Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION LAB

Name: Hareshwar S. Wani
Roll no.: BT18ECE049

Experiment 1
Aim: To fit and compare the first through fourth linear regression models for
given data.

Theory:
Linear regression is a linear model, e.g. a model that assumes
a linear relationship between the input variables (x) and the single output
variable (y). More specifically, that y can be calculated from
a linear combination of the input variables (x).
Linear regression is a method of estimating the relation between a scalar
response and an explanatory variable. It approximates the relationship
between the two variables to the form of an equation of some degree, and
does so by changing the value of the constants in the equation in a manner
that minimizes the error of actual values as compared to the regression
models’ predicted values. Linear regression implies that there is only one
explanatory variable.
Generally, y = a0x0 + a1x1 + a2x2 + a3x3 + … anxn; where n is the order of the
regression, Y is the response, x is the explanatory variable and a is the constant
determined by this method.

Derivation:
Consider a system where output variable y depends on input variable x. The
second order regression formulation will be of the form y = c0 + c1x + c2x2. Now
let us assume we have ‘n’ data points. We want to find values for c such that
the error between y and x for these values of c is minimum. Error may be
positive or negative, hence we find the sum of squared errors for each data
point. Let this be r(x).
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

𝑛
2
𝑟(𝑥) = ∑(𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑖2 − 𝑦𝑖 )
𝑖=0

To minimize the error, the partial derivative of r(x) with respect to each
coefficient is found and equated to 0.
𝑛
𝜕𝑟
= 2 ∑(𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖 ) = 0
𝜕𝑐0
𝑖=0
𝑛
𝜕𝑟
= 2 ∑(𝑐0 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑐1 𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑖3 + 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ) = 0
𝜕𝑐1
𝑖=0
𝑛
𝜕𝑟
= 2 ∑(𝑐0 𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑐1 𝑥𝑖3 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑖4 + 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖 ) = 0
𝜕𝑐2
𝑖=0

Upon solving each equation independently, it is reduced to the following:

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑐0 𝑛 + 𝑐1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑐2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑐0 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑐1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑐2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑐0 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑐1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 + 𝑐2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0

Let this be translated to matrix form.

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑐0 𝑛

∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑐2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 ∗ [𝑐1 ] = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖

𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑐2 𝑖=0
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑐2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 𝑐2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖

[ 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ] [ 𝑖=0 ]
From this, we can easily determine the value of the constants through the
relation
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
𝑐0 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

[𝑐1 ] = inv ∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑐2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 ∗ ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖

𝑐2 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑐2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖3 𝑐2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖4 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 𝑦𝑖

([ 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0 ]) [ 𝑖=0 ]

Data:
X = [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10]
Y = [1 3 5 8 11 16 17 23 32 38]

Code:
% fit (upto 4 order) linear regression models to the data
x = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10];
y = [1,3,5,8,11,16,17,23,32,38];
n = 4;
% y = summation of an*x^n, where n is the order

xpow = zeros(1,2*(n+1)); %powers of x that are required

for i=1:length(x)
for j=1:length(xpow)
xpow(j) = xpow(j) + x(i)^(j-1);
end
end

ymat = zeros(n+1,1); %rhs matrix

for i=1:length(ymat)
for j = 1:length(x)
ymat(i) = ymat(i) + (x(j)^(i-1))*y(j);
end
end

xmat = zeros(n+1,n+1);
for i=1:n
for j=1:n
xmat(i,j) = xpow(i+j-1);
end

end

% xmat * constants = ymat

% so constants = xmat^-1 * ymat, premultiplying
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

order4 = pinv(xmat)*ymat; %using pinv because inv

doesn't work
order3 = xmat(1:4,1:4)\ymat(1:4);
order2 = xmat(1:3,1:3)\ymat(1:3);
order1 = xmat(1:2,1:2)\ymat(1:2);

temp = zeros(1,length(x));
for i=1:length(temp)
temp(i) = order4(1) + order4(2)*x(i) + order4(3)*x(i)^2 +
order4(4)*x(i)^3 + order4(5)*x(i)^4;
end
subplot(2,2,1)
plot(y);
title('4th Order');
xlabel('X Values');
ylabel('Y Values');
hold on;
plot(temp,'--')
legend('Input','Regression');

for i=1:length(temp)
temp(i) = order3(1) + order3(2)*x(i) + order3(3)*x(i)^2 +
order3(4)*x(i)^3;
end
subplot(2,2,2)
plot(y);
title('3rd Order');
xlabel('X Values');
ylabel('Y Values');
hold on;
plot(temp,'--')
legend('Input','Regression');

for i=1:length(temp)
temp(i) = order2(1) + order2(2)*x(i) + order2(3)*x(i)^2;
end
subplot(2,2,3)
plot(y);
title('2nd Order');
xlabel('X Values');
ylabel('Y Values');
hold on;
plot(temp,'--')
legend('Input','Regression');

for i=1:length(temp)
temp(i) = order1(1) + order1(2)*x(i);
end
subplot(2,2,4)
plot(y);
title('1st Order');
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

xlabel('X Values');
ylabel('Y Values');
hold on;
plot(temp,'--')
legend('Input','Regression');

Graphs:

Conclusion:
Various models are studied and plotted over the actual plots. The plots of
different orders are made. As observed, the increasing order reduces the
deviation between the actual and the predicted plot. However, it increases the
computation cost. So, to maintain the balance between the cost and accuracy
a moderate order is to be selected. In the first order plot, the difference
between the actual and the predicted curve is large, while in second order the
deviation is seen in a small extent only. Linear regression, as studied, is useful
for predicting the plot, by plotting a regressive curve. It can be enhanced by
giving a large dataset and setting the new inputs in the range close to initial
inputs.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Hence, the linear regression is successfully studied.

Experiment 2
Aim: To obtain filtering from noisy data for step and ramp functions, using
various windows sizes and moving average (MA) and exponentially weighted
moving average (EWMA) filters.

Theory:
The moving average filter is a simple Low Pass FIR (Finite Impulse
Response) filter commonly used for smoothing an array of sampled
data/signal. It takes samples of input at a time and takes the average of those.
-samples and produces a single output point. A moving average filter, as its
name suggests, replaces each value with the average of itself and some of its
neighbours. This allows it to be optimal for reducing random noise from a step
response, but it is one of the worst filters for frequency domain encoded
signals.
An exponential moving average (EMA), also known as an exponentially
weighted moving average (EWMA), is a first-order infinite impulse
response filter that applies weighting factors which decrease exponentially.
The weighting for each older datum decreases exponentially, never reaching
zero. The most recent values are considered to be the most impactful. It has a
faster response time than a simple moving average filter.

Derivation:
• Moving average filter –

Consider a system X, with values x0, x1, x2, etc. Let the filtered system be
represented by Y, with corresponding y0, y1, y2, etc. Let then window size be ‘n’
– this will be the extent of past reference for each data point. Then, the
average of any n values is
𝑥𝑘 + 𝑥𝑘−1 + 𝑥𝑘−2 + ⋯ +𝑥𝑘−(𝑛−1)
𝑦𝑘 =
𝑛
This is equivalent to
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

𝑥𝑘 + 𝑥𝑘−1 + 𝑥𝑘−2 + ⋯ +𝑥𝑘−(𝑛−1) 𝑥𝑘−𝑛 − 𝑥𝑘−𝑛

𝑦𝑘 = +
𝑛 𝑛
By rearrangement,
𝑥𝑘−1 + 𝑥𝑘−2 + ⋯ +𝑥𝑘−(𝑛−1) + 𝑥𝑘−𝑛 𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−𝑛
𝑦𝑘 = +
𝑛 𝑛
1
𝑦𝑘 = 𝑦𝑘−1 + (𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−𝑛 )
𝑛
This is the formulation that is normally used.

• Exponentially weighted moving average –

Consider a system X, with values x0, x1, x2, etc. Let the filtered system be
represented by Y, with corresponding y0, y1, y2, etc. Let then window size be ‘n’
– this will be the extent of past reference for each data point and let ‘a’ be the
weight of each individual measurement. Generally,
𝑥1 , 𝑘=1
𝑦𝑘 = {
𝑎𝑥𝑘 + (1 − 𝑎) ∗ 𝑦𝑘−1 , 𝑘>1
Consider only the second case for now. Then,
𝑦𝑘 = 𝑎𝑥𝑘 + (1 − 𝑎) ∗ 𝑦𝑘−1
For a window of size ‘n’, we can select a value for ‘a’ such that
1
𝑎=
𝑛+1
Since n>1, this value of ‘a’ will always be less than 1. This particular relation is
often used and is the industrial standard, but other values derived from the
weighted mean or effective average can also be used for slightly different
results. Higher values of ‘a’ emphasize the importance of the most recent
reading, while smaller values lend more importance to past readings.
Finally, we derive the expression
1 𝑛
𝑦𝑘 = ( ) ∗ 𝑥𝑘 + ( ) ∗ 𝑦𝑘−1
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
Data:
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Step signal of value 50.

Ramp signal of unit slope.

Code:
• Moving average –
% generate noisy step(50) and ramp functions of length 100
% use windows of 5 and 10 to smooth them with moving average
and expo MA
% this program does only MA

randwt1 = 3;
randwt2 = 5;
win1 = 5;
win2 = 10;

step = zeros(1,100) + 50;

step = [step, 0]
ramp = 1:1:100;

nstep = step;
nramp = ramp;

for i=1:length(ramp)
nstep(i) = step(i) + randwt1*rand(1) - randwt1*rand(1);
nramp(i) = ramp(i) + randwt2*rand(1) - randwt2*rand(1);
end

f1step = zeros(1,length(step));
f2step = zeros(1,length(step));
f1ramp = zeros(1,length(ramp));
f2ramp = zeros(1,length(ramp));

for i=1:length(step) % for 5 window step

j=i;
n=0;
while((i-j<win1) & j>=1)
f1step(i) = f1step(i) + nstep(j);
n = n+1;
j = j-1;
end
f1step(i) = f1step(i)/n;
end

for i=1:length(step) % for 10 window step

j=i;
n=0;
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

while((i-j<win2) & j>=1)

f2step(i) = f2step(i) + nstep(j);
n = n+1;
j = j-1;
end
f2step(i) = f2step(i)/n;
end

for i=1:length(ramp) % for 5 window ramp

j=i;
n=0;
while((i-j<win1) & j>=1)
f1ramp(i) = f1ramp(i) + nramp(j);
n = n+1;
j = j-1;
end
f1ramp(i) = f1ramp(i)/n;
end

for i=1:length(ramp) % for 10 window ramp

j=i;
n=0;
while((i-j<win2) & j>=1)
f2ramp(i) = f2ramp(i) + nramp(j);
n = n+1;
j = j-1;
end
f2ramp(i) = f2ramp(i)/n;
end

% for the step functions

figure(1)
subplot(2,2,[1,2]);
hold on;
plot(nstep);
plot(step,'--');
legend('Noisy Step', 'Step');
title('Step and Noisy Step Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

subplot(2,2,3);
hold on;
plot(f1step);
plot(step,'--');
legend('Filtered', 'Original');
title('MA Filtered (Window=5) and Original Step Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

subplot(2,2,4);
hold on;
plot(f2step);
plot(step,'--');
legend('Filtered', 'Original');
title('MA Filtered (Window=10) and Original Step Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

% for ramp functions

figure(2)
subplot(2,2,[1,2]);
hold on;
plot(nramp);
plot(ramp,'--');
legend('Noisy Ramp', 'Ramp');
title('Ramp and Noisy Ramp Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

subplot(2,2,3);
hold on;
plot(f1ramp);
plot(ramp,'--');
legend('Filtered', 'Original');
title('MA Filtered (Window=5) and Original Ramp Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

subplot(2,2,4);
hold on;
plot(f2ramp);
plot(ramp,'--');
legend('Filtered', 'Original');
title('MA Filtered (Window=10) and Original Ramp Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

• Exponentially weighted moving average –

% generate noisy step(50) and ramp functions of length 100
% use windows of 5 and 10 to smooth them with moving average
and expo MA
% this program does only MA

randwt1 = 3;
randwt2 = 5;
win1 = 5;
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

win2 = 10;

step = zeros(1,100) + 50;

step = [step, 0]
ramp = 1:1:100;

nstep = step;
nramp = ramp;

for i=1:length(ramp)
nstep(i) = step(i) + randwt1*rand(1) - randwt1*rand(1);
nramp(i) = ramp(i) + randwt2*rand(1) - randwt2*rand(1);
end

f1step = zeros(1,length(step));
f2step = zeros(1,length(step));
f1ramp = zeros(1,length(ramp));
f2ramp = zeros(1,length(ramp));

f1step(1) = nstep(1);
for i=2:length(step) % for 5 window step
f1step(i) = (1/(win1+1))*nstep(i) +
(win1/(win1+1))*f1step(i-1);
end

f2step(1) = nstep(1);
for i=2:length(step) % for 10 window step
f2step(i) = (1/(win2+1))*nstep(i) +
(win2/(win2+1))*f2step(i-1);
end

f1ramp(1) = nramp(1);
for i=2:length(ramp) % for 5 window ramp
f1ramp(i) = (1/(win1+1))*nramp(i) +
(win1/(win1+1))*f1ramp(i-1);
end

f2ramp(1) = nramp(1);
for i=2:length(ramp) % for 10 window ramp
f2ramp(i) = (1/(win2+1))*nramp(i) +
(win2/(win2+1))*f2ramp(i-1);
end

% for the step functions

figure(1)
subplot(2,2,[1,2]);
hold on;
plot(nstep);
plot(step,'--');
legend('Noisy Step', 'Step');
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

title('Step and Noisy Step Functions');

xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

subplot(2,2,3);
hold on;
plot(f1step);
plot(step,'--');
legend('Filtered', 'Original');
title('EWMA Filtered (Window=5) and Original Step Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

subplot(2,2,4);
hold on;
plot(f2step);
plot(step,'--');
legend('Filtered', 'Original');
title('EWMA Filtered (Window=10) and Original Step
Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

% for ramp functions

figure(2)
subplot(2,2,[1,2]);
hold on;
plot(nramp);
plot(ramp,'--');
legend('Noisy Ramp', 'Ramp');
title('Ramp and Noisy Ramp Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

subplot(2,2,3);
hold on;
plot(f1ramp);
plot(ramp,'--');
legend('Filtered', 'Original');
title('EWMA Filtered (Window=5) and Original Ramp Functions');
xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

subplot(2,2,4);
hold on;
plot(f2ramp);
plot(ramp,'--');
legend('Filtered', 'Original');
title('EWMA Filtered (Window=10) and Original Ramp
Functions');
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

xlabel('Index');
ylabel('Value');

Graphs:
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Conclusion:
Practically, due to faulty equipment or environmental conditions, we catch up
the noises which are definitely undesirable in the system. Therefore, we need
to reduce this noise and one way to do it is averaging the past values and
predicting the future values in order to maintain the accuracy of the system.
The Moving Average method can be used on systems that are expected to
remain in a steady state for long periods of time. The average of the current
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

value and some of its immediate past values is taken, and the random noise is
eliminated as it naturally tends to average to 0. The MA system is great at
reducing noise in a step-response system, as all values tend to a constant. This
effect is enhanced by enlarging the window. In a ramp-response system, a sort
of artificial delay is introduced into the filtered values as the average of past
values is almost guaranteed to be less than the current value. It can be seen
that short windows alleviate this effect, but their ability to filter noise is less.
Large windows eliminate noise to a larger extent, but introduce more severe
delay. The exponentially weighted moving average places more emphasis on
the current reading, making it more suitable for a variety of systems while still
retaining the strengths of the MA method. The weighted average of the
current reading and the past EWMA estimation are taken. From the graphs, it
can be seen that the EWMA is roughly equivalent to the MA when considering
a step-response system. In case of the ramp-response, for the window of size
5, again, EWMA and MA are approximately the same with respect to graph
tightness. The difference is very apparent when a window of size 10 is
considered, as the EWMA graph is significantly smoother and with less delay
than the MA graph. Hence, we can say that the EWMA method is more
suitable for measuring ramp-response systems as it has tighter, smoother
graphs that are more accurate than MA.

Experiment 3
Aim: To measure the displacement of an object using a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT).

Theory:
The LVDT full form is “Linear Variable Differential Transformer” is LVDT.
Generally, LVDT is a normal type of transducer. The main function of this is to
convert the rectangular movement of an object to the equivalent electrical
signal. LVDT is used to calculate displacement and works on the
transformer principle. The LVDT alters a linear dislocation from a mechanical
position into a relative electrical signal including phase and amplitude of the
information of direction and distance. The operation of LVDT does not need an
electrical bond between the touching parts and coil, but as an alternative
depends on the electromagnetic coupling.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

An LVDT consists of three solenoid coils placed around a tube as displayed in

Fig-1. The primary coil is wrapped around the core and is connected to an
external AC Power Source. A push rod connected to the linear displacement to
be measured is used to move the core. The secondary coils are connected in
series and a signal conditioning circuit is used to output a voltage
corresponding to the displacement of the core.

Fig.1

The working of LVDT is as follows:

The LVDTs design consists of a cylindrical array of a primary and secondary
winding with a separate cylindrical core which passes through the centre as
shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

The primary windings are energised with a constant amplitude A.C. supply at a
frequency of 1 to 10 kHz. This produces an alternating magnetic field in the
centre of the transducer which induces a signal into the secondary windings 1
and 2 depending on the position of the core. Movement of the core within this
area causes the secondary signal to change (Fig.3) as the two secondary
windings are positioned and connected in a set arrangement (push-pull mode).
When the core is positioned at the centre, a zero signal is derived.

Fig. 3

Measurement:
i. First, to calculate zero error the core is moved into the null position and
any error, if present is noted. This is to be accounted for all future
readings. This error can be corrected by adjusting the coils
ii. After the output of LVDT has been connected the core can be moved.
Use the scale provided to make a definite movement, of x mm. Note
reading on the kit.
iii. Move core to -x mm and observe the reversed wave.
iv. Observe after moving the core to random positions. Note that the
amplitude of the output waveform generated is proportional to the
extent of the movement of the core.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Conclusion:
The LVDT is a competent sensor for the measurement of displacement and has
a wide range of applications. The low power consumption, high sensitivity and
low hysteresis allows readings to be accurate regardless of direction of the
displacement. It has a perfectly linear response throughout its range of
operations for a given temperature. As the core moves inside a hollow former
so there is no loss of displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as
very accurate device. The LVDT has a drawback of fluctuating with change in
temperatures and presence of stray magnetic fields. The range of the LVDT
type sensor is in the order of hundreds of micrometres to dozens of
centimetres.

Experiment 4
Aim: Measurement of strain subtended by a cantilever beam using a strain
gauge.

Theory:
Strain is a measure of deformation representing the displacement between
particles in the body relative to a reference length. A strain gauge is a device
used to measure strain faced by an object. It is critically important to measure
strain correctly since errors regarding strain lead to mechanical failure.
A strain gauge is a metal or a semiconductor whose resistance changes when
under strain. We take a wire of a certain length whose resistive and
mechanical properties are known. The wire is fixed to an object whose strain is
to be measured. The strain gauge utilizes the property of resistance of a wire
where,
𝜌
𝑅= ×𝑙
𝐴
Due to the change in length and area when a wire is deformed due to strain,
the resistance value changes, this is predictable as long as the mechanical
properties of the wire are known. We use a Wheatstone bridge in conjunction
with this wire to accurately measure this change. The number of resistors
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

replaced in the bridge is proportional to the sensitivity of the measurement

taken.

Here, a cantilever beam is used to measure the weight by converting it into

strain. One side of the beam is fixed while the others supports the weights. The
strain developed at the fixed end is formulated by,

6𝐹𝑙
𝜀=
𝐸𝑏𝑡 2
F = applied force
l = beam length
E = Young’s modulus of the beam material
b = beam width
t = beam thickness
The limitation of a strain gauge depends on the strength of the wire used in
the gauge and the relation between force applied and the voltage output of
the circuit is linear as long as the strain curve of the beam is linear. Hence, this
setup may only be used to measure weights of up to 1 kgs.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

In our experiment we attach a pan to the end of the beam. The weights are
added to the pan which caused the strain to manifest in the beam and undergo
tensile and compressive forces.

Measurement:
The strain gauge must be connected to an electrical circuit that is capable of
accurately responding to the minute changes in resistance associated with
strain.
In a Wheatstone bridge configuration, an excitation voltage is applied across
the circuit, and the output voltage is measured across two points in the middle
of the bridge.
When there is no load acting on the load cell, the Wheatstone bridge is
balanced and there is zero output voltage.
Any small change in the material under the strain gauge results in a change in
the resistance of the strain gauge as it deforms with the material. This causes
the bridge to be thrown out of balance, resulting in a change in the output
voltage.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

The empty pan is fastened and the zero reading is taken. There could be a
zero-error present which is accounted for and is to be utilized when using
future readings. The resistors in the bridge can also be adjusted to nullify the
zero error.
Weights are added in a sequential manner not more than 100-200g each. And
the linear graph is plotted, this can be repeated until a weight of 1kg is reached
at which point the voltage readings will no longer be directly proportional to
the strain.
Further Signal conditioning filters out the excess noise, ensuring accurate and
understandable data.

Conclusion:
We conclude from the linear graph that that the strain gauge is functional and
has successfully gauged the strain on the cantilever beam from the weights
suspended in the pan. In the experiment we use two strain gauges for added
sensitivity after making sure the sensitivity wasn’t too high to make it unstable.
After the strain is subtended on the beam the Wheatstone bridge is not
balanced and starts generating a potential difference across the two non-input
sides. We amplify this difference and use it to measure the weight acting on
the beam. The system has a drawback of being affected by temperature
through this is alleviated by the use of two strain gauges.

Experiment 5
Aim: To understand the measurement of the level of water in a tank using an
ultrasonic distance sensor.

Theory:
This experiment is based on reflection and detection of ultrasonic beam. The
apparatus consists of an ultrasonic sensor that fires a beam into a tank of
water at a predetermined angle. The time taken by the beam to reflect back to
the source end is calculated by the sensor. If the speed of sound in air is
known, it is possible to calculate how long the ultrasonic pulse’s path was and
so the height or level of water in the tank can be determined. The height is
calculated by the formula –
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

𝑆∗𝑡
𝐷=
2
Where D = distance of the water from the sensor, S = speed of sound in air
(340 m s-1) and t = time delay between transmission and echo reception.
The distance is halved as the actual distance travelled by the pulse is twice the
true distance, as both the transmission and reflection paths are considered. If
the position of the sensor is known, the level of water can easily be
determined via subtraction. Additionally, if the tanks dimensions are known,
the volume of water contained in the tank can also be determined.
A similar process can be used to measure distances of the order of a few
metres, depending on the ultrasonic sensor being used.

Measurement:
i. Set up the sensor and tank as required.
ii. First note the level reading when the tank is empty. This serves as a null
reading and can be used to determine zero error, which should be
adjusted for in future readings.
iii. Start filling up the tank, and take regular readings of the level. Manually
confirm their accuracy using a measuring tape or other conventional
distance measurement tool.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

iv. A free sensor may also be freely used to measure distance to various
objects in the environment by simply pointing the transmitter towards a
flat surface.

Conclusion:
Ultrasonic sensors can be used to measure distances through echo delay and
application of the velocity-distance formula. Such a sensor is unaffected by
mist, dirt etc. as ultrasonic sound can easily penetrate such media.
Additionally, it can measure the distance even to transparent objects as
materials like glass, water etc. also reflect ultrasonic waves. If the pulses are
spaced out, the sensor can be made to be extremely power-efficient. However,
they cannot be used in vacuum, as sound needs a medium to travel through.
Also, there is a limitation of measurable distance, up to few metres.

Experiment 6
Aim: To understand the measurement of torque experienced by a cantilever
beam due to weights suspended from it.
Theory:
A cantilever beam is a well-studied mechanical construction, and its response
to forces applied on it are well known and defined within the limits of its
mechanical strength. A force applied to the end of the beam acts as a torque,
as it is transmitted over the length of the beam from the fixed point to the
point of force application. This torque leads to deformation of the beam, which
can be measured using a strain gauge as part of a Wheatstone bridge.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Two or more gauges can be used to eliminate temperature-based changes as

they will tend to cancel each other out. Additionally, the sensitivity of the
system is increased by the use of more strain gauges, but in this case 2 gauges
are of sufficient balance of accuracy and sensitivity. If the response of the
circuit to torque is known, it can be used to determine any unknown torque
applied to the beam through linear regression. Alternatively, if the apparatus
behaviour is already known, after calibration, the readings may simply be
inserted into the apparatus response curve to determine the torque
experienced with respect to voltage, or voltage expected for a particular
torque applied.

Measurement:
i. The appropriate connections are made for the supply voltage and the
reading of voltage subtended by the cantilever beam through the
Wheatstone bridge.
ii. A reading is taken with no weights added for the calibration and
adjustment of the bridge.
iii. A known weight is added to a pan, and placed at a definite distance.
Torque can be manually calculated and compared to the readings
generated by the circuit to determine its torque response characteristic,
which will be approximately linear.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

iv. The weights may be of different magnitudes and placed at different

positions. The torque generated by them can now be calculated using
the previous characteristic.

Conclusion:
A strain gauge may be used to cleverly measure both torque and strain
experienced by a beam depending on how it is set up and the desire of the
user. The set-up and position of the gauges varies in both cases. It is
recommended to avoid high weights placed at a great distance as the torque
generated is proportional to both weight and distance, and unduly high values
of either may lead to permanent deformation or damage of the apparatus.
Since the response is approximately linear, it is relatively easy to measure
while still providing a good amount of accuracy. There are risks inherent to
this, as high torques may lead to non-linear behaviour and so give incorrect
readings.

Experiment 7
Aim: To understand the measurement of temperature of the water bath,
using different temperature measuring instruments and thermometer
temperature as reference.

Theory:
• RTD- An RTD is a temperature sensor which measures temperature
using the principle that the resistance of a metal changes with
temperature. In practice, an electrical current is transmitted through a
piece of metal (the RTD element or resistor) located in proximity to the
area where temperature is to be measured. The resistance value of the
RTD element is then measured by an instrument. This resistance value is
then correlated to temperature based upon the known resistance
characteristics of the RTD element.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Platinum is the most commonly used metal for RTD elements due to a
number of factors, including its (1) chemical inertness, (2) nearly linear
temperature versus resistance relationship, (3) temperature coefficient
of resistance that is large enough to give readily measurable resistance
changes with temperature and (4) stability (in that its temperature
resistance does not drastically change with time).
RTDs work on a basic correlation between metals and temperature. As
the temperature of a metal increases, the metal's resistance to the flow
of electricity increases. Similarly, as the temperature of the RTD
resistance element increases, the electrical resistance, measured in
ohms (Ω), increases. RTD elements are commonly specified according to
their resistance in ohms at zero degrees Celsius (0oC). The most common
RTD specification is 100 Ω, which means that at 0oC the RTD element
should demonstrate 100 Ω of resistance.
The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the
temperature is given as,
.
Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at toC and t0oC temperatures.
α and β are the constants depends on the metals. This expression is for
huge range of temperature. For small range of temperature, the
expression can be,

• Thermometer- Thermometer is the device used to measure

temperature.
The extremely fine tube (narrow bore) of a thermometer is called a
capillary.
The boiling point of water (or condensing point of steam) is 100oC or
212oF or 373 K.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

The freezing point of water (or melting point of ice) is 0oC or 32oF or 273
K.
These temperatures are typically used in the calibration of
thermometers and are known as the fixed points.
The temperature range that is typically marked on a laboratory
thermometer is −10oC to 110oC.
Thermometric liquids are those that are used in thermometers.
Some examples of such liquids are mercury and alcohol.
The basic principle is measuring temperature through mercury liquid as
the mercury expands quickly by heating process and contracts in
cooling process.

The temperature measured by the

thermometer is considered as
accurate and is assumed as
reference or ideal value to be
compared with by the other
temperature measuring
instruments.

• Thermistor- A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance strongly

depends on temperature. The word thermistor is a combination of words
“thermal” and “resistor”. A thermistor is a temperature-sensing element
composed of sintered semiconductor material and sometimes mixture of
metallic oxides such as Mn, Ni, Co, Cu and Fe, which exhibits a large
change in resistance proportional to a small change in temperature. Pure
metals have positive temperature coefficient of resistance, alloys have
nearly equal zero temperature coefficient of resistance and semi-
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

conductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Thermistors can be classified into two types:
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor: -resistance increase
with increase in temperature.
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor: -resistance decrease
with increase in temperature.

The thermistor exhibits a highly non-linear characteristic of resistance vs.

temperature.

The dependence of the resistance on temperature can be approximated

by following equation,

R is the resistance of thermistor at the temperature T (in K).

R0 is the resistance at given temperature T0 (in K).
β is the material specific-constant.

• Thermocouple- The thermocouple is one of the simplest of all sensors. It

consists of two wires of dissimilar metals joined near the measurement
point. A thermocouple circuit has at least two junctions: the
measurement junction and a reference junction. Typically, the reference
junction is created where the two wires connect to the measuring
device. This second junction it is really two junctions: one for each of the
two wires, but because they are assumed to be at the same temperature
(isothermal) they are considered as one (thermal) junction. It is the point
where the metals change - from the thermocouple metals to whatever
metals are used in the measuring device - typically copper.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Working of Thermocouple
The thermocouple schematic diagram is shown in the below figure. This
circuit can be built with two different metals, and that are coupled
together by generating two junctions. The two metals are surrounded by
the connection through welding. When the temperature of the junction
is dissimilar from each other, then the electromagnetic force generates
in the circuit.

If the temperate at the junction end turn into equivalent, then the
equivalent, as well as reverse electromagnetic force, produces in the
circuit, and there is no flow of current through it. Similarly, the
temperature at the junction end becomes imbalanced, then the
potential variation induces in this circuit.The magnitude of the
electromagnetic force induces in the circuit relies on the sorts of
material utilized for thermocouple making. The entire flow of current
throughout the circuit is calculated by the measuring tools.The
electromagnetic force induced in the circuit is calculated by the
following equation.

E = a (∆Ө) + b (∆Ө)2

Where ∆Ө is the temperature difference among the hot thermocouple

junction end as well as the reference thermocouple junction end, a & b
are constants.

Measurements:

i. The heater is connected with the water bath, of which the

temperature is to be measured.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

ii. The temperature measuring instruments i.e. thermometer,

thermistor, thermocouple and RTD are allowed to measure the
temperature.

iii. Due to temperature difference, there is a change in resistance of

the bridge or ultimately a voltage drop at output end of each
instrument.

iv. The voltage as an output is shown in one multimeter but which is

not exact to the value of temperature displayed by thermometer.

v. Hence that value is passed through a signal conditioning circuit

which gives the appropriate result.

Conclusion:

The temperature measurement is successfully performed using different

instruments, which more or less gave similar values. The RTD as observed was
more accurate, linear and more stable. However, it is costly compared to other
sensors. Also, the thermocouple is simple, inexpensive and has large
temperature range. But it is non-linear and less stable. The thermistor has high
speed, low cost also has good sensitivity. It is also no linear and unsuitable for
high temperatures.

Experiment 8
Aim: To understand the measurement of acceleration and vibration using
piezoelectric sensing element.

Theory:
Piezoelectric materials are ironic crystals when stretched or compressed result
in the charge distribution in the crystal. The net charge Q and the surface is
proportional to amount/x by which the charges have been displaced.
The Piezoelectric Effect-
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Piezoelectric materials exhibit electro-elastic coupling... i.e. they convert a

portion of the energy associated with any internal mechanical strain into
recoverable electrical energy and vice versa. Basically, piezoelectric
transducers convert mechanical energy (when strained) to an electric signal
through the piezoelectric effect. This electric signal is proportional to the
mechanical strain of the piezo and therefore, it is proportional to the vibration
or shock event of the system.
The active element in a piezoelectric accelerometer is a piezoelectric ceramic.
One side of the ceramic is rigidly connected to the accelerometer body, the
other side has a seismic mass added. When the accelerometer is subjected to
vibration, a force is generated which acts on the piezoelectric element and the
seismic mass. Due to the piezoelectric effect, a charge output proportional to
the applied force is generated from this vibration or shock. Over a wide
frequency range, the sensor mass and the sensor base have the same
acceleration magnitude and therefore the sensor measures the acceleration of
the accelerometer body.
If a force is applied to any crystal, then the crystal atoms are displaced slightly
from their normal positions in the lattice. This displacement x is proportional
to the
applied force F: i.e., in the steady state,

The stiffness k of the crystal is large, typically 2 × 109 N m−1. The dynamic
relation between x and F can be represented by the second-order transfer
function:

Transfer function for basic piezoelectric force measurement system:

Transfer function for piezoelectric system with ideal charge amplifier:

Piezoelectric elements are commonly used for the measurement of

acceleration and vibration. Here the piezoelectric crystal is used in conjunction
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

with a seismic mass m. If the accelerometer casing is given an acceleration a,

then there is a resulting inertia force F = ma acting on the seismic mass and the
piezoelectric crystal. This results in the crystal acquiring a charge q = dF, where
d C N−1 is the crystal charge sensitivity to force. The resulting steady-state
charge sensitivity of the piezoelectric accelerometer is:

Usually charge sensitivity is expressed in C g−1, where 1 g = 9.81 ms −2, i.e.

If the accelerometer is used with a charge amplifier with feedback capacitance

CF, the corresponding steady-state system voltage sensitivity is:

Consider a body, e.g. a part of a machine such as the casing of a pump or a

compressor, which is executing sinusoidal vibrations with displacement
amplitude n at frequency f Hz, i.e.

In the monitoring of machine vibration, it is important to measure at least one

of the amplitudes n, υˆ, â of displacement, velocity and acceleration
respectively. This is especially so where the machine has certain resonant
frequencies; here the above amplitudes may be large. It is possible to use a
displacement transducer, differentiating the output once to obtain velocity
information and twice to obtain acceleration information. However,
displacement transducers often have insufficient sensitivity, inadequate
frequency response or too large a mass for these applications; moreover, the
operation of differentiation amplifies unwanted high frequency noise. A better
solution is to use a piezoelectric accelerometer, which has sufficient sensitivity,
adequate frequency response and low mass; the accelerometer output can be
integrated once for velocity information and twice for displacement
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

information. The operation of integration tends to attenuate high frequency

noise.

Measurement:
i. The piezoelectric sensor is connected to the accelerometer to which
the vibrations are provided.
ii. The force due to the vibrations is experienced by the sensor.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

iii. The charge output corresponding to input vibrations is generated.

iv. Over a wide frequency range, the sensor mass and the sensor base
have the same acceleration magnitude and therefore the sensor
measures the acceleration of the accelerometer body.
v. Further, placing a signal conditioning circuit the voltage is
conditioned to the required output.

Conclusion:
Piezoelectric elements are commonly used for the measurement of
acceleration and vibration. They provide a low noise output with a wide range
suitable for low amplitude vibration test as well as high amplitude shock. Also,
it provides an excellent linearity over their dynamic range. They can be
configured with a wide frequency range. Although piezoelectric
accelerometers are very popular for shock and vibration testing (for good
reason) they do come with some drawbacks. When using a piezoelectric
accelerometer, you must be aware that piezoelectric accelerometers are great
within their relatively wide frequency range, but at the outer limits they can
experience very high deviations.

Experiment 9
Aim: To understand the measurement of flow rate using the flow measuring
instruments –
a. Electromagnetic flow meter.
b. Orifice plate.
c. Venturi Meter.

Theory: The flow is determined using a sudden enlargement, venturi meter,

orifice plate, elbow and a rotameter. The pressure drops associated with each
meter is measured directly from the manometers.
• Electromagnetic flow meter-

Electromagnetic Flow Meters, simply known as mag flow meter is

a volumetric flow meter which is ideally used for waste water applications
and other applications that experience low pressure drop and with
appropriate liquid conductivity required.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

The device doesn’t have any moving parts and cannot work with
hydrocarbons and distilled water.

Principle of Magnetic Flow Meter Based on Faraday’s Law

Magnetic flow meters work based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic

Induction. According to this principle, when a conductive medium pass
through a magnetic field B, a voltage E is generated which is proportional
to the velocity v of the medium, the density of the magnetic field and the
length of the conductor.

In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within

or outside the meter body to generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing
through the pipe acts as the conductor and this induces a voltage which
is proportional to the average flow velocity.

This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Magflow

meter body and sent to a transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow
rate based on the pipe dimensions.

The voltage E induced across the ends of the conductor is given by:

E = Blv

Thus, if a conducting fluid is moving with average velocity ò through a

cylindrical metering tube, perpendicular to an applied magnetic field B
then the voltage appearing across the measurement electrodes is:
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

where D = separation of electrodes = metering tube diameter. The above

equation assumes that the magnetic field is uniform across the tube. If we
further assume that the fluid fills the tube, then , giving:

Equation for electromagnetic flowmeter:

• Orifice plate- The orifice flow meter consists of a 20mm bore tube
with an orifice of 12mm. The downstream bore of the orifice is
chamfered at 40° to provide an effective orifice plate thickness
of 0.35mm. Manometer tapings are positioned 20mm before the
orifice and 10mm after the orifice plate. Due to the sharpness of
the contraction in flow area at the orifice plate a vena contracta
is formed downstream of the throat in which the area of the
vena contracta is less than that of the orifice.

Applying the continuity equation between the upstream

conditions of area A1 and the vena contracta of area Ac:

Where suffix c denotes the vena contracta. Applying Bernoulli’s

equation, neglecting losses and assuming a horizontal
installation:

Rearranging:
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

The volumetric flow rate is then given by:

The flow area at the vena contracta is not known and therefore
a coefficient of contraction may be introduced so that

The coefficient of contraction will be included in the coefficient

of discharge and the equations rewritten in terms of the orifice
area A2 with any uncertainties and errors eliminated by the
experimental determination of the coefficient of discharge. The
volumetric flow rate is then given by:

• Venturi meter- The venturi is manufactured from transparent acrylic

materials and follows the classic 21°-10° convergent-divergent design
which forms the basis of most engineering standards for venturi flow
meters. From consideration of continuity between the mouth of the
venturi of area A1 and the throat of area A2:
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

and on introducing the diameter ratio

Applying Bernoulli’s theorem to the venturi meter between section 1

and section 2, neglecting losses and assuming the venturi is installed
horizontally:

Rearranging:

and solving for V2:

The volumetric flow rate is then given by:

The actual discharge will be less than this due to losses causing the
velocity through the throat to be less than that predicted by Bernoulli’s
theorem, therefore it is necessary to introduce an experimentally
determined coefficient of discharge Cd. The actual discharge will then be
given by:

The coefficient of discharge varies with both the Reynolds number and
area ratio. Typical values for a machined venturi meter are between
0.975 and 0.995.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Measurement:
i. The water flow measuring apparatus is positioned on the horizontal
operating surface of the hydraulics bench using the locating pegs on the
top surface of the bench.
ii. The delivery hose is connected from the bench to the inlet connection of
the water flow measuring apparatus.
iii. The overflow hose is inserted from the inlet tank into the overflow pipe
of the volumetric measuring tank.
iv. The instruments are prepared such that the water passes through
electromagnetic flow meter, then venturi meter, orifice plate, elbow,
and finally rotameter.
v. With the flow regulating valve of the bench closed, the bench pump is
switched on and water is allowed to be pumped into the apparatus by
controlling the opening of the flow regulating valve until water just
begins to flow into the equipment and just overflows through the air
vent above the rotameter. It is ensured that there are no air bubbles
trapped in the manometer tubes, if necessary open the supply valve
until water spills out of the top of the manometer tubes so that the
water flushes out all air bubbles.
vi. The supply valve is adjusted to obtain 6 or 7 readings with the height of
water in the left-hand manometer tube increasing in increments of
approximately 50mm.
vii. The maximum flow which can be achieved for the experiment is when
the height of water in the left-hand manometer tube reaches the top of
the manometer scale.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

viii. At each steady state condition, the heights are recorded on each
manometer tube and the flow shown on the rotameter.

Conclusion:
The flow measurement experiment concludes us with some key points. Firstly,
in the electromagnetic flow meter, the obstruction is nearly nil which is a huge
advantage. Also, it is not affected by upstream flow disturbances, variation in
density, viscosity, pressure and temperature. The meters are suitable for most
acids, bases, water and aqueous solutions because the lining materials
selected are not only good electrical insulators but also are corrosion resistant.
However, these meters can be used only for fluids which have reasonable
electrical conductivity. The orifice plate flow meter offer very little pressure
drop, can be easily maintained. It measures a wide range of flows and are also
cheap. However, it requires a homogenous fluid, its accuracy is affected by
density, viscosity and pressure of the fluid. The Venturi meter is more precise
and can be used for a wide range of flows. But, the initial costs, maintenance
and installation is expensive.

Experiment 10
Aim: To understand the measurement of pressure using the pressure
measuring instruments –
a. C-Type Bourdon tube.
b. Diaphragm.

Theory:
• C-type Bourdon tube- The Bourdon tube works on a simple principle that
a bent tube will change its shape when exposed to variations of internal
and external pressure. As pressure is applied internally, the tube
straightens and returns to its original form when the pressure is released.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

The tip of the tube moves with the internal pressure change and is easily
converted with a pointer onto a scale. A connector link is used to transfer
the tip movement to the geared movement sector. The pointer is rotated
through a toothed pinion by the geared sector. This type of gauge may
require vertical mounting (orientation dependent) for correct results. The
element is subject to shock and vibration, which is also due to the mass
of the tube. Because of this and the amount of movement with this type
of sensing, they are prone to breakage, particularly at the base of the
tube.

The main advantage with the Bourdon tube is that it has a wide operating
(depending on the tube material). This type of pressure measurement can
be used for positive or negative pressure ranges, although the accuracy is
impaired when in a vacuum. The type of duty is one of the main selection
criteria when choosing Bourdon tubes for pressure measurement. For
applications which have rapid cycling of the process pressure, such in
ON/OFF controlled systems, then the measuring transducer requires an
internal snubber. They are also prone to failure in these applications.

Liquid filled devices are one way to reduce the wear and tear on the tube
element.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

• Diaphragm- A diaphragm pressure gauge is a device, that uses a

diaphragm with a known pressure to measure pressure in a fluid. It has
many different uses, such as monitoring the pressure of a canister of
gas, measuring atmospheric pressure, or recording the strength of the
vacuum in a vacuum pump. The diaphragm pressure gauge consists of a
circular membrane, made from sheet metal of precise dimensions,
which can either be flat or corrugated. The diaphragm is mechanically
connected to the transmission mechanism, which will amplify the small
deflections of the diaphragm, and transfer them to the pointer. There is
the movement of the diaphragm and the functioning of the transmission
mechanism. The process pressure is applied to the lower side of the
diaphragm, while the upper side is at atmospheric pressure.
The differential pressure arising across the diaphragm lifts up the
diaphragm and puts the pointer in motion. The deflection of the
diaphragm is very small (+/- 1 mm), making it necessary to use a high-
ratio multiplying movement, to rotate the pointer along the full length
of the scale. The actuation of such a high-ratio transmission mechanism
is possible, because diaphragm deflection is able to generate large
forces.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Measurement:
i. Setup the apparatus and obtain zero reading.

ii. Start increasing pressure in tank and note down various readings until 20
mA.

iii. Using above values calculate error percentage comparing readings from
the tank.
Hareshwar Wani (BT18ECE049)

Conclusion:
Bourdon tubes have the following advantages over diaphragm elements:

• They cover small pressure ranges from 0 to 0.6 bar up to high

pressure ranges from 0 to 10,000 bar.
• They enable accuracies up to class 0.1 of the calibration regulations.
• They are easier to manufacture.
• They can easily be connected or sealed with the pressurised
components. Depending on the material and pressure load, they are
either soldered, welded or screwed to them.

Diaphragm pressure gauges are used when a Bourdon tube pressure gauge
reaches its limits.