5141 CN 111 – Anatomy and Physiology 08/27/2021

Integumentary and Nervous System Shifting #1

Trans #2
Prof. Lilia Caballes

OUTLINE  Keratin - tough, fibrous protein that helps protect the skin
and underlying tissues from heat, microbes, and chemicals
I. Integumentary and Nervous D. Factors that Affect  Produce lamellar granules
System the Speed of Nerve  Release a water-repellent sealant that decreases water
II. Integumentary System Conduction entry and loss and inhibits the entry of foreign
A. Functions of the E. Central Nervous materials
Integumentary System System  Melanocytes
B. Structure of the Skin F. Peripheral Nervous  Cells which produce the pigment melanin
C. Layers of Human Skin System  Melanin – yellow-red or brown-black pigment that
D. Accessory Structures of G. Autonomic Nervous contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging ultraviolet
the Skin System (UV) light
E. Epithelial Membranes H. Somatic Nervous  Langerhans Cells
III. Nervous System System  Arise from red bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis,
A. Functions of the where they constitute a small fraction of the epidermal
Nervous System cells
B. Organization of the  Participate in immune responses mounted against
Nervous System microbes that invade the skin, and are easily damaged by
C. Neurons and Neuroglia UV light
I. INTEGUMENTARY AND NERVOUS SYSTEM  Protects the skin
 Merkel Cells
 Integumentary System  Least numerous of the epidermal cells
 Comprises the skin and its appendages acting to protect the body  Located in the deepest layer of the epidermis, where they
from various kinds of damage contact the flattened process of a sensory neuron (nerve
 Includes hair and nails cell), a structure called a tactile (Merkel) disc
 Nervous System  Tactile epithelial cells – function in the sensation of touch
 Highly complex part of the human body 2. Dermis
 Coordinates actions and sensory information by transmitting  Layer below the epidermis
signals to and from different parts of its body  Made up of connective tissues
 Interrelationship between Integumentary and Nervous System  Contains:
 The skin contains sensory receptors that send sensory  Blood vessels (capillaries)
information to the brain  Nerve endings
 The autonomic nervous system regulates peripheral blood flow  Touch and pressure receptors
and sweat glands  Sebaceous glands
 Nerves control muscles connected to hair follicles  Hair follicle
 Elastic fibers
II. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM  Collagenous fibers
 Phagocytes
A. FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM  Sweat glands
1. Protection
Subcutaneous tissue / Hypodermis
 The skin provides protection from: mechanical impacts and
pressure, variations in temperature, micro-organisms, radiation  Deep to the dermis
and chemicals  Essentially is adipose (fat) tissue
2. Sensation  Not considered part of the skin
 Sense pain, temperature, touch, deep pressure.  Anchor the skin to underlying organs
3. Allows movement  Provides a site for nutrient storage
 Skin helps provide calcium ions needed for muscle contraction  Serves as a shock absorber
4. Vitamin D production  Insulates the deeper tissues from extreme temperature changes
 Keratinocytes in skin help activate vitamin D to calcitriol that occurring outside the body
aids in absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus
If epidermis is injured without the dermis, there would be no bleeding since the
5. Excretion epidermis doesn’t have blood vessels.
1. Some waste products are excreted from the body in
sweat
6. Immunity
1. First line of defense in immunity
7. Regulate Temperature
1. When cold, blood vessels constrict
2. When hot, blood vessels dilate

B. STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN

1. Epidermis
 Outermost layer of the skin
 Made up of stratified squamous epithelium
 Capable of becoming hard and tough
 Has no blood supply
 Contains four principal types of cells:
 Keratinocytes
 Arranged in four or five layers
 Produce the protein keratin

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 C. LAYERS OF HUMAN SKIN
Figure 1. Layers of the Human Skin
Layers of the Epidermis
1. Stratum Basale
 Also called the basal layer and stratum germinativum
 Deepest layer of the epidermis
 Single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes
 Some cells in this layer are stem cells that undergo cell division
to continually produce new keratinocytes
 Forms new cells
 Nuclei of keratinocytes: large, cytoplasm contains many
ribosomes, a small Golgi complex, few mitochondria, rough
endoplasmic reticulum
 Cytoskeleton with keratinocytes: scattered intermediate
filaments called tonofilaments
 Tonofilaments: composed of protein that will form keratin in
more superficial epidermal layers; attach to desmosomes that
bind cells of the stratum basale to the cells of the adjacent
stratum spinosum, and to hemidesmosomes, that bind the
keratinocytes to the basement membrane between the epidermis
and dermis
2. Stratum Spinosum
 8 to 10 layers of many-sided keratinocytes fit closely together
 Keratinocytes in this layer have the same organelles as cells
of the stratum basale
 When cells of this layer are prepared for microscopic
examination, they shrink and pull apart so that they seem to be
covered with thorn like spines
 Each spiny projection in a prepared tissue section is a point
where bundles of tonofilaments are inserting into a
desmosome, tightly joining the cells to one another
 this arrangement provides both strength and flexibility to
the skin
 Projections of both Langerhans cells and melanocytes also
appear in this layer
3. Stratum Granulosum
 Consists of three to five layers of flattened keratinocytes that are
undergoing apoptosis
 Apoptosis: orderly, genetically programmed cell death in
which the nucleus fragments before the cells die
 Nuclei and other organelles of these cells begin to degenerate,
and tonofilaments become more apparent
 Cells in this layer have darkly staining granules of a protein
called keratohyalin that converts the tonofilaments into keratin
 Lamellar granules which release a lipid-rich secretion is also
present in this layer
 This secretion fills the spaces between cells of the stratum
granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum
 Acts as a water-repellent sealant, retarding loss and entry of
water and entry of foreign materials
 As the nuclei break down during apoptosis, the keratinocytes of
this layer can no longer carry on vital metabolic reactions and
they die
CN 111 Integumentary and Nervous System
 This layer marks the transition between the deeper,
metabolically active strata and the dead cells of the more
superficial strata
4. Stratum Lucidum
 Present only in thick skin of the fingertips, palms, and soles
 Consists of three to five layers of flattened clear, dead
keratinocytes that contain large amounts of keratin and thickened
plasma membranes
5. Stratum Corneum
 Consists of 25 to 30 layers of flattened dead keratinocytes
 Interior of the cells contains mostly keratin
 Between the cells are lipids from lamellar granules that help
make this layer an effective water-repellent barrier
 The multiple layers of dead cells also help to protect deeper
layers from injury and microbial invasion
Regions of the Dermis
1. Papillary Region
 Makes up about one-fifth of the thickness of the total layer
 Consists of areolar connective tissue containing fine elastic
fibers
 Surface area is greatly increased by small, fingerlike structures
called dermal papillae
 Nipple-shaped structures project into the epidermis and some
contain capillary loops
 Corpuscles of touch or Meissner corpuscles: some dermal
papillae also contain this type of tactile receptors
 Nerve endings are sensitive to touch
 Free nerve endings
 Dendrites lack any apparent structural specialization
 Different free nerve endings initiate signals that give rise to
sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, tickling and itching
2. Reticular Region
 Attached to the subcutaneous layer
 Consists of dense irregular connective tissue containing
fibroblasts, bundles of collagen, and some coarse elastic fibers
 Collagen fibers: interlace in a netlike manner
 few adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous glands,
and sudoriferous glands occupy the spaces between fibers
 The combination of collagen and elastic fibers in this region
provides the skin with strength, extensibility (ability to stretch),
and elasticity (ability to return to original shape after stretching)
D. ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN
Cutaneous Glands
 Exocrine glands
 Release their secretions to the skin surface via ducts
1. Sweat Glands or Sudoriferous Glands
 Widely distributed in the skin
 Important and highly efficient part of the body’s heat-regulating
equipment
 Because of its nerve endings
 Secretes sweat when body temperature is too high
2. Sebaceous (Oil) Glands or Oil Glands
 Found all over the skin
 Except: palms and soles
 Ducts usually empty into a hair follicle
 Some open directly onto the skin surface
 Produces and secretes sebum
 Group of complex oils
 Includes:
 Triglycerides
 Fatty acid breakdown products
 Wax esters
 Squalene
 Cholesterol esters
 Cholesterol
 Lubricates the skin to protect against friction and makes it
more impervious to moisture
Hair and Hair Follicles
 Fastest growing tissues in the body
 Few minor protective functions:
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  Guarding the head against bumps  Sign of malnourishment
 Shielding the eyes Figure 4. Beau’s Lines
 Helping to keep foreign particles out of the respiratory tract
2. Clubbing
 Hair Follicles 1. Nails thicken and curve around your fingertips
 Compound structures 2. Generally takes years
 Inner epithelial root sheath forms the hair 3. Result of low oxygen in the blood
 Outer fibrous sheath is the dermal connective tissue 4. Associated with cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases
 Slightly slanted
 Arrector pili “raiser of hair” - small bands of smooth muscle
cells connect each side of the hair follicle to the dermal tissue
 When muscles contract, hair is pulled upright
 Causing goosebumps
Figure 2. Anatomy of Hair
Nails
 Transparent, nearly colorless
 Look pink
 Because of the rich blood supply in the underlying dermis with
the exception of the lunula
 Consists:
 Nail plate
 Actual fingernail
 Composed of dead cells
 Nail bed
 Below the nail plate
 Has both dermis and epidermis tissue
 Nail matrix
 Part of nail bed
 Sits at the base of the nail plate
 Responsible for nail growth
As the matrix produces nail cells, they become heavily keratinized and die.

Figure 5. Clubbing
3. Koilonychia
1. Fingernails have raised ridges
2. Scoop outward, like spoons
3. Also called “spooning”
4. Nail is curved enough to hold a drop of liquid
5. Sign of iron deficiency anemia, heart disease, and liver
disorder

Figure 3. Anatomy of Nail

 Nail changes can be caused by a variety of different conditions

1. Beau’s Lines
 Depressions that run across your fingernail

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 5. Spinal Nerves – thirty one pairs emerge from the
spinal cord
6. Sensory Receptor – structure of the nervous system
that monitors changes in the external or internal
environment
1. Example: touch receptors – skin, photoreceptors –
eyes, olfactory – smell
 Sensory/Afferent Division
 PNS conveys input into the CNS from sensory receptors in the
body
 Provides the CNS with sensory information about the somatic
senses (tactile, thermal, pain, and proprioceptive sensations) and
special senses (smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium)
 Brings the message through sensory receptors to the CNS
Figure 7. Koilonychia  Motor/Efferent Division
E. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES  PNS conveys output from the CNS to effects (muscles and
glands)
 Covering and lining membranes
 Passes through the nerves through effectors
 Includes:
 Somatic Nervous System
 Cutaneous membrane (skin)
 Conveys output from the CNS to skeletal muscles
 Mucous membranes  Motor responses can be consciously controlled
 Lining all body cavities that open to the exterior  Action is voluntary
 Such as those of the hollow organs of the respiratory,
 Autonomic Nervous System
digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts
 Coveys output from the CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac
 Serous membranes muscle, and glands
 Line body cavities that are closed to the exterior  Motor responses are not normally under conscious control
 Except for the dorsal body cavity and joint cavities  Action is involuntary
 Secrete a lubricating fluid, called serous fluid  Sympathetic Nervous System – helps support exercise or
o To prevent internal organs from being rubbed raw emergency actions; “fight-or-flight” responses
 Visceral layer – part that envelops the outside of an organ  Parasympathetic Nervous System – takes care of “rest-and-
 Parietal layer – lining a part of or all of a body cavity digest” activities
 Used in assessing intactness of trigeminal and facial nerves  Enteric Nervous System – extensive network of neurons
confined to the wall of gastrointestinal tract; helps regulate
III. NERVOUS SYSTEM the activity of the smooth muscle and glands of the GI tract
A. FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM  Can function independently
 Communicates with and is regulated by the other branches
1. Sensory Function of ANS
 Involves collecting information from sensory receptors that
monitor the body’s internal and external conditions C. NEURONS AND NEUROGLIA
2. Integrative Function Neurons
 Processes sensory information by analyzing it and making
 Nerve cells forming the complex processing networks with the
decisions for appropriate responses
brain and spinal cord
3. Motor Function
 Connect all regions of the body to the brain and spinal cord
 Nervous system may elicit an appropriate motor response by  Provide most of the unique functions of the nervous system
activating effectors (muscles and glands) through cranial and
 Sensing
spinal nerves
 Thinking
B. ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM  Remembering
1. Central Nervous System  Controlling muscle activity
1. Brain and spinal cord  Regulating glandular secretions
2. Brain – located in the skull  Have three parts
3. Spinal Cord – connected to the brain through the 1. Cell Body/Soma
foramen magnum of the occipital bone and is encircled 1. Contains the nucleus and other structures common to
by the bones of the vertebral column living cells which support the chemical processing of
8. Peripheral Nervous System the neuron
1. All nervous tissue outside CNS 2. Production of neurotransmitters
2. Nerves and sensory receptors 2. Dendrites
3. Nerve – bundle of axons plus associated connective 1. Tree-like extensions
tissue and blood vessels that lies outside the brain and 2. Receive signals from axons of other nerve cells
spinal cord 3. Axon
4. Cranial Nerves – twelve pairs emerge from the brain 1. Nerve fiber
1. OOOTTAFVGVAH (Only Overgrown 2. Long slender projection of a neuron
Orangutans Try To Aggravate Fat Vagrants 3. Conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron’s
Getting Vodka And Hamburgers) cell body or soma like transmission lines of the nervous
1. Olfactory system
2. Optic  Other parts
3. Oculomotor 1. Myelin Sheath
4. Trochlear  Whitish, fatty material
5. Trigeminal  Has a waxy appearance
6. Abducens
 Covers most long nerve fibers
7. Facial
8. Vestibulocochlear  Protects and insulates fibers
9. Glossopharyngeal  Increases the transmission rate of nerve impulses
10. Vagus  Underscored by the presence of various disease related to
11. Accessory myelination
12. Hypoglossal  Demyelination

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  Condition in which preexisting myelin sheaths are damaged 1. Axons propagate action potentials at lower speeds
and subsequently lost when cooled
 One leading causes of neurological disease 1. Fingers get numb when you hold an ice cube for
 Occur by genetic abnormalities that affect glial cells more than a few seconds
2. Warm fingers begin the impulses to be
 Myelin loss causes remarkable nerve dysfunction
transmitted again
 Nerve conduction can be slowed or blocked
 Damaged information networks between the brain and the E. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
body or within the brain itself like what happens in
multiple sclerosis Brain
 Largest and most complex mass of nervous tissue in the body
I. Protective Coverings of the Brain
 Cranium and meninges surround and protect the brain
 Meninges: three protective connective tissue coverings that
encircle the brain and spinal cord
A. Dura Mater
 Superficial Layer
B. Arachnoid Mater
 Middle layer
 Subarachnoid space: a space between the arachnoid and pia
mater
C. Pia Mater
 Adheres to the surface of spinal cord and brain

Figure 8. Structure of a Typical Neuron

Neuroglia
 Called glial cells
 Smaller but greatly outnumber neurons
 Support, nourish, and protect neurons
 Maintain the interstitial fluid that bathes them
 Continue to divide throughout an individual’s lifetime
 Do not generate or propagate action potentials

Figure 10. Protective Coverings of the Brain

Figure 9. Glial Cells

D. FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE SPEED OF NERVE

Figure 11. Protective Coverings of the Brain (Lateral View)
CONDUCTION
1. Amount of myelination
II. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
1. Propagation of action potential is faster in myelinated  Clear, colorless liquid

axon
2. Fibers that have myelin sheaths conduct impulses much
faster
1. Nerve impulse jumps, or leaps from node to node
along the length of the fiber
1. Occurs because no electrical current can
flow across the axon membrane where there
is fatty myelin insulation
1. Salutatory conduction – faster type of
electrical impulse propagation
2. Axon diameter
1. Larger diameter axons propagate action potentials
faster than smaller ones due to their larger surface areas
1. Fibers carry cold, pressure, and acute pain signals
because they are thin and myelinated
1. Send impulses faster than unmyelinated
neurons like tactile fibers in sensual touch
3. Temperature Composed primarily of water that protects the brain and spinal cord
from chemical and physical injuries

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  Continuously circulates through cavities in the brain and spinal  Form connections between sensory and motor areas
cord in the subarachnoid space  Produce a meaningful perceptual experience of the world
 CSF cushions he brain within the skull and serves as a shock  Enable us to interact effectively, support abstract thinking
absorber for the central nervous system and circulates nutrients and language, and store memories of past somatic sensory
and chemicals filtered from the blood and removes waste experiences, enabling us to compare current sensations
products from the brain with previous experiences
III. Major Parts of the Brain  Example: even if you have closed eyes, you can tell
A. The Cerebrum whether what you have touched is square or rough by
 Largest part of the brain feeling its shape and texture
 Composed of the left and right hemispheres 3. Motor Areas
 Joined by the corpus callosum  Flows mainly from the anterior part of each hemisphere
 Have 4 lobes:  Region involved in planning, control, and execution of
 Frontal Lobe: executive functions, thinking, planning, voluntary movements
organizing and problem solving, emotions and behavioral  Example: responsible for all voluntary muscle movements
control, personality like talking, taking a drink of water, or getting yourself out
 Contains the motor cortex of bed in the morning
 Parietal Lobe: perception, making sense of the world, Figure 13. Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
arithmetic, spelling
B. The Brainstem
 Contains the sensory context
 Composed of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain
 Occipital Lobe: vision
1. Medulla Oblongata
 Temporal Lobe: memory, understanding, language
 Where the bundles of nerve fibers cross the midline
Figure 12. Lobes of the Cerebrum
 Explains why each side of the brain controls voluntary
1. Sensory Areas movements on the opposite side of the body
 Receive sensory information that has been relayed from CLINICAL IMPLICATION: If Mandy has a lesion found above the pyramids of the
peripheral sensory receptors through lower regions of the medulla where bundles of nerve tracts occurs, voluntary movement of the innervated
structure is limited on the contralateral side of the body. By contrast, a lesion below
the decussation impairs voluntary movement on the same, or ipsilateral, side.

brain
 Integrate sensory experiences to generate meaningful
patterns of recognition and awareness
a. Primary Somatosensory Area
 Located in the parietal lobe
 Receives nerve impulses for touch, pressure, vibration,
itch, tickle, temperature, pain, and proprioception (joint
 Contains several clusters of neurons that regulate vital
and muscle position)
activities
 Involved in the perception of these somatic sensation
 Regulating the rate and force of the heartbeat and the
b. Primary Visual Area
diameter of blood vessels
 Occipital love receives visual information
 Adjusting the basic rhythm of breathing
 Involved in visual perception  Controlling reflexes for vomiting, swallowing,
c. Primary Auditory Area sneezing, coughing, and hiccupping
 Located in the temporal lobe  Location of the clusters of neurons associated with
 Receives information for sound sensations of touch, pressure, vibration, and conscious
 Involved in auditory perception proprioception
d. Primary Gustatory Area  Contains components of sensory pathways for gustation,
 Located in the insula audition, and equilibrium
 Receives impulses for taste CLINICAL IMPLICATION: It is not surprising that injury to the medulla from a
 Involved in gustatory perception and taste hard blow to the back of the head or upper neck such as falling back on ice can be
discrimination fatal. Damage to the medullary respiratory center is particularly serious and can
rapidly lead to death.
e. Primary Olfactory Area
 In the temporal lobe 2. Pons
 Receives impulses for smell  Top region of the brain
 Involved in olfactory perception  Relays signals between the cerebrum and cerebellum
2. Association Areas  Helps control breathing rate
 Consist of large areas of the occipital, parietal and 3. Midbrain
temporal lobes and of the frontal lobes anterior to the  Serves important functions in motor movement,
motor areas particularly movements of the eye and in auditory and
 Connected with one another by association tracts (neural visual processing
pathways)  Contains centers for the startle reflex, sudden movements
 Integrate incoming sensory information from sensory of the head, eyes, and trunk that occur when you are
areas surprised by a loud noise such as a gunshot

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 Figure 17. The Limbic System
Figure 14. Brain Stem
C. The Cerebellum VI. Reticular Formation
 Responsible for a number of functions including motor skills  Set of interconnected clusters of neurons that are located through
such as balance, coordination, and posture the brainstem
 Processes information from cerebral motor cortex,  Not anatomically well defined, because it includes neurons
proprioceptors, and visual and equilibrium pathways located in different parts of the brain
 Maintains cerebral cortical alertness
Figure 15. Cerebellum  Filters out repetitive stimuli
APPLICATION: The Romberg’s Test  Helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
Patient stands with feet together, eyes open and then closes both eyes for 20-30 VII. Diencephalon
seconds without support; positive test with eyes open suggestive of cerebella ataxia.
With eyes closed suggestive of impaired proprioception (E.g. Infection of the CNS)
A. Thalamus
 Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex
IV. Hemispheric Lateralization  Relays impulses between cerebral motor cortex and lower
 Have unique properties of information processing motor centers
 An asymmetry labeled as hemispheric lateralization that implies  Involved in memory
that cognitive functions are differentially represent in the brain B. Hypothalamus
 Damage to one hemisphere or the other can produce different  Chief integration center of autonomic (involuntary) nervous
problems and knowing this can help predict behavior system
 Regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, and
thirst
 Regulates hormonal output of anterior pituitary gland
 Acts as an endocrine organ
 Producing antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin

Example: handedness, this is the tendency to use one hand or the

other to perform activities; usual practice to classify persons as Figure 18. Diencephalon
right-handed, left-handed, or ambidextrous F. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
V. The Limbic System
 Composed of set of structures involved in motivation, emotion, I. Spinal Cord
learning and memory  Divided into five sections:
Cervical
A. Amygdala 

 Thoracic
 Responsible for preparing the body for emergency situations
 Lumbar
such as being startled
 Sacral
 Coccygeal
 Pathway for messages sent by the brain to the body and from the
body to brain
II. Vertebral Column
 Where the spinal cord is located
 Provides a sturdy shelter for the enclosed spinal cord
III. White and Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal Roots
A. White Matter
 Made up of myelin
 Primary job: coordinate and send brain signals from one
region of the cerebrum to another, and also from the
cerebrum to the spinal cord, and other areas of the brain
C. Gray Matter
 Looks like a butterfly or the letter H in cross section
 Storing memories of events for future recognition
 Surrounds the central canal of the cord, which contains CSF
 Assist in the development of memories, particularly those
 Dorsal horns contain interneurons
relate to emotional events and emergencies
 Ventral horns contain cell bodies of motor neurons of the
 Involved specifically with the development of the fear
somatic (voluntary) nervous system
emotion
 Can be the cause of extreme expressions of fear, as in the
case of panic
 Play a major role in pleasure and sexual arousal
 May vary in size depending on the sexual activity and
maturity of the individual
1. Cranium – encloses and protects the fragile brain
tissue

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 Figure 20. Difference between the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

H. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Associated the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal
muscles
Figure 19. Cross Section of the Spinal Cord  Consists of different nerves or sensory nerves, and efferent nerves
CLINCAL APPLICATION: If the dorsal root is damaged, sensation from the body or motor nerves that connect to the skin, sensory organs, and all
area served will be lost. If the ventral root is damaged, it results in flaccid paralysis skeletal muscles
of the muscles served. In flaccid paralysis, nerve impulses do not reach the muscles  System is responsible for nearly all voluntary muscle movements as
affected; thus, no voluntary movement of those muscles is possible. The muscles well as for processing sensory information that arrives via external
begin to atrophy because they are no longer stimulated.
stimuli including hearing, touch, and sight
G. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM  Consists of two parts
 Composed of specialized group of neurons that regulate cardiac  Spinal nerves
muscle (the hear), smooth muscles (found in the walls of the  Peripheral nerves that carry sensory information into and
visceral organs and blood vessels), and glands motor commands out of the spinal cord
 Sub-group of PNS  Cranial nerves
 Have three divisions  Nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain
stem
I. Sympathetic Division
 Part of the autonomic nervous system
 Located near the thoracic and lumbar regions in the spinal cord
 Primary function: stimulate the body’s fight or flight response or
prepares the body for intense physical activity
 Done by regulating the heart rate, rate of respiration,
pupillary response and more
II. Parasympathetic Division
 Located between the spinal cord and medulla
 Primarily stimulates the body’s rest and digest response or
relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many high energy
functions
VIII. Enteric Nervous System
 Consists of a web of sensory neurons, motor neurons, and
interneurons embedded in the wall of the gastrointestinal system,
stretching from the lower third of the esophagus right through to
the rectum

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