pieces of conetvtion, tus for example inthe seston aig seth wale and wood paneling there fay wide ‘age a dels ofboth teisionl and contemporary design. These an vations eewhere wal enable the stent fo Selec or modify features bse suited to any pacar project hema have a hand “his book, fat advanced sage, stele for ache, bung and stroctrlenginering stems and for consltaton in offices ie concerned aily with newer more vanced methods of construction, and sein Dulding, but also has nearly been made to ser types even Cough they sf uliely to be repeated. One ‘reason fortis chat, of he vote annual expenditure on bling work, a sfcac proportion, exceeding ovehid is Some year, is devoted tothe msintennce of old building; knnedge of th rpect therefore important. Laces ‘wl ccopize the drawings in thi category, an wil adie students that constuction ofthe hid shown in Fig 45, for Insane, inched for reference as well forthe reasons gen nthe ex Whilst the gound covered by the comprehensve coun in filing Construction provid by the various Depart sens of Building and Schools of Arctectare may be ely the smc, the syllabuses i the sptermedate tnd fina ‘yeas enst der to some entent, depending prbape on spesalocelrquiements or upon indiidal preferences ofthe feaching staf. Accondingy, 4 Homemork Propane such sapped nthe eter volumes, hes aot been nde in The preparation of» mutant uptodate textbook ofthis kind, would not be pouible without the aiance of ‘manufacturers and patents; co-operation hasbeen teal fochcoming and due acknowiedgement hs been ade ip the appropste placer ‘The author alo indebted to Her Naess Sratonery Otice andthe Bish Sandars Ini tion for permision to inde extacs from several oficial pblestons. Occasional refernce hat been made to the Bling Resestch station and to orber onnieaons, inching the Fue roection ASSocalon, andthe athor lef forthe information provided by thes. He thanks the following gentlemen. VC. Hares, G, Rovcher, RE. Sows, F-Bowman,P.Coschley, TG. Princ, J. A. MeDomady W 1 Tarn and. F. Wid fo thelr el. The loss of te sthor' father, WB. McKay, befdwe completion of the works deep) ete nt f the sere his concribtion especialy recorded, as based on a wide eaching experience and knowledge ofthe indus. 1960 JK MekLeo’ ashing a Teor wd Crate Com CONTENTS 1. Sic Preparation and Foundations Ea mvig augment ~ Ste Dentering and nvighion ~ Catifitio and Being Cpa of road ound ype Png ~ Canton fr Sabo 1, Sie and Reinforced Concrete Consrcton ee Ae inn comin“ me on oa ns — Racy ~ Ree Restnce~ FefiingEqsipmen and Deon — Vi. Ligheaeghe Roofing Mater VIL, Balonis and Canopies ‘pecel Doors and Windows Sl and Sif Do and Parent, Reohing Boot ~Doubegazed Windows ~ Pte lang 209‘CONTENTS 2X, Ineral Pambig ‘syne Pg Sing” iphone ~ ack Prone Teing. Xl, letra nd Gas Services Il Thermal inelation and Heating Systeme ‘Donec ating Sold Fuel Appice «Peps snd Surounin Coees MaR/OMy Appa — (fied tae eee Sens Rada, Uden Hang Space eig Cu 2sLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS sear enn E bicuuaitatLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS {01 stand Wane Dey Sten vo te os et pe th ps uh te " {oh See Be | 20h ofan s 108, Rew ig ohn as ” LIST OF TABLES pn Grog (Repo oS eetesten 1 meting iin | nice totes ee 11 Mit Danette Replaced) 9a | 32 Saati Std Vn Sr fe ee a 14, Ree of Spd 1S, Noon Balaton of Rot Comat 16, Typ Compre Seno 19, Strap of fant and Unde ek PesCHAPTER ONE SITE PREPARATION AND FOUNDATIONS Slab Eamonn equipment, sor, gin, eaten kine, nce, glee. sagt a pee Te apleaion of entering, eto omen, and SITE PREPARATION EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT Fo many yeas after the fst employment in this county, in 1880, of Eeavtingsnachinery suse wes fate to large ble works projets, uch the contruction of raiway, ana and Socks Ke was nov until ate he First Inthe buldng indstey and now, except for flatly Sal obs of very faite sites the machine har alot entiely pled hand labour for Forming exesations "The motive poe ie thst provided by either the intemal combustion engine or the cece motor, probably ninety pc cent of exesators te Dis enpned. Some ofthe ase for which exesnting equipment x employed on bulding operations inne ciging foundation trenches excntting and eng dra Ed sewer rence, leveling ses, oad consrcton and excavating fr base nen ei ase for exesvatione on waterwotks and sewerage schemes 0d {Fated and cay pits i ase forstripping the one nd gpg the sand, eve br cy in limestone, et, quarries i employed fr removing the stone fom the fee (generly ater being loosened by sing, sed for dren 0, bb recent year, for excnting and leaning up fa conection with opens ning i un be used also a5 grabbing crane (fr loading mateal fon Sand [sel ete, damps into wagons) snd for ple ding “The pelncpal types of ponerdmen excaator sad in building and ci ginseng operiions include the shovel, dragine, drahorl skimmer, and leecher These machines, inthe main, of weed seal consrtion, le 0 Withstand severe wear. They ae ast in ig. Shovel. See A. The evoling fume, with i aupentruceare contig ofthe togine ear operstor's des enclosed ca, te, cterpila mounted. The iin can i pee oer ough ond ad an cin ep rans of boom or iba dipper handle or bosket am, the bucket shovel or dipper, together with pully, dame and wire rope. The boom x pvoted ti ower tra tothe resving sspertactate at Soar level i length anes form appro mney 20 12 mf canbe fixed x any angle the woo tangs being between 40 to 60" and swell pitch for erage digging being 5°-Thedippet hanes ‘nounced midway along the boom. an be reked backward nd forwards snd fotted to alter the pitch 35 desired. The bucket fixed a she lowerend of he Slpper hand as four of five teeth (ok hgh catbon forged sce) seted a ton lower eating edge (oes!) tbackconsins of hinged door which 3 opened to deposit its conten the expucisy vanes considersy, from 0° "0 2H bat for normal contacting wore 1 bucket rary exceeds 15 mand 0.3 fd 0 5m shovel ae conan, The shovel x sed for digging where it cin work on the floor af the ence in The dipper arm lowered wat te backer the Boom of the fase = se By poston "1" The bucket chen dese up the face with a ail motion and withthe ect penetrating the sl, ete: Dating this opetton che materi pastes Into the bucket and, for economic working. he sm should bet form se of suficientes fo ensitesfll bucket by the eit aces the apo the ‘ecracion (postion 2), Finally, the dipper handle is iced in 10 ear the face (potion °°) the tachine is sewed round over te Tory o dump, the ‘contents ae dscaiged on the bucket dor being opened, the machine i then Sang round and the bucket lowered to repeat the movements The be of ‘hse ictions i performed by the opertor seated athe cones inthe ab ho har an unobercted view ofthe bcket The shovel the moet powerful ofthe exctvatrs, a the “cating power is concentrated the firmly held bucket. ee thetefore very sual for exci ating Reary mater suck a lay and loose rocks, Te length of boots ates ‘withthe height of face ofthe excision and dumping eit o dance thu, foram 5.5m long boom snd. 4.5m lng dipper handle the maximum depth of ‘ee or “eating height 7m when the boom sid a 45° and im when1PMENT NG Eee EQu EX CAVAT THE {UNIVERSALY TYPE OF EXCAVATOR Can Ee conveatiD To Ag ‘e SHOVEL "CN A SKIMMER DYE A RACINE or: caténeiins SHOVEL Stat SECTION THRO 7 SCRAPER WHEN ‘YATEN GR pLaN OF ANGLEDOZER me uTTING Sketewes wor re scace 6B St “SCRAPER MULTI~BUCKET 7 TRENCHER & DITCHER A som nee Ge ar,eine to ALLDOZER} EXCAVATING fined at 60%. Although exetlly Wied for forward and par cating the Show! can excavate tos mied extent below floor lee ‘ragine. Sec F. Ths machine stands a he Cop ofthe excavation and ee suet below is own lee eit thecore epecy sabe for we ou wer Test tes, is applications indude digging lage gecral excavations for Duleings coring greta drainage chan and Oesnng. widening, and pening exisng one, trimming ser banks, excarating in wet snd and gael sey sig ntrdn nations separ ostion equicd on ot inthe exertion i hapged fora! owen the ‘Bin ty mein ofthe dg ope, dring the gag pero he mater acy the teeth, pur nt he Eoce, when fall the bake al by the fois rope, the machine swung round andthe pil’ dumped in the wagon trrequred positon onthe se The Inger booms eopeciliy are of light ltice constuction, they vary in length om 9 to 8 rm. The Duets ange fom 0:2 fo 20 capacity those vp {0.075 m? being common on bling sts. The digging depth below the ground tne depends upon te mre of he created ons an serge ep eng tpprormately ball the dumping ads tho depth may be doubled he ‘Raeral “wil sand sp", er fn sl The "iow" ofthe Bucket depend 3 {fod des upon the il ofthe operacn the host rope being pled sma Men the apily descending ket att exam swing ‘ragionet. See Cand HThe pe handle o eka pro at he nd ofthe boom, which eof robust Constacton. I bas crain aBriges of flak deagtine snd shovel for example, ember che Satine that ps ‘clo fawn eels he buchen an be fey bed wil ncn Ge ‘Sethovel the drgshovel wil dig hen sols he wil dap 0 he tne ies chiefly employed for digng trenches fords, sewers, wate pies ics tus ao for enemang butecnn tapesaly On conned se sich prciethe se ofthe shovel the equcd ve Ts machine I ako elledsbockctr for like the digi, the bucket t the end of the dippcr Bande of the drgshovel has backdating scion towards the machine ~ see Gand H. The maxima capacity ofthe Bcket Sms he with of tench can be ieeued Wade cite te fed to Be becker: the wich canbe icra sil fre if sewing and wet ae fied to the bucket. Tha, an 07m capac bicker withowt se cotes an Og + Dism wide neh, 076m with ae cers and 9 fo dm wth de winge tnd terty 3 0.3m? bucket wih sie wing ad teeth can ig ene pf ihm in wiih (or 2 m nthe cate and 09 m wthow), Wider tesche e cheanted by taking Teo or more cow ar Cequrc The lager machines can fxaate to masimum depth of 3.3 to THe wench oupe dependent pon the pace of the men following p with the necessary tinbeing, Mal Becker renhe are dec elo EQUIPMENT 3 ‘Skimmer or Skinner Ssvop. See D and E, Thi i mre fficene machine tor shallow work, at fr leveling bling ses 4nd plying Sel, and fr oad Scnseuctions 2 clear level surface rr, ee wet sso for "ce slog there the dumps of excavated ater donot encod 1-2 o¢ 1.5 min eight and Foc siping thin er of overunden The boom is lwered £0 horse poston (oe tite a requited when 2 sloped inh is needed) and the skimmer bucket or dipper © essed lo shige long ie The lnguh of travel ofthe bucket (ce) depends upon that of the boom form ng tam there apponma 37m The sy of 2a the material dumped into the ory ar wagon Univeral or Gener Purposes Exciacor, This machine, which iin big demand by building snd pu works constacor can be adeped for perform ing ll che excoutng operations deserbed above iti thvs avalible shove bucket) mont sitable forthe prc exeratig job equited, the machine a te qicly contre on the ste fram one ype fo another, In aon, thie tretaor can be employed siting or gabing cane (etter being wd 2 femove loot mater, sch end and chalk om pes ores o wagons, oF dragine boom the same as that foe the grabbing crane, coaverson feom the former co the laters rendly made by provision of the gia bucket. AS ple Srver, he machine provided woth puter Sedat che end ofthe Boom. and Stop hammer, it canbe used ofr withawing ple, Kit thesbove machines se known ingle bucket excavator {Trencher Another type of Machine, Keown 121 mattiDuchet contin ‘hain mencher dicen, i naw extensively employed on housing ster for Cutting aarow nd sallow stecher wach a ze required for dein, lecie fables and gus and witer pips Tes sed a0 for hallow howe foundation The matibuckestencher shown at capable of excavating ences 350 to $50mm wie ro + depth not exceeding 2 manger model wil dig eenches tp co13 m wide, and Sim dep. The oom is aed and lowered as requted by the diver moving lever and cha be locked in any portion, The spl caid 'up from the tench by Backes (having cing tect) stich toa comcnaost Stel chain and tipped on so 1 ble conveyor st the Top of he oe, whence ie Seposted to ether the [elt or rithand side ofthe trench. Ths machine pro ‘does raking cut and therefore leaves samp athe endo the enh which sone dg by hands ver ac i reued “The maltsbucker dither surrted at M exeniatestenches $50 10 610 mm wide ton mani dep of about 25m, ect verily and the exentted ‘neil dlvsed by the Bucket to te conveyer bee which dehares nt Tow or dongs the wench Another mods uae for etlelayng ete, Eupuble ot dng trenches 180 co 300 mem wide and upto 12 m dep.4 SITE PREPARATION AND FOUNDATIONS This eased extensively on the larger excavating job. Ut incades the ball dozer, anledozer scraper and sppr When the trator not requted fr hal tng the mrper ot oer dis, ican icy be converted for veo bulldoze, orangledoree DBullber, See J, This sa Inge rectangular plae or blade (ured in erst section) om front ofthe stor abd atached othe ae frames of the eter ‘tuck Ths plate, of manganese sel ues in width rom 2 to} m and fom (07 go 12 m highs it ha caring edges a he bottom snd ide i eam be ited {501 900 mm above snd dropped 200 30S mm below he proud "his equipment et oh a site as leveliey, the blade pushes or ell loose arth debrief ahead ofthe tector to fil up Lowiving pars. The depth of {ut blow the ground level or hsp an be zapulted by lowering the ble, sd the intr can be raed tothe deed hugh to give the necessary spead the {estar puss over the mater When operating on sloping ground the bulldozer Should posh the mater downhill i order to obin maxsmum etic) and fedue fst consumption, (tw considered hat this the cheaper form of exc ‘ting equipment for moving earth over dances up 0 60 mu frequently ed on oud contruction anata trench flr *backfling), and for oe sping “Aesedoer, or Bulgar, or Teller, SceN and O. This resembles the ‘ulllovr, expe thc the Made or moldboars can be stat am angle of 28 r 50 dees, a shown st O, and addon, she Hinde can be ited or “amr ‘eres hat the dillerence i eight of the ade end is om 200 Co 360m Hence, de exented earth o debris canbe pshed to eer side athe actor moves forward. The blade tN shows in alternative pontine ground ine (CT, below ground line") and aboveground line C3" Lie the beldoser, the angledozer especially sued fo jobs connected with the making of toads nd putty those on hills whee the excavated Imutral cin be reeiy defected fo the downward doen i x also wed for Brckfiling wench afte dans, cy have Bee ad ‘Scraper ox Wagon Scraper See K and K'This equipment consis of «tele tively nige receptacle, sled the reper oe backer, snd a tactar Tae pe of ‘erper shown has capac ranging fom 3 20 my lane soaps have {spaciy up 10 20.n?. It mounted on four (or so) wheel and Ratt 1.8 Sim long cating edge or blade st the borom which cam dig to 2 dep of tout 250mm. The seaper i somes behind the ner and dung for watd mover the Blade cuts the ground, he excited tater pasing iM the body of the scraper Normally the scraper shoal be loaded within one rnste wen ful, the scraper erated (3500 400 mm) cea ofthe round 23 Shown at K, and bauled to whe dumping ste where the materi ejected athe bottom and spesd in + lnyer of fequted thoes seth ter connie tere forward The seep Sus combines the tee operations of gig, ae org and duping plate atthe back called the rng Bott swings oma inge behind ne blade he ont potion ofthe hou ale the apron As iaicte Byaows he eX ISrequned. During seeson (speeding a the spo the citing bowl rte Fonwand snd te apron tel to give the dence depth pred. Another pe ft traper ass bck plate nies Of the ling Dow, which pused forward ‘Spay the stper he sected mater! pasiagberwen he ages the sed The wowheled type of stapes, towed behind the macor, i emptied by iting the fre of he machine to pert te spol tobe ejected 2 the bck Te sreper i stale fr ok slat ha esrb for the singe backe ‘special lange sites. om which the exeavated material can be dumped ‘Ripper ov Scaifer Ths Is provide with wo 10 four tect, asl thee, ands Sued to neak ap besry ground, which loosened mate 16 then Feroved by the rope EXCAVATION OF WATERLOGGED SITES Wher dallow excvations ate required in waterlogged se, the ue of close boarded sheeting oF pling se p29) and pumps general sultces to enable ‘onsrton work to proceed For ager works, thse adjacent ives ot the Sots and in other snmunsesgien below, these semple methods Recome cutly nd often impraccle. Under such crcustancs, oe or aber ofthe flow: ine methods canbe adapt in appropriate sustons. dewatering, eect formosa the freeing proer, Site Dewatering. Tht cons of lowering the water table over the area of ‘he ste and I sisfstory for dept upto 16m Ie patel sable where fing sand & enovetenedy or once the wer has been femoved eG round, the sand becomes rele sable and only a small amoune of inberig {the ies of the exciton nneaded. Om seh site prior othe adoption of ‘eater away from the bottom. This exused the ste xo ace 36 Sump. ieresing he water Now and may only be prateable whete the pling b ken down 2 Inpawiows sata suchas cay. Cay sata ul canor be dewatered hough eds of snd above and below the cy can be ested) Nori pombe ro de rocks or ground wit nge bowlers and an absence of sandy sad blow ‘ch mia can be dewntered by boring through these spe layer The basic principles of sc dewatesng ae shown in Fig 2 and at D, the ompartiv effects inthe mor sable sindy raul for teste ar Show, down curves to ilstrate che effet.6 SITE PREPARATION AND FOUNDATIONS “Te equipment forthe operation comptes eth pump for deiing down the piper tstction pan for wstharawing the water, + welposet to whch he sneer dawn up ie ached rier pipe, swing am which eonnecte the ‘ert the Boner pipe that ouple via ser tothe pomp “The fst put ofthe operon, knowns etng i to rive down the wel: points This done by screwing each ane ta 38 mm ds re pipes the op oF ‘hich ithe swinging arm connected by x hose co the eting pump One man [oleh assembled welpine and er onthe ground; ashe rtates and moves It fro sde tose he pomp operstor delve wer under present de point penetrates the ground. For large or fine gavel oF ly, a presure of TOBNN/mé may be needed, bu for ener i, 069 MN sien Tor the pnt tobe washed ino the grovnd. With ring und or conse snd, mc ess Presure isequied and the welipoin pomp nay be wed, thus siding the ne foe pei eng pump. Om enching the desited dep, the points we "sande inh irs about two bartow loads of snd ate psed down the bol, hi ate a8 + fixer in preventing the pipe from becoming loge wish it.The hove 8 now Aisconnected andthe swinging am is attached tothe 150mm din eader pipe tihich ences the sie (or, he cae ofa wench along the sie ofthe et. "The header has coupling june at 760 nm interes 0 hat er eam be june Ir this spacing for desig with le volumes of water in lose gave couse {and tn in fnning snd, a sptcing 23 m may’ ufie The suction pump + {So mm a. tel or elecne eahaurer priming cnttegal spe, bang ‘pay of 4500 ivewmin. at 812m bead. "The svction and ichuge ate {Sone dia. andthe parm seo has = 63 rm dix connecion for jetting up (0 O17 Nm Each ston pump can del with $070 wellpoins scoring ondons, and it must be Kept unning sondnuously ens the work 3s compa "The detail at Cf the fot ofa welpont shows see ube covered with wo lass steem, the inner of fine mesh and the oter pera, Te mallee iton shoe screws onthe tbe nad has = neoprene all acing ab abe When the point being jetted, ee bl atthe botom of the toe aang the retting i allowing the mer co discharge fom the pone When operting om cio {he ball iin the postion shown snd ste water enter the outer Seren, hough ‘he mes, and wa the fae ofthe toner tube: Holes nar the bottom ofthe laser and are above the shoe admit water tothe ise where iis dawn pte fcr, aong the header tothe punp for discharge through ppee to» Sais oe The equipment can be wid fr two man pes of work he soging system fora bullng se, td te propesive system for enching. Toe Ringing Sytem, In thin the ding sie ix ened with wellpons, snd for single age work, dewatering wil permit buding woo to be done 3° ‘cpus up to 3.3m. Where exeavatooe of 9 0 12 re rege, eo sage work is adopted: fr thi the top ates dewatered and exces te tes Irthes ringed st thi intennediate age for dewatering the lower depth rape of tw 2 by Tém mito be tected 9 on below ground vel on 2 wer ss ae 8 ‘tuned thit the top 210 of ground tan be wemened without the need for wovering to ths vel The upper nelpoins we then jected in and eoupled the ewe lenge af Header piper which connest vin soml saves tothe #0 Town tothe 3m dopey here anther sng ed for further dewatering 30d “icraon down othe 8 mice By ure he ete hl umbetng Ti Progen System. hiss stwa in ein a whee doing dont srg tine os tench etre mene. Ta wep Seton he ews ijn comple and ted de of the wor The hear ped slog the Ue of he propos enh a new he ea pore” eae ond he pe ped nthe tench nd sped on iGelomide Be uae sf he mh Te pre thse on ete ese Eresio sng ne Os boning forte wee ea eqel od ners trenches up to 1.5 m deep, the timbers ein often be omitted entirely ‘ecie ement between them. Ths eases « Now CO the neptve tectode Sh signori netted wc ne ump I ‘sion which remy ie te and cone pene ose ferength (ace p8). Brits of sable ail an thi be eabihed Found 4,30 reesing Procet, Clay sobnols cannot be dewatered and where they are encountered, the feeing method may be used. ei als suitable or deep exce ‘sions, partly est exiting uings which have ro be protested fom Underpinning opens where dewatering may be impossible or undesiable The fering process wedi wo ways exter the ftrung of pice of ground i which the sizing and lining of esti accompli, othe formation of ‘ining wal or wall «bug in be erected. “he matod iver the inklog of vere Boeholes about 09 m centres ina perimeter round the area tobe excrate. The Dreher ined wit 100 {5 SO me dia cesing tbe which are sale the bottom and have 2 OP Sonection for the fetarn ofthe feceng liquid. Unde the fesing tubs Disced in ier tet of 52 mm ds ber The opr ofthese inner aber aresilting 9 fea been te need for Moped to sompished Cimbering woe The Beade spported 8 idee pround thera are red in pr in sallow the nota vipasiog an we decroe pumped In seat Gndastes Seep one Steed fom ‘desi eof pound thin which 8 09 m comes ied wi 100 ihave = foP Seg tubes relation for SITE INVESTIGATIONS 7 the ligid which enters the top ofthe inner tes, lester them athe botiom se (es op the outer freeing sues, whence st rears the cooing pant. The foling gui is bine which reduced wo a temperstare below freetng point. ‘The weligertor producing the old rine bas 4c of pipe containing smmonin reatbon Sowie ns eylinder of bine. The gos vaporsed, he nent est of ‘report being taken fom the brine causing its temperature 0 Be reduced el rexing pie CGylindes of frozen ground ac thus obtained and the action is continued nt these are welded together sor for an ce wall Excavations 30 m dep ‘hn be made in tha way, being sltsuppoting to this depth the wall hae = ‘Seng sar to tha of lean concrete fact, frozen wasup to 90m deep inte made bythe method and this may ake pr four mont or the proce tions are completed andthe bung work finshed behind the fozen wal These greater depths ae wally oly encountered nthe sinking o shale which snus be lined with sel or eat ron csing a the excavation proceed FOUNDATIONS Foundation i detived as that pare of a srvture which iin direct contact wih he ground ro whieh the lade ate tiated. During the coneaction a elding the load on the Voundationspradually nee sd evenly th wil poder stement. Proved this movement aight and waifors thoughout damage wil be cased co the bung. however, the setiement i exon tr wnegua serious damage may real in the form of cracked walls ditored ‘hor and window opening, els thrown out of plumb, ee fre may be omplee by the collapse of builing. A foundation should therefore be su ‘Sen song to prevent marked snd unequal setement. Such selene may ie cated by weak sbi sch tx madeap ground ~ p 1D), srinkabe sob si (eg 20 cay p.9, fron ation (p10), movement of round water (p10, excessive ribration (due to vehicular walle, machinery. pleats 8c), spping of sata on sloping ster (p10), brine pumping (P18), cea ‘ning (pe) and sbsequent baling operation inoling Seep exes om SITE INVESTIGATIONS C8, 2001, Sit ssigaion reer Normal. the sundae he adopted fora builng depends upon the load (Fe RINGS andthe beating capaci of the wie Wee suabe ‘Me Tan Be flected having «satisfactory subsoil (2g, one witha good bearing fapacty of remsnable depth) sit noe alfiat to decide upon the type of foandaton, On the ote had, th character of the soil ay be Such asco nee siate + cose investigation, lavoling tem, before the foundations can be {espresso lowsearing capacity of varying depts are of thir order. A, in certo locates thee ste exceptional eontions which nfaene foundation sign this, in coal-mining dsetsextensne cracks may devel in walls of baidings doe ro uoegulsecleent in conta seas, expeilly whe the upper ‘atom istand and the subul water near the surface buildings may Geveop than in eae wee en pang pres biking ye med When tbe nate of the Sil ot own tothe designer i necsary for investigations to be mae on and about the ate before the typeof foundation in be decided upon” Ar + preliminary. wel information can be abined by fettence to geological suey maps and tothe surveyors deperement of the Toe authori, and an cramimation of acer propery ay even defect due to foundation failure, soch as eracked was, gable wills out of alignment, ete Theo four Roles da withthe spade a, ay tre pts deep se ferent pars ofthese wil expote the top vot goO8 purpose ar wil oles bored with Small pstole super (p-8 and, Fig-6). the proposed bung smal nt leads fo be tranemted igh, sricenie daa canbe veal obtained by ding tvichaslage hammer a pointes metal vod (ey, 207mm da and about 18m Tong oto the proud and noting the penetration; a si of uniform charac Indie fhe peneaton gradually decener with she depth theres an | sppreoable dese in he poretation + denser So may be implied but, com ‘fhaty the penton per blow suddenly Increase te mention tha he Tomer scrum tes dense he depth of hs bed of weaker oi may be deter ‘ined approximately by withdrawing the rod ad replacing by 3 longer one ‘hich dren down vol soll oferingperervvaunce i eocouneea ons pope ein pjesma ced cn he Seo he folowing”) cl ps) bcs, snd (3) ad ee Bs. 1377 teshods of Texting Sos eevane. 0) A Toole ape enough to accommo x mn Gay 12. by 1m or geri umberng is egsed).isexcvsted to s depth which ais according to that othe propeed foundations, arly exeeds mand rutualy not ore than haf tat depth A section hough the ground is thos xposed even or ‘which the foundation st est and which rege to be of adequste tikes: nd hving a satactory bearing capaci. Supls of the sa or hborory texting canbe res sained (8 Apt aa geste concn aasble infomation sfecing labour coms, suas the eave ease with which the Inter san be exctsted, the pe abd amount of Umbeting needed and i Sndepound water (which would necesiae puning dewateong oe woe of ‘ster methods previously desc) present Fors Suing covering age trea four wl pts may be rested one eat each comer these sow t ‘tke drt athe mre and hoes ofthe ats maybe sone {Shave nese ps dog Cae shuld be kent ovr hat hee ee tone ae ot foo sae tothe propoed foundations, omer hey wold bes