Introduction To The Arctic: Climate

Introduction to the Arctic:
Climate
Lesson 1
Arctic Environments

Copyright © 2015 University of Alberta

All material in this course, unless otherwise noted, has been developed by and
is the property of the University of Alberta. The university has attempted to
ensure that all copyright has been obtained. If you believe that something is in
error or has been omitted, please contact us.

Reproduction of this material in whole or in part is acceptable, provided all
University of Alberta logos and brand markings remain as they appear in the
original work.

Course Notes

Lesson 1: Arctic Environments ..................................................................................................................... 2
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Defining the Arctic ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Peoples of the Arctic ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Arctic Rivers ................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Ice Caps .................................................................................................. 5
1.5 The Arctic Ocean ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.6 Sea Ice ............................................................................................................................................ 8
1.7 Climate and Weather ..................................................................................................................... 9
1.8 Focus on Polar Bears ................................................................................................................... 14
2. GLOBAL RADIATION INPUT AND DISTRIBUTION ................................................................................ 16
2.1 Solar Radiation ............................................................................................................................ 16
2.2 Terrestrial Radiation .................................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Natural Greenhouse Effect .......................................................................................................... 17
2.4 Sensible Heat, Latent Heat, and Heat Capacity ........................................................................... 17
2.5 Factors Affecting Solar Radiation Input ....................................................................................... 18
2.6 Seasons and Daylight ................................................................................................................... 19

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 1

Lesson 1: Arctic Environments
Welcome to The Changing Arctic: Climate, our new online course about the remarkable
northern regions of the earth – the ARCTIC! Although sometimes considered remote and
dangerous, the Arctic is home to many peoples, along with the ecosystems that they
coexist with. Researchers from many fields, both scientists and non-‐scientists, study this
vast circumpolar – meaning literally, around the pole – region to understand the
environment, peoples, animals, economies, and resources. You’ll soon learn about the
environments (the characteristics of the natural world) and climate (the prevailing
atmospheric, oceanic and ice conditions) of the world’s North.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Defining the Arctic

When you think of the North, what do you imagine? Some people imagine a stark, icy world
without plants or animals. In fact, the Circumpolar North is a varied and diverse place. It
is home to forests and tundra, glaciers and lakes, and to animals and people. And the
Northern oceans are teeming with life, even underneath thick, drifting sea ice. While
winters may be long, they are broken by short, warm summers. Have you ever wondered
what makes these summers possible or why the Arctic is cold? Why glaciers exist in one
place but not another?

In this introductory module, we’re going to learn about the basic geography – the physical
and human characteristics -‐ of the North, how the Earth stays warm and transfers this heat
to the North, and how some key animal species survive and thrive in the North.
But before we do that, what is the “North” and how can we define it? While it is tempting to
use only the area north of the Arctic Circle at 66.6° N latitude, this is not always the best
choice because it excludes areas that are very like the Arctic in terms of climate and
environment. Two other commonly used definitions are the area in which July
temperatures average cooler than 10°C, and the area beyond the northern limit of
contiguous forests – the tree line. Another definition is that the Arctic is the area north of
the southern limit of discontinuous permafrost. Permafrost is ground that is
permanently frozen. Discontinuous permafrost means that only 50-‐90% of the land area is
permanently frozen.

Figure 1: Geographical representations of the Arctic.
In order to accommodate these different criteria, we have adopted the boundaries used by
the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program. For this course, the ‘Arctic’ includes the
terrestrial and marine areas north of the Arctic Circle, and
north of 62°N in Asia and 60°N in North America, along with
the marine areas north of Alaska’s Aleutian island chain, all of
Canada’s Hudson Bay, and the North Atlantic Ocean including
the Labrador Sea. Within the North Atlantic, all of Greenland,
Iceland and the Faroe Islands are included as well.
Geographically speaking, the Circumpolar North is composed

of the Arctic Ocean, whose surface is capped by sea ice
throughout the year -‐ except where sea ice melts in the
summer -‐ surrounded by several continents. The geographic
Figure 2: Geographical representation of
North Pole is located in the central Arctic Ocean where there the Arctic used in this course.
is only drifting sea ice. The land of the Circumpolar North
comprises 13.5% of the land area of the Northern hemisphere on three major landmasses:
northern North America, Greenland and northern Eurasia, as well as Iceland. Within this

region are portions of the nation states of Denmark -‐ Greenland and the Faroe Islands;
Russia, USA (Alaska), Norway, Sweden, Finland, Canada and Iceland. Collectively, these
nations comprise the Arctic Council of nations.
1.2 Peoples of the Arctic

Around 4 million people call the Arctic their permanent home. This number includes
Indigenous peoples as well as many generations of immigrants, who in some cases have
lived in the Arctic for hundreds of years. People lead diverse life styles, from semi-‐nomadic
living on the land -‐ usually Indigenous cultures, to settled lives in towns and cities – both
Indigenous and non-‐Indigenous people. Indigenous populations make up about 10% of the
total Arctic population although not uniformly across the North. All in all, over 40 different
languages are spoken by the diverse Indigenous people of the Arctic.

Considering the vast area of Arctic land – some 13.4 million km2 -‐ there are very few cities
with more than 10,000 people. Most are found in Russia on the Kola Peninsula in
Murmansk Oblast (province), where about 800,000 people live in several cities. Other large
centres include Anchorage, Alaska, USA, 300,000 residents, Norilsk, Russia, 175,000
residents, and Tromsø, Norway, 75,000 residents. Most Arctic lands are poorly suited for
agriculture, in part due to permafrost, although subsistence farming was historically
important in parts of Fennoscandia. Consequently, primary food production has
traditionally relied on hunting, herding, and fishing, often as part of a subsistence lifestyle.
In many parts of the Circumpolar North, other food stuffs familiar to residents of temperate
regions, such as fresh fruit and dairy products, must be flown in and can be very expensive
as a result. Increasingly, Arctic economies have moved towards resource extraction,
changing the face of the traditional way of life for many Arctic residents.
Much of the modern economic production is driven by oil and gas exploration and
production, particularly in offshore Norway, Alaska and Russia, and by mining for base and
precious metals, and gemstones, particularly in Northern Canada, Alaska, Fennoscandia,
Greenland and Russia. Forestry is also an important driver of the economy in many parts of
the Circumpolar North.


1.3 Arctic Rivers

We’ve talked a little bit about the people and settlements of the Arctic, but what are some
other features of the Northern landscape? One characteristic is the streams and rivers of
the Arctic; most of this freshwater drains northward to the Arctic Ocean where it dilutes
the surface of the Arctic Ocean. Arctic rivers also carry vital nutrients that nourish Arctic
marine ecosystems. There are 6 major
river systems in the Arctic, with some of
the largest drainage basins in the world:
the Ob, Yenisey, Lena, and Kolyma in
Russia; the Yukon in Canada and the
United States, and the Mackenzie in
Canada. Each drains into the Arctic
Ocean, except the Yukon River which
drains into the Bering Sea. Together
these 6 rivers discharge 60,000 cubic
metres per second into the Arctic Ocean.
This is a bit less than a third of the
discharge of the Amazon River, the river
with the world’s largest discharge. The
Yenisey alone discharges 20,000 cubic
metres per second. To put this into

Figure 3: Arctic river systems and drainage basins map.
perspective, the average Norwegian uses
only 110 cubic metres of water per year.
1.4 Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Ice Caps

Glaciers and ice caps cover nearly 2.1 million km2, some 10% of the Circumpolar North,
with the overwhelming majority in the Greenland Ice Sheet, the only ice sheet in the
Northern hemisphere, which occupies >80% of the land area of Greenland. Do you know
the difference between a glacier and an ice cap? What about an ice sheet? Most simply, a
glacier is a mass of dense ice on the landscape that deforms under its own weight. Glaciers
are formed where the mass of annual snow falling on the glacier exceeds the mass of ice
that is lost each year by melting, or, in the case of glaciers ending in the water, by breaking
off – calving – into the ocean. Ice caps and ice sheets are specific types of glaciers. Ice caps,
sometimes called ice fields, typically “cap” a mountain, mountain range, or a plateau,
covering all the underlying topography. However, ice caps are always smaller than 50,000
km2 whereas ice sheets are larger than 50,000 km2, a little bit larger than Denmark.

In addition to the Greenland Ice Sheet,
glaciers and ice caps also occupy large areas
of the eastern Canadian Arctic Archipelago;
the Svalbard archipelago of Norway; the
Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land and
Severnaya Zemlya archipelagos of Russia;
parts of Iceland; and Alaska, USA (Alaska
Range mountains). A few relatively small
Alpine glaciers can be found in northern
Norway. These glaciers are important sources
of water, especially during the short summers
when their meltwater can provide the
majority of river discharge after snow has
melted.
Figure 4: Map of glaciers, ice sheets, and ice caps.

1.5 The Arctic Ocean

Much of the North is occupied not by land, but by the ocean. The ocean mainly occupies
areas of oceanic crust. This thin, dense crust is formed by subsea volcanism over millions
of years and as a result sits much lower than the less dense continental crust. Naturally, the
Earth’s water accumulates in these lowest spots, up to 5500 m deep in the Arctic Ocean.
But there is more water on earth than these basins can hold, and this spills over onto the
relatively shallow continental shelves, up to about 200 m in depth. Continental shelves
are the extensions of continents between the shoreline and the deeper part of the ocean.

In the North, continental shelves surround all the continents, reaching as wide as 1500 km
north of Siberia – the largest continental shelves in the world -‐ and tens to hundreds of km
wide elsewhere. Continental shelves are crucial sites of most of the primary productivity in
the oceans. Most marine flora and fauna live in these relatively shallow waters where
oxygen is plentiful and nearby rivers deliver nutrients that fuel the productivity of the
Arctic marine ecosystem. Continental shelves are not only important biologically, but are
also economically valuable. Continental shelves host much of the world’s petroleum
resources and extraction of Arctic petroleum is underway or planned as climate warming
has decreased the severity of sea ice and allowed greater access to these resources.

Figure 5: Map showing location of continental shelves.

Arctic Ocean Gateways

The Arctic Ocean is linked to the world oceans by relatively narrow gateways: from the
northern Pacific Ocean to the Arctic Ocean by 1) the 80 km wide and less than 50 m deep
Bering Strait; 2) from the Arctic Ocean to Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea through the
Northwest Passage (the typically less than 100 km wide and less than 150 m deep channels
of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago); 3) across the shallow (less than 250 m deep) Barents
Sea between northwest Europe and the Svalbard archipelago to the northern Atlantic
Ocean; and 4) through the 2500 m deep, 500 km wide Fram Strait between Greenland and
the Svalbard archipelago . Except for Fram Strait, all the water flow between the Arctic and
other oceans are constrained by these shallow, narrow gateways, with important
consequences for ocean circulation globally, as we will see in the next lesson.

Figure 6: Maps of Arctic Ocean gateways.
1.6 Sea Ice

The oceans of the North differ from temperate oceans in that large areas of the ocean are
seasonally frozen, which begins to occur when sea water drops to -‐1.8 ° C. This is less than
the normal freezing point of freshwater – 0 °C – because of the high salt content of
seawater. The maximum extent of sea ice in the North happens in late Winter, typically in
March, when sea ice occupies the entire Arctic Ocean, but also much of the Bering Sea, all of
the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the Northwest Passage, and much of the Barents Sea.
Sea ice also extends south into the northern Atlantic Ocean along the coasts of Greenland
and the eastern seaboard of Canada. Winter sea ice has a mean thickness of about 2 – 3 m,
but often reaching 5 – 6 m thick north of Canada and Greenland. The minimum sea ice
extent is reached at the end of the summer, typically in September, when sea ice only
occupies the central Arctic Ocean and some of the marine channels of the Canadian Arctic
Archipelago and the sea north of Greenland, covering only half the area of winter sea ice.

Critically, both the extent and thickness of sea ice has decreased in the past several decades
as a result of global warming. In the next section, we’ll learn about the Earth’s natural
climate system so we can put this warming into context.

Figure 7: Comparison of sea ice extent in March and September.
1.7 Climate and Weather

We’ve all heard about climate change in the news, and climate change is particularly
impacting the Arctic – as we shall see in the next lesson. But what is climate? How do we
define it? What is the difference between climate and weather? Well, simply put climate is
weather – temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation – but
averaged over a long period of time, on the scale of many years. Climate depends on a
region’s latitude, elevation, relief or terrain, and nearby water bodies and currents. The
Earth’s climate system is influenced by the activity of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere –
made up of the oceans and freshwater bodies, the cryosphere -‐ ice on land and in the
oceans, the Earth’s surface, and the biosphere -‐ all living things. These factors influence
what climate prevails in any one region of the Earth. We’ll come back to the nitty-‐gritty of
climate in Lesson 2.

In the Arctic, the climate everywhere is cold compared to temperate and tropical regions
yet not all of the Circumpolar North has the same conditions. As you can imagine,
temperatures vary greatly, with the largest seasonal differences – between summer and
winter -‐ in the world. While the open ocean tends to maintain moderate and relatively
constant temperatures, continental temperatures can experience extreme seasonal

variations. In southern Arctic areas, summer temperatures above 30°C are known to occur,
with winter temperatures regularly dropping below, and sometimes WELL below, -‐40°C.
Indeed, the coldest northern hemisphere temperature ever recorded was -‐67.7 °C in
Oymyakon, Russia, a village in eastern Siberia, in 1933.
Boreal Forest or Taiga

We can subdivide the climate of the Arctic into zones that experience similar conditions. In
the interior of northern Eurasia and northern North America a continental subarctic
climate prevails. Here, maximum temperatures seldom exceed 20°C during the summer
and drop below -‐30°C during the winter. Average annual temperatures tend to be well
below freezing which generates discontinuous permafrost or, in extreme cases, continuous
permafrost. Precipitation is received throughout the year, with abundant snowfall in
winter and rain in the summer. Broadly, these climate conditions correspond to the extent
of the boreal forest or taiga.

The boreal forest covers 16 million km2 of the Northern hemisphere and is thus the world’s
largest biome – a contiguous area with similar climatic conditions and communities of
plants and animals. Biomes are often also called ecosystems. Much of the boreal forest is
located in the Circumpolar North. The long cold winters and short growing season – always
less than four months -‐ together with the relatively poor and acidic soil favour the growth
of needled evergreen trees such as pine, spruce, and larch. In the most extreme parts of the
boreal forest in eastern Siberia that are underlain by continuous permafrost, only shallow
rooted trees like Siberian larch are able to thrive.

The animals that inhabit the boreal forest have to be well adapted to the cold conditions
during much of the year – 85 species of mammals, 130 fish species, 32,000 species of
insects and even a few reptiles and amphibians make up the boreal forest biome. Many
mammal species have adapted to the cold winter temperatures by developing thick layers
of fur, particularly amongst rodents and carnivores, such as beaver, fox, wolf, and lynx. As a
result, these species have historically been hunted and trapped for their pelts across the
Circumpolar North. Large herbivores, including moose, and woodland caribou/reindeer
have developed adaptations that allow them to forage for food throughout the winter.
Other boreal mammals – including grizzly/brown bears -‐ as well the few reptiles and
amphibians use hibernation as a strategy to withstand cold winters. Although the boreal
forest supports at least 300 species of birds, only 30 remain during the winter, the rest
migrating to warmer climes!

Tundra

North of the continental subarctic / boreal zone, the climate is that of the tundra zone.
Here, at the northern limits of North America and Eurasia and on Arctic Islands, it is always
colder than in the boreal forest. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 10°C with winter
temperatures that drop below – 40 °C. Precipitation comes mostly as snow, mainly during
the fall and spring, as winter temperatures are too cold. Even this precipitation is minimal –
often less than 25 cm per year -‐ so that many tundra regions experience similar levels of
precipitation to deserts, and are also called polar deserts. The cold temperatures and
minimal precipitation favour the development of continuous permafrost, which is a
universal feature of the tundra. Wind is extremely common on the tundra, and wind speeds
as fast as 100 km/hr is not uncommon during any season.

Tundra climate coincides broadly with the tundra biome, consisting of a relatively
impoverished flora and fauna with species that are uniquely adapted to live in these
extreme conditions. The extremely cold, windy conditions, short – typically less than 8
weeks – growing season and permafrost ensure that most plants are low-‐growing ground-‐
covering shrubs and grasses along with mosses and lichens. Even so, the tundra can be
stunningly beautiful when tundra flowers bloom during the short reproductive season!
Permafrost also creates challenges for both plants and animals. Because the ground
remains frozen throughout the year, snowmelt and runoff accumulate on the surface in
abundant marshland. On the other hand, these marshlands are ideal for migratory birds,
which arrive in the millions during the summer season.

Only about 50 species of mammals make the tundra their home but no reptiles or
amphibians. Insects such as mosquitos and bumblebees are common, however. Tundra
mammals include many well-‐known species such as muskoxen, Arctic fox and wolf. Some
small mammals – lemmings and ground squirrels – hibernate to survive the winter,
meaning they must eat enough during the 1-‐2 month growing season to last 10-‐11 months
hibernation. Can you think of another large tundra mammal? Big? White? Furry? That’s
right! The polar bear. Polar bears do spend some time on the tundra, but really they’re a
marine mammal. They live in, and on, the sea for most of the year, and derive most of their
sustenance from eating seals.

We’ll talk more about polar bears later. Right now, let’s talk about another notable
Northern mammal that lives across the Circumpolar North, throughout the boreal forest
and across the tundra. These magnificent animals are unusual amongst deer in that both
males and females have antlers. Can you guess what animal it is? That’s right, reindeer or
caribou. Called reindeer in Europe and Asia and caribou in North America, Rangifer

tarandus – their scientific name – are a type of deer particularly well-‐adapted to cold
regions.

Figure 8: Rangifer tarandus -‐ Reindeer in Europe and Asia, and Caribou in North America, by Dean Biggens (U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service), Public Domain.
With 14 wild subspecies, two of which are extinct, and a circumpolar distribution ranging
from south of the boreal forest across the tundra to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, reindeer
are a very successful species. The woodland caribou, up to 1.8 m long and up to 300 kg in
weight, is the largest and darkest in colour of the subspecies and lives as far south as
Northeastern USA. In contrast, the smallest subspecies – the Svalbard Reindeer, seldom
reach 1.5 m in length, or more than 90 kg -‐ and live only in the Svalbard archipelago a
result of the process of island dwarfism. In all subspecies, females are smaller than males.
As ruminants, caribou have a four-‐chambered stomach which they use to digest their
favourite food lichen, although they also eat sedges and grasses. Reindeer have unique
hooves whose pads become relatively soft in the summer to aid in grip, but in winter, the
pads shrink to expose the sharp edge of the hoof, so that they are able to dig through the
snow to reach food.
Social animals, in some regions wild reindeer gather into herds as large as one million
animals. This is the case of the Russian Taimyr herd. Most herds are somewhat smaller, and
may only gather together fully during periods of migration from summer to winter
grounds. However, not all herds are migratory. Typically, reindeer breed in the early fall
rut, when males battle one another to win females, often sparring with their antlers and

attempting to run each other off. Successful males may breed with as many as 20 females.
Young caribou, known as calves, are born in late Spring or early Summer in time to take
advantage of freshly grown vegetation. Reindeer are mainly predated by wolves,
wolverines and both polar and brown bears. In nearly all cases, only calves and infirm
adults are taken, as healthy caribou can easily outrun nearly all predators.
Reindeer are a very important species within Northern cultures, due to their relatively
large populations and wide distribution. As the largest and most common mammal in the
Circumpolar North, they have been hunted for meat, hides and antlers by all Northern
peoples. In addition, reindeer were partially domesticated in Fennoscandia and Russia,
where reindeer herding has been practised for over two thousand years. Domesticated
reindeer have been raised to provide meat, and hides for shelter and clothing, but also to be
working animals to haul sleds and equipment, especially in the winter, where they are
much better suited than cattle or horses. Reindeer herding plays a particularly important
role within the Sámi culture of northern Fennoscandia.
Greenland Ice Sheet

We’ve now covered the boreal forest and tundra climate zones. There’s one more climate
zone that needs to be mentioned here and that’s one that is found exclusively on ice caps,
primarily on the surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Here, temperatures may never exceed
0 °C, allowing such ice caps to persist, often with relatively little annual precipitation.
However, recent climate warming has allowed melting to occur across nearly the entire
surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet, and so this delicate balance is now at risk. We’ll learn
more about the future of the Greenland Ice Sheet in Lesson 3.
Ocean Climate

We’ve talked about the biomes and climate zones of the Arctic – from boreal forest to
tundra over the unique ice cap climate. What about the oceans, though? If you remember
we said that a large part of the Arctic actually consisted of the ocean, so how do we
characterize the different conditions that exist within the marine environment of the
Circumpolar North? In contrast to the land, the ability of ocean water to take up heat tends
to have a moderating effect on temperatures. This means that the air over landmasses
heats up and cools down more quickly than over the open ocean. Sea-‐ice tends to limit this
moderating effect in that it prevents exchange of heat between the atmosphere and the
ocean. As a result, the Arctic Ocean climate can be divided into two simple zones: polar and
subpolar. Polar climate is found where the surface of the ocean is covered by sea-‐ice year-‐
round and the sea directly underneath is near the freezing point of seawater (-‐1.8°C).
Precipitation is extremely low and winds tend to be light throughout the year. Winter air

temperatures tend to be similar to the tundra biome whereas summer temperatures are
typically very near freezing.

Subpolar ocean climate is found in regions that are only seasonally covered by sea-‐ice. In
contrast to the polar ocean climate, subpolar regions experience a distinct seasonality.
Winter subpolar climate is essentially identical to polar winter climate, however, summer
subpolar climate is marked by the melt of sea-‐ice and extensive open water, leading to
more precipitation. The seasonal growth and melt of sea-‐ice plays an important role in the
circulation of the Arctic Ocean, which we’ll learn about in the next Lesson. Subpolar air
temperatures in the summer are slightly warmer than in the polar region but are strongly
moderated by the cold ocean.
Sea Ice Decline

Satellite observations of sea-‐ice extent since 1979 have demonstrated a sharp decline in
the area of the Arctic Ocean covered by sea-‐ice. In particular, summer sea-‐ice extent – that
is, the polar region – has decreased considerably. As we will see in subsequent lessons, this
can significantly affect the physical and biological environment of the Arctic and beyond.
Subpolar ocean regions, especially those that incorporate continental shelves, are
particularly important in fuelling the Arctic ecosystem. Summer open water along with
nutrients delivered by the many Arctic rivers foster the growth of photosynthesizing
marine algae, which form the basis of the marine food chain. All other creatures big and
small depend on this productivity – from invertebrates such as mollusks to fish like Arctic
cod to marine mammals like seals, walrus, whale and polar bears.
1.8 Focus on Polar Bears

The polar bear is probably the most famous species of the Arctic. This carnivore stands at
the top of the Arctic ecosystem and inhabits much of the Arctic near the edge of the sea ice
and beyond; polar bears move with the growth and decay of seasonal sea-‐ice, and their
southern limit is essentially defined by the extent of sea ice. Polar bears are powerful
animals, they are strong swimmers and good sprinters for short distances. Compared to
brown and black bears, they have a long neck and small ears and tail, with males growing
as long as 3 m and weighing from 350 to 700 kg, and females about half that size. Their feet
are huge -‐ an adaptation for swimming (like paddles) as well as walking on ice and snow -‐
acting like snow shoes. Their soles are covered with soft hairs, to enhance grip, and their
sharp claws are ideally suited to grab their preferred prey, seals. They hunt seals by using
their exceptional sense of smell to find pup dens, or by patiently stalking adult seals on the
sea ice. Polar bear fur is yellowish-‐white consisting of thick underfur up to 5 cm long, and

hollow, long guard hairs up to 15 cm in length. The guard hair hollows filled with air have
an insulating function. They also have a layer of blubber -‐ fat -‐ underneath their skin. All
these traits make the bear ideally adapted to the harsh Arctic climate. Their fur keeps them
warm while at the same time being ideally adapted to spend a considerable time of their
lives in the water. In fact, polar bears are more likely to overheat than to become
hypothermic! In the summer, they cool themselves off by swimming but also through lying
on their backs with their legs in the air -‐ a comical pose often seen in postcards!

Figure 9: Images of polar bears, by Dr. Andrew Derocher.

Polar bears are active throughout the polar winter, though they will make snow dens to
escape harsh weather. Pregnant females do however stay in dens throughout the winter
where they give birth, usually to two cubs. The cubs are initially tiny -‐ weighing around 600
g and measuring 40 cm in length; their eyes open 25 days after birth and they are covered
in fine hair. The female bear is dormant during the winter and even during birth though her
body temperature is maintained during this time and the cubs are nursed throughout this
time! Mothers and cubs emerge from the den in March or April at which time the cubs
weigh 5-‐20 kg and the mothers have lost up to 50% of their body weight. Leaving the den

coincides with the arrival of seal pups, presenting both mother and cubs with fresh food.
Cubs stay with their mothers for about 2.5 years; this means that mating takes place every
3 years. This long reproductive cycle makes polar bears very susceptible to habitat
disturbances. In particular, delays in the growth of fall sea-‐ice, and early break-‐up of spring
sea ice can lead to undernourishment, and sometimes to reproductive failure and even
starvation. As you can imagine, the ongoing reduction in Arctic sea-‐ice may have a fatal
outcome for this remarkable animal.
2. GLOBAL RADIATION INPUT AND DISTRIBUTION
2.1 Solar Radiation

We’ve now covered the geography of the Circumpolar North. As we’ve learned, the North is
a relatively cold place, and to an extent this is true in that the high Northern (and Southern)
latitudes are cooler than temperate latitudes. But why is this the case? Why is the Arctic
cold? To answer this question, it is important to understand why planet earth is warmer
than surrounding space and how the earth’s heat is distributed around the planet.

The earth’s heat comes primarily from the sun in wavelengths of radiation between 0.2 and
4.0 micrometres. About 40% of this energy comes in the form of the visible wavelengths
from 0.4 to 0.67 micrometres, known as short wave radiation. At approximately 150
million km from the sun, the average rate of energy reaching the earth is 1368 Watts per
square metre, known as the solar constant. The energy seen by the Earth is equivalent to
a disk, or circle of the same cross-‐sectional area as the Earth. As a reminder, the area of a
circle is found by calculating pi times the radius of the circle squared. The total rate of solar
energy reaching this disk, distributed across the Earth’s surface is found by multiplying the
solar constant by the area of a circle with the radius of the Earth, 6371 km, yielding 1.75 x
1017 Watts. Distributed over the Earth’s 510,000,000 square kilometres, yields an average
rate of 344 Watts per square metre.
Not all of this energy is retained by the Earth though, some is reflected back especially by
bright surfaces such as snow and sand. This reflected energy is known as albedo, signified
by the symbol alpha: α. Albedo greatly varies from place to place and throughout the year
according to the reflectivity of the surface, which can vary due to vegetation changes and
snowfall, but it is on average about 30% -‐ that is, 30 % of incoming solar radiation is
reflected -‐ meaning only 238 Watts per square metre are retained by the Earth.


2.2 Terrestrial Radiation

But the Earth also re-‐emits energy as long wave radiation – between 4 and 40
micrometres in the infrared spectrum. The Stefan-‐Boltzmann Law indicates that the flux
density, or energy emitted per unit area per unit time, is proportional to the 4th power to
the absolute temperature on the Kelvin scale, signified by I = σT4, where in our case is 238
Watts per square metre, and σ, the Stefan-‐Boltzmann constant is equal to 5.670 x 10-‐8 W m-‐
2 K-‐4. Solving this equation for T, yields an average temperature of 255 K, or -‐18 °C. Clearly
this is not the case! In fact, the average surface temperature on Earth is 288 K, or 15 °C, a
difference of 32 °C! Why do you think this is the case?
2.3 Natural Greenhouse Effect

The difference is caused by the Earth’s atmosphere,
which absorbs and re-‐emits radiation that reaches it,
but particularly long wave radiation. The incoming
solar radiation is primarily short wave radiation, at the
wavelengths of visible light. Again, the short wave
radiation that is absorbed by the earth is re-‐emitted as
long wave, or infrared radiation, which is invisible to
the eye. Gases in the earth’s atmosphere -‐ especially
water vapour, but also carbon dioxide and methane -‐
retain this long wave radiation – as much as 95% of it -‐
effectively trapping and retaining this energy, or heat.
This natural process is the famous greenhouse effect,
because the atmosphere works much like the glass roof
and walls of a greenhouse allowing solar energy to
enter but not leave, thereby maintaining a warmer
temperature. Although the greenhouse effect is a
natural process, it can be influenced by human activity as we will learn in the next lesson.
Figure 10: Greenhouse effect.
2.4 Sensible Heat, Latent Heat, and Heat Capacity

The net energy, or heat, flux to the earth is composed of shortwave, longwave, sensible and
latent heat. As we discussed, shortwave radiation is the energy radiated by the sun.
Longwave radiation is that emitted back by the earth. Sensible heat is energy transferred
by conductive processes, such as the interface between molecules of air and water, or air
and the land surface, moving heat to the cooler molecules. This is highly dependent on local

temperature differences and wind speed. Latent heat on the other hand is the energy
absorbed or emitted when a substance, typically water, changes state, for example from
liquid to gas, or from liquid to solid. When water evaporates, energy is absorbed by water
molecules to free them from the strong bonds in liquid water. On the other hand, when
water molecules condense back to a liquid, usually in clouds, energy is released into the
surrounding air, warming it up. When the temperature is higher, air can hold more
moisture, and therefore there is greater potential for latent heat release upon
condensation. Likewise, when liquid water freezes into ice, latent heat is emitted, but when
ice melts, latent heat is absorbed.

Water has a very high specific heat capacity, that is, it takes a lot of heat energy to raise its
temperature before it gets “hot”, nearly 5 times that of many other materials, which is why
a pot heats up before the water inside it does. Water’s high heat capacity and latent heat
have substantial effects on the earth’s climate, and particularly that of the polar regions.
Due to the Earth’s spherical shape, which means that high latitude regions are oblique to
the sun’s incoming radiation, high latitude regions like the North receive less solar energy
than equatorial regions. Thus, the incoming heat imbalance between low latitude and high
latitude regions drives the transport of heat from the equator to the poles. By extension,
the high latent heat of vapourization means that heat is primarily added in the tropics,
where more direct solar energy is received driving increased evaporation. Heat is stored in
water vapour, which, when blown to higher latitudes condenses as rain or snow, and
delivers heat that brings increased warmth to the North than otherwise would be the case.
Heat is also transferred independently by the atmosphere and ocean due to sensible
heating of air and water and its dispersal towards the poles. We’ll learn more about this in
the next lesson.
2.5 Factors Affecting Solar Radiation Input

On a global scale and over a time period of a few days it is possible to view the earth-‐
atmosphere system as a simple equilibrium between incoming and outgoing radiation. But
the real world is more complex with variation in space and time. Global variations in
climate are caused by a variety of factors. The distribution of solar radiation is controlled
by: 1) The angle of incidence of solar radiation, that is, radiation that strikes the earth’s
surface perpendicularly will be mostly absorbed, but radiation that strikes the earth
obliquely will be primarily reflected. 2) Solar radiation arriving perpendicularly is
concentrated on a smaller area than that arriving obliquely. As a result, solar radiation
received per unit area is greatest near the equator and least at the poles because the angle
of inclination between the sun's rays and the earth's surface decreases with latitude. 3)
Solar radiation travelling a longer distance through the atmosphere is more likely to be

absorbed or reflected before reaching the earth’s surface – again leading to less solar
radiation reaching the poles; and 4) albedo, the ratio of reflected to incoming solar
radiation. Albedo is particularly important where bright surfaces – such as snow, abundant
in the polar regions especially in winter – are present. These reflect more than 90% of
incoming radiation. Similarly, black surfaces absorb more than 90% of incoming radiation.
2.6 Seasons and Daylight

From what we’ve learned so far, do you know why the seasons happen? As we’ve seen, the
polar regions don’t directly face the sun, and so receive less energy, but this doesn’t explain
why temperate and polar latitudes have distinct summer and winter seasons whereas the
equator has none! Seasons are caused the by tilt of the Earth’s axis, which is oriented 23.4°
away from vertical with regard to the plane of Earth’s orbit around the sun. In the northern
hemisphere summer, the Northern hemisphere is tilted toward the sun by 23.4°, and in the
winter it is tilted away from the sun. As a result, regions North of 66.6° latitude, known as
the Arctic Circle, experience 24 hours of daylight during parts of the summer, and 24
hours of darkness during parts of the winter. As a result, the only heat received above the
totally dark portion above the Arctic Circle in winter is transported there from lower
latitudes because no direct solar radiation can reach this region. The southern hemisphere
experiences the opposite pattern, meaning southern hemisphere residents experience
summer when northern hemisphere residents experience winter.


Introduction To The Arctic: Climate

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Introduction To The Arctic: Climate

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To The Arctic: Climate

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to the Arctic:

1.1 Defining the Arctic ......................................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Peoples of the Arctic ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Arctic Rivers ................................................................................................................................... 5

1.4 Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Ice Caps .................................................................................................. 5

1.5 The Arctic Ocean ............................................................................................................................ 6

1.6 Sea Ice ............................................................................................................................................ 8

1.7 Climate and Weather ..................................................................................................................... 9

1.8 Focus on Polar Bears ................................................................................................................... 14

2. GLOBAL RADIATION INPUT AND DISTRIBUTION ................................................................................ 16

2.1 Solar Radiation ............................................................................................................................ 16

2.2 Terrestrial Radiation .................................................................................................................... 17

2.3 Natural Greenhouse Effect .......................................................................................................... 17

2.5 Factors Affecting Solar Radiation Input ....................................................................................... 18

2.6 Seasons and Daylight ................................................................................................................... 19

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 1

1.1 Defining the Arctic

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 2

Geographically speaking, the Circumpolar North is composed

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 3

1.2 Peoples of the Arctic

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 4

metres per second. To put this into

1.4 Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Ice Caps

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 5

1.5 The Arctic Ocean

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 6

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 7

1.6 Sea Ice

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 8

1.7 Climate and Weather

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 9

Boreal Forest or Taiga

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 10

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 11

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 12

Greenland Ice Sheet

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 13

Sea Ice Decline

1.8 Focus on Polar Bears

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 14

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 15

2. GLOBAL RADIATION INPUT AND DISTRIBUTION

2.1 Solar Radiation

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 16

2.3 Natural Greenhouse Effect

2.4 Sensible Heat, Latent Heat, and Heat Capacity

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 17

2.5 Factors Affecting Solar Radiation Input

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 18

2.6 Seasons and Daylight

Introduction to the Arctic: Climate 19

You might also like