23

FUEL CELLS: A PROMISING TECNOLOGY FOR DISTRIBUTED

POWER GENERATION

Y. C. Dhote1, S. B. Thombre2, D. B. Zodpe3

1
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Hindustan College of Science &
Technology, Farah, Mathura - 281 122, (UP) INDIA.
2
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Visvesvaraya National Institute of
Technology, Nagpur - 440 011, (MS) INDIA.
3
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Visvesvaraya National Institute of
Technology, Nagpur - 440 011, (MS) INDIA.

ABSTRACT

A fuel cell is nothing but an electrochemical energy conversion device that converts hydrogen
and oxygen into water, producing electricity and heat in this process. Every fuel cell has two
electrodes, one positive termed as cathode and another negative called anode. The production
of electricity takes place at the electrodes. A fuel cell has an electrolyte that carries electrically
charged particles from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at
the electrodes. It is just like a battery that can be discharged while you are drawing power from
it and can be recharged using electricity however a fuel cell consumes hydrogen and oxygen.

In an ordinary combustion reaction, as in a flame or an internal combustion engine, essentially

all of the energy released in the reaction is converted to heat. In a fuel cell, the reaction is done
electrochemically, meaning that in the anode compartment the fuel is oxidized and in the
cathode compartment, oxygen from the air is reduced to water. The two compartments are
connected by an electrolyte that allows hydrogen ions (protons) to move from the anode to the
cathode. A single fuel cell can generate very small amount of direct current (DC) electricity.
Generally fuel cells are assembled into a stack for getting more power.

Fuel cells have been around for over 150 years. Sir William Robert Grove conceived the first
fuel cell in 1839 before the invention of I. C. Engines. But the developments and growth were
taken place very fast in I. C. Engines. At present the world resources of oil is depleting very
fast with a very steep rise in prices across the world. Further the environmental pollution
promoted by I.C. Engines and gas turbines power plants are remarkable to reconsider the power
devices for future. In this respect fuel cells are the cleaner and more efficient power devices
than traditional combustion based engines and power plants.

219 | Proceedings of All India Seminar on Energy Management in Indian Perspective (October, 17-19’ 2008)
1.0 INTRODUCTION:

Energy is the basic need for survival. Since ages man has developed several ways to harness
energy from different sources with the discovery of certain mechanisms. In the process of this
quest the concept of fuel cells has been developed. The fuel cells can generate electricity for as
low requirement as 2-3 W to several MW. They have achieved efficiency as high as around
50%, which no other power generating device has. It directly converts the chemical energy of a
fuel into electricity, whereas other normal equipments first convert the chemical energy into
heat energy and then into high grade energy electricity and so at each stage of conversion it
loses a large part of efficiency, and so ultimately the efficiency becomes too low. This is why it
can have efficiency which rarely any other power generating device can have. As the size of a
fuel cell in the range of a few mm, these are compact and will find their application wherever
compactness is important. These are going to replace the batteries as they do not run down
unlike the batteries but continuously supply electricity as long as the fuel is supplied. These
have longer life, greater reliability and give better performance. The most important barrier in
the commercialization of the fuel cells is their high cost, as costly catalysts and membranes are
used. The research is continued in the search for the alternate cheap catalysts and membrane
materials to make them economically compatible with the existing power devices.

2.0 BRIEF HISTORY:

Fuel cells have been around for over 150 years. Sir William Robert Grove conceived the first
fuel cell In 1839. Sir Grove was a Welsh gentleman, scientist and judge. His fuel cell used
porous platinum electrodes and sulfuric acid as the electrolyte bath. His mixture of hydrogen
and oxygen in the presence of an electrolyte produced electricity and water. Unfortunately, his
invention didn't produce enough electricity to be useful.

In 1889, Ludwig Mond and his assistant Charles Langer, attempted to build a working fuel cell
using air and industrial coal gas.

Around that time, a fuel cell constructed by William White Jaques (who incidentally coined the
term fuel cell), substituted phosphoric acid in the electrolyte bath.

In the 1920s, fuel cell research in Germany paved the way to the development of the carbonate
cycle and solid oxide fuel cells of today.

In 1932, Dr. Francis T. Bacon made a significant contribution to fuel research. Early cell
designers used porous platinum electrodes and sulfuric acid as the electrolyte bath. Using
platinum was expensive and using sulfuric acid was corrosive. Bacon used an inexpensive
nickel electrode and a less corrosive alkaline electrolyte. It took Bacon until 1959 to perfect
his design and demonstrated a five-kilowatt fuel cell that could power a welding machine.
Francis T. Bacon, a direct descendent of the other well known Francis Bacon, named his
famous fuel cell design the "Bacon Cell."

In October of 1959, Harry Karl Ihrig, an engineer for the Allis - Chalmers Manufacturing
Company, demonstrated a 20-horsepower tractor that was the first vehicle ever powered by a
fuel cell.
220 Proceedings of All India Seminar on Energy Management in Indian Perspective (October, 17-19’ 2008)
During the early 1960s, General Electric produced the fuel-cell-based electrical power system
for NASA's Gemini and Apollo space capsules. General Electric used the principles found in
the "Bacon Cell" as the basis of its design. Today, the Space Shuttle's electricity is provided by
fuel cells, and the same fuel cells provide drinking water for the crew.

Dr. Lawrence H. DuBois of the U.S. Department of Defense and the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) envisioned the development of a fuel cell that could
operate on various types of liquid hydrocarbons (methanol, ethanol, etc.,). He called on Dr.
Surya Prakash a world-renowned super acid specialist and Nobel laureate Dr. George A. Olah,
both of the University of Southern California's Loker Hydrocarbon Institute to invent such a
fuel cell. USC, in a collaborative effort with Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) / California
Institute of Technology (Caltech) proceeded to invent the direct oxidation of liquid
hydrocarbons subsequently coined as DMFC, Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Technology.

3.0 WORKING OF A FUEL CELL:

A fuel cell works similar to a battery. In a battery there are two electrodes which are separated
by an electrolyte. At least one of the electrodes is generally made of a solid metal. This metal is
converted to another chemical compound during the production of electricity in the battery. The
energy that the battery can produce in one cycle is limited by the amount of this solid metal that
can be converted. In the fuel cell the solid metal is replaced by an electrode that is not
consumed and a fuel that continuously replenishes the fuel cell. This fuel reacts with an oxidant
such as oxygen from the other electrode. A fuel cell can produce electricity as long as more fuel
and oxidant is pumped through it. The alkaline fuel cell as shown in Fig.1. is one of the oldest
and most simple type of fuel cell. This is the type of fuel cell that has been used in space
missions for some time. Hydrogen and oxygen are commonly used as the fuel and oxidant. The
electrodes are made of porous carbon plates which are laced with a catalyst which is a
substance that accelerates chemical reactions. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide. The
reaction on the cathode is much more complex. At the cathode is a lack of electrons while on
the anode we have a surplus on electrons. If anode and cathode are electrically connected, a
electrons pass from the anode to the cathode to balance this difference in electrical charge. This
current flows as long as the reaction is taking place or in other words as long as hydrogen and
oxygen is available to the anode/cathode of the fuel cell. An electrical load connected to this
circuit makes it possible to utilize the so generated electrical power.

(a) (b)
221 Proceedings of All India Seminar on Energy Management in Indian Perspective (October, 17-19’ 2008)
Fig. 1. Working of a Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Chemical Reactions:

At Anode:
H2
2H+ + 2e- __________ (i)

At Cathode:
1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e-
2 OH- __________(ii)

In the Electrolyte:
H+ + OH-
H2O __________(iii)

The overall cell reaction:

H2 + ½ O2
H2O __________ (iv)

The theoretical open circuit of a fuel cell is 1,229V, in real applications it is possible to achieve
app. 1,05V operating with pure oxygen and app. 0,95V operating with air. To achieve higher
voltage levels, which is often desired to drive standard loads, several single fuel cells are
connected together in series to a fuel cell stack.

4.0 CELL GEOMETRIES:

While the basic structure of fuel cells always remains identical, the geometry of a cell can be
quite different. The basic geometries can be divided as such:

i. Planar cell
ii. Tubular cell
iii. Coil cell

The most commonly used fuel cell geometries is the planar cell as shown in Fig. 2. In a planar
cell, anode, electrolyte (membrane) and cathode are put together in a sandwich structure. To
achieve higher output voltages and higher power planar single cells are often combined to
planar fuel cell stacks as shown in Fig. 3. In doing so multiple single cells are stacked together
and form a planar fuel cell stack. The planar fuel cell stack is electrically a serial connection of
a certain number of single fuel cells. Therefore it is fairly easy to realize almost any output
voltage requirement, since in a serial connection the single cell voltage just adds up. For
example, if you need a open circuit voltage of app. 17V (translates to a nominal voltage of app.
12V, since the MPP of a single cell is around 0.7V), 17 single cells need to be connected in
series to form a stack with the desired output voltage. In theory planar stacks could consist of
hundreds of single cells, in real applications there are limits caused by thermal management
(heat removal), gas flow (hydrogen and oxygen) and water management (PEM fuel cells).

222 Proceedings of All India Seminar on Energy Management in Indian Perspective (October, 17-19’ 2008)
Fig. 2. Planar single fuel cell Fig. 3. Planar fuel cell stack
(source: www.innovation-brennstoffzelle.de)

A second possibility to combine multiple single planar cells is the so called stripe cell. Here the
single cells are not piled together but rather combined in a single level. This geometry is used
when very flat geometries are needed, for example fuel cell to be integrated in laptop screen.

In the tubular cell as shown in Fig. 4. the elements anode, electrolyte and cathode form a tube.
The inner side of the tube is normally the anode layer (hydrogen side) then covered by the
electrolyte layer followed by the cathode layer (oxygen side). Similar to the planar cells it is
possible to connect multiple single tubular cells in series to form a array of tubular cells. Today
tubular cells are utilized by the SOFC from Siemens Westinghouse.

Fig. 4.Tubular cell Fig. 5. Coil cell

(Source: www.h2-interpower.de)

The coil cell as shown in Fig. 5. is another interesting geometry for fuel cells. In principle the
coil cell is a long planar cell, which is then wrapped together like a coil. The coil geometry
promises low cost volume production, easy replacement of defect single cells in a series
connection, but has also some technical problems like electrical connections to solve. The idea
and development of the coil cell started at H2-Interpower in Schwa Bach near Nuremberg,
Germany.

223 Proceedings of All India Seminar on Energy Management in Indian Perspective (October, 17-19’ 2008)
5.0 TYPES OF FUEL CELLS:

Different types of fuel cells exist each using a different chemistry. They are usually classified
by the type of electrolyte they use. The following table provides an overview of the different
types of fuel cells:

Table 1: Different types of fuel cells

Type of Electrolyte Temp. Fuel
fuel cell (°C)
AFC Potassium hydroxide (KOH) 70-100 H2 + O2
PEM Proton Exchange Membrane 50-100 H2 + O2/Air
(Nafion, Gore)
PAFC Phosphoric acid 160-210 H2 Hydrogen rich gas + Air
MCFC High temperature compounds of salt 650 H2 Hydrogen rich gas + Air
carbonates CO3 (Sodium or Magnesium)
SOFC Solid ceramic compound 800-1000 H2 Hydrogen rich gas + Air
(Calcium or Zirconium)
DMFC Proton Exchange Membrane 50-100 Methanol/Ethanol + O2/Air
(Nafion, Gore)

The various types of fuel cells are suited for different applications. The PEMFC offers low
operating temperature and quick turn on times but require very clean hydrogen fuel since CO
content does damage the noble catalysts. These features make the PEMFC a good fit for
portable and mobile applications, while high power stationary systems are more suited for
SOFC or MCFC.

Fuel cell types like SOFC and MCFC are operated at much higher temperatures and therefore
do not need noble metal catalysts. For this reason it is possible to use hydrogen rich fuel which
may contain COx und NOx, which normally would damage the noble metal catalysts.
Therefore these fuel cells can be fueled with natural gas or require only little external
reforming. While the fuel cells operating at higher temperatures are less sensitive to COx and
NOx, the turn on time and power on and off cycles are much off a problem. Each power on and
off cycle may degrade and reduce the performance of such a cell; therefore they are best suited
for an uninterrupted operation.

DMFC converts methanol directly into electricity without a reformer and hence would be
simpler, cheaper and more reliable than liquid hydrogen or methanol and reformer based fuel
cells. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell technology (DMFC) can be applied in a variety of products.
DMFCs are an excellent choice for backup power needs such as UPS and APU devices. All the
major automotive manufacturers have a fuel cell vehicle either in development or in testing
right now. Honda and Toyota have already begun leasing vehicles in California and Japan.
Automakers and experts speculate that the DMFC fuel cell vehicles will be widely

224 Proceedings of All India Seminar on Energy Management in Indian Perspective (October, 17-19’ 2008)
commercialized by 2010. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell technology, DMFC, is being incorporated
into buses, trains, scooters and golf carts on a faster time line. The working principal of a
DMFC fuel cell is as shown in Fig. 6.

Anode Reaction:
CH3OH + H20 → CO2+ 6H+ + 6e-

Cathode Reaction:
3/2 O2 + 6H+ + 6e- → 3H2O

Overall Cell Reaction:

CH3OH + 3/2 O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Fig. 6. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

The following table lists the key manufacturers by fuel cell type:

Table 1: Different types of fuel cells

Fuel cell type Fuel cell manufacturer
AFC Astris, UTC, Zetek
PEM Ballard, Plugpower, H-Power, UTC, Nuvera, Siemens, h2-interpower
PAFC UTC
MCFC Fuel Cell Energy (FCE), MTU
SOFC Sulzer Hexis, Siemens Westinghouse, Global Thermolectric
DMFC Ballard, Manhattan Scientific, Medis, MTI Micro FuelCells, Smartfuelcell

6.0 ADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELL:

a) High conversion efficiency as high as 70%

b) Direct generation of electricity
c) Compact size
d) It can be installed near the use point reducing transmission losses.
e) No moving parts hence its operation is fairly quiet.
f) It requires less attention and less maintenance.

225 Proceedings of All India Seminar on Energy Management in Indian Perspective (October, 17-19’ 2008)
 g) Creates very less or no pollution.
h) No cooling water is required as in conventional steam power plant.
i) They can be readily accepted in residential areas because of noise free operation.
j) It takes a little time to start its operation.
k) Space requirement is considerably less as compared to conventional power plant.
l) Mobile, portable and stationary applications are possible (from mW to MW)

7.0 DISADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELL:

a) High initial cost.

b) Low service life.
c) Hydrogen infrastructure suffers.

8.0 APPLICATIONS OF FUEL CELLS:

Fuel Cell technology can be applied in a variety of products. Obviously, our environment
would benefit from fuel cell powered applications. There is an equal or greater demand for
clean efficient energy in many other applications. Though the possibilities are endless; the
proposed applications can be categorized as follows.

a) Stationary applications:

i. In hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants, and
airport terminals providing primary or backup power.
ii. Additionally, Fuel cells are an excellent choice for backup power needs such as UPS
and APU devices.

b) Residential applications:

i. Fuel Cells are ideal for power generation, either connected to the electric grid to provide
supplemental power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as a grid-
independent generator for on-site service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines.
ii. The refrigerator runs twenty-four hours per day to prevent food spoilage and uses power
accordingly.
iii. Small stand-alone, seven to ten kilowatt per hour DMFC generators emit no pollutants
as a byproduct and can be used to provide hot water or space heating for a home.

c) Transportation applications:

i. All the major automotive manufacturers have a fuel cell vehicle either in development
or in testing right now. Honda and Toyota have already begun leasing vehicles in
California and Japan.
ii. Automakers and experts speculate that the DMFC fuel cell vehicles will be widely
commercialized by 2010.
iii. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell technology, DMFC, is being incorporated into buses, trains,
scooters and golf carts on a faster time line.

226 Proceedings of All India Seminar on Energy Management in Indian Perspective (October, 17-19’ 2008)
d) Portable power applications:

i. Fuel cells will change the telecommuting world, powering laptops and palm pilots hours
longer than batteries and allowing up to a month of talk time on a cellular phone.
ii. Other applications for micro fuel cells include pagers, video recorders, portable power
tools, and low power remote devices such as hearing aids, smoke detectors, burglar
alarms, hotel locks and meter readers.

e) Landfill/ wastewater treatment:

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC), currently operate at landfills and wastewater
treatment plants across the country, proving themselves as a valid technology for reducing
emissions and generating power from the methane gas they produce.

f) Marine applications of DMFC

i. Luxury liners and tankers can power themselves across the oceans using Direct
Methanol Fuel Cell.
ii. Fuel Cell technology to power all their on-ship needs from the "engine room" which
will likely be renamed the "energy room" to kitchen, bath, staterooms, and laundry
rooms and so on.
iii. Yachts and fishing boats can have on-board power for personal comforts (hair dryers,
a/c and heating) without the dreadful noise and fumes of combustion generators.
iv. Furthermore, the use of methanol, a biodegradable fuel, will rescue our oceans from the
pollution caused by the dumping of other fuels.

9.0 FUEL CELL: RESEARCH THRUST AREAS:

i. Membranes and Electrodes ix. Sensors
ii. Catalysts x. Analysis, modeling and simulation
iii. Fuel Processing xi. System integration
iv. Hydrogen Production and Storage xii. Power Conditioning
v. Bipolar plates and Components xiii. Material considerations
vi. Air and water management xiv. Fuel cells for automobiles
vii. Thermal Management xv. Fuel Cell-based power plants
viii. Start-up issues xvi. Unsolved Issues
10.0 CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

Fuel cell is a proven technology; has been heralded as the power source of the future. Fuel cells
produce electricity from potential chemical energy without combustion, through an
electrochemical process that combines oxygen and hydrogen to produce electricity. Fuel cell
technology can be applied in a variety of products having endless possibilities. Obviously, our
environment would benefit from fuel cell powered cars and buses. Fuel cells are the reliable
power devices of the future for distributed power generation which can generate power from
few mW to MW. Developing nations need reliable power in their cities, villages, and homes.
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells are ideal for power generation, either connected to the electric grid
to provide supplemental power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as a grid-
independent generator for on-site service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines. Fuel
227 Proceedings of All India Seminar on Energy Management in Indian Perspective (October, 17-19’ 2008)
cells are a future option to many market segments which generate cleaner power from
conventional sources more efficiently. Fuel cells may just be a temporary solution until we can
harvest more renewable resources as solar energy. The opportunities are enormous but so are
challenges.

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