Bipolar junction transistor - Basics

Introduction
Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley invented the
bipolar junction transistor (BJT) in 1949, while working for Bell Telephone
Laboratories.

This revolutionary invention changed the world.

The invention of the BJT followed the invention of the point-contact

transistor by Walter Brattain and John Bardeen.

The point-contact transistor has several problems that prevented it from

becoming a viable device.

BJT is a three-terminal device.

BJT is used as amplifier and switch.

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 1

Circuit diagram of pnp transistor consisting of two
diodes

The two n-type regions merge to form a very thin base.

EB junction: Forward bias

CB junction: Reverse bias

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 2

Band diagram (PNP)

Junction bias?

Major current flows?

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 3

Basic amplifier circuits
Common-base configuration

IC
α =
IE (1)

α = current amplification in common base circuit

Typical values: α > 0.99 (for state-of-the-art transistor)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 4

Common-emitter configuration

β = amplification in common-emitter circuit

−1
IC IC ⎛1 ⎞ α
β = = = ⎜ − 1⎟ =
IB IE − IC ⎝α ⎠ 1− α (2)

β > 100 for state-of-the art transistors

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 5

Common-collector configuration

IE IC / α β
= =
IB IB α (3)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 6

Nature of bipolar transistor
BJT is a current amplifier (not a voltage amplifier).

BJT is current-controlled current source.

BJT base current controls the emitter current and thereby the collector
current.

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 7

Qualitative discussion of pnp transistor

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 8

Basic ideas

EB junction is asymmetric:

I Ep >> I En (4)

The emitter hole current is controlled by EB junction.

The base width is small.

WB << Lp (5)

Most holes diffusing into the base will reach the collector if condition of
Eq. (5) is met.

Thus the base current controls collector current.

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 9

Discussion of currents

EB junction currents (EB junction is forward biased)

(1) Holes diffusing from the E into the B

(2) Electrons diffusing from the B into the E

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 10

Base currents

(3) Recombination of holes injected into base

(4) Most holes reach C since LP >> WB

BC junction currents (BC is reversely biased)

(5) Electron minority carrier current from C to B

(6) Hole minority carrier current from B to C

We know that current (5) and (6) can be neglected for most practical
purposes.

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 11

Basic equations
What is the fraction of the emitter hole current that reaches the
collector?

IC = B I Ep (6)

B = Base transport factor

B = Probability that a hole injected into B reaches C

B≤1

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 12

What fraction of total emitter current is emitter hole current?

EEp = γ IE (
= γ I En + I Ep ) (7)

γ = Emitter Efficiency

γ = Ratio of I Ep to I E

γ ≤ 1

−1
I Ep ⎛ I ⎞ I En
γ = = ⎜1 + En ⎟ ≈ 1 −
I En + I Ep ⎜ I ⎟ I Ep (8)
⎝ Ep ⎠

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 13

Current amplification α

IC I Ep
α = = B = Bγ
IE IE (9)

We will later calculate B and γ in two ways:

1. Approximate calculation
2. Exact calculation

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 14

Approximate hole distribution in base (PNP)

Long base (WB >> Lp)

δp ( xn ) = ∆p e − xn / LP (10)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 15

Short base (WB << Lp)

Exponential function can be linearized

At xn = 0 it is ∆p = pn 0 eeVBE / kT − 1 ( ) (11)

At xn = WB it is ∆p = pn 0 ( eeV
CB / kT
− 1 ) = − pn 0 (12)

That is p (xn = WB ) = 0 (13)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 16

Can you identify the diffusion triangle in the figure?

Equation for diffusion triangle:

⎛ xn ⎞
p( xn ) = ∆p ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
⎝ WB ⎠ (14)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 17

Note

Diffusion Current:

dp
Jp = − e Dp
dx (15)

Jp ∝ slope (i. e. dp / dx )

Short base changes slope (i. e. dp / dx)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 18

Approximate calculation: Emitter efficiency (PNP)
Recall the Shockley equation:

I
⎛ DP
= e A ⎜⎜ pn 0 +
Dn ⎞ eV kT
np 0 ⎟⎟ e − 1 ( ) (16)
⎝ LP Ln ⎠

… where first summand within first parenthesis is due to hole injection

… where second summand within first parenthesis is due to electron

injection

Emitter is “long”, and therefore the electron current from base into
emitter is given by

I En = eA
Dn
Ln
np 0 eeV kT − 1 ( ) (17)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 19

Base is “short”, and therefore the hole current from emitter into base is
given by

I Ep = eA
Dp
Lp
pn 0 e ( eV kT
)W
− 1
Lp
(18)
B

where last term, i. e. ( Lp / WB ), is correction due to increase in slope

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 20

One obtains the emitter efficiency using Eqs. (8), (17), and (18)

Dn
np 0
I En Ln
γ = 1 − = 1 −
I Ep DP
pn 0 (19)
WB

using np 0 = ni2 p = ni2 N A (20)

and pn 0 = ni2 n = ni2 N D (21)

one obtains:

Dn WB N D
γ = 1 −
Dp Ln N A (22)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 21

How can we attain high emitter efficiency?

For a high value of γ:

1. WB must be very short

2. NA >> ND (23)

That is,

Emitter doping >> Base doping

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 22

Example:

Problem: Assume a PNP transistor with the following parameters:

Emitter doping: NA = 1 × 1018 cm–3
Base doping: ND = 1 × 1017 cm–3
Dp = Dn
WB = 100 nm
Ln = 1 µm
Calculate emitter efficiency.

Solution:
Dn WB N D 1
γ = 1 − = 1 − = 0.99
Dp Ln N A 100

The problem assumed reasonable parameters. For such reasonable

parameters, we obtain a high current gain.

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 23

Approximate calculation: Base transport factor (PNP)

Thought experiment: Let’s assume that the BC junction would not

influence the hole distribution. Warning: Strictly speaking, this is
incorrect assumption!

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 24

In this case, the following hole distribution would be obtained:

Base recombination current ∝ Q1 / τ ∝ ∆p WB (24)

Collector current ∝ Q2 / τ ∝ ∆p Lp (25)

(Note: In Eqs. 24 and 25, we use that WB << LP)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 25

It is

−1
IC Q2 τ ⎛ Q1 ⎞
B = = = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ ≈ 1 − Q1 Q2
I Ep Q1 τ + Q2 τ ⎝ Q2 ⎠ (26)

Using Eqs. (24), (25), and (26) one obtains:

WB
B = 1 −
Lp (27)

End of thought experiment.

Warning: This thought experiment is an oversimplification and the

result (Eq. 27) must not be used.

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 26

Exact hole distribution in the base (PNP)
Hole concentration at the emitter side of base

∆pE = ∆p ( xn = 0 ) = pn 0 eeVBE kT − 1 ≈ pn 0 eeVBE kT ( ) (28)

Hole concentration at the collector side of base

∆pC = ∆p (xn = WB ) = pn 0 eeVBC kT − 1 ≈ − pn 0 ( ) (29)

… note that VBC is negative

Eqs. (28) and (29) are the boundary conditions for the hole
concentration in the base

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 27

There is no electric field in the neutral region of the base. Therefore,
transport can be described by the diffusion equation

d2 δp (xn )
2
δp (xn ) =
dxn Lp 2 (30)

General solution of this equation is given by

− xn Lp
δp ( xn ) = C1 e
xn Lp
+ C2 e (31)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 28

The constants C1 and C2 will be determined by using the boundary
conditions

δp ( xn = 0 ) = C1 + C2 = ∆ pE (32)

−WB Lp
δp ( xn = WB ) = C1 e
WB Lp
+ C2 e = ∆pC (33)

Solving Eqs. (32) and (33) for C1 and C2 yields

∆pC − ∆pE e −WB LP

C1 =
eWB LP − e −WB LP (34)

∆pE eWB LP − ∆pC

C2 =
eWB LP − e −WB LP (35)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 29

Insert the constants C1 and C2 into Eq. (31)

For ∆pC ≈ 0 , the hole concentration in the base is given by

eWB LP e − xn LP − e −WB LP e xn LP
δ p ( xn ) ≈ ∆ p E
eWB LP − e −WB LP (36)

This function has an exponentially decreasing part and an

exponentially increasing part.

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 30

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 31
Discussion of slopes

Recall that the slope [ dδp( xn ) / dxn ] determines the diffusion current.

Slope is larger at xn = 0 as compared to xn = WB.

The difference in slope is due to recombination in base.

Approximation for exponential function:

For WB << LP, we can expand the exponential function into a power
series:

x x2
ex = 1 + + + ...
1! 2!

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 32

Inserting this approximation into Eq. (36) and neglecting all quadratic and
higher terms in Eq. (36) yields

⎛ xn ⎞
δp( xn ) = ∆pE ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
⎝ WB ⎠ (37)

This equation represents the diffusion triangle in the base.

The strictly triangular shape is valid for negligible recombination in the

base.

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 33

Mathematics of exponential functions
Exponential function = Natural decay function

For the next section, we need some mathematical relations for

exponential functions and they are summarized below:

n
⎛ 1⎞
e = lim ⎜1 + ⎟ = 2.718 ...
n →∞ ⎝ n⎠

x x2 x3
ex = 1 + + + + ...
1! 2! 3!

Give some examples of natural (i. e. exponential) decays!

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 34

Function : y = y0 e − x x0

dy y0
Slope : = −
dx x = 0 x0

∞
Integral : ∫0 y0 e − x x0 dx = y0 x0

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 35

Mathematics of hyperbolic exponential functions
For the next section, we need some mathematical relations for
hyperbolic exponential functions and they are summarized below:

Hyperbolic sin function : sinh x =

2
(
1 e x − e− x )
Hyperbolic cos function : 1 e x + e− x
2
cosh x = ( )
(Note: Hyperbolic cos function is also called “chain function”. Why?)

sinh x
Hyperbolic tan function : tanh x =
cosh x

cosh x
Hyperbolic cot function : coth x =
sinh x

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 36

Hyperbolic secan function :
2 1
sech x = =
x −x
e + e cosh x

Hyperbolic cosecan function :

2 1
cosech x = =
x −x
e − e sinh x

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 37

Exact E, B, and C currents
We have calculated the hole distribution in the base and can now
calculate the currents of the three terminals E, B, and C by using the
equation:

δp( xn )
d
I = − e A Dp
dxn (38)

Emitter current

Emitter current is obtained by using Eqs. (31), (34), (35), (38)

Dp
I Ep = I p ( xn = 0 ) = e A (C2 − C1 )
Lp (39)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 38

 Dp ⎛ WB WB ⎞
I Ep = eA ⎜⎜ ∆pE coth − ∆pC cosech ⎟⎟
Lp ⎝ LP LP ⎠ (40)

Collector current

I C = I p ( xn = WB ) = e A
Dp
Lp
(C2 e−W
B LP
− C1 eWB LP ) (41)

Dp ⎛ WB WB ⎞
IC = eA ⎜
⎜ ∆pE cosech − ∆pC coth ⎟⎟
Lp ⎝ LP LP ⎠ (42)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 39

Base current

IB = I E − IC ≈ I Ep − I C (43)

Dp ⎡ ⎤
⎢ (∆pE + ∆pC ) tanh
WB
IB = eA ⎥
Lp ⎢⎣ 2 Lp ⎥⎦ (44)

Eqs. (40), (42), and (44) are generally valid, i.e. for any bias
configuration and bias condition of the transistor. The equations can be
simplified for a transistor under regular operating conditions, which are

Î VBE = forward bias

Î VCB = reverse bias

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 40

Appropriate E, B, and C currents
VBE = forward bias Î ∆pE ≠ 0

VCB = reverse bias Î ∆pC = 0

From Eqs. (40), (42), and (44) it follows that

WBDp
I Ep = eA ∆pE coth
Lp Lp (45)

Using coth x ≈ (1 / x) + ( x / 3) , one obtains

⎛ Lp Dp
W ⎞
I Ep = eA ∆pE ⎜ + B ⎟
Lp ⎜ WB 3L ⎟ (46)
⎝ p ⎠

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 41

Furthermore

Dp W
IC = eA ∆pE cosech B
Lp Lp (47)

Using cosech x ≈ (1 / x) − ( x / 6) , one obtains

⎛ Lp Dp
W ⎞
IC = eA ∆pE ⎜ − B ⎟
Lp ⎜ WB 6L ⎟ (48)
⎝ p ⎠

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 42

Finally

IB = IE − IC ≈ I Ep − I C (49)

⎛ 1 WB Dp1 W ⎞
= eA ∆pE ⎜ + B ⎟
Lp ⎜ 3 Lp 6 L ⎟ (50)
⎝ p ⎠

It follows that

Dp WB
IB = eA WB ∆pE = eA ∆pE
2 L2p 2τ p (51)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 43

Base transport factor
Using Eqs. (45) and (47) we calculate

IC cosech (WB Lp ) WB
B = = = sech
I Ep coth (WB Lp ) Lp (52)

2
Using sech x ≈ 1 − (1 / 2) x , one obtains

2
1 ⎛⎜ WB ⎞⎟
B = 1 −
2 ⎜⎝ Lp ⎟⎠ (53)

We now have a good expression for B.

Compare this to Eq. (27)! (Recall: Do not use Eq. 27)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 44

We now have γ (i. e. the emitter efficiency, see Eq. 22) and B (i. e. the
base transport factor, see Eq. 53).

Since α = γ B, we can calculate the current amplification of a transistor:

⎛ Dn WB N D ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜
α = γB = 1 − ⎜1 − W B ⎟
⎜ D L N ⎟ ⎜ 2⎟ (54)
⎝ p n A ⎠ ⎝ 2 Lp ⎠

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 45

Example

Problem: Calculate the Base Transport Factor for WB = 0.1 µm and for
the following diffusion lengths:

(1) Lp = 0.1 µm and (2) Lp = 1 µm.

Solution: Calculating the base transport factor using

B = 1 − (1 / 2) WB / Lp 2 ( )
yields

(1) B = 0.5 and (2) B = 0.995

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 46

Summary of operation regimes

Cutoff

VBE is too low to provide significant injection

Example:
Given is a transistor with

Lp = 1 µm, WB = 0.1 µm

Dp = 10 cm 2 /s, N D, Base = 1017 cm−3

ni = 1010 cm−3 , A = 100 × 100 µm 2

Calculate IEp for VBE = 0.3 V!

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 47

 ni 2 eV kT
∆pE = pn 0 eeV kT = e = 108 cm −3
ND
DP LP
I Ep ≈ eA ∆pE = 1.6 × 10−9 A
LP WB

Calculate IEP for VBE = 0.7 V!

∆pE = 5.6 × 1014 cm −3

I Ep = 8.9 mA

Forward active
Forward biased EB junction ∆pE ≠ 0
Reverse biased CB junction ∆pC = 0
Diffusion triangle in base

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 48

Saturation

CB junction is forward biased as well. Simultaneous transistor action in

both directions, i. e. both diodes are forward biased.

If | VBE | > | VCB |, one obtains the following hole distribution in the base:

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 49

It is useful to consider the following thought experiment: Consider a
transistor with VEB = 0.7 V = const..

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 50

Curves are displaced by 0.7 V.

Î The I-V curves can be identified as a diode characteristic plus a

current from emitter.

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 51

Bridge between device physics and electrical circuit

Material parameters Device physics Circuit parameters

Current
Mobilities Emitter
amplification
Lifetimes efficiency
in common
Diffusion constants (γ)
base
Doping
Base configuration
concentrations
transport (α)
Physical constants
Material constants factor (B)

Current
amplification
in common
emitter
configuration
(β)

© E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003 52