Animal Tissues

What is Tissue?
Tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar
cells from the same origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional
grouping together of multiple tissues.

What is Connective Tissue?

~Connective tissues are fibrous tissues. They are made up of cells separated by non-living material,
which is called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid. For example, blood contains plasma
as its matrix and bone's matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. Blood,
bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. One method of
classifying connective tissues is to divide them into three types: fibrous connective tissue, skeletal connective
tissue, and fluid connective tissue.

What is Muscle Tissue?

~Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the body known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue.
Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal
organs. Muscle tissue is separated into three distinct categories: visceral or smooth muscle, found in the inner
linings of organs; skeletal muscle, typically attached to bones and which generates gross movement; and cardiac
muscle, found in the heart where it contracts to pump blood throughout an organism.

What is Nervous Tissue?

~Cells comprising the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous
(or neural) tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissues form the brain and spinal cord. In the peripheral
nervous system, neural tissues forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, inclusive of the motor neurons.

What is Epithelial Tissues?

~The epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover the organ surfaces such as the surface of skin, the
airways, the reproductive tract, and the inner lining of the digestive tract. The cells comprising an epithelial
layer are linked via semi-permeable, tight junctions; hence, this tissue provides a barrier between the external
environment and the organ it covers. In addition to this protective function, epithelial tissue may also be
specialized to function in secretion, excretion and absorption. Epithelial tissue helps to protect organs from
microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.

Characteristics of epithelium
Polarity
~all epithelia have an apical surface and a lower attached basal surface that differ in structure and
function. For this reason, epithelia is described as exhibiting apical basal polarity. Most apical surfaces have
microvilli (small extensions of the plasma membrane) that increase surface area. For instance, in epithelia that
absorb or secrete substances, the microvilli are extremely dense giving the cells a fuzEpithelial tissue typeszy
appearance called a brush border.
 Specialized contacts
~ epithelial cells fit close together and form continuous sheets (except in the case of glandular epithelia).
They do this with tight junctions and desmosomes. Tight junctions form the closest contact between cells and
help keep proteins in the apical region of the plasma membrane. Desmosomes connect the plasma membrane to
intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm.

Supported by connective tissue

~all epithelia are supported by connective tissue. For instance, deep to the basal lamina is reticular
lamina (extracellular material containing collagen protein fiber) which forms the basement membrane. The
basement membrane reinforces the epithelium and helps it resist stretching and tearing.

Avascular and innervated Regeneration

~ even though epithelium is avascular (contains no blood vessels), it’s still innervated (supplied by nerve
fibers).
~epithelium have a high regenerative capacity and can reproduce rapidly as long as they receive
adequate nutrition

Classification of Epithelia
~Epithelium has two names. The first name indicates the number of cell layers, the second describes
the shape of its cell. Based on the number of cell layers, epithelia can either be simple or stratified.

Simple epithelia– consist of a single cell layer (found where absorption, secretion, and filtration occur).
Stratified epithelia– are composed of two or more cell layers stacked on top of each other (typically
found in high abrasion areas where protection is needed).

There are three ways to describe the shape and height of epithelial cells.
Squamous cells– are flat and scale-like.
Cuboidal cells– are box-like (same height and width).
Columnar cells– are tall (column shaped)

Simple squamous epithelium

~are close fitting and flattened laterally. They’re found where filtration occurs (kidneys, lungs) and they
resemble the look of a fried egg. Two simple squamous epithelia in the body have special names
reflecting their location.

Endothelium
~ provides a friction-reducing ling in lymphatic vessels and all hollow organs of the cardiovascular
system (heart, blood vessels, capillaries).

Mesothelium
~ is the epithelium found in serous membranes (membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering
the organs within it).

Simple cuboidal epithelium

~consists of a single layer of cells with the same height and width. Functions include secretion and
absorption (located in small ducts of glands and kidney tubules).
Simple columnar epithelium
~ is a single layer of tall, closely packed cells that line the digestive tract from the stomach to the
rectum. Functions include absorption and secretion. They contain dense microvilli on their apical
surface . Additionally, some simple columnar epithelia may display cilia on their free surface also.

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

~vary in height. All of their cells rest on the basement membrane and only the tallest reach the apical
surface. When viewing pseudostratified epithelium it may look like there are several layers of cells, but
this is not the case. (because the cells have different heights, it gives the illusion of multiple cell layers).
Most pseudostratified epithelia contain cilia on their apical surface and line the respiratory tract.

Stratified squamous epithelium

~is the most widespread stratified epithelia. It’s composed of several layers and is perfect for its
protective role. Its apical surface cells are squamous and cells of the deeper layer are either cuboidal or
columnar. Stratified squamous forms the external part of the skin and extends into every body opening
that’s continuous with the skin. The outer layer of the skin (epidermis) is keratinized (contains keratin, a
protective protein). Other stratified squamous in the body is nonkeratinized.

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

~is somewhat rare in the human body. It’s mainly found in the ducts of glands (sweat glands, mammary
glands) and is typically has two layers of cuboidal cells.

Stratified columnar epithelium

~is also rare in the human body. Small amounts are found in the pharynx, male urethra, and lining of
some glandular ducts. Stratified columnar epithelium occurs in transition areas (junctions) between other
epithial types.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

What is Epithelial Tissue?

-Is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity.
-It lines the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and other organs throughout the body.

TWO FORMS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE that occurs in the human body:

1. Covering and lining epithelium
--Forms the outer layer of the skin
--Lines open cavities of the digestive and respiratory systems
--Covers the walls of organs of the closed ventral body cavity
2. Glandular epithelium
-- Surrounds glands within the body

EPITHELIUM
-Composed of one or more layers of densely packed cells. In vertebrates, it lines the outer layer of the
skin (epidermis), the surface of most body cavities, and the lumen of fluid-filled organs, such as the gut
or intestine.
1. Simple Squamous
- Simple squamous epithelium cells are flat in shape and arranged in a single layer. This single layer is
thin enough to form a membrane that compounds can move through via passive diffusion. This epithelial
type is found in the walls of capillaries, linings of the pericardium, and the linings of the alveoli of
the lungs. 

2. Simple Cuboidal
- Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer cells that are as tall as they are wide. The
important functions of the simple cuboidal epithelium are secretion and absorption. This epithelial type
is found in the small collecting ducts of the kidneys , pancreas, and salivary glands. 

3. Simple Columnar
- Simple columnar epithelium is a single row of tall, closely packed cells, aligned in a row. These cells
are found in areas with high secretory function (such as the wall of the stomach), or absorptive areas (as
in small intestine). They possess cellular extensions (e.g., microvilli in the small intestine, or the cilia
found almost exclusively in the female reproductive tract). 

4. Pseudostratified
- These are simple columnar epithelial cells whose nuclei appear at different heights, giving the
misleading (hence pseudo) impression that the epithelium is stratified when the cells are viewed in cross
section. 

- Pseudostratified epithelium can also possess fine hair-like extensions of their apical (luminal)
membrane called cilia. In this case, the epithelium is described as ciliated pseudostratified epithelium.
Ciliated epithelium is found in the airways (nose, bronchi), but is also found in the uterus and fallopian
tubes of females, where the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.

5. Stratified Epithelium
- Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium by being multilayered. It is therefore found where
body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insults. 
- Stratified epithelia are more durable and protection is one their major functions. Since stratified
epithelium consists of two or more layers, the basal cells divide and push towards the apex, and in the
process flatten the apical cells.  
Function of Epithelial Tissues
--Protection
---An example of epithelial tissue that provides protection is the epidermis of the skin which protects
the skin against abrasion, infection of bacteria, and water loss
--Epithelial tissues also cover organs of the body such as the pericardium of the heart and the pleural
membrane

Connective Tissue
Connective Tissue
-Binds together, supports and strengthens other body tissues
-Protects and insulates internal organs
-Compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscle
-The major transport system within the body
-Site of stored energy reserves
-Main site of immune responses

General Features of Connective Tissue

- 2 basic parts:
-- Cells and Matrix
- Matrix – material between widely spaced cells
--Consists of protein fibers and ground substance
--Ground substance – material between cells and fibers secreted by the cells and determine the
tissue qualities
- Does not occur on free surfaces
- Has a nerve supply (except cartilage)
- Highly Vascular (except cartilage and tendons)

Connective Tissue- Cells

Fibroblasts – large flat cells with branching processes. Migrate throughout connective tissue secreting the
fibers and ground substance
Macrophages – develop from white blood cells. Surround and engulf material by phagocytosis
Mast Cells – alongside blood vessels that supply connective tissue. Produce histamine – a chemical that
dilates blood vessels.
Adipocytes – “fat cells” store triglycerides.

Connective Tissue Matrix – Ground Substance

Ground Substance – component of a connective tissue between the cells and fibers, supports cells, binds
them together, and provides a medium through which substances are exchanged.

Matrix Ground Substance

Hyaluronic Acid: Complex combination of polysaccharides and proteins found in “true” or proper
connective tissue.
Chondroitin sulfate: Jellylike ground substance of cartilage, bone, skin and blood vessels.
Other ground Substances: Dermatin sulfate, keratin sulfate, and adhesion proteins
Connective Tissue Matrix – Fibers
-Strengthens and supports connective tissue
-- Collagen Fibers
---- Strong, resist pulling forces, flexible
---- Made of the protein collagen which is the most abundant protein in your body
-- Elastic Fibers
---- smaller in diameter than collagen fibers, branch to form network
---- Made of the protein elastin
-- Reticular Fibers
---- Provide support for the walls of blood vessels
---- Made of collagen with a glycoprotein covering

Marfan Syndrome
- An inherited disorder caused by a defective gene for the glycoprotein fibrillin resulting in abnormal
development of elastic fibers. This causes tissues that contain many elastic fibers to be malformed or weak
(including the covering of bone, ligament that suspends the lens of the eye, and the walls of large arteries
- People with Marfan syndrome are often tall, have long arms, legs, fingers and toes, blurred vision, and
weakened aortic walls that may burst.

Types of Connective Tissue

There are 5 types of connective tissue that vary by the fibers, ground substance and cells contained in it.
Each type has a very specific structure and function.

1. Loose Connective Tissue

- Fibers are loosely intertwined among many cells.
- 3 types of loose connective tissue
-- Areolar Connective Tissue – one of the most widely distributed connective tissues in the body.
---- Contains fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, adipocytes and a few white blood
cells as well as all 3 types of fibers
---- Helps to form the subcutaneous layer
-- Adipose Tissue – The cells, called adipocytes, are specialized for storage of triglycerides. Adipocytes
fill up with a large fat droplet so the nucleus gets pushed to one side of the cell.
---- Used for insulation, protection and as an energy reserve
-- Reticular Connective Tissue – made of interlacing reticular fibers and reticular cells that connect to
each other to form a network.
---- Used to bind together smooth muscle cells and to filter out worn out blood cells and bacteria

2. Dense Connective Tissue

- Contains more numerous, thicker and denser fibers but fewer cells than loose connective tissue.
- 3 types:
-- Dense regular connective tissue
-- Dense Irregular connective tissue
-- Elastic Connective Tissue
 Dense Regular Connective Tissue
- Bundles of collagen fibers are arranged regularly in parallel patterns that give it strength.
- Withstands pulling from the ends, but unravels when pulled from the side
- Silvery white in appearance. Tough and pliable
- Found in tendons and ligaments

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

- Collagen fibers are packed closely together in an irregular, random pattern
- Found in parts of the body where pulling forces are exerted in various directions
- Usually found in sheets
- Examples: Dermis of the skin, heart valves, perichondrium and periosteum

Elastic Connective Tissue

- Contains branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts
- Yellowish in color
- Strong, can regain shape after stretching
- Found in lungs and arteries

3. Cartilage
- Dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate (a rubbery component
of the ground substance)
- Can withstand more stress than the dense and loose connective tissue.
- Collagen fibers make the tissue strong, chondroitin sulfate makes it resilient

CARTILAGE
- Chondrocytes – mature cartilage cells
- Lacunae – holes in the matrix in which the cells sit
- Perichondrium – dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds cartilage
- 3 types – hyaline, fibrocartilage and elastic
Cartilage is AVASCULAR and NO nerve supply (but the perichondrium does)

Hyaline Cartilage
- Gel like ground substance, collagen fibers (not visible with normal stains) and prominent chondrocytes
- Most abundant cartilage in the body
- Found at the end of long bones to cushion joints and at epiphyseal plates (growth plates in bones)
- Weakest of the 3 types of cartilage

Fibrocartilage
- Chondrocytes scattered among visible bundles of collagen fibers
- No perichondrium
- Strongest of the 3 types of cartilage
- Found in the intervertebral discs

Elastic Cartilage
- Chondrocytes located in a threadlike network of elastic fibers
- Provides strength, elasticity and maintains the shape of certain structures (like the external ear)
4. Bone Tissue (osseous tissue)
- 2 types – compact and spongy
-- Compact
---- Osteon – basic unit of compact bone
---- Lamellae – concentric circles of matrix
---- Lacunae – spaces in the matrix that house cells
---- Osteocytes – mature bone cells
-- Spongy
---- Trabeculae – columns of bone with spaces filled with red bone marrow

5. Blood Tissue
- Connective Tissue with a liquid matrix
- Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes) – transport oxygen
- White Blood Cells – function in immunity
---- Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, T and B leukocytes, natural killer cells and Monocytes
- Platelets – participate in blood clotting