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Human Development Notes

Community resource management (Machakos University)

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STANDARD LECTURE NOTES

HUMAN GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT

DIPLOMA

IN

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
MODULE III

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HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

COURSE CONTENT
i) Definition of terms
Growth
Development
Perception
Motivation
Attitude
Maturation
Readiness
ii) Problems of social factors
Physiological
Psychological/ social
Economic factors

iii) Heredity and environment

iv) Interaction between nature and nurture
v) Basic theories of development
vi)
a. Psycho-analytic
b. Psycho-social
c. Cognitive theory
Vi) Basic theories of learning
Behaviorist
Cognitive approach (Gestalt school of thought)
vii) Personality development
Definition
viii) Theories of personality

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HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Specific objectives
1. To define human growth and development and other related terms
2. to understand the process of human growth and the influence of external and
internal factors
3. to understand the various theories of learning and personality development
4. to understand the relevance of human growth and development in line with your
course of training
5.
6.
INTRODUCTION
The term human growth and development both refer to dynamic process which is often
interchangeably used. They however have different meaning and are therefore
interdependent but interrelated. Normally growth takes place with in the first 20 years
whereas development continues after that.

Definition:
Human: This term refers to people,
Growth: is a term referring to increase in size e.g. height, weight, bone size, dentition
e.t.c. such a change is physical and is observable. It can also be measured quantitatively.
Development: means a life long gradual increase in complexity of functions and skills
progression. It may also refer to the capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the
surrounding environment. These growths can become more advanced or stronger.

Human growth: it’s the physical process which involves increase in size or getting bigger
due to
- Increase in one number of cells of somebody
- Intercellular materials (this are biological factors). This growth rate varies during
different stages of growth and development. The growth rate is rapid during pre-
natal, neo-natal, infancy, adolescence stages and slows during childhood. Physical
growth is minimal during adulthood.

Development: this is a smooth progressive series of changes that occurs as a result of

interactions between biological and environmental factors. It ’s also the emerging and
expanding of capacities of an individual to provide greater adaptabilities and functions to
the diverse environment. It involves the changes in form and confides to one quantitative
individual that takes place in stages. Development is more of behavioral aspect of growth
and acquisition of skills( abilities) such as:
1. head support
2. speaking
3. learning
4. expressing the feelings
5. relating with other people

Human growth and development

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It is the physical, mental, social, emotional, psychological change that occurs in an

individual from the times of fertilization to the time of conception up to death.

STAGES OF HUMAN GROWTH

It is a period of state somebody /something passed while developing or making progress.
It’s used to describe period in which the function or relative emphasis of a given type of
behavior differs from those of other earlier period of life.

Characteristics of stage
- Involves changes inform of a pattern and organization of an individual behavior
change from one stage to another.
- State in an individual development appears in sequence or order that is fixed from an
individual to another.
- Stage involves progress towards increasing complexity both mentally and physically.
- Psychology is the scientific study of the mind in process both mental and physical and
behavior wise..

IMPORTANCE OF ASSESING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The assessment of growth and development of every child is an important step in
establishing the overall state of health and nutrition, apparently continuous normal growth
and development indicate a good state of health and nutrition. Abnormal growth or growth
failure is a symptom of disease or poor nutrition of the child. In this connection
measurement for growth is an important component of the physical examination. The
knowledge of human growth and development is fundamental to us both in our place of work
as well as during our daily lives.

FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

The child growth pattern is determined by two main factors:
a) Genetic factors
b) Environmental factors.

Genetic factors-This determine the potential, and limitation of growth the and
development. Such factors are often inherited from the parents and transferred to the
following generation.
This generations will always shared the traits such the traits with its descendants
Genetic factors determine traits such as skin colour height, body weight, hair colour, blood
group etc,

Environmental factors:
This refers to the factors surrounding the daily growth of an individual child. This includes
what the child eats, hearing experiences etc .Either way, these factors can promotes or

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hinder the growth of child. For instance the learning experience a child undergoes
determines his or her cognitive development. The food the child takes also determines his
or her health status. Good nutrition promotes the immune system and also the energy
provision of the body.

Consistent /continuous provision of environmental factors, equally reflect the health state
or vice versa

MEASUREMENT OF GROWTH.
Having understood the essence or importance of growth.
It is also important to understand the methods of measuring growth .These include:
-Weight
-Height
-Head circumference
-Eruption /growing of teeth.

PSCHOLOGY

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
1. Psychology is the science to make prediction of how human being behaves in every
stage.
2. is used to improve our behavior
3. its also used to direct human beings towards some good end

Importance of psychology
1. It provides knowledge and awareness of the behaviors that is needed by the human
beings.
2. ability and confidence in handling groups and individuals in any situation
3. flexibility to influence the behavior of other people
4. a whites cock for perception (loving things in there real ways)
5. A better scope to evaluate human behavior through interaction.

Objects of psychology
1. enables one/us to understand causes of a given behavior
2. helps us make prediction e.g. behavior of other people

Methods used in studying psychology

1. observation
2. experimental

a) OBSERVATION
Certain persons do observe by either knowing predictions made from conclusions and reache

b) EXPERIMENTAL

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It can be carried out in the lab to verify certain ideas. The brain is subjected to ethical tests
and then conclusions are made.

Branches of psychology
1. child psychology
2. development
3. comparative
4. experimental
5. industrial psychology
6. social psychology
7. educational psychology
8. clinical psychology
9. counseling psychology

1. CHILD PSYCHOLOGY: It is the psychology in the child as soon as the child is born.
It is the study which covers human growth and development of the child from the
day he/she was born. It includes
(i) personality
(ii) feeling
(iii) assertions

1. PERSONALITY: It’s the sub – total of human behavior

2. FEELING: it’s the desire towards something
3. ASSECTIONS: it’s the way somebody expresses his/her interest

2. DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY: this is one of the branches of psychology which

deals with the study of the way in which human behavior develop in changes over
a lifespan/ these are languages and emotions) thinking involves one function of
the brain having the ability to solve problems which involves thoughts having in
mind.

SOCIAL ATTACHMENT
Getting closer to anybody or anything that can be of assistance to you.
Perception
Does one of an individual understand the environment in which he is living in.

3. COMPERATIVE PSYCHOLOGY: This is the study of some biological factors and

these effects on human behavior. It also includes psychological factors like
- Study of the brain
- Central nervous system
- Genetics
- Drug in relation to behavior

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4. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: the radius of a scientific method of experiment to

examine fundamental processes that govern behavior. The research is conducted
in the lab to investigate, such areas like:
- Sensation
- Memory – acquisition needs ideas of thinking
- Learning – needs ideas
- Reception – understanding (capacity of that particular person)
- Motivation – making human beings perform activities.
5. INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY: (Douglas of Gregory theory) this involves the way
people behave on the assignment duties in their place of work. It stats that some
people can only control and seek supervision. People behavior on such a way that
the assigned jobs depending on the management style at that particular place.
6. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: is the study used in scientific technique to examine effects
on which people have. The study of human being and there surrounding around.
Human aspects are put into psychopath (somebody who strongly
- Believe
- Attitude formation
- Co – operation
- Aggression
- Motivation (willingness)
- Educational psychology

7. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: this is the study of education of methods of

reaching and designing a curriculum which can influence the learning process.
8. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY: this is the study of things concerning health and the good
being of individuals. Clinical psychology includes
(a) maladaptive
(b) self defecting

a. maladaptive: study of things of human function and development

b. Self defecting: refers to undermining ones well being and personal
success is brought about by the abnormal behavior. These branch of
psychology concentrates on the following ways and curing illness and
disorders.

Psycho-analytic methods
This includes interviewing clients doing survey in the community stressing history of some
case simply this means to review the history of this particular person.
Psychotheraptic
Psychotherapists

CLINICAL PSYCHOTHERAPISTS METHOD

They employ some methods in curing mental illness and disorders.

(a) COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY: this is the training given to those

professionals who deals with human problems. It includes saving personal

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academic and vocational problems those particular people who are

employed. This problem arises from mental disorders but has more on social
problems.
Clinical and counseling have similar characteristics.

Importance of studying human growth and development

1. It provides a rich background of information about children ’s behavior and the
psychological background and variety of environmental conditions.
- These information is useful to one social work that is an agent of socialization
and is expected to cultivate desirable changes in behavior.
2. The course helps in development stages of a child and characteristic which
emerged at different age level so that he can be correcting the needs of children
at various stages of development.
3. It helps to understand the factors for mental ill – health and adjustments
(unbecoming behavior)
4. It helps to understand the causes of individual differences and how to cater for
them.
5. Helps in understanding the basic principles of growth and development to
effective guide and counseling to harmonies development.

ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR-
1. Medical models: this means that the certainties is questionable and has
inability to act normally.
2. Educational models: this refers to the unteachable; they cannot be taught in
schools or anywhere else.
3. Work models: those people who are failures in life, they don ’t succeed in
everything they do. They have never succeeded in their lives.
4. Humanistic models: these are people who are failures in life. They don ’t
succeed in everything they do. They have never succeeded in their lives.

Causes of abnormalities
1. Biological dyfunctioning: these are a major cause of abnormalities that is brought
by genetic factor which are inherited from parents.
2. Hormones: they contribute a lot to the mental state of individual ’s hormone.
They are also inherited from parents.
3. Bio – chemical imbalance: it is brought about by poisoning to the brain which is
exposed to foreign matter e.g. drugs cocaine.
4. Failure in life: when an individual continually fail to achieve his/her target in life,
it may lead to abnormality.
5. Medicated birth: some medicine that are subjected to birth or directly penetrated
to the brain.
6. Accident: it might cause shock leading to abnormalities.

Key concept in growth and development

1. Maturation: bring to full development or state ready for use. This means that
something is or is fully grown. Is any automatic of unfolding biological potential. It

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takes place as one gains and changes in aged and physical and biological aspect in
life.
2. Perception: how one looks at things. These is the process by which you become
aware of the change through hearing, fearing, seeing, feeling etc. these is the act
by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impression in order to
give a meaning to the objects in the environment.
3. Personality: the way an individual contact himself to other people or towards a
given situation.
4. Motivation: refers to encouragement given to an individual so that she can do
anything well.
5. Experience: the past that one has undergone through/what one does in the past
which will definitely shape the present future attitude of an individual.
6. Expectation: are the characteristic which are shared by what people or individual
wants to get in future.

PSYCHOLOGY
Scope of psychology
It is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks questions about human
and animal behavior. The word psychology comes from two words.
Psyche – the study of soul
Logos – the study of mental
History of psychology
Psychology was developed over a long period of time. It is influenced by values e.g. social
cultural life. It has a foundation in philosophy and science (why psychology is a science)

Modern psychology can be traced to the 4th and 5th centuries.

1. Perception:
This is a term used in cognitive psychology and is defined as: the process of acquiring ,
interpreting, selecting and organizing sensory information. Perception roots its origin to
the Latin word perception meaning receiving, collecting and action of taking possession
.in our daily lives our experience and understanding affects the way we perceive every
event

Characteristics of perception
i. Values and attitudes: it brings about the behavior and expression of an
individual. The morals of an individual will portray his or her life and
behavior as a whole.

Theories of perception
a) Image and cure
It explains that perception is learned by acquiring and understanding positive characteristics
that contains things as they fall in the retinal.
It emphasizes that when an image enters the edge it is always in the inverted position
The retina changes the position to normal and that act ional of changing to normal is
referred to as cure

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b) Direct perception
It explains that perception is function of biological organism and perception, mechanism
(object) are interpreted the way they are.
N/B the idea of interpreting the objects is not put into consideration.
c) Depth perception
It is the interpretation of visual Aids and includes how far a way is your ability to view things
in the world
Things are viewed in three dimensions i.e. when you are sitting in a room and looking at
things you can tell how far or observe an object
Importance of perception
1. it reveals self development , nature of mind of personality
1. leads to decision making and influence the types and quality of our decision to
develop ourselves to others
2. enforces our determination to implement decision that eliminate self problems
3. it makes one to have a clear and varied decision which enables one to identify
areas which requires development

2. MOTIVATION
It is derived from the word motive which means to encourage to a good behavior or
discourage to bad behavior
One can be motivated by use of money prizes, gifts, rewards, promotion, love;
recognition (excursive motivation) in learning the idea of motivation takes different line
to be normal condition

3. ATTITUDE
This is a very important concept in social psychology.
DEF: It is define as an evaluation of the belief, things and events of a particular person.
It gives an individual think about a given object, situation and person. OR
Is the way of feeling thinking and acting which an individual adapts in the society? It is an
aggregate of believe habits and perception acquired. Attitudes can be changed or
modeled by environment religion, groups, professions/work and education. Attitudes are
different from values in that attitudes are more specific.
In our daily life, the attitude we hold on various things, events and person determine
how we behave towards this. Attitude can be explicit or implicit (conscious). The
attitude has several aspects which include:
Affective component-This comprise of feeling that a particular topic, situation or event
arouses.
Cognitive response-This refers to what one belief in about a given topic.
We receive this through reading a fact or an opinion. Sometime, we get this through
social learning..

Behavioral component –This refers to the tendency of an individual to act in a particular

way on a given topic.\for example, people who drink alcohol, are likely oppose the new
Muthotho as compared to those who do don’t drink.

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Every individual has many attitude and in learning ,positive attitude is used to change
behavior to desired form.
It helps in establishing and enhancing development and self –esteem such attitude can
be divided into two main groups;
a) Realities-refers to the way thing are,
b) Values-The way things should be.
Self test: Discuss the relevance of attitude for a social workers

Sources of attitudes
1. Parents: they play an important role in shaping their children attitude and behavior.
Most children’s tend to take after their parents.
2. Peer groups: are people who are being to the same age group due to fear of
rejection. The image that we see or image in the society i.e. favorable, ourselves
concept is enhanced. But if is vice versa that ourselves concept is diminished and the
behavior is most likely to change.

Types of attitudes
1. Job satisfaction: an individual attitude towards a job will determine his
productivity. A high level of job satisfaction will result into positive production
and low level job satisfaction will result into negative result.
2. Job involvement: measures to the degree to which an employee identifies with the
job. Positive attitude means seriousness to the job involvement and negative
attitude will mean less involvement in the job.
3. Organization commitment: it is when an individual is being committed towards
when an individual is committed with the measure of organization, he will aim for
success but lack of commitment will lead to collapse of an organization.

Functions of attitudes
i) knowledge: attitudes provides one will knowledge as a basis for
interpretation and involvement of new information thus providing
knowledge base and frame work within which information can be placed.
ii) has become a means of expression: helps an individual to express his or
herself concept and adopted internalized or absorbed the values of the
group
iii) It maximizes towards and minimizes function, behavior: knowledge which
results in their satisfaction of the need as likely to result from favorable
attitude.
iv) maybe head in order to protect the age form undesirable or reality
techniques:

4. MATURATION:
It is the process of attaining complete development, the unfolding of the physical
emotional and intellectual capacities which enable the person to function at higher level
of competence and adaptability with in the environment. It continues once the baby is

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born and is genetically determined. Babies will hold up their heads, sit up and start to
crawl at roughly the same age.
It involves changes in physical and biological aspects of life. all normal fetuses will go
through the same developmental stages at roughly the same time. As children grow they
acquire a new skill at each step.

Physical changes: it involves – gaining of weight and height

- gaining brain capacity
- Enlargement of other lymphatic organs

Biological changes: involves: - change in personality

- Change in temperament
- Change in behavior
- Change in attitude

READINESS
It is the state of being ready/ prepared for something or the state of being willing to do
something

PROBLEMS IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS/PHYSICAL: these are physical problems but can affect

the development of a child in a normal way.
Example lameness, medicated e.g. Deformed hand
Deformed heart
Organizing limb and other body organ
PSYCHOLOGICAL /SOCIAL FACTORS
Problems that affect the minds brought about by medicated Spontaneous abortion,
Cesarean delivery
This problem also plays an important way in development e.g. it may affect child
development with other peer group

ECONOMIC FACTORS
This brings about nutritional problems of a patient to provide basic needs to the child due to
financial constraints. These factors affect the purchasing power of individuals to obtain the
daily needs. This leads to failure to get purchase and important services such as medical
among others due to poverty.
These nutritional problems will bring about some diseases e.g. scurvy, kwashiorkor due to
poor feeding habits.
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT FACTORS
Heredity influence

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These are factors that are inherited from parents and relatives. Are inborn/innate factors
which are inherited from parents and also affect development. such factors really pre-
determine the individual appearance.

1. Sex of the child: - is determined by hereditary

- Each parent has 23 pairs of chromosomes
- The sex of the child is determined at the time of conception
state
- Every sperm cell contain xy chromosome
- An ovum always have xx chromosome
If a sperm containing a y chromosome fertilizes an ovum then a baby will be a boy with xy
chromosomes. And if an x chromosome fertilizes an ovum the result will be a baby with xx
chromosome which is a girl.

x x xx

xx xy
girl
The probability of an x and y chromosome fertilizing an ovum is purely a mother of chance.
Sometimes conception result to more than one baby which is referred to multi – pregnancy
(multiple pregnancies i.e. two twins can be identical or non identical (fraternal twins)

1. IDENTICAL TWINS
A fertilized egg splits into two making to fertilized egg which grows and develop in the
womb sharing same placenta. Are of same sex and exactly share same appearance, share
personality characteristic although the environment in which they lived in and their
individual experience are important in shaping their behavior and personality.

2. FRATANAL TWINS
Result rather than the usual, when two eggs are released from the ovaries and fertilized by
tow different sperm. The two fertilized egg will grow together in the womb. These twins
have genes or chromosome of two different eggs and sperms and we therefore be no more
alike than the other children in the family. And they can be a boy and a girl, two boys or two
girls.

3. TRIPLE CHILDRENS
Two babies may be identical and other non – identical or three may both be non –
identical. Fertility drugs can cause the ovaries 3,4,5,6 or even more eggs all of which may be
fertilized conceiving into triplets, gain triplets, sex triplets respectively.

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The Rhesus factor

There are four blood groups A,B, AB and O
These blood groups are either positive (rhesus +ve)
Carriers of O+ve donate blood from all groups universal recipient. Rhesus factors are an
inherited genetically dominate trait in blood.
Most of this Rhesus factor +ve and when no rhesus factor present is said to be rhesus –ve.

When a rhesus –ve woman carries a foetus with rhesus +ve blood, the woman ’s body by
producing anti – bodies this antibody can pass through the placenta into a foetus blood
string to destroy the rhesus +ve blood cells.
If the mother has such subsequent, may affect the babies born i.e. brain damage.

3. HAEMOPHILIA
Is disorder characterized by bodies inability to form blood clot is linked to inheritance. In
the most common form, the female sex chromosome of an unaffected mother carrier has
one family gene x and y chromosome compliment. The odds 4 each male child are 50, the
faulty x and the disorder give 50%

NATURE VERSUS NURTURE

The role of nature in bringing up of an individual cannot be underestimated. However the

bigger a question today is how do nature and nurture interact to produce behavior?
Scientist have been in constant search for which factor heredity or environment is important
in fashioning a given trait. Findings indicate that some are heredity while other are
environmental .Basically it is seen that heredity is a primary factor in personality and
development.

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According to Judith Rich (1998) in her book The nurture Assumption, she argued that
biological parent genetic influence on their children is far more important than social
influence. Other studies show that siblings of genetic similarity are not more a like in
personality, abilities and adjustment than people selected in random.
Research shows that important inheritable traits and expression of those traits depends on a
broad range of environmental factors.

To get a clear understanding environment versus nurture of Identical twins who have exactly
the same) genes is important. This showed that identical twins raised apart are as similar as
twins raised together on many measures of personality, temperament, interest, sound and
political attitude, indicating that those characteristic are influenced by genetic factors.

Furthermore, culture and environment may actually play the larger role, accounting for
more than half of the variations in personality and behavioral trait,
In addition as children develop, their behavior become less directly dependent on
nature.Instead,learning becomes more important and the brain itself is affected by
interaction with environment for example, the physiological development of the brain of
small children are affect by early traumatic events,likewise,neural connection within the
brain are enhanced by a rich stimulating and secured early environment. In several, it is not
only nature, nurture and their interaction affects neurological development that in turn
affect the expressed experience and behavior.

Human beings are not locked into unchangeable physical body. Both factor change and
exerts an influence on the other .During learning human being modify themselves by
responding and human being modify themselves by responding,and literally change
ourselves by acting.Behaviour influence the acting of the brain and the architecture so
that experience produce lasting effects in the structure and function of the brain.(John
Locke 1993).Human beings are thus active agents who shape themselves and the
environment they live in.

In addition, as human act and modify the world, they in turn shape and transformed their
ways and also their actions.

Form the above, discussion the role of environment and genetics is fundamental in
development of an individual.

BASIC THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Definition
DEVELOPMENT
Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of uncovering the reasons of why the
human beings act in certain ways, how they do certain acts and what they do in their lives as
human beings

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There are three basic theories of development namely:

1. psycho-analytic theory
2. psycho-social theory
3. cognitive theory

1.) PSYCHO-ANALYTIC THEORY

According to Freud, psycho-analytic theory, personality comprise of three elements namely:
i) The id
ii) The ego
iii) The superego

a) The id
Freud treated this part as being present right from birth. It clearly says the aspects of
personality is entirely unconscious and include the primitive and instinctive behaviour.This
part is the source of energy which is the main component of personality.

In social context, the id drive all human being to pleasure principle which strives immediate
gratification for all desires, wants and needs. In response, if this needs or desires are not
meet or satisfied, it results in a state of anxiety or tension for example, an increase in
hunger or thirst should produce or make a person to attempt to eat or drink. The id
component is important early in life as it ensures the infant needs are met or satisfied .Any
hungry or uncomfortable infant will always cry until his or needs are met.

Although the pleasure principle is important in satisfying our needs, it is sometimes not
realistic or possible because if one always responds to his /her pleasure he/she may end up
grabbing things which are not really necessary, such pleasure by lead to unaccepted
behaviour or even overspending.
To prevent this Freud attempted to resolve this through the primary process of which
involves forming a mental image of the desired object or item as a way of satisfying the
need. These help human beings to be satisfied and avoid undesired behaviour etc

Freud theory formed basis of understanding our societies and the observed behaviour and
give an explanation for the same. It enables leaders to understand human behaviour.

b) Ego-
This refers to the component of human personality responsible for dealing with reality.
Sigmund Freud Said ego develops from the id and ensures that desires of the id can be
expressed in the manner acceptable in the real world. This is where human being desires or
requires the needs which can be availed easily because they are very important.

The ego functions in conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind. It therefore works in
reality principle which attempts or strives to satisfy the id desires in the realistic and
socially appropriate ways.

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The reality principle enables human beings to analyze and weight the cost and the benefit of
the action before deciding to act upon or abandoned impulse.

Sometimes the id impulse can be satisfied through delayed gratification-This is where the
ego will eventually allow the behaviour but only in the appropriate. Time and place.

Sometimes the ego discharges tension resulting from unmet derives or impulses through
secondary process in which the ago tries to find an object in the real world that resembles
or matches the mental image created by the id’s primary process.

In relation to this theory it is important to know that there are different people with
different traits which portray their behaviour through their actions, Some of these action
are acceptable while other are unacceptable.
Better understanding enables leaders to serve people better.

c) Superego
This is the last component of personality development.
This component deals with aspect of personality that holds our entire internalized moral
standard and ideas that we acquire from parents as well as the society. This tells us what is
right and wrong; Superego provides guideline for making judgement. According to Freud, the
superego starts at the age of five.
The superego has two parts:
i) The ego ideal;
These include the rules and standard for good behaviour.This behaviour include those which
are approved by parents, and other authorities. By obeying these rules, individual feed
proud valued and accomplished. For instance a young child will obey the rules because
he /she knows the parents do not like

ii) The conscience:

This refers to the information about things that are viewed by parents and society.

These behaviour include those which are forbidden and lead to consequences,purnishment
or feeling of gullt and remotes
The superego act to perfect and civilize our behaviour t struggle to suppress all
unacceptable urges of id and struggle to make ego act upon idealistic standards rather than
upon realistic principles

Interaction between Id ego and superego.

With the competition forces from the three components it is easy for conflict to arise
between id and ego and superego. Sigmund used the term ego-strength to refers to the ego.
Ability to function despite theses forces.

An individual with good ego strength is able to effectively manage pressures; On the other
hand those with too much or too little ego strength can becomes too unyielding or too
disrupting.

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N.B
According to Freud healthy personality is a balance between Id, ego and Superego. Sigmund
Freud has contributed immensely to understanding the human behaviour.

2.COGNITIVE THEORY:
Understanding human thinking and behavior has been for interest for long. Mental
development has development much for interest since time immemorial.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss Psychologist who studied human cognition i.e. how
people think from his finding Piaget who observed his own children and wondered not just
what they knew but how they made sense wondered not just this piaget identified four
stages of cognitive development, namely;
 The sensory motor stage
 The preoperational stage
 The concrete stage
 The formal operational stage.
The sensory Motor stage:
He referred this stage as a level of human development at which individuals experience the
world only through their senses.
The five senses i.e tasting touching, smelling, looking and listening is very important to
infants within the first two years. Children only know as a result of sensory experience.
For instance, a young child becomes a wares of the surrounding through seeing, touching.
From this therefore, environment where the child grows affect his or her development and
learning experience.
b) Preoperational stage.
At this astge, unlike sensory stage where senses are very important, this is the level of
human development at which individuals use language and other symbols. The children
start to think mentally and imagine about the world. This stage starts between 2-6 years.
In this the children attach meaning to specific experience and objects. For instance a child
can identify the best toy, but cannot explain the kind of toy they require. In addition at this
stage, the child cannot judge size, weight, volime.for example,
If one says to a child of five yeas “Today is a Monday” he/she might respond, No it is my
birth day, indicating that she can just use one symbol at a time ,but a ten years child at
concrete operational stage would be able to respond “Yes’ and this Monday is my
birthday.

c) The formal operation stage.

This is the last stage of human development at which individual think abstractly and
critically. This stage starts about 12 years where individuals start to think critically not on
concrete situations. For example if one was to ask a seven years child “what would you like
to be when you grow up?” One might receive an answer like a teacher”
But most teenagers can think more abstractly and might reply” I would like a job that help
others.

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In addition the capacity for abstract thought also lets young people understand key terms,
such as metaphor, similes proverbs etc. In additional one can develops a variety of ways of
looking at a problem.
This stage equally promotes sensibility and become deeper and more complex, influenced by
the ability to internalize and critically evaluate the points of view of others.
Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1969-1981)
Extended Piaget frame work by arguing that beginning with pre-operation stage children
have a very strong motivation to be competent. Children learn not only through the rather
passive conditioning

3. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY: ERIKSON

THE PSYCHO-SEXUAL STAGES

INTRODUCTION

The various stages of psychosocial development were actualized by Erik Erikson (1902-1994),
in his 'Psychosocial Theory of Development', while attempting to understand the
development of human beings on the basis of their social interaction. The fabric of human
psyche was scrutinized by dissecting psychosocial development into 8 distinct stages. The
response of human beings to the stimuli of social interplay was believed to be the basis for
personality development which in turn would govern any further social interaction.
From ours previous lessons it has been clear that current theories took the efforts of many
psychologists. Eriksson believed that childhood is very important in personality development.
He accepted many of Freud's theories, including the id, ego, and superego, and Freud's
theory of infantile sexuality. But Erikson rejected Freud's attempt to describe personality
solely on the basis of sexuality, and, unlike Freud, felt that personality continued to develop
beyond five years of age. Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development

The first stage of psychosocial development evolves around the child and the caregiver
whose ability to care and bond consistently with the child will help the former develop a
sense of trust. The willingness to trust is thus, a function of consistent nurturing, the
absence of which results in the child being unable to trust the world which is perceived as
changeable.

An infant, who develops into a toddler, tries to assert its independence by gradually
estranging itself from the caregiver. A controlling or a restrictive environment, where a child

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is not allowed to choose, can result in the child developing a low self esteem. A feeling of
inadequacy may also plague the child at a later stage in life. It's believed that an action as
simple as allowing the child to choose a toy may have a great impact on the child ’s sense
of autonomy at a later dates.

Between the ages of 3 and 6, the desire to lead or take initiative tends to manifest when
children are in groups. Again, a controlling or restrictive environment, where children are
criticized or overly restricted, may result in children feeling guilty for wanting to assert
themselves.
Stage six to puberty
The next stage, which begins at the age of 6 and lasts till puberty, is one wherein positive
reinforcements are a must to make one feel like an achiever; a competent youngster who
can reach the zenith of achievement. Encouragement from parents and teachers is a must
for the child to feel confident in his/her ability to achieve the desired goals.

The fifth stage is when one is trying to reinforce one's sense of identity. Youngsters, who
find success in exploring their lives, will emerge from this stage with strong convictions and
beliefs. A sense of identity is fundamental to one's existence. If one is unsure of oneself at
this stage, the transition from adolescence to adulthood will be fraught with difficulties.
Children, who have not been nurtured, appreciated, allowed to choose and assert
themselves, may still develop a sense of identity that can help propel the young adolescents
towards a better life.

This adolescent stage leads on to the stage where one starts exploring personal
relationships. A young adult who does not have a strong sense of identity will find it
increasingly difficult to forge successful relationships. Such people are more likely to suffer
from depression as a consequence of isolation and the inability to commit to healthy
relationships.

The young adult then grows into a mature individual with a career and a family. At this
stage, every person would like to make some positive contribution to the society. Working
towards the well-being of the family and progressing in one's chosen line of work will make
one feel worthwhile. Individuals who are confident about having contributed positively to
the society now assume their rightful place as the elders of the community.

The last stage is one of rumination and contemplation where one looks back on life and feels
satisfied about one's accomplishments or feels dissatisfied on having wasted one's life in less
worthy pursuits.

It's evident that every stage gives one an opportunity to evolve into a better person.
Although some stages of evolution are constrained on account of the experience being
contingent to the willingness and ability of others to let us evolve, there are stages where
one can change the course of life by assuming responsibility for one's actions.

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Erikson's theory of ego psychology holds certain tenets that differentiate his theory from
Freud's. Some of these include:
The ego is of utmost importance.
Part of the ego is able to operate independently of the id and the superego.
The ego is a powerful agent that can adapt to situations, thereby promoting
Mental health.
Social and sexual factors both play a role in personality development.

It is important to note Eriksson’s theory was more comprehensive than Freud's, and
included information about "normal" personality as well as neurotics. He also broadened the
scope of personality to incorporate society and culture, not just sexuality. Criticisms of his
theories, in addition to the factors discussed in class, have noted that he did no statistical
research to generate his theories, and it is very hard to test his theories in order to validate
them.

Personality Stage
Psychosexual Mode
Psychosocial Modality
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
2. Autonomy vs. Shame, Doubt
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
8. Integrity vs. Despair

Stage 1 - Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

Developing trust is the first task of the ego, and it is never complete.
The child will let mother out of sight without anxiety because she has become an inner
certainty as well as an outer predictability.
The balance of trust with mistrust depends largely on the quality of maternal relationship.
Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
If denied autonomy, the child will turn against him/herself urges to manipulate and
discriminate.
Shame develops with the child's self-consciousness.
Doubt has to do with having a front and back -- a "behind" subject to its own rules. Left over
doubt may become paranoia.
The sense of autonomy fostered in the child and modified as life progresses serves the
preservation in economic and political life of a sense of justice.
Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning, and attacking a task for the
sake of being active and on the move.
The child feels guilt over the goals contemplated and the acts initiated in exuberant
enjoyment of new locomoter and mental powers.

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The castration complex occurring in this stage is due to the child's erotic fantasies.
A residual conflict over initiative may be expressed as hysterical denial, which may cause
the repression of the wish or the abrogation of the child's ego: paralysis and inhibition, or
overcompensation and showing off.
The Oedipal stage results not only in oppressive establishment of a moral sense restricting
the horizon of the permissible, but also sets the direction towards the possible and the
tangible which permits dreams of early childhood to be attached to goals of an active adult
life.

After Stage 3, one may use the whole repertoire of previous modalities, modes, and zones
for industrious, identity-maintaining, intimate, legacy-producing, despair-countering
purposes.
Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
To bring a productive situation to completion is an aim which gradually supersedes the
whims and wishes of play.
The fundamentals of technology are developed
To lose the hope of such "industrious" association may pull the child back to the more
isolated, less conscious familial rivalry of the oedipal time
The child can become a conformist and thoughtless slave whom others exploit.
Stage 5 - Identity vs. Role Confusion (or "Diffusion")
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others.
Ego identity is the accrued confidence that the inner sameness and continuity prepared in
the past are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for others, as
evidenced in the promise of a career.
The inability to settle on a school or occupational identity is disturbing.
Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
Body and ego must be masters of organ modes and of the other nuclear conflicts in order to
face the fear of ego loss in situations which call for self-abandon.
The avoidance of these experiences leads to isolation and self-absorption.
The counterpart of intimacy is distantiation, which is the readiness to isolate and destroy
forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to one's own.
Now true genitality can fully develop.
The danger at this stage is isolation which can lead to sever character problems.

Erikson's listed criteria for "genital utopia" illustrate his insistence on the role of many modes
and modalities in harmony: mutuality of orgasm with a loved partner of opposite sex with
whom one is willing and able to share a trust, and with whom one is willing and able to
regulate the cycles of work, procreation, and recreation so as to secure to the offspring all
the stages of satisfactory development
Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
Generativity is the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation.
Simply having or wanting children doesn't achieve generativity.
Socially-valued work and disciples are also expressions of generativity.
Stage 8 - Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Ego integrity is the ego's accumulated assurance of its capacity for order and meaning.

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Despair is signified by a fear of one's own death, as well as the loss of self-sufficiency, and of
loved partners and friends.
Healthy children, Erikson tells us, won't fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to
fear death.

BASIC THEORIES OF LEARNING

LEARNING

INTRODUCTION
If someone mentions learning, many people think of something related to classroom for
example mathematics, English, music, chemistry. However in real sense, psychologist refers
to learning as:
A relatively permanent change in behavior a result of experience.
Learning is a fundamental process in all animals and even human beings. All human beings
are expected to show behaviour that is in order to fit with the environment and to adapt to
the changing circumstance in order to survive.
Human behavior consists of learned responses to simple signals. Some psychologist believe
that behavior is the sum of many simple stimulus respond connections while other think
stimuli-respond is too simplistic and that even simple response to stimuli require a large
amount of information

BEHAVIUORISM
.
Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that assumes that learning occurs through
interactions with the environment. Two other assumptions of this theory are that the
environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts,
feelings, and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior.

One of the best-known aspects of behavioral learning theory is classical conditioning.

Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process
that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally
occurring stimulus. In order to understand how classical conditioning works, it is important
to be familiar with the basic principles of the process.
The Unconditioned Stimulus

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers
a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately
feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.

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The Unconditioned Response

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to
the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of
food is the unconditioned response.
The Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with
the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our
earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the
sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of
the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the
conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
The Conditioned Response

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our
example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the
whistle.
Classical Conditioning in the Real World

In reality, it is important to know people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There
are, however, numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning. For example,
many dog trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.

These techniques are also useful in the treatment of phobias or anxiety problems. Teachers
are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom
environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking
situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the
student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the
child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.
PRINCIPLES OF CLAASICAL CONDITIONING

1. Acquisition
The acquisition phase is the consistent parings of the CS (bell) and the UCS (food) that
produces a CR (salivation). In the example above, this phase occurs when the dog begins to
salivate at the sound of the bell. Conditioning occurs more rapidly when the food follows
the bell by a half a second.

2. Extinction
The extinction phase is when the conditioned response no longer occurs after repeated
pairings without the unconditioned stimulus. The dog ’s response to the bell can be
extinguished by repeatedly presenting the bell (CS) without the food (UCS). The dog has
not completely forgotten the association between the bell and the food. If the
experimenter waits a day, the dog may have a spontaneous recovery of the conditioned
response and salivate again to the bell.

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3. Generalization
Occurs when there is a small difference in the presented stimulus and the original
conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell of a similar tone, the dog would still
salivate.

4. Discrimination
The opposite of generalization, discrimination happens when a conditioned response does
not occur when there is a difference between the presented stimulus and the original
conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell with a different tone and was not
awarded the unconditioned stimulus (food), the dog would learn not to salivate to the
second tone.

Psychology refers those people who focus on stimuli response connection as

Behaviorist.
Two famous psychologist namely B.F. Skinner ( ) and J B Watson ( ) are accredited tom
this theory of behaviorism. Behaviorism arose because the existing theories of learning were
not giving satisfactory explanation. Behaviorism tries to give an explanation for the behavior
which is observable.
It tries to explain the causes of behavior by studying only that behavior that can be
observed and measured.
Their efforts lead to two main theories namely:
1. Classical condition
2. Operant conditioning

Conditional psychology
Conditioning stimuli
Types of conditioning
1) Classical conditioning: This is the first theory. The proponent of classical condition
is Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. It is termed as learning by association, where
certain stimuli elicited by certain response. He noticed that (he carried an
experiment on dogs behavior) dogs begin to salivate when they are being brought to
be fed, even before seeing the food or ringing of a bell and bringing of the food. He
discovered that if the procedure was repeated many times, the bell alone could
cause the dog to salivate. In this experiment, the bell is called a condition
stimulant and salivation is a response to the food which is called unconditional
response. The food is a conditional stimulant. While salivation is a conditional
response. Conditioning is based on the notion that human beings respond to stimuli
in certain ways. Stimulus is anything that reaches us from the surrounding e.g. hear,
sound, smell and light. A response is the action taken after receiving the stimulus.

The classical conditioning has the following procedures:

i) Food is the unconditioned stimuli (UCS) this refers to the stimuli that elicit the
response naturally.

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ii) The salivation to the food is an un conditioned response (UCR) ;this is the
response which occur naturally . salivation
iii) The bell is conditioned stimuli.(CS) this is because it will only produce salivation
on condition it is presented with food
iv) Salivation to the bell alone is condition response (CR) response to the condition
stimuli.

BEFORE CONDITIONG

FOOD SALIVATION BONE + SALIVATION

(UCS) (UCR)

BELL NO RESPONSE BELL NO SALIVATION

DURING CONDITION
BELL + FOOD SALIVATION ------ BELL + BONE} SALIVATION
(UCR)

AFTER CONDITIONING:

BELL SALIVATION BELL (NO FOOD) + SALIVATION

(CS) (CR)

Classical conditioning involves learning by association that is associating two events that
happened at the same time.

KEY CONCEPTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Automatic response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits a similar
response
Conditioned Response (CR)
A response that is learned by pairing the originally neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) with the
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

1. Acquisition
The acquisition phase is the consistent parings of the CS (bell) and the UCS (food) that
produces a CR (salivation). In the example above, this phase occurs when the dog begins to
salivate at the sound of the bell. Conditioning occurs more rapidly when the food follows
the bell by a half a second.

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2. Extinction
The extinction phase is when the conditioned response no longer occurs after repeated
pairings without the unconditioned stimulus. The dog ’s response to the bell can be
extinguished by repeatedly presenting the bell (CS) without the food (UCS). The dog has
not completely forgotten the association between the bell and the food. If the
experimenter waits a day, the dog may have a spontaneous recovery of the conditioned
response and salivate again to the bell.

3. Generalization
Occurs when there is a small difference in the presented stimulus and the original
conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell of a similar tone, the dog would still
salivate.

4. Discrimination
The opposite of generalization, discrimination happens when a conditioned response does
not occur when there is a difference between the presented stimulus and the original
conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell with a different tone and was not
awarded the unconditioned stimulus (food), the dog would learn not to salivate to the
second tone.

REVISION EXERCISE

1. Wafula a first year student in AIRADS Bungoma was watching a storm; a bolt of lightening
followed by a huge crash of thunder and makes her jump. This happened more several
times. The storm starts to move away and there is a gap between the lightening bolt and the
sound of the sound of the thunder yet wafula jumps at the lightening bolt.
i) State the: UCS, UCR, CS and CR
2. Hassan a fresher of AIRADS Mombassa City Campus salivates whenever he eats anything
with lemon. Last week while watching a TV he saw an advert showing lemon. His mouth
started to salivate. Give: UCS, UCR, CS and CR

2. Operant condition: this is a kind of learning in which a person tends to repeat the
behavior that has been reinforced or caused that has been pursued. A child who smiles and
gets what he likes e.g. getting attention from a parent keeps on smiling to keep the parent
attention. The proponent of these theory found out that an organism will tend to repeat a
response that has been reinforced. Reinforcement is a kind of behavior that increases the
likelihood of repeated behavior. It can either be positive or negative punishment is a kind of
behavior that decreases the likelihood of repeated behavior.
Negative reinforcement encourages repetition of behavior by removing undesired behavior.
Reinforcement is most effective when it immediately follows the behavior.

Conditioning learning
i) Social learning: Theory maintains that children learn social behavior and imitating
models. Social learning theories regard the learner as active. The proponents of this theory

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believe that a person acts on environmental impact. Social learning theories acknowledge
the importance of cognition. They see cognitive response to perception rather than
automatic response to reinforcement as a central to Childs development.
According to social learning theory, imitation of role models is the most important element
on how the children learn. However, observational learning can occur even if the child does
not observe the behavior.
The specific behavior that children imitate depends on what has value in their culture.

ii) Information processing Approach: it attempts to explain cognitive duty by observing and
analyzing the mental process. It studies how people acquire, remember and use information
through manipulation of symbol and mental images. It tries to infer what goes on in the
mind e.g. they may ask a child to recall a list of words then observe any difference in
performance. The information processing theory has three practical applications.

i) It enables a research to estimate an infant intelligence from the efficiency of

sensory perception.

ii) By understanding how children gain, recall and use information. Parents and
teachers can help them become more aware of their own mental process and
strategies to enhance them.

iii) Psychologists can use information processing model to test, diagnose and
treat problems.

iii) Cognitive approach: the proponents of this theory is concerned with though processes
and behavior that reflects those processes. A lot if emphasis is placed on mental process.
Jean Piaget viewed children as an active growing being in their won internal impulses and he
saw cognitive duty as the product of children ’s effort to understand and act on their own.
There is a limit to amount of information ’s a child can keep in mind by practicing a skill
such as counting or reading.

A child can become faster and efficient thereby free more space for additional information
and more complex problems. Cognitive theory deals with questions related to thinking and
knowing. Fear has developed three stages of theory of intellectual development.
From birth two years sensory motor stage. At this stage, the in front uses sense of touch,
smell taste and seeing movements to understand the environment

Sensory motor means using senses and body movements to learn things in the surrounding.
An important skill learnt at this stage is the acquisition of object performance idea e.g.
bellows the age of one year, children tend to think that when an object is out of sight, it no
longer exist.

Object performance is ability of a child to understand that an object can change position but
it does not disappear completely.

2- 6 years pre – operational stage.

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During this stage a child starts to use symbols to represent ideas in the real world. A block
becomes a car, a toy becomes a baby. They pretend to do activities such as cooking,
washing etc.
During the early stages of pre – operational stage the child ’s thinking is described as
egocentric to mean they do on their own ideas.

7 -11 years- concrete operational stage.

In this stage, children are capable of reasoning logics. They begin to understand basic ideas
of conservation and classification. Conservation refers to the understanding that things
remain the same even when the shape changes.
Classification refers to the ability to put things together in their categories

12 years and above. Formal operation stage

At this stage the child becomes adolescent and able to work solutions mentally and
formulate hypothesis about their observation.
They also come to realize that there are many answers to questions/problems.

II. (COGNITIVE) GESTALT SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Gestalt school of thought psychological subject matter is phenomena as a molar unit. Its
major area is perception. Its research method is inner perception and phenomenological
analysis. Gestalt school of thought is a reaction to behaviorism and structuralism and to
develop a school of thought, which is anti-reductionism.
It has been established that, according to Gestalt theory, one does not need to learn to see
structures in the sense that the properties of the psychological field are used to explain the
events taking place within that field 42 Therefore, if the controversy over the influence of
hereditary versus environmental influences be conceived relativistic ally, Gestalt psychology
is somewhat more nativity. Psychology did not entirely disappear from Germany. Its
principles were applied in other areas, as in personality theory.
Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy is a method of psychotherapy based strictly on Gestalt
psychology. It was developed by the German Gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans-
Juergen P. Walter and his colleagues in Germany and Austria.
Gestalt psychology is known more for its influence over design theory than its influence in
psychology. There are many applications of these theories to a variety of design-related
subjects, including document design. Here are a few Websites that discuss Gestalt
psychology.

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