BIOL 1017—CELL BIOLOGY

Lecture 3:
Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
Dr. Sacha-Renée Todd
 In today’s lecture we will:

▪ Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic

characteristics
▪ Outline the structure and function of
ribosomes across domains
▪ Explore the origins of organelles in
eukaryotic cells
▪ Outline the structure and function of
the eukaryotic nucleus
▪ Briefly review the characteristics of
viruses
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes:
Ev o l u t i o n ar y Fe at u r e s

PROKARYOTES
1. Members of the domains Members of the domain
Archaea and Bacteria Eukarya
2. Appeared 3.5 billion
years ago.
3. Greater diversification
over longer existence; more
metabolic variation and
diversity
4. Majority of all living
things
EUKARYOTES
Appeared 1.7 billion years
ago.
Lesser diversification over
shorter existence; less
metabolic variation and
diversity.
Tiny minority of all living
things
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes:
Cytol ogi cal Fe ature s
PROKARYOTES
5.Unicellular.
6. Typically 0.2-2.0 µm.
7. Surface area to volume
ratio high; so metabolic rates
high, and generation times
short.
8. No nucleus/nuclear
membrane; genetic material
in cytoplasm (nucleoid).
EUKARYOTES
Unicellular and multicellular
forms.
Typically 10-100 µm.
Surface area to volume ratio
low; so metabolic rates low,
and generation times are
long.
True nucleus, with nuclear
membrane.
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes:
Cytol ogi cal Fe ature s cont.

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
9. Membrane-enclosed Membrane-enclosed
organelles absent. 'Internal' organelles present; each with
membranes, if present, are particular role in cell.
invaginations of plasma
membrane.
10. No compartmentalisation Compartmentalisation gives
means lower efficiency of division of labour and
cellular functions. greater efficiency.
11. Cells are less structurally Cells are more complex.
and functionally complex.
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes:
Cytol ogi cal Fe ature s cont.
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
12. Ribosomes are small (70S) Ribosomes are larger (80S)
13. Cytoskeleton is either Well developed cytoskeleton in
absent or poorly developed in cytoplasm (with microtubules,
cytoplasm; no or poor microfilaments, and intermediate
cytoplasmic streaming
filaments); plays role in cell
organization and shape, and in
cytoplasmic streaming
14. Cell wall usually present and Cell wall, when present, is chemically
is chemically complex; in most simple and has no peptidoglycan
bacteria (but not archaea), it (e.g., cellulose cell wall of plant
cells)
contains peptidoglycan (a single
large polymer of protein and
carbohydrate)
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes:
Re p r o d u ct i o n
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
15. Cells contain only one copy of Cells contain two (diploid, 2n) or
every gene (haploid, n) {From more (polyploid; e.g., 4n) copies of
greek Haploos – single) every gene
16. Reproduction usually asexual Both sexual and asexual
(without involvement of reproduction found. Asexual
gametes). Cell division involves division by cell division is more
binary fission. (One n cell to one complex and by mitosis. (E.g., one
2n cell, and then to two n cells.) 2n cell to one 4n cells, and then to
two 2n cells.)

17. Sexual reproduction rare; Sexual reproduction common and

does not involve meiosis (Haploid involves meiosis (E.g., one 2n cell
cell cannot divide to produce goes to one 4n cell, then to four n
gametes with ½ its gene cells, or gametes.)
complement.)
polyploidy

Metaphase chromosomes of
triploid (2n=3x=33) banana
cultivars stained blue with DAPI.
 Organelles
• Defining feature of eukaryotic cells - possession of
organelles:
“Membrane‐bound compartments inside the cell in
which specific chemical reactions occur”
• Each organelle type has particular role within the
cell defined by the types of chemical reactions it can
carry out.
• Organelles may be bounded by:
▪ A single membrane (e.g., Golgi, vesicles).
▪ A double membrane (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria,
chloroplasts).
What is the importance of
membranes?
• Structure
– Membranes are amphipathic
– Membranes are selectively permeable
• Function
– Membranes allow for endocytosis and exocytosis
– Membranes allow for compartmentalisation
 Advantages of Organelles
= Advantage of compartmentalisation:

1. Division of labour between compartments:

▪ Cell not a 'Jack of All Trades.'
2. Organelle's molecules kept away from other
molecules in cell:
▪ Prevents inappropriate reactions.
▪ Allows many (sometimes incompatible)
reactions to coexist in same cell.
▪ Allows greater diversity in resources cell can
use.
 Advantage of compartmentalisation (cont’d):

3. Reactions can proceed more efficiently:

▪ Chemicals could be concentrated within
particular regions of the cell
▪ Environment within organelle can be made
optimal for functions it performs (e.g.,
different pH from rest of cell)
Advantage of compartmentalisation (cont’d):

4. Membrane can regulate organelle’s uptake of

raw materials and expulsion of wastes:
▪ i.e. Greater control of individual processes

5. Different parts of a multistep process can

occur in different cellular compartments:
▪ E.g., gene transcription occurs in nucleus
while translation occurs at ribosome
▪ i.e. Greater control of the overall process
 Compartmentalisation

Efficiency of compartmentalisation led to:

▪ Greater variety and efficiency in eukaryotic

cell functions

▪ The levels of specialization of different types

of cells into tissues that we see in
multicellular eukaryotes
 EUKARYOTES

Further classified as follows:

▪ Kingdom Protista.
▪ Kingdom Plantae.
▪ Kingdom Fungi.
▪ Kingdom Animalia.

Protist. Plant. Fungus. Animal

Compartmentalisation &
Organisation

Tissues of plant leaf, each with specialised cell types.

 The Origins of Organelles

Organelles may have evolved by:

1. Infolding of the plasma membrane; or
2. Endosymbiosis:
▪ One cell ingested another, giving rise to
cooperative (i.e., symbiotic) relationship.
▪ Eventually, ingested cell:
▪ Lost some of its functions.
▪ Transferred many of its genes to host's
DNA.
▪ Became organelle in ingesting cell.
Endosymbiont Theory of the origin of mitochondria & chloroplasts
 True Organelles

▪ Several membrane-less structures sometimes

called organelles however
▪ Not true organelles as they lack membranes

▪ They include:
▪ Ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis).
▪ The cytoskeleton (of protein filaments; has
structural and functional roles).
▪ The extracellular matrix (also has structural
and functional roles).
 Protein Expression
• The blueprints for proteins are stored in DNA and
decoded by highly regulated transcriptional
processes to produce messenger RNA
• The message coded by an mRNA is then
translated into a protein
• Transcription is the transfer of information from
DNA to mRNA, and translation is the synthesis of
protein based on a sequence specified by mRNA
• Ribosomes are the sites of translation
 Ribosomes
• Strictly speaking – not organelle. Why?
• Found in all cells but differ among domains
although archaea and eukaryotes more similar
in the types of ribosomal proteins.
• Tinier than even the tiniest organelles (25-30
nm);
• 350,000 could easily hold in a bacterium cell;
eukaryote cells have many more
 Location of ribosomes
• Eukaryotic ribosomes in the cell are found in the
cytosol as either free ribosomes, or ER-bound
ribosomes
• Both free and bound ribosomes function to carry
out protein synthesis. The difference is that the
proteins made by the free ribosomes are for
more "localised" use whereas the proteins made
by the bound ribosomes are usually transported
to other parts of the cell (eg. inserted into the
membrane), or secreted out of the cell for use.
 Types
• Prokaryotic cells (bacteria), mitochondria and
chloroplasts have 70S ribosomes,
• eukaryotic cells have 80S ribosomes
• 80S ribosomes are bigger than 70S ribosomes
("S" refers to Svedberg)
• Ribosomes are made up of a small subunit
and a large subunit, each subunit composed
of rRNA and proteins
In prokaryotes, mRNA transcripted is immediately translated without additional
processing to form polypeptides. In eukaryotes, the nuclear envelope separates
transcription from translation. mRNA transcripts are modified (and introns removed)
then exported to the cytoplasm where it is translated.
Overview of the high-resolution structure of the 70S ribosome complexed with mRNA and tRNA
The structure shows the 50S subunit on top, with the 23S RNA coloured cyan and 5S RNA
coloured green. The 50S proteins are shown in dark blue. At the bottom is the 30S subunit, with
16S RNA in gold and the 30S proteins in orange. Nestled between the two subunits are the A-
site (green), P-site (red) and E-site (reddish brown) tRNAs. The mRNA at these three sites is just
barely visible as a magenta strand (From Ramishkan, 2008)
Interface views of the quaternary structure of
50S (left) and 30S (right) ribosomal subunits
(Center For Molecular Biology of RNA)
Which would be easier to
move?
 Supercoiling
A feature common to both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes:
Gene ti c Informati on
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
18. Low DNA complexity; High DNA complexity;

Only a single, loose, DNA divided into multiple

circular DNA molecule (e.g. tightly-bound, linear bundles
In E. coli the length is 1600 (chromosomes) (generally long
μm – long enough to enough (10 cm) to encircle the
encircle the cell x400) cell x15,000) &

Naked DNA (no histones) associated with histones

(proteins involved in DNA
replication & gene expression)
Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic Chromosomes
• Single circular chromosome. •Multiple linear chromosomes.
• Condensed in the nucleoid via • Condensed in a membrane-
DNA supercoiling bound nucleus via histones.

•Because prokaryotic DNA can •Transcription occurs in the

interact with the cytoplasm, nucleus, and translation occurs
transcription and translation in the cytoplasm.
occur simultaneously.

•Nonessential prokaryotic genes •Extrachromosomal plasmids are

are commonly encoded on not commonly present in
extrachromosomal plasmids. eukaryotes.

•Prokaryotic genomes are •Eukaryotes contain large

efficient and compact, amounts of noncoding and
containing little repetitive DNA. repetitive DNA.
•No introns
 Prokaryotic DNA

Circular DNA
molecule of Oikonomou et al, 2016

prokaryote
Eukaryotic DNA
 Why do Eukaroytes have non-
coding DNA?
• Only 1% of DNA is made up of protein-coding genes
• noncoding DNA contains sequences that act as
regulatory elements, determining when and where
genes are turned on and off. E.g.
– Promoters provide binding sites for the protein machinery that carries out
transcription.
– Enhancers provide binding sites for proteins that help activate transcription.
– Silencers provide binding sites for proteins that repress transcription.

• Other regions of noncoding DNA provide

instructions for the formation of certain kinds of
RNA molecules.
• Some structural elements of chromosomes are also
part of noncoding DNA.
– Repeated noncoding DNA sequences at the ends of
chromosomes form TELOMERES. These protect the ends
of chromosomes from being degraded during the
copying of genetic material.
– Repetitive noncoding DNA sequences also form satellite
DNA. This is the basis of the centromere, which is the
constriction point of the X-shaped chromosome pair.
• Some noncoding DNA regions, called introns, are
located within protein-coding genes but are
removed before a protein is made.
– Regulatory elements, such as enhancers, can be located
in introns
 Nucleus
The nucleus:
▪ Is largest organelle in the cell (about 5 µm):
▪ Usually only one per cell (mononuclear).
▪ Holds most of cell's genetic material (DNA).
▪ Is surrounded by a double membrane
(nuclear envelope).
▪ Contains the nuclear fluid (nucleoplasm).
▪ Contains region called nucleolus:
▪ Where ribosome assembly begins.
Role of the Nucleolus
 Nucleus

Diagrammatic representation of structure of the eukaryotic nucleus.

 Nucleus
The nuclear envelope:
▪ Separates DNA from the cytoplasm:
▪ Separates transcription (in nucleus) from
translation (on ribosomes in cytoplasm).
▪ Is perforated by nuclear pores (9 nm):
▪ Regulate the traffic between nucleoplasm
and cytoplasm:
▪ Allows some molecules to enter and
leave, while blocking others).
 Nuclear DNA
Nuclear DNA is held in form of chromatin.

Chromatin:
▪ Fibrous complex of DNA wound around small
proteins (histones).
▪ Has bead-like repeating units (nucleosomes).
▪ One complete length of chromatin is a
chromosome:
▪ Number of chromosomes depends on
organism (e.g., 46 in humans cells).
High resolution ray-traced model of a nucleosome
Mediterranean Institute for Life Sciences
Eukaryotic DNA is coiled around groups (cores) of
histones. Histones are divided into five main types– H1,
H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.

Histones have high content of the amino acids lysine

and arginine which gives them a strong positive charge.
The DNA contained within a typical nucleus in H. Sapiens would
measure 2 m if fully extended, however, the nucleus is 5-10 μm
in diameter.
The DNA is folded into tight complexes with the histones in a
specific pattern.
 Forms of Chromatin
• In non-dividing cells, • Prior to cell division,
chromatin: chromatin:
▪ Found as loosely ▪ Becomes tightly
organised, long, thin compacted and
threads (euchromatin) condensed
▪ Not visible under a light (heterochromatin):
microscope ▪ Protects chromosome
▪ Dispersed throughout integrity during division.
nucleoplasm and not ▪ There is little or no gene
easily visualised. activity and transcription
▪ Displays appreciable ▪ Individual chromosomes,
gene activity and visible under a light
transcription. microscope
 Nucleus
Nucleoplasm contains protein nuclear matrix:
▪ Gives nucleus its structure (nucleoskeleton).
▪ Includes nuclear lamina just inside nuclear
envelope.
▪ Nuclear lamina involved in:
▪ Chromatin organisation and regulation of
transcription.
▪ Breakdown and reformation of the nuclear
envelope during mitosis.
▪ Positioning of nuclear pores.
Nucleus
 Viruses
• Viruses are non-cellular parasitic particles that
are incapable of a free-living existence
• Smaller than all but the tiniest cells ranging
from 25 to 300 nm
• Consist of a capsid of protein surrounding one
or more molecules of either DNA or RNA
• However they can invade and infect cells and
redirect the synthetic machinery of the infected
host cell towards the production of more virus
particles
Bacteriophages /Phages Animal/Plant Virus
Attachment Virus binds to a specific receptor on
the host cell surface.

Penetration The viral nucleic acid enters the cell.

Synthesis Viral nucleic acid takes over control of

the cell metabolism stopping the cell's
normal nucleic acid and protein
synthesis.

Assembly Whole virus particles are made when

the nucleic acids are surrounded by
the protein coats.

Release Many viral particles are released when

the cell bursts open (lysis) or by slow
leakage.
• Living or non-living? Recall Cell Theory…

• Cannot perform the functions required for

independent existence
– including metabolism – cellular reactions
organized into coherent pathways
– and irritability – perception of and response to
environmental stimuli
• must depend on cells they invade for their
needs so not considered living organisms nor
are they made of cells