Navita Arora - English Language Teaching - Approaches and Methodologies-MC GRAW HILL INDIA (2017)

English Language Teaching
Approaches and Methodologies

About the Author
Dr. Navita Arora, a teacher-educator, is actively engaged in innovative

methods and techniques in the teaching of English. She has completed her
Ph.D on the topic “An investigation into relationships between personal
values, teaching attitudes and socio-economic status of teacher trainees”. She
has presented many papers in national seminars and her articles have been
published in various national journals. She also acted as a resource person
for IGNOU. She already has one book on psychology titled, Development of
Learners and Teaching Learning Process, to her credit.
English Language Teaching
Approaches and Methodologies
Dr. Navita Arora

Assistant Professor
S.P. College of Education
Rewari, Haryana
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English Language Teaching: Approaches and Methodologies
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Dedicated to my favourite teacher,
Prof. A.K. Nagar
Foreword
“A true teacher helps a learner to discover his own personal philosophy or the invisible
sun within him.”
—Bhagawad Gita
Efficiency in teaching of English language will be reflected in the performance of the learner in
and outside the classroom. A mentor for efficient English teacher has its prime goal to serve as a
touchstone of successful English teaching. This book has been organised into four main sections.
The major themes of discussions are pedagogical analysis, different approaches and methods,
vocabulary items, various skills of language, language lab, instructional aids, evaluation, remedial
teaching and role of ICT in teaching of English. The author presented the contents with illustrations
and examples. The contents are systematically organised.
This book deserves to be recommended for all the students of B.Ed as well as teacher-educators.
Prof. A.K. Nagar

Ex-Principal,
S.P. College of Education,
Rewari
Preface
I am pleased to present this book, English Language Teaching: Approaches and Methodologies,
which has been designed and planned according to the latest syllabus of B.Ed. course.
English is a second language for Indian students and to teach it effectively requires dexterity as
well as selection of appropriate methods of teaching, which, undoubtedly, is a big challenge for
teachers. Every possible effort has been made to include latest in second language teaching, yet
suggestions from my learned colleagues for improvement by way of adding or deleting the contents
therein will be thankfully acknowledged. Nonetheless, efforts have also been made to write this
book in simple and lucid language to be easily comprehended by students. Wherever necessary,
the contents are amply supported by illustrations and examples. Besides this, web support has also
been provided for the readers to assess the proficiency achieved after reading the book. The readers
may head over to the URL given at the back to check for resources provided on ‘preparation of
achievement test’ and other helpful reading or practice material.
I am quite sure that the innovative techniques suggested in the book will inspire the students
towards language proficiency in this age of e-learning.
Dr. Navita Arora

Acknowledgements
First, I salute lord Shiva for empowering me to update the ideas without any mental worries.
Second, I express my gratitude for my husband, Sunil Arora, and my kids, Sandra and Surucha,
for their constant motivation and support. I am obliged to Ashok Sangwan, Assistant Professor of
M.L.R.S. College of Education, Charki Dadri for his significant contribution in framing Chapter
19: Extracurricular Activities Related to English, Chapter 21: Evaluation and Chapter 22: Digital
Portfolio – Use of ICT in Learning.
I am also grateful to Amit Kumar, Atul Gupta and Sampurna Majumder from Tata McGraw Hill
Education for their support in bringing out this book in its present form.
With these words, I place the book in the hands of interested learners.
Dr. Navita Arora

Contents
About the Author ii

Foreword vii
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
1. Nature of Language 1
Introduction 1
Meaning of Language 2
3
Characteristics of a Language 4
Scope of Language 10
Summary 11
Terms to Remember 12
Exercises 12
2. Importance and Functions of Language 13

Introduction 13
Importance of the English Language in India 14
Advantages of English as a Language 16
Functions of a Language 16
Summary 17
Exercises 18
3. Linguistic Principles 20
Introduction 20
General Principles Governing the Teaching of a Language 21
Summary 27
Exercises 28
xiv Contents
4. Aims and Objectives of Teaching English 29

Introduction 29
Aims of Teaching English 30
Teaching English at Various Levels 32
Summary 34
Exercises 34
5. Stating Objectives in Behavioural Terms 36

Introduction 36
Objectives 37
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 38
Summary 45
Exercises 46
6. Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan 47

Introduction 48
Pedagogical Analysis 50
Four Pillars of Pedagogical Analysis 52
Summary 53
Exercises 54
7. Teaching of Prose 55
Introduction 55
Objectives of Teaching Prose 56
Types of Prose Lessons 57
Model Lesson Plan on Prose 60
Summary 63
Exercises 65
8. Teaching of Poetry 66
Introduction 66
67
Teaching of Poetry in Schools 69
Contents xv
Model Lesson Plan on Poetry 73

Summary 77
Exercises 78
9. Teaching of Composition 79
Introduction 79
80
Characteristics of Composition 82
Types of Compositions 84
Model Lesson Plan on Composition 91
Summary 95
Exercises 96
10. Teaching of Grammar 98

Introduction 98
Meaning of Grammar 99
Characteristics of Grammar 99
Present Position of Grammar in Indian Classrooms 99
Expected Role of Grammar 100
Objectives/Aims of Teaching Grammar 100
Types of Grammar 101
Methods of Teaching Grammar 102
Advantages and Disadvantages of Teaching Grammar 104
Suggestions for Teaching Grammar 104
Model Lesson Plan for Teaching Grammar 105
Summary 108
Exercises 109
11. Micro-Teaching 110

Introduction 110
111
Micro-Teaching Cycle 112
Time Duration of Micro-Teaching 113
Teaching Skill 113
xvi Contents
Questioning 114
116
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Questioning 116
Skill of Introduction 118
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Introduction 119
Skill of Explaining 121
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Explaning 122
Skill of Illustration 124
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Illustrating with Examples 125
Skill of Stimulus Variation 128
Components of Stimulus Variation 128
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Stimulus Variation 129
Skill of Reinforcement 133
Components of the Skill Reinforcement 133
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Reinforcement 135
Summary 137
Exercises 138
12. Methods of Teaching English 139

Introduction 139
140
Processes of Teaching 141
Approaches of Teaching-Learning 142
Methods of Teaching English 143
Which Method is the Best? 152
Summary 153
Exercises 153
13. Learner Centered Approaches 154

Introduction 154
Types of Approaches 155
Structural Approach 155
Communicative Approach 164
Summary 168
Exercises 169
Contents xvii
14. Instructional Material 170

Introduction 170
Meaning 171
172
Objectives of Audio-Visual Aids 172
173
Characteristics of Good Audio-Visual Aids 175
Principles of Audio-Visual Aids 176
Advantages of Audio-Visual Aids 176
Precautions for the use of Audio-Visual Aids 178
Different Types of Aids 179
The System Console 185
Summary 187
Exercises 188
15. Development of Listening Skills 189

Introduction 189
Sub-Skills of Language 190
Developing Listening Skills in Classrooms 192
Different Ways of Conducting Oral Work 192
Improvement of Listening Skills 193
Summary 194
Exercises 195
16. Development of Speaking Skills 196

Introduction 196
Acquiring Speaking Skills 196
Drilling 198
Pronunciation 203
Organs of Speech 203
The Sounds of English 206
Exceptions 217
Summary 221
Exercises 222
xviii Contents
17. Development of Reading Skills 223

Introduction 223
Mechanics of Reading 224
Summary 235
Exercises 236
18. Development of Writing Skills 237

Introduction 237
Development of Writing Abilities 238
Conventions of Writing 239
Handwriting 244
Teaching Handwriting 247
Summary 249
Exercises 250
19. Extracurricular Activities Related to English 251

Introduction 251
Extracurricular Activities Related to English 252
Language Games 253
Debate 264
Group Discussion Skills 265
Summary 269
Exercises 270
20. Remedial Teaching in English 271

Introduction 271
Diagnostic Testing 272
Remedial Teaching 273
English as a Second Language in India 276
Common Errors Committed by Learners 276
Summary 278
Exercises 278
Contents xix
21. Evaluation 280

Introduction 280
Test 281
Measurement 281
Examination 283
Evaluation 283
294
Development of Good Test Items in English 295
Measurement of Achievement in Spoken English 300
Measurement of Achievement in Vocabulary 303
Measurement of Achievement in Structures 304
Summary 306
Exercises 307
22. Digital Portfolio: Use of ICT in Learning Exercise for

Language Competency 308
Introduction 309
Digital Portfolio 309
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 313
Summary 316
Exercises 317
References 318
Index 321
1 Nature of Language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.
— Bloch and Trager
Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
Meaning of Language
This chapter will enable the reader to:
Nature of Language
Scope of Language
Dialect
INTRODUCTION
Language is one of the most significant possessions of human
beings. In fact, no other species have developed such a complex
system of communication as the humans. We tend to express our
thoughts effectively with the help of language and this ability
of ours distinctly differentiates us from all other living beings.
Preservation, enrichment, propagation and advancement of our
civilization have been possible largely because of this skill we
possess.
Language is considered a systematic arrangement of words
that help us in communicating our thoughts. People use different
sounds and words to express different ideas or thoughts. To
communicate a language, may be used in more than one form,
viz., verbal communication, written communication and non-
verbal communication, i.e. through body language.
2 English Language Teaching
According to H.E. Palmer, “language is a habit-forming process”. Argue for or against

Think! the statement. Give reasons for your argument.
Though English is spoken across the globe, it has several dialects depending upon the geographical
locations. The dialects vary from one region to another, primarily because of differences in culture,
beliefs, attitudes, environment and way of life. Taken together, these factors contribute to the
evolution of dialects of a particular language. English as a language is no exception. Even though
English is primarily spoken in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia and New Zealand,
people of these regions speak different dialects, have different accents and even use different words.
Even within a country, there can be various dialects. For example, the United Kingdom itself has
more than a dozen dialects, like northern, southern, east midlands, west midlands and so on. These
dialects have further sub-dialects such as Yorkshire dialect (northern), Cockney dialect (southern)
and so on.
MEANING OF LANGUAGE
The word ‘language’ seems to have been derived from the Latin word, lingua, which means tongue.
French terms langue and parole also bear impression of language (Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1 Origin of the word ‘language’
Learning a language requires four basic skills—listening, speaking, reading and writing
(Fig. 1.2).
Fig. 1.2 Basic skills of a language

Nature of Language 3
Language is both verbal as well as non-verbal. Non-verbal language largely implies body
language. The verbal language is well-developed which can be used both orally and in written form
(Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.3 Verbal and non-verbal language
DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE
Some well-known definitions of language are given below.
Ideas and feelings are the realizations but when these are related through mouth is known as language.
— Plato
A type of speech in which ties of union are created by a mere exchange of words.
— Malinowski
Language may be defined as the words and the methods of combining them for the expression of
thought.
— The Oxford English Dictionary
Language most shows a man, speak that I may thee.

— Ben Johnson
Language is a means of communicating thoughts.

— Allen
Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires
by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.
— Edward Sapir
Language is a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings.
— O. Jespersen
Each community is formed by the activity of language.

— Leonard Bloomfield
Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words, words
are combined into sentences and combination of sentences gives answering to ideas and thoughts.
— Sweet
Language is the entire complex of phenomenon associated with human vocal and auditory communication
of emotions and ideas.
— Gray
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.
— Bloch and Trager
From the above definitions, it becomes clear that language is a set of commonly used symbols
and sounds used to express thoughts and feelings within a social group. It is purely human and
non-instinctive method of communicating by means of a system of voluntarily produced sounds
and symbols. These symbols are, in the first instance, auditory and they are produced by our speech
organs.
Language is a great source of socialization. Discuss how language helps you in the
Think! process of socialization.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A LANGUAGE
A language has the following characteristics:
1. Wherever human beings exist, language exists.
2. There are no ‘primitive’ languages; all languages are equally complex and equally capable of
expressing any idea. The vocabulary of any language can be expanded to include new words
to express newer concepts.
3. All languages evolve with the passage of time.
4. All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete sounds or gestures that are combined
to form meaningful elements or words, which themselves form an infinite set of possible
sentences.
5. English grammar contains rules for the formation of words and sentences of similar kind.
6. Every spoken language includes discrete sound segments like p, n, or a, which can be defined
by a finite set of sound properties or features. Every spoken language has a class of vowels
and consonants.
7. Similar grammatical categories (for example, noun and verb) are found in all languages.
8. There are semantic universals, such as ‘male’ or ‘female’, ‘animate’ or ‘human’, found in
every language in the world.
9. Every language has a way of referring to the past, negating, forming questions issuing
commands and so on.
10. Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending infinite set of
sentences.
11. Any child, born anywhere in the world, within any racial, geographical, social, or economic
heritage, is capable of learning whichever language he or she is exposed to.
Nature of Language
Language is an arbitrary system of vocal symbols by means of which human beings interact and
communicate in terms of their common cultural experience.
Language is Learnt
Language is a form of behaviour which is essentially learnt. The infant knows no language. He or
she is exposed to sounds around him or her. A child begins to learn a language by making babbling
sounds and later on develops speech sounds of his or her group (Fig. 1.4). Gradually, meaningful
words in the native language are learnt. This helps the child to communicate their immediate needs
to the parents.
Fig. 1.4 Development of language in a child
Thus, language is learnt largely through the process of imitation.
Language is a System
A language system is complex and at the same time everything is well-structured in a language.
The system of language functions through three major elements, viz., sounds, words and structures
(Fig. 1.5). Human beings have vocal organs through which sounds are produced to form words.
Fig. 1.5 Essentials of a language

Language is a System of Symbols

The system of language works through symbols, the symbols
being the words. Symbols represent things and are not the thing
themselves. The word ‘chair’ is not a chair; it stands for or rather
represents a chair. Thus, the symbols of language have a two-fold
aspect. They have the following components (Fig. 1.6):
Fig. 1.6 Language as a system
Sounds
of symbols
Meaning
For communication, it is necessary that a meaning should be attached to the sound. Language
functions effectively when its meaning of the words are known to all parties in a conversation.
Symbols of Language are Arbitrary

The symbols of language are arbitrary and not based on any logic. A chair is called a chair not
because there is any logical or natural relationship between the word ‘chair’ and the physical reality
which we denote by it but because it is so called by tradition and convention. Similarly, in English,
a certain animal is called horse, in French cheyal, and in Hindi ghora. None of these words is better
related than any other to the reality of the animal. Hence, the symbols used in a language have
meaning, but by themselves they do not convey any meaning. In English, three important steps are
used to convey meaning:
Order of words
Forms of words
Functions of words
Let us take an example:
Naresh gave me pens.
In the above sentence, it is the order of the words that indicates that Naresh was the giver and I was
receiver. The second form of the verb indicates that the action was performed and completed in the
past, which the speaker is narrating. The suffix ‘s’ in the word ‘pens’ indicates the plurality of pen.
Language is for Communication

Ben Johnson once said, “Speech is the instrument of society.” One of the most fundamental acts of
society is the communication between the members of the group. In the pre-historic days, people
communicated with each other through sign language or visual signals made with their body
parts. With the passage of time, sound signals evolved taking the shape of standard recogonizable
structure. For example, if a man was attacked by a wild animal, he would make a particular sound
and others would come to his rescue. Gradually, speech sounds were developed and language came
into existence for the purpose of communication.
According to Sweet, “Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds
are combined into words, words are combined into sentences and combination of sentences give
answers to ideas and thoughts.” This is illustrated in Fig. 1.7.
Fig. 1.7 Expressing ideas through language
Communication by means of language may be done through speech or writing. Communication

through speech requires right pronunciation, vocabulary and intonation, while communication
through writing requires proper arrangement of words as per the rules laid down by the grammar of
the language to communicate correctly and effectively (Fig. 1.8).
Fig. 1.8 Communication by means of language
Language is Vocal
Language is also observed as speech. Speech is fundamental while learning a language; reading and
writing follow the former activity. There are many languages in the world that exist only in speech.
They neither have written symbols nor a script; but it is difficult to come across any language that
exists only in script and not in speech. This emphasizes the importance of speech. In our schools,
the speech aspect is neglected and that is why our students find it difficult to speak English fluently.
Language and its symbols are primarily meant for speaking. There are other types of symbols,
which cannot be called vocal symbols.
For example, gestures signal and flags are visual symbols and beatings of drum, singing of bells
are auditory symbols. They do not form language. Hence, all the sounds produced by the human
vocal organs cannot be included in linguistic symbols, for example sneeze and cough have no
symbolic value.
Language is Ever Changing

The old order changed yielding place to new.
— Lord Tennyson
Dynamism is one of the essential characteristics of a living language. It is constantly changing and
evolving. The ever-evolving aspect of English language becomes clear if we take into consideration
some of the changes that have taken place. Some of these are as follows:
In the 16th century, the sound /k/ was pronounced in words like know, knife, knowledge.
However, this is no longer in use.
Some words become old and obsolete. For example, the word ‘whom’ is being replaced by
‘who’.
New words are coined according to the requirement of the people and changing patterns of
dialogue. For example, the word ‘weblog’ was coined a few years back to define a website
where a person writes regularly about events which interest them. ‘Web’ is derived from
World Wide Web and ‘log’ stands for regular record of incidents.
With the passage of time, the various new words were incorporated in the dictionary as
acceptable vocabulary.
Thus, we can conclude that language is an outcome of the socio-cultural environment where it
exists and it must develop along with the various environmental factors where it originated and
exists.
Language Reflects the Culture in which it Occurs

The only basis for ‘correctness’ in a language is the usage of its native speakers. No language can
stand in isolation. It exists with its users, who in turn exist within specific social groups and in
specific situations. The cultural and social influences are reflected in their language. Every language
has its own peculiar words, phrases, idioms and structures. Some languages have no parallel in
any other language and thus it becomes difficult to translate a literary work from one language to
another and yet retain its original essence.
Think! How is language the flesh and blood of our culture? Discuss.
Language is Made of Habits

When we speak we are not conscious of the positions of the tongue, lips or teeth. It is a matter
of habit for us to arrange the words in order and to utter them correctly with proper stress and
intonation.
Since habits are acquired through practice, therefore, a language is learnt primarily by its use and
not by rules. As Prof. H.A. Gleason said, “The native speaker uses this complex apparatus easily
and without thought of the process.”
Language is a Skill Subject

The power of expression in a language is a matter of skill rather than of knowledge, it is a power that
grows by exercise, not by knowing merely meanings or rules.
— Thompson and Wyatt
Any language cannot be learnt simply by memorizing words. Though words are important, but
they alone do not constitute the structure of the language. Words along with sounds and structures
constitute a language. Hence, language is a skill subject to multiple factors such as listening,
speaking, reading and writing (Fig. 1.9).
Fig. 1.9 Skills of a language
Implications of Nature of Language for Language Teacher

A language teacher must be well-versed with the finer intricacies of the language as it will enable
him or her to teach students about various characteristics and features of the language, as well as
subtle nuances such as dialects, syntax structure etc. Below are few suggestions for the language
teachers:
Language is learnt: It is a skill-enhancing subject so the teacher should provide ample
opportunities to a student to learn English through drill, practice and repetition.
Language is an arbitrary system: The teacher should try to teach the language in English
itself and proper attention should be paid to the correct pronunciation of various words.
Language is primarily meant for speaking: Writing is the representation of what is spoken.
Listening, speaking, reading and writing are the fundamentals of learning any language.
If you want to learn a foreign language, is thinking in that language absolutely

Think! essential?
Language is a system in which sounds, words and structures are equally important: Teaching
English as a language in Indian classrooms has undergone vast changes. Study of phonetics,
morphology and other aspects of English language have been included in most curriculums.
Due importance has been given to the understanding of the basic elements of language, i.e.,
sound and structure. However, there is considerable influence of the mother tongue in the
students’ speech which is known as mother tongue influence, or MTI.
Language is dynamic: An English language teacher should use the following methods for
effective classroom teaching:
(i) Dynamic methods of teaching, e.g., structural approach
(ii) Descriptive grammar rather than prescriptive grammar
(iii) Flexible rules of language (as language keeps on changing)
No two languages are spoken alike: An English language teacher should avoid literal
translation from the vernacular to English while teaching. The speech habits acquired in the
vernacular should not be allowed to be carried onto English. An English language teacher
teaches us meanings of new words and structures by associating them with the situations in
which they are used.
Language is a system: An English language teacher should follow the steps given below:
(i) Proceed from ‘the known to the unknown’ and from ‘the concrete to the abstract’.
(ii) Select and grade the study material.
(iii) Teach vocabulary and structures wisely.
There are no exact synonyms in a language: The teacher should explain the shades of
differences between the meanings of words as no two words are exact synonyms. For example,
the students should know the differences in the meanings of want, desire, longing and so on.
Conclusion
To acquire proficiency in a language, we require
Drill and repetition
Thinking in the same language
Regular conversation in English.
So, an English language teacher should
Have a thorough knowledge of linguistics, phonetics and language structure
Stress on oral practice during the early stages of learning
Students must follow the fundamental order of learning a language, i.e., listening—speaking—
reading—writing.
SCOPE OF LANGUAGE
A language has the following potentialities:
Language represents a fundamental expression of social identity.
Language delimits the influence of social groups.
Language helps to connect with the external world.
Dialect
A dialect is a social variety of language, distinguished by grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation,
especially in a variety of speech differing from the standard or speech pattern of the culture where
it exists. The term is applied often to regional speech patterns.
In popular usage, the word ‘dialect’ is sometimes used to refer to a lesser-known language, i.e.,
most commonly a regional language, especially one that is unwritten or not standardized.
The number of speakers and the geographical area covered by them can be of arbitrary size. A
dialect might contain several sub-dialects. It is a complete system of verbal communication; it can
be oral or signed, but not necessarily written, with its own vocabulary and grammar.
A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed as sociolect. A dialect is
distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and phonology, including prosody. The
term accent is used in cases where a distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation.
Register
Register pertains to the language spoken by a certain class of people. Groups of words which are
commonly used by people working in the same profession are called register. For example, people
in the teaching profession use words like books, students, blackboard and so on. Similarly, doctors
have their own register of language and farmers have their own.
Summary
Language is the best possession of mankind. It is unique in comparison to other forms
of communication used by the animal kingdom. The study of language and linguistics
developed into a science centuries ago. With the passage of time, specialized vocabularies
also evolved. Language is essential for communicating thought. Human beings can express
their feelings clearly and effectively with the help of language.
It is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words,
words into sentences and combination of sentences gives answers to ideas and thoughts.
All languages utilize a finite set of discrete sounds (or gestures) that are combined to form
meaningful elements or words, which themselves form an infinite set of possible sentences.
Dynamism is one of the essential characteristics of language. It is constantly changing and
developing.
While teaching English Language, a teacher should
Proceed from ‘the known to the unknown’ and from ‘the concrete to the abstract’.
Select and grade the material.
Teach syntax and structures wisely.
A teacher should be well-versed in grammar and all other aspects of English language
to be able to teach English.
Thus, we can say that
Language makes existence of society possible.
Language makes it possible to understand the speaker.
Language delimits social groups.
Language connects with the external world.
Terms to Remember
Dialect A dialect is a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the
language’s speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns.
Language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
co-operates.
Register Register pertains to the language spoken by a certain class of people. The group of
words which are commonly used by the people working in the same profession is called register.
Exercises
Short Answer Questions (word limit 150)
1. What is language? Explain in ten sentences.
2. Enumerate the distinctive features of the English language.
3. What are the misconceptions about language?
4. Give some suggestions for teachers regarding teaching the English language.
5. Differentiate between dialect and register.
Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000)
1. Write a detailed note on distinctive features of the English language.
2. Give a comprehensive definition of language. Discuss the linguistic principles explaining the
nature of the language.
Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

2 Importance and
Functions of Language
English language is the greatest gift of goddess Saraswati to India.
— C. Rajagopalachari
Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
Historical Background to English
Language This chapter will enable the reader to:
Position of the English Language after
Independence
Importance of the English Language in
India
Advantages of English as a Language
Functions of a Language
INTRODUCTION
Riding the crest of technology and globalization, English
dominates the world as no language ever has. It has acquired
the status of an international language and is officially used for
communication across the continents and India is no exception.
English, as a language for communication, continues to play a
significant role in India. In India, English is the lingua franca. It
is the language of higher education, of public administration, of
law courts and of Commerce.
IMPORTANCE OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN INDIA
English is our imperialistic legacy from the British and one of the major reasons why we find it
difficult to acknowledge its indigenous nature. However, it cannot be ignored as it has permeated all
walks of life. It has acquired an even more paramount role due to its rising international popularity
and its role in bridging international boundaries.
John Stuart Mill once said: “Language is the light of the mind.” In the words of Edward Sapir,
the famous linguist, “Language is not only a vehicle for the expression of thoughts, perceptions,
sentiments, and values characteristics of a community; it also represents a fundamental expression
of social identity.”
Language is the systematic means of communication by means of conventional symbols or
sounds. It is essentially the mental faculty or power of vocal communication. According to some
linguists, language is learnt through practice and habit. The more one is exposed to the use of
language, the better one learns.
The historical circumstances of India, gave its people an easy access to master English language.
Let us examine the importance of English as a language.
Think! “Language is the maker and unmaker of human civilization.” Discuss.
1. Educational importance of English

In modern Indian society, English is no longer considered as the language of the colonizers. Today,
English is the second most widely spoken and understood language in India after Hindi. Major
Indian national dailies are published in English. Higher studies in Indian universities are conducted
in English. Education at primary and secondary levels is no exception.
2. Better career opportunities
Globalisation and economic development across the world has generated abundant employment
opportunities. With multinational corporations (MNCs) expanding their operations across the
globe, good command over English language has become essential for career progression. MNCs
are always on a lookout for ‘linguists’. As the world moves towards an economic integration, a
person’s fluency in multiple languages is highly regarded.
Rapidly growing ties between India and the West has compelled Indians to learn English,
especially businesspeople and officials seeking to build on those ties. The growing BPO sector in
India bears testimony to this fact, since India has become the major destination for outsourcing due
to its vast pool of English speaking population.
3. English as a window to the world
English is a globally spoken and recognized language. It truly acts as a connecting barrier and
informs us about the advancement and progress happening all over the world in the various fields,
such as science, technology, medicine or any other human activity. With the absence of English,
Importance and Functions of Language 15
it would have been difficult for us to access this vast reservoir of information and our standards
of scholarship would have suffered. This in turn would have been detrimental for India’s socio-
economic development.
4. English as an International Language
English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian and Old-Saxon dialects
brought to Britain by Germanic invaders in the 5th century AD. The word English is derived from
the one of the Germanic tribes named Angles. Of the two dialects, the latter came to dominate.
Later, certain linguistic shifts were introduced in English following the Norman invasion. Modern
English, which we know today, dates back to the sixteenth century.
In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century, following the economic, political and most
importantly the imperialist ambitions of Britain, English language was widely dispersed around
the world. English served as the lingua franca for the colonies of the British Empire. In the post-
colonial period, some of the newly created states opted to continue English as a major language,
despite having multiple indigenous languages.
With the passage of time, English went on to become the leading language of international
discourse. By the twentieth century English earned the status of lingua franca across many regions
of the world. The British Empire might be in full retreat after the handover of Hong Kong. But
from Bengal in Asia to Belize in the South Americas, from Las Vegas to Lahore, English has long
acquired the status of first global lingua franca.
Though English is spoken as the native language in United Kingdom, Ireland, United States,
Australia, New Zealand and South Africa; most countries across the world use English as the second
most important language for communication. Today, English language has approximately 375
million native speakers across the globe making it the third largest language spoken after Mandarin
Chinese and Spanish. However, if we combine both the native and the non-native speakers, roughly
one billion people can speak English, making it probably the most spoken language across the
world.
English as a language for communication gained further impetus, with the advent of the internet.
The social network boom established through various web based applications re-emphasized the
power of English as a global language.
During the last decade, a large number of English medium schools have been set up
Think! in India. Now, more and more people are keen to send their wards to these schools.
How far is it useful? Discuss.
Mahatma Gandhi had said, “English is the language of international commerce; it is the language
of diplomacy and it contains many a rich literacy treasures, it gives us an introduction to western
thoughts and culture.”
What is the difference between English as a second language (ESL) and English as
Think! a foreign language (EFL)?
ADVANTAGES OF ENGLISH AS A LANGUAGE

Common link language: Being a multilingual society, it was very much necessary to unify a
vast country like India through the medium of a common language. Hindi, in Devanagari script was
adopted as the official language by the Indian constitution in 1950. However, the main purpose was
not served because of the geographical limitations of Hindi. Consequently English succeeded and
unofficially became a means of inter-state communication. The Parliament Act of 1965 declared
that English would continue to be used as an associate language of the Union. Later, English was
given a suitable place in the three-language formula.
Administrative language: Since the British colonized India, way back in seventeenth century,
English, the language of the British Isles, was adopted as the administrative language. Bureaucracy,
judiciary, trade and commerce during the days of the Raj relied heavily on the usage of English
which lasted for two centuries.
Even after India gained Independence, English continued to hold an important position in India.
Slowly, with the passage of time, English became the medium of instruction for verbal and written
communication and all kinds of proceedings, from legal to commercial.
Language of trade and commerce: Western education through the medium of English truly
benefitted the Indian sub-continent. It has been successful in producing a large pool of professionally
qualified workforce adept in the use of language. Be it the IT industry or medicine, engineering,
finance, shipping or the BPO Sector, Indian human resource is valued and in demand throughout
the world.
English as a language of higher education: Major modern work in medicine, technology,
economics, engineering, mathematics, geography, science, politics and many other subjects are
studied in English. English literature is full of works of high order, it would be futile to ignore the
works of Shakespeare, Milton Shelly, Dickens Hardy, etc., In fact, English is an important library
language and plays a vital role in assisting higher education. Although a number of universities have
switched over to regional languages as a medium of instruction but it has been limited primarily to
the field of humanities.
FUNCTIONS OF A LANGUAGE
Language is an extraordinary tool for mankind. It enables us to communicate, create, reason, share
our ideas and so on. There are three generally recognized basic functions of a language. Though,
identifying these three functions is an oversimplification, but it helps to understand the complexity
of language.
Informative Language Function

This essentially deals with the communication and sharing of information:
The informative functions affirm or deny propositions.
This function is used to describe the world or reason about it (e.g., whether a state of affairs
is true or false).
This function has truth value attached to it; they are important for logical deduction and reasoning.
Expressive Language Function

This function deals with emotions or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), about the subject, and
evokes feelings in the reader (or listener).
Poetry is the best example, but much of the ordinary language discourse also expresses the
emotions, feelings or attitudes.
Expressive discourse is best regarded as neither true nor false, thus, the nature of ‘fictional
statements’ is an interesting area of inquiry.
Directive Language Function

This function uses language for the purpose of causing (or preventing) overt actions.
The directive function is most commonly found in commands and requests.
Directive language is not normally considered true or false (although logic of commands is
visible).
Example: ‘Close the window.’
Several other uses of language can be mentioned. Table 2.1 gives examples of the various
function usages.
Table 2.1: Various function usages of English
Usual function /Sentence type Informative Expressive Directive

Assertion /Declarative The room is cool I had a nice time I would like some coffee
Question/Interrogative But isn’t this room 222A Isn’t that great Don’t you want to help me
Command/Imperative Read pages 1–10 for the Have a nice day Shut the windows
test
Exclamation/exclamatory The universe is bounded I’m really glad! It’s late
Summary
In India, English was introduced with the coming of East India Company. The British
came to India for trade and commerce but soon they realized the need for educated Indians
for helping them in their work. Missionaries came along with them for propagating their
religion and for western style of educating.
With independence, a controversy began about the importance of English. People like
C. Rajagopalachari favoured the teaching of English. But there were persons who under
the influence of ‘nationalism’ strongly opposed teaching English to the people of India.
They argued that English being a foreign language was responsible for a great waste of
students’ time and energy. They declared that students could learn and express their ideas
more easily in their mother tongue. English has today reached a platform where it gets
regarded as a truly international language.
It is always remarked that “employers remember linguists”. Multinational corporations
are looking for linguists these days. As we move toward global economic integration, the
knowledge of other languages has become a sort after skill.
English being an international language keeps us updated about the advancement and
progress happening all over the world in multiple fields.
Trade, commerce and industry rely heavily on the use of English. In these fields, efficiency
and success both depend upon adequate knowledge of English.
The three important categories of functions of a language are:
Informative function: It deals with communication of information.
Expressive function: This function reports emotions, feelings and attitudes.
Directive function: This function uses language for the purpose of causing (or
preventing) overt actions.
Terms To Remember
Downward filtration theory Policy adopted by the colonizers to educate Indians in English in
order to come up with a class of Indians, who were truly educated in Western education.
Orientalists-Anglicists controversy Controversy surrounding which language should be adopted
as the lingua franca of India, English or any other vernacular.
Exercises
1. “English is a unifying link within the country.” Discuss.
2. Write a note on ‘functions of language’.
3. Write a note on the future of English language in India.
4. What do you mean by cultural importance of English?

1. “English has been playing, is playing and will play a significant role in India’s national life.”
Discuss.
2. “In free India, the importance of English is more than what it used to be in British India.”
Discuss.
3. “English is the language of international commerce; it is the language of diplomacy and it
contains many a rich literary treasures, it gives us an introduction to western thoughts and
culture.” Discuss this statement made by Mahatma Gandhi regarding the English language.
4. Discuss the importance and functions of the English language.

3 Linguistic Principles
— Robert Paul
Inside This Chapter
Introduction
Learning Objectives
General Principles Governing the
Teaching of a Language This chapter will enable the reader to:
Implications of Linguistic Principles of
Teaching–Learning for English
Teachers
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
According to the linguistic principle, a thought can be expressed
by a sentence in any natural language and anything which can
be expressed in one language can also be expressed in any other
language as well.
Experts advocate the principle of affability, according to
which a natural language can express anything that mankind
can think of. A natural language is supposedly capable of
rendering the totality of our experience—mental or physical—
and, consequently, able to express all our sensations, perceptions
Linguistic Principles 21
and abstractions up to the question as to why is there something instead of nothing. It is true that no
verbal language ever achieves total affability, for example, think of describing in words the smell
of rosemary. We always need to supplement language with ostentations, expressive gestures, and
so-called ‘tonemic’ features. Nevertheless, of all semiotic systems, language is the most expressive,
and nothing rivals in its affability.
‘The power of expression in language is a matter of skill rather than of merely

Think! meaning of rule.’ Discuss.
Linguistic principles can be broadly divided into two:
Fig. 3.1 Word break-up of the concept of linguistic principle.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language and methods of communications. Human language
is unique in nature because it is a symbolic system of communication which is learnt. Symbols are
sounds which have some meaning assigned to them by users. The meaning is arbitrarily assigned.
For example, the word “book” does not anyway physically resemble the object it stands for.
An advantage of language is that it is infinitely flexible. A person listening to someone else
speaking must put together what is being said in order to completely understand. Meanings can be
changed and new symbols can be created. Everyday new words are being invented and the meanings
of old words are evolving and changing. Modern linguists hold several basic assumptions. These
assumptions are sometimes referred to as principles of linguistics. They are least accepted and
accounted for linguistic research.
Now, let us look at the general principles governing the teaching of a language.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING

THE TEACHING OF A LANGUAGE
Teaching and learning of a language is a matter of practice. A teacher can adopt several methods
while teaching a language. However, there are certain principles which help in teaching the language
effectively. Some of the principles are discussed below in details.
Principle of Naturalness
A child learns the mother tongue due to exposure to mother tongue. So, for getting best results, a
teacher should focus on the following points—
developed in the learner.
proceed to the sentences.
Principle of Learning by Self-Doing

It is said that one learns maximum by doing. Therefore, the practice sessions and drills hold
paramount importance in language learning. Model reading, imitation reading, silent reading,
writing and spelling practice are essential activities for teaching a language.
Principle of practice
Edward Thorndike states “language is a skill which depends on continuous practice.” It is a habit
formation process and habits are formed through repetition.
Robert Lado opines that language students must be engaged in practice during most of their
learning times. This principle has a psychological justification since other things being equal to the
quality and performance of learning are in direct proportion to the amount of practice. The various
skills of language learning namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing will be properly learnt
through practice and drills.
Think! ‘Reading introduces passivity and speaking introduces activity.’ Discuss.
Principle of imitation
“When we learn our first language we face the world directly and learn to clothe it with speech, when we
learn a second language, we tend to filter the universe through the language already known.”
— Robert Paul
Language is best learnt through natural imitation. A student learns or acquires the style of
speaking and writing as demonstrated by his teacher. Therefore, it is essential that teachers be
absolutely thorough with the subject.
‘A child who hears three languages, instead of one, early enough, learns the unit of
Think! all the three without added efforts.’ Discuss.
Principle of motivation and interest

Any language apart from the vernacular requires a lot of interest and motivation to be learnt. It is
the teacher’s duty to ensure that their lessons are interesting for the students. Herbart has suggested
the following rules for making teaching sessions interesting:
Teaching sessions should comprise activity-centered lessons.

Deductive and inductive methods should be followed while teaching grammar.
Interactive sessions should be conducted and students should be encouraged to participate in
them.
Principle of Speaking
It is said that a language can be learnt by maximum usage of auditory capabilities as it
allows for correct pronunciation, speaking skill development and also generates interest and
motivation through active involvement. It is of utmost importance to make the language
sessions interactive and engaging for the students.
Principle of Ratio and Sequence

Teaching and learning of language has two main aspects—expressing and receiving. It involves
a sequence and a ratio. According to Palmer, “The principle of proportion does not necessarily
imply equality of treatment or even a fixed standard of ratio; it simply means that all items in the
whole range of subjects and aspects must receive an appropriate degree of attention so that the
student’s knowledge of them may ultimately form a harmonious whole.”
Thus, there should be proper coordination in teaching different aspects of a foreign language. For
example, while teaching a prose lesson, grammar aspects may be concomitantly discussed.
The Principle of Context and Situation

Learning a language through context and situation becomes easier. The fundamentals of learning a
language comprise vocabulary, structure and grammar. Each aspect should be built upon and taught
in context of the other.
Situational approach: A structure or word becomes
meaningful for the learner when it is used in an appropriate
situation. The child learns its mother tongue in life
situations. A foreign language, like English should also be
taught or learnt in situations.
The teacher can use a particular situation:-
To give practice in the structure and to relate it to its
meaning.
To build an extensive vocabulary. Fig. 3.2 The principle of context
Situations can be built in the following ways as and situation
shown in Figure 3.2:
Principle of Selection
Learning a language does not mean knowing all the words and structure. Therefore, we need to
select language items. Structures and vocabulary can be selected through the following principles.
Range
Coverage
Availability
Teach ability
Learn ability
1. Frequency: It means how often a particular item is used.
2. Range: The range of an item is the multiplicity of situation in which it is found. For
example, the word ‘set’, ‘come’ can be used in different situation.
3. Coverage: It means a word conveying multiple meanings. For example, we use the word
seat to displace chair, bench, desk, stool, and sofa.
4. Availability: It refers to the items which are easily available. For example, blackboard,
shelf and drawer.
5. Teach ability: It means the items which can be easily taught by the teacher.
6. Learn ability: Items which are easy from the learner’s point of view.
‘A good teacher is always in search of new principles of teaching. He/she is always

Think! keen to make use of them in teaching.’ Discuss.
Principle of gradation: Gradation means putting the language items in order of presentation.
Gradation involves grouping and sequencing as shown in Figure 3.3.
Fig. 3.3
Table 3.1: Tabular representation of grouping and examples
Grouping Example
Phonetic grouping In this grouping, minimal pairs (pairs Sea, tea, feed. Cat, pet, bat
of words differing in one sound only)
are taught together
Lexical grouping In this grouping, words that can be In the context of a ‘school’ teachers,
used in the same situation or context students, principal, chair, classroom
are taught together. etc words can be used.
Grammatical grouping In this grouping, group of structural My age is _________.
items can be taught together. Your age is _________.
His age is _________.
Her age is _________.
Semantic grouping In this grouping, words that convey E.g. The idea of shelter can be given
similar meanings are grouped under by house, hotel, inn, tent etc.
one head.
Structure grouping This grouping includes how to select Sound into words, words into phases,
items that are fit for each other. phases into sentences and sentences
into context.
Or, this can be represented as:
Fig. 3.4
Sequence:
Types of sequencing Examples

Lexical sequencing Means words follow which This, that, here, there, up, down
Grammatical sequencing Which structure follow which I am throwing a pen. I am throwing a
pen to you.
Semantic sequencing A word having different meaning. The ball is there. There are many balls.
Maxims of teaching: Oxford Dictionary defines the maxims of teaching as, “Maxims are
general truths drawn from science of experience.”
The maxims are universal and trustworthy so, every teacher is expected to have knowledge of
different maxims as it helps them to proceed systematically. The different maxims of teaching are
briefly explained below:-
From Known to Unknown:—It is easier for learners to understand something which is
known and relevant to them as it is easier to relate. Therefore while teaching a new language
one should proceed from known to unknown.
From Simple to Complex:—A teacher should present simple things to the students and
gradually move on to the complex type. By learning simple things, they feel encouraged and
ready to learn the complex matter.
From Concrete to Abstract:—Lessons are best learnt when they start from concrete and
object whereas abstract things involve imagination.
Think! ‘Our lesson ought to start in the concrete and end in abstract.’ Discuss.
From Induction to Deduction:—Induction means drawing a conclusion from a set of

examples whereas deduction is its opposite.
From Psychological to Logical:—While teaching, the teacher should keep in mind the
Fig. 3.5 Maxims of teaching

From Actual to Representative:—For teaching effectively, the actual objects should be

shown especially to young learners. Representative things in the form of pictures, models,
etc., should be used for the advanced learners.
From Near to a far:—First of all, a child should be fully acquainted with his immediate
environment and then gradually taught about those things which are far from his immediate
environment.
From Whole to Part:—First of all, a teacher should sum up the lesson and then take up
From Definite to Indefinite:—In teaching, definite things should be taught first because the
learners have faith in them. Gradually, the knowledge of indefinite things should be given.
Summary
Good teachers use the maxims of teaching for yielding better results. The teacher should
keep the maxims in his hand and appoint himself as their master.
Swami Vivekananda said, “Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is achieved”. A good
teacher is in search of new principles of teaching so that the goal of quality education could
be fulfilled.
The following are the implications of linguistic principles of teaching–learning for
English teachers:
The principle of habit formation and practice and drill tell the English teacher
that language learning is a skill. So, the teacher provides the students with a lot of
practice in listening, speaking, reading and writing.
An English teacher teaches vocabulary and structures after selecting and grading
them properly.
The knowledge of the principle of situational approach helps the English teacher
through the situations for making its learning effectively.
Motivation to use a language plays a very important role in learning a language. The
learning of English becomes effective when they are properly motivated to learn it.
The knowledge of the principle of speech before reading and writing helps the
English teacher begin his teaching of English with speech instead of reading and
writing.
A good English teacher uses the maxims of teaching for yielding better results.
The English teacher knowing the principle of imitation provides a good model of
speech before the students.
Linguistic principles of teaching and learning are devised by authorities after years
of hard work, observation and experimentation. After all these efforts, we can make
teaching of English easy and interesting for all.
Terms to Remember
Linguistic It is the scientific study of human language and communications.
Symbols These are the sounds that have meanings given to them by the users.
Frequency It means how often a particular item is used.
Range The range of an item is the multiplicity of situation in which it found.
Coverage It means a word conveying a number of meanings, for example we use the word ‘seat’
to displace chair, bench, desk, stool, and sofa.
Availability It means the items that can be conveniently taught, for example blackboard, shelf
and drawer.
Teach ability It means the items that are easy from teacher’s point of view.
Learn ability It entails the items that are easy for learner’s point of view.
Gradation It means putting the language items in order of presentation. Gradation involves
grouping and sequence.
Maxims Maxims are general truths drawn from science of experience.
Exercises
1. What is the natural way of teaching a language?
2. Explain multiple lines of approach.
3. Explain the principle of selection and gradation.
4. What is the usefulness of simple to complex maxim?
5. Write the importance of the maxim ‘known to unknown’ in teaching English.

1. Discuss the general principles of language learning.
2. What do you mean by maxim of teaching? Discuss the various maxims of teaching.
3. Discuss the implications of linguistic principles of teaching–learning for English teachers.
4 Aims and Objectives of
Teaching English
— Galileo Galilei
Inside This Chapter

Introduction Learning Objectives
Aims of Teaching English
Teaching English at Various Levels This chapter will enable the reader to:
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
English language occupies a different status in India as
compared to others. For example, in a Western European
country like Germany, English is a foreign language; but in
India it is a second language. As such, it is widely used in media,
administration, education, business and other sectors.
Hence, the main aim of teaching English in India is to help
students acquire complete command over the language. This
implies that students should not only be able to understand
spoken English, but read, write and converse in English fluently.
In the words of Thompson and Wyatt, ‘It is necessary that the
Indian people should not only understand English when it is spoken but also…able to speak and
write it.’
Think! English should be taught as a language and not as literature. Discuss.
AIMS OF TEACHING ENGLISH

The major objectives of teaching English in India are to
enable the students to understand to written English
enable the students to understand to spoken English
enable the students to understand to speak English
enable the students to understand to write English
The learner has to acquire these four skills which is possible by practice and not by learning.
The major aims of teaching English can be broadly divided into two, viz., Reception and
Expression which has further sub-divisions. Figure 4.1 given below underlines the key objectives
of teaching English.
Fig. 4.1 Aims and objectives of teaching English

Aims and Objectives of Teaching English 31
Reception
Reception refers to the ability of the students to respond to activities such as listening and silent
reading.
(a) Listening: Listening is the basis of learning a language because learning a language largely
depends on imitation and practice. The more a teacher converses in the language which is being
taught, the faster the students will be able to learn the language. In this case, radio, tape recorder,
record player can also be used to hold listening practice sessions for the students.
(b) Silent Reading: The activity of silent reading demands high concentration. A student is
required to read a text with meticulous attention. Then only he or she will be able to grasp the exact
idea behind the text.
Practice in hearing should precede and provide matter for practice in speaking.
Think! Discuss.
Expression
Expression happens to be an important aspect of learning a language. It refers to the ability of the
students to express themselves in the language they are learning. Students learning a language must
be able to express themselves in the language. Expression usually comprises three major skills,
such as speaking, reading and writing which are as explained below.
(a) Speaking: Speaking is the most important means of expressing a language. The more
fluently a person can speak in a language, the more he can express himself in a better way. Speaking
in turn depends largely upon the listening ability. As students constantly listen to a language, they
are able to grasp it faster. It is advisable that the teacher provides ample opportunities to the students
to speak in the language more often which they are learning.
However, while emphasizing on the speaking skills a teacher should always lay stress on
pronunciation and intonation.
(b) Loud Reading: Francis Bacon once said ‘reading maketh a full man’. Indeed, reading as a
skill is very important in the overall process of language learning. While learning a language, it is
a good idea to engage the students in loud reading. This helps in the following:
Improvement of pronunciation
Improvement of intonation
Removal of hesitation
Students should be encouraged to practice both silent reading as well as loud reading. Both the
activities demand high levels of concentration and are important in their own way in sharpening
each language learning skill. Loud reading in particular helps the students to grasp the idea and get
a full understanding of English as a language.
(c) Writing: Just as reading makes a full man, writing makes an exact man. Mastery over the
writing skill completes the idea of expressing in a particular language. Since, writing happens to be
a very powerful means of expression, the teacher should emphasize on writing. He or she should
give ample opportunity to the students to cultivate writing skills. More importantly the students
should be encouraged to practice original writing, to be able to think out of the box and write from
their own ideas and perceptions.
Thomson and Wyatt suggest ways for co-coordinating several types of work as follows:
Practice in hearing should precede and provide matter for practice in speaking.
Speaking should precede and provide matter for practice in speaking.
Reading should precede and provide matter for writing.
Reading should provide matter for elucidating rules and setting exercise in grammar.
Conclusion
Learning a language depends upon the mastery of all the four skills. Each skill is important in its
own way. So students need to master over the reception as well as expression ability.
Each of these skills should be given proper attention while being taught. Their co-ordination
should lead to a unified result.
In English every skill has its own importance and mastery in one skill cannot title a
Think! person man of English language.
TEACHING ENGLISH AT VARIOUS LEVELS

English as a language is taught at various levels. These include the junior level comprising grades
from nursery to grade eight; senior level consisting of grades nine to twelve and the undergraduate
level as given below:
junior level (grades vi, vii and viii)
senior level (grades ix, x ,xi, xii)
undergraduate level (B.A. English)
Teaching English at the Junior Level

Teaching English at the junior level may not be easy as it seems to be. The teacher has to take
special care while teaching. He or she should keep in mind the mental age of the students and use
simple sentences while conversing. Jargons should be strictly avoided while teaching. Given below
are some of the points that a teacher should keep in mind while teaching English at the junior level.
Students should be able to understand if a native speaker speaks English, which is not above
his level.
Acquire a limited vocabulary which is enough to help them in the use of the language that he
makes.
Acquire reading ability so that they can read the material appropriate for their level.
They should be able to frame short, simple sentences to express through speech and writing.
Speak with a pronunciation that is acceptable.
Respond to short conversational questions.
Write English legibly and coherently using proper punctuation and correct spelling.
Use English when they have to respond to calls, requests, greeting and so on.
Teaching English at the Senior Level

Teaching English at a senior level is different from that of teaching English at junior level. While
teaching English at senior level a teacher should ensure certain points as given below:
Students at the end of the secondary stage should be able to speak English fluently and
accurately. Fluency implies acquisition of a reasonable standard in speech habits which
means speaking with an acceptable pronunciation and intonation.
They should be able to speak freely. They should think in English and speak it with ease and
frequently.
They should be able to express their ideas in English classroom, at home and in society.
They should be able to respond and react to situations actively and not remain only a passive
listener.
They should acquire the ability to understand the native speakers and also be able to respond
to them.
They should be able to compose freely and independently in speech and writing.
They should be able to read books with understanding. They should also be able to read
newspapers and periodicals.
They should acquire a vocabulary of 2500 words approximately and that should include
frequent and choicest English phrases and idioms.
They should be able to use reference material viz. encyclopedia, dictionaries, reference
books, etc. when they stand in need thereof.
Teaching English at Undergraduate Level

Teaching English at the undergraduate level especially in an Indian classroom is very different form
that of teaching the same at both junior and senior levels in schools. In the words of Palmer, “To
aim at literature is to miss the way to language. To aim at language is to pave the way to literature.”
At the undergraduate level, students of English work upon their literary sense and critical thinking
more than acquiring the basic language skills. It is through the study of literature that students end
up sharpening their language skills.
Teaching English in an Indian classroom at the undergraduate level poses many challenges. This
is because; most of the prescribed authors or poets are either British or American. Though most
of the texts transcend the barriers of time and national boundaries, but the cultural context and
locations sometimes offer special challenges for the students, who essentially end up reading such
texts as an outsider. For example, an Indian student may recite Wordsworth’s Daffodils but how
many Indian students have actually come across “A host of golden daffodils; beside the lake”? It is
the situations that the classics deal with which has universal appeal cutting across borders and time.
Keeping these challenges in mind, English teaching underwent some modifications in the recent
past. New teaching methods were adopted along with modified syllabi. Along with European and
American writers, Indian writers were included in the curriculum. These included not only Indian
writers who write in English but major Indian writers who write in other languages were being
widely read in translation.
Summary
The main aim of teaching is to help students acquire command over English. Students
should be able to master the major skills of language learning, i.e., reading, writing,
speaking and listening. These can be acquired through reception and expression. Reception
includes listening and silent reading and in expression we include speaking, loud reading
and writing.
English is taught at various levels right from nursery school to the university level. Each
level has a different way of teaching method.
Terms to Remember
Reception Reception refers to the ability of the students to respond to activities such as listening
and silent reading.
Expression It refers to the ability of the students to express them in the language they are learning.
Silent Reading The activity where the student reads a text on his or her own.
Loud Reading This refers to the activity where a student reads aloud a particular text.
Exercises
1. Write the aims of teaching English according to Thompson and Wyatt.
2. Discuss:—
3. Write aim of teaching English at junior level

4. Write aim of teaching English at senior level

1. Discuss the aims of teaching English in India.
2. Which aim of teaching English is most important and why?
5 Stating Objectives in
Behavioural Terms
— P. Gurrey
Inside This Chapter

Difference between Goals and Objectives
Learning Objectives
Types of Objectives
Characteristics of Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:
Parts of Behavioural Objective
Advantages of Behavioural Objectives
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Cognitive Domain
Affective Domain
Psychomotor Domain
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
Goals are broad, generalized statements about what is to be
learned. Think of them as a target to be reached, or “hit.”
The Difference between Goals and Objectives

Though we tend to use goals and objectives as synonyms, there
are certain differences between the two. Table 5.1 highlights the
differences between the two.
Stating Objectives in Behavioural Terms 37
Table 5.1:
Goals Objectives
(i) Goals are broad (i) Objectives are hard-fought
(ii) Goals are general intentions (ii) Objectives are specific
(iii) Goals are intangible (iii) Objectives are tangible
(iv) Goals are abstract (iv) Objectives are concrete
(v) Goals cannot be validated (v) Objectives can be validated
OBJECTIVES
Objectives are something that someone is trying to achieve. Objectives are specific, outcome-based,
measurable, and describe the learner’s behaviour after instruction.
Types of Objectives
The two common types of objectives are
Learner objectives—these reflect what the learner should know or be able to do at the end
of the learning period
Instructional objectives—these reflect what the instructor intends to accomplish.
Instructional objectives may also be called performance objectives, behavioural objectives,
or simply objectives. All of these terms are used interchangeably.
Characteristics of Objectives
The characteristics of objectives are listed below:
Specific: Objectives are very specific. This means that they should describe precisely what the
learner is expected to do.
Outcome-based: Objectives are outcome-based. This means that the objective is going to
state what the learner should be able to do after the instruction is complete. The process of how the
instruction happens is not considered in an objective.
Measurable: Objectives are measurable. This means that objectives should describe learning
outcomes that can be measured.
Describe student behaviour: Objectives describe student behaviours. This means that
objectives should relate what the student should be able to do after the instruction.
Hence the behavioural objectives: These reflect what the learner might be expected to do
differently (e.g., change in behaviour) as a result of what has been learned. These objectives indicate
the specific behaviours students must demonstrate to indicate that learning has occurred.
Think! Discuss the meaning of objectives in behavioural terms.
Parts of Behavioural Objective

1. Student Behaviour:—skill or knowledge to be gained (e.g., vocabulary words) and the action
or skill the student is able to do (e.g., define, label, categorize, analyze, design, evaluate, etc.)
Examples: Students will add two-digit numbers; Students will define the vocabulary
words identified in bold print in the first story.
2. Conditions of Performance:—under what circumstances or context will the behaviour be
performed
Examples: In an oral presentation; without the use of notes
3. Performance Criteria:—how well is the behaviour is to done; compared to what standard
Examples: 80 out of 100; containing all components discussed in class.
Advantages of Behavioural Objectives

The advantages of behavioural objectives are listed below:
They are easier to categorize by domain (Cognitive, affective, physical/kinesthetic/tactile)

They are more easily evaluated. (usually by objective methods.)
May easily be designated for horizontal enrichment or vertical acceleration into categories of
must know, need to know, nice to know or categories like: introduced, developed, mastered
In general, learner objectives are more effective than instructional objectives. In other words, it
is much more effective to state activity objectives in terms of what learners should be able to know
or do at the end of the learning period, rather than what the instructor plans to do in the process of
presenting the course.
Which one is better?

Think!
Objectives of teaching English or Objectives of teaching English in behavioural terms
TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, often called Bloom’s Taxonomy, is a classification
of the different objectives and skills that educators set for students (learning objectives). The
taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University
of Chicago.
Bloom’s (and his colleagues’) initial attention was focused on the ‘Cognitive Domain’, The
‘Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II, The Affective Domain’ (Bloom, Masia,
Krathwohl) as the title implies, deals with the detail of the second domain, the ‘Affective Domain’,
and was published in 1964.
Various people suggested detail for the third ‘Psychomotor Domain’, which explains why this
domain detail varies in different representations of the complete Bloom Taxonomy. The three most
popularly referenced versions of the Psychomotor Domain seem to be those of RH Dave (1967/70),
EJ Simpson (1966/72), and AJ Harrow (1972).
Definitions of Bloom’s Taxonomy

Taxonomy means ‘a set of classification principles’, or ‘structure’, and domain simply means
‘category’
Bloom’s Taxonomy model is in three parts, or ‘overlapping domains’. Again, Bloom used rather
academic language, but the meanings are simple to understand:
1. Cognitive domain (intellectual capability, i.e. the knowing head)
2. Affective domain (feelings, emotions and behaviour, i.e., the feeling heart)
3. Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, i.e.,the doing hand)
The levels of this taxonomy are considered to be hierarchical. That is, learners must master lower
level objectives, before they can build on them to reach higher level objectives.
A low level is “low” only in the sense that it comes first—it provides the basis for all “higher”
cognitive activity. Only after a learner is able to recall information at the knowledge level it is
possible to move on to comprehension (giving meaning to information) or to other higher levels.
The main value of the Taxonomy is twofold:
It can stimulate teachers to help students acquire skills at all these levels, laying proper
foundation for higher levels by first assuring mastery of lower-level objectives.
It provides a basis for developing measurement strategies to assess student performance at all
these levels of learning.
Think! Taking the example of adjective, how will you write objectives in behavioural terms?
Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes
the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the
development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed
in order below, starting from the simplest behaviour to the most complex. The categories can be
thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can
take place.
1. Knowledge
Definition
Knowledge entails the ability to recall or state information.
Knowledge of specifics—terminology, specific facts
Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics—conventions, trends and sequences,
classifications and categories, criteria, methodology
Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field—principles and generalizations,
theories and structures
Clarification of Terms in the Definition This is a restricted sense of the common usage of the
word knowledge. In a general sense, we use the word knowledge to describe everything we know,
which would include all the levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills This is the lowest level of the hierarchy. It is necessary
to be able to recall information before it can be comprehended or used for higher level activities.
Examples of Knowledge Objectives
Questions like: What is the capital of Maine? Who wrote “Hamlet?”

Note: Words typically used: define, recall, recognize, remember, who, what, where, when.
2. Comprehension
Definition
interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating main ideas

Translation
Interpretation
Extrapolation
Clarification of Terms in the Definition Often, if the knowledge is meaningful, the comprehen-
sion and knowledge levels occur simultaneously. That is, if we can remember a definition of a term,
we can also give meaning to that term. However, this is not always the case. It is at least conceptu-
ally possible that a person could recall information without giving meaning to it.
From Bloom’s point of view, it is essential that learners be able to comprehend information (not
just remember it) before they move on to higher levels of knowledge (such as application).
Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills Knowledge is a prerequisite for comprehension.

Compre-hension is a prerequisite for all higher-level activities.
Examples of Comprehension Objectives
Questions like:
Words typically used: describe, compare, contrast, rephrase, put in your own words
3. Application
Definition: Application entails the ability to use knowledge or principles in new or real-life
situations.
Clarification of Terms in the Definition Application refers to rule using rather than problem-
solving, which would entail a higher level of thinking.
Bloom’s use of the term application differs from our normal conversational use of the term.
When working at any of the four highest levels of the taxonomy, we “apply” what we have learned.
At the application level, we “just apply.” At the higher levels, we “apply and do something else.”
Perhaps it would be best to think of this level as simple application.
Note that application and use are not synonymous. For example, a person who spells “cat”
correctly is not applying the rule for spelling cat. This is a simple knowledge task. However, a
person who spelled “remedied” by “changing the y to i and adding ed” would be applying that rule.
Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills Comprehension is a prerequisite for application.
Application is a prerequisite for analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Examples of Application Objectives
Write a part of a poem (perhaps by changing a metaphor or inserting a different word that
rhymed).
Identify an example of a metaphor in a poem.
Use the rule for a semicolon in a sentence.
Questions like:
Words typically used: apply, classify, use, choose, employ, and write an example, solve, how
many, which, what is.
4. Analysis
Definition: Analysis entails the ability to break down complex information into simpler parts and
to understand the relationships among the parts.
Analysis of elements
Analysis of relationships
Analysis of organizational principles
Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills Application is a prerequisite for analysis.
Analysis was originally considered to be a prerequisite for synthesis; but there is not universal
agreement on this issue. That is, some theorists believe that a person who is capable of application
can go directly to synthesis (without first learning analysis)—at least in some areas.
Analysis or synthesis is a prerequisite for evaluation.
Example of Analysis Objectives
5. Synthesis
Definition: Synthesis entails the act of creating something that did not exist before by integrating
information that had been learned at lower levels of the hierarchy.
Production of a unique communication
Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
Derivation of a set of abstract relations
Clarification of Terms in the Definition This is really a common-sense definition of the word.
In normal language, when we put together a whole series of skills, we say we are synthesizing those
skills.
Think! The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.
Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills Application is a prerequisite for analysis.

Analysis was originally considered to be a prerequisite for synthesis; but there is not universal
agreement on this issue. That is, some theorists believe that a person who is capable of application
can go directly to synthesis (without first learning analysis)—at least in some areas.
Analysis or synthesis is a prerequisite for evaluation.
Questions like:
Words typically used: identify motives/causes, draw conclusions, determine evidence, support,
analyze, why.
Example of Synthesis Objectives
Words typically used in synthesis questions: Predict, produce, write, design, develop, synthesize,
construct, how can we improve, what would happen if, can you devise, how can we solve.
Questions like: Can you predict an outcome?
6. Evaluation
Definition: Evaluation entails the ability to make judgments based on previous levels of learning
to compare a product of some kind against a designated standard.
Judgments in terms of internal evidence
Judgments in terms of external criteria
Clarification of Terms in the Definition The word evaluation can also be used in an affective
sense. For example, we can evaluate a course we have pursued by stating that we liked the course
and would be happy to take another from the same professor. This statement could be based entirely
on our emotional reaction to the course. While it is good to have emotions, this would not be an
example of evaluation in Bloom’s sense. To meet Bloom’s definition, there has to be a comparison
to a cognitive standard of some kind. For example, if a course evaluation asked you to analyze
what a teacher did and to state how well he did each of these things compared to some standard of
performance, this would fit Bloom’s definition of evaluation.
Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills Evaluation is the highest level of cognitive activity in
any area. That is, one of the most important goals in any area is that a person be able to invent new
solutions to a problem and determine the degree to which these solutions still need to be improved.
Analysis or synthesis is a prerequisite for evaluation. That is, a person can analyze someone
else’s product and compare it to a standard; or a person can develop a new product of his own and
compare it to a standard.
Examples of Evaluation Objectives
Analyze your own or a peer's essay in terms of the principles of composition discussed during
the semester.
It can be used to start a class discussion. It can also precede a follow-up analysis or synthesis
question like, "Why?"
Questions like:
Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the
simplest behaviour to the most complex:
Bloom, Krathwohl and Masia have divided the affective domain into five parts:
Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel
another living thing’s pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in
attitudes, emotions, and feelings.
There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest order processes to the
highest:
1. Receiving
The lowest level; the student passively pays attention. Without this level no learning can occur.
2. Responding
The student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a stimulus, the student
also reacts in some way.
3. Valuing
The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon, or piece of information.
4. Organizing
The student can put together different values, information, and ideas and accommodate them within
his/her own schema; comparing, relating and elaborating on what has been learned.
5. Characterizing
The student has held a particular value or belief that now exerts influence on his/her behaviour so
that it becomes a characteristic.
Psychomotor Domain
This domain is characterized by progressive levels of behaviours from observation to mastery of a
physical skill. Several different taxonomies exist.
Simpson (1972) built this taxonomy on the work of Bloom and others:
Set—Mental, physical, and emotional dispositions that make one respond in a certain way to
a situation.
Guided Response—First attempts at a physical skill. Trial and error coupled with practice
lead to better performance.
Mechanism—The intermediate stage in learning a physical skill. Responses are habitual with
a medium level of assurance and proficiency.
Complex Overt Response—Complex movements are possible with a minimum of wasted
effort and a high level of assurance they will be successful.
Adaptation—Movements can be modified for special situations.
Origination—New movements can be created for special situations.
Dave (1970) developed this taxonomy:
Imitation—Observing and copying someone else.
Manipulation—Guided via instruction to perform a skill.
Precision—Accuracy, proportion and exactness exist in the skill performance without the
presence of the original source.
Articulation—Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently.

Naturalization—Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently and
with ease. The performance is automatic with little physical or mental exertion.
A J Harrow (1972) developed this taxonomy. It is organized according to the degree of
coordination including involuntary responses and learned capabilities:
Reflex movements—Automatic reactions.
Basic fundamental movement—Simple movements that can build to more complex sets of
movements.
Perceptual—Environmental cues that allow one to adjust movements.
Physical activities—Things requiring endurance, strength, vigor, and agility.
Skilled movements—Activities where a level of efficiency is achieved.
Non-discursive communication—Body language.
Conclusion
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a wonderful reference model for all involved in teaching, training, learning,
coaching—in the design, delivery and evaluation of these development methods. This Taxonomy
provides a simple, quick and easy checklist to start to plan any type of personal development. It
helps to open up possibilities for all aspects of the subject or need concerned, and suggests a variety
of the methods available for delivery of teaching and learning. As with any checklist, it also helps
to reduce the risks of overlooking some vital aspects of the development required.
Summary
Teaching English in behavioural terms is a more scientific approach towards teaching
English.
Objectives are of two types, Learner Objectives and Instructional Objectives. Objectives
are specific, outcome-based and measurable. Behavioural objectives have three parts, viz.
student behaviour, conditions of performance and performance criterion.
The taxonomy of educational objectives, often called Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification
of the different objectives and skills that educators set for students. This was proposed by
Benjamin Bloom in 1956.
The three main parts of Bloom’s taxonomy include Cognitive Domain, Affective Domain
and Psychomotor Domain.
Bloom’s taxonomy is an appropriate reference model for teaching, training and learning
as well.
Terms to Remember
Goals These refer to targets that are achieved. They are broad and generalized.
Objectives Objectives are specific targets that someone looks forward to achieve.
Bloom’s Taxonomy It is the classification of learning objectives within the system of education.
Cognitive Domain It refers to the domain that involves acquiring knowledge and intellectual
skills.
Affective Domain This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally,
such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.
Exercises
1. Write the characteristics of objectives.
2. Write the three parts of behavioural objectives.
3. Write the various categories of cognitive domain.
4. Write a note on the affective domain.

1. Write a detailed note about Bloom’s taxonomy of Educational objectives.
2. Write the categorization of psychomotor domain given by Dave, Simpson and Harrow.

6 Unit Analysis,
Pedagogical Analysis
and Lesson Plan
“Teaching is more than science because it involves artistic judgement about the best ways
to teach. Teacher employs his aesthetic sense in his teaching. The expressions of art depart
from the rules and principles of science.”
— N. L. Gage
Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
Unit Analysis: Meaning and Objectives
Pedagogical Analysis: Meaning and
Objectives
Lesson Plan: Selecting Plan Material

Lesson Plan: Evaluation
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
In a good syllabus, the different content items are given unit-wise which follows the maxim of easy to
complex. When we approach the syllabus or its teaching unit-wise, it is called unit approach.
It provides a sort of platform to the teacher to think and decide the order in which he has to teach.
Unit-wise teaching, unit-wise learning and unit-wise testing ensures better deal of the contents at
the hands of the teacher and the learner.
What is a Unit?
A unit is a related learning segment made up of a few lessons along with an outline of its execution
in the classroom. Unit will consist of both the subject matter and methodology of its delivery to
students.
Unit Analysis
Unit analysis is made up of two parts, i.e., unit and analysis. A unit is a group of interrelated subject
matter and analysis means breaking it into parts
Unit + Analysis
Unit: Group of interrelated subject matter
Analysis: Breaking it into parts
Fig. 6.1
Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan 49
Think! A unit is a related learning segment made up of a few lessons. Discuss.
For the effective teaching learning process, units should be divided into sub units, further sub
units into topics, to cover the syllabus in the stipulated period of time. Figure 6.1 highlights an
effective teaching learning process.
Objectives for the Unit

Objectives are chalked out to fix the purpose of evaluation. A teacher has to be very careful and
intelligent during formulation of instructional objectives. If a teacher sets objectives for a lesson
plan of 45 minutes duration, then the objectives will be fixed up for the full unit. Objectives can be
of two types:
1. Scholastic objectives:
Skills
Applications
2. Non-scholastic objectives:
Physical development
Social development
Personality development
Examples of scholastic objectives for poem are:
Knowledge:
The students will be able to recognize ideas contained in the poem.
The students will be able to recall the thoughts given in the poem.
Understanding:
The students will be able to understand the ideas or thoughts contained in the poem.
Skills:
The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills that are listening, speaking,
reading and writing.
Application:
The students will be able to apply the art of reciting a poem in different life situations.
Advantages
The advantages of a unit plan are given below:
It provides basic course structure around which specific class activities can be organized.
It provides an opportunity for the teacher to keep a balance between various dimensions of
the prescribed course.
It enables the teacher to complete the syllabus within stipulated time.
It helps the teacher to make the presentation systematic and effective.
It enables the teacher to integrate the basic course concepts for effective teaching learning
process.
Performance for Unit Plan

Table 6.1 gives an idea about the performance for Unit Plan
Table 6.1
Grade level:
Unit:
Objective:
S. No. Major content items No. of periods Teaching methods Learning aids
Limitations
Unit analysis has the following limitations:—
All the contents material may not be amenable to categorization into compact and homogenous
units.
Some units may be too long and some too short. It may not be possible to distribute the topics
evenly.
The organization of all the content material unit wise requires considerable skill and
experience.
PEDAGOGICAL ANALYSIS
Meaning of Pedagogy
The general dictionary defines pedagogy as an art as well as a science of teaching methods.
Similarly, we can define pedagogical analysis as it is a combination of two words, i.e., pedagogical
+ analysis. Figure 6.2 given below elucidates the meaning of pedagogy.
Fig. 6.2
Thus, pedagogical analysis is the concept of “teaching as an art and a science (Fig. 6.3).”
True knowledge is based on observations and experiences. Teaching is more than a science
because it also involves artistic judgment and aesthetic sense about the best ways of teaching. The
expression of art is beyond the rules and principles of science.
Objective of Pedagogical Analysis

To make teaching and learning more scientific, systematic, effective and impressive.
To critically decide upon aims, objectives and scope of the course.
To analyze the course content into effective teaching units.
To apply proper teaching strategy.
To evaluate critical evaluation of the effectiveness of the topics in the curriculum.
Think! Pedagogical analysis should be based on unit analysis. Discuss.
Fig. 6.3
FOUR PILLARS OF PEDAGOGICAL ANALYSIS

There are four pillars of pedagogical analysis as shown in Fig. 6.4
Fig. 6.4
1. Content Analysis
It means breaking down of the content or subject matter into its constituent subunits, subtopics to
make the content systematic and meaningful.
2. Formulation of Instructional Objectives

It is the second step of pedagogical analysis. After content analysis, a teacher carefully formulates
instructional objectives in behavioural terms as students are expected to demonstrate the specific
types of behavioural outcomes.
Fig. 6.5
3. Learning Experiences and Chosen Methods

It is the third step of pedagogical analysis. A teacher should perform following activities:
Use of different methods and approaches.
Use of different and effective teaching aids like chalkboard, pictures, flashcards.
To make the concept clear by using various teaching skills.
4. Evaluation Devices
It is the fourth and last step of pedagogical analysis. Evaluation determines whether the set objectives
are to be achieved or not. The behavioural outcomes are measured with the help of evaluation
devices which can be oral, written or practical activities.
Think! How are materials and methods related with each other? Discuss.
Conclusion
Thus, pedagogical skill analysis is a cyclic process and it continuous till the desired behavioural
changes occur in the students.
Summary
A related learning segment made up of a few lessons along with an outline is referred to
as unit.
Unit analysis is made up of two parts, unit and analysis. Unit refers to a group of
interrelated subject matter and breaking up the same into parts is termed as analysis.
Pedagogy is defined as the art as well as the science of teaching methods.
The four pillars of pedagogical analysis are unit analysis, formulation of instructional
objectives, learning experiences and chosen methods, evaluation devices.
A teacher’s detailed description of the course of instruction for a particular lesson is
referred to as lesson plan.
Title of the lesson, time required to complete the lesson are some of the determinants of
lesson plan.
A well-developed lesson plan reflects interests and needs of students. It incorporates best
practices for the educational field.
Organization is the key to success. An organized teacher knows exactly what all students
are doing at all times, what they have done and where they need to be going next. Lesson
plans allow teachers to ensure they are covering all outcomes that need to be taught.
Terms to Remember
Unit A related learning segment made up of few lessons.
Unit Analysis Made up of two words, unit analysis individually refers to a group of interrelated
subject matter and breaking them up into parts.
Pedagogy The art and science of teaching is known as pedagogy.
Pedagogical Analysis It stands for a type of analysis based on pedagogy. In this analysis the
emphasis is given on drawing maximum teaching outcomes.
Lesson Plan A lesson plan is a teacher’s detailed description of the course of instruction for an
individual lesson.
Summative Assessment It usually consists of tests, semester exams, end of unit or end of chapter
tests that evaluate student progress, performance, and knowledge. The teacher calculates final
grades based upon performance in these exams.
Formative Assessment Formative assessment evaluates the process of learning in its process,
and is a part of the teaching process.
Exercises
1. What is unit analysis?
2. Enumerate the objectives of unit analysis.
3. Enlist the advantages of unit analysis.
4. Define pedagogical analysis.
5. Enlist the characteristics of pedagogical analysis.
6. Pedagogical analysis comprises four pillars. What are they?
7. Describe lesson plan.
8. Describe a well-developed unit in a lesson plan.

1. Write a detailed note on Pedagogical Analysis.
2. Explain the four pillars of pedagogical analysis with the help of a diagram.
3. State the various objectives and advantages of unit analysis.
4. What are the limitations of unit analysis?
5. Write a detailed note on planning of a lesson.
6. Make a lesson plan on any topic of English.

7 Teaching of Prose
…Words in their best order.
— Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives
Introduction
Characteristics of Prose This chapter will enable the reader to:
Types of Prose
Objectives of Teaching Prose
-
Types of Prose Lesson
Teaching Prose Intensively: Suggestive
Steps
Teaching Prose Extensively: Suggestive
Steps
Types of Comprehension Question
Testing Comprehension of the Learner
Types of Reading
INTRODUCTION
The word prose is derived from the Latin word prosa meaning
a ‘straightforward discourse.’ Prose can be defined as the
ordinary form of spoken or written language that applies simple
grammatical structure and natural flow of speech. It applies to
all expressions in language devoid of a rhythmic pattern. In the
words of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Prose is words in their best
order.” Novels, essays, short stories, works of criticism are all
examples of prose.
Prose is primarily meant for learning a language. Teaching
prose begins with teaching the skill of reading. The next step
in this process is to teach how to read with comprehension.
Reading with comprehension helps the learners to acquire new
vocabulary through reading and listening. Teaching prose enables the students to understand the
passage, to read fluently, to enrich their vocabulary and to enjoy reading and writing. It enables the
learners to extend their knowledge of vocabulary and structures and to become more proficient in
the four language skills.
transmit them to new generations.
Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing
OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING PROSE

English language teaching is incomplete without the teaching of prose. The objectives of teaching
prose are somewhat similar to that of reading skills. Since prose is defined as the ordinary form of
spoken or written language, learning prose help students master English language. The more they
read English prose, the more they acquire mastery over the language.
The major objectives of teaching prose can be divided into two, general and specific objectives.
The following points can be enlisted under the general objectives of teaching prose.
writing.
way.
style.
Teaching of Prose 57
Present Position of Teaching Prose
They rarely teach prose for making the students learn the language.
Advantages of Prose Reading at Different Levels

“We should concentrate all our attention on the pupils now in school and make them more and more
book minded. We should create in them a real love for books and good taste for reading.”
— Prof. Rajagopalan
TYPES OF PROSE LESSONS

Two major forms of prose lessons are Intensive Reading and Extensive Reading. These are explained
below.
1. Intensive Reading/Detailed Prose Lesson

When one reads a text for accuracy it is called intensive reading. This type of reading is done under
the guidance of instructors. As intended it results in detailed understanding of the text, it is primarily
concerned with the development of reading strategies like judgement, reasoning, interpretation and
appreciation.
Since intensive reading exercise is primarily taken to achieve accuracy so, the instructor need to
keep in mind that
1. It must be based on the structural syllabus.
2. It must be interesting and well graded.
6. It must have provisions for silent reading and reading aloud.
2. Extensive Reading/Non-Detailed Prose Lesson

Extensive reading or reading for fluency involves reading of longer texts for pleasure. This is also
known as rapid reading or independent silent reading with the primary objective of comprehending
the text as quickly as possible.
It plays a vital role in the learning of second/foreign language. The students are made to read as
much as possible by allowing them the choice to select the books of their interest. As they choose
what, when and where to read, this freedom creates interest among them producing a conducive
environment to learn, to read and comprehend faster.
Since extensive reading is more for improving the fluency and speed, following are the various
1. The instructor provides hint about the passage.
3. The students read silently and quickly.

4. The teacher asks questions to test the students’ understanding.
Table 7.1:
Table 7.1:
Intensive Reading Extensive Reading

1. Non detailed study of the book.
2. The text book is read thoroughly word by word. 2. The text book is read to get the overall
understanding of the passage.
3. In detailed prose lesson each and every difficult 3. The teacher need not to explain the meaning
word, idioms or phrase is fully explained to the of each and every word.
students.
4. Students are required to read it not only for 4. Students are required to read it only for
comprehension but also for mastering the present comprehension.
structure and vocabulary.
5. Concentrate upon the language. 5. Concentrate upon the subject matter.
6. Reading is aloud and controlled by the teacher. 6. Reading is silent and independent.
7. Its aim is to make a careful and minute security of 7. Its aim is only to grasp the meaning of what is
what is read. read.
Which Type of Reading is More Important?

Both types of reading are important in their own ways. Generally in the junior classes, books are
prescribed for intensive reading. But in the higher classes, extensive reading on the part of the
students is as important as is intensive reading. So, a judicious combination should be planned to
inculcate both types of reading in curriculum.
What is a Comprehension Question

In teaching prose, testing comprehension ability of the learner is very important. A comprehension
question is a question put to assess the reader’s ability to read and understand a piece of writing.
Types of Comprehension Question

1. Global question:—To test the overall understanding of the paragraph.
2. Factual question:—Tries to find out whether the learner is able to locate the fact occurring
in the paragraph.
3. Inferential question:—Whenever the learner has to think beyond the answer given in the
paragraph.
4. Evaluation question:—The learner is expected to give a critical thinking to the question and
give the answer from his point of view.
Testing comprehension of the learner:
Think! Loud reading should be followed by silent reading. Discuss.
Prose may be read loudly or silently. The differentiating factors between these two ways of
reading are explained in Table 7.2
Table 7.2:
Loud Reading Silent Reading

1. Loud reading means reading a book loudly so 1. Silent reading means reading to oneself and
that it is audible to others what is being read is not audible to others
2. This type of reading is useful during the first 2. This type of reading is useful at the advanced
three or four years of language learning level of learning a language
(a) Improvement of listening ability (a) Encourage the love for reading
(b) Recognition of different sounds (b) Trace the main idea
(c) Pronunciation of the students can be (c) Gives the students feeling of power and
improved achievement
Loud reading is advantageous at the early stages as it Silent readings inculcate love for reading and are
help in improvement of pronunciation. pleasurable and it gives the pupil a feeling of power
and achievement.
Think! Silent reading indicates self education and deep study. Discuss.
MODEL LESSON PLAN ON PROSE

P.T’S ROLL NO. – PERIOD_________
CLASS – X DURATION–30 Min
SUBJECT – ENGLISH DATE_________
TOPIC – And thus Flows the Narmada
(Reading with comprehension)
Instructional aids to be Used
words.
Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Terms

Knowledge: 1. The students will be able to acquire knowledge of new words.
2. They will be able to recognize and recall those words.
Understanding: 1. The students will be able to understand the prose lesson.
2. They will be able to use those language items.
3. The students will be able to understand the correct pronunciation.
Skills: 1. The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills like
speaking, reading, writing.
Application:
2. They will be able to read newspaper and other such reading material in a
better way.
3. The students will be able to use different grammatical aspects of English
language.
Previous Knowledge Testing

Announcement of the Topic
Presentation
Teaching Students’ Chalk Board
P.T.’s Activities
Point Activities Writing
In the chapter, Royina Grewal describes her journey
Brief along the river Narmada. She tells us about the Listen carefully And Thus
summary of Flows The
the passage Amarkantak. Narmada
splashes gently in through an opening that resembles

reading by
the P.T. temples clustered around the tank are mirrored in
the still water. These temples are dedicated to Lord
flock to this place every year for the parikarma of Students will
keep their books
at the edges of the tank and coins gleam at the close and listen
bottom. carefully.
The river is a little stream barely six feet wide

sparkling blue and tumbling gently westwards. The
holy river is surrounded by Sal forests. Sal forests
the source tank. The youthful river, reinforced by
cliff.
smoke’.
Second
model P.T. will do the second model reading of the passage. Students will
reading of keep their books
the passage open and listen
be the P.T. carefully
Contd.
P.T. will ask the students to do the model reading of Students will
reading of
the passage do the model
the passage
reading of the
by students
passage.
Difficult Meaning Technique Context

words Spring
1. Spring A point where By flashcard Yesterday we

groundwater flows visited a cool The students
out of the ground mountain spring will note down
the difficult
words in their
Cluster
2. Cluster A close group of By flashcard A cluster of stars

people or things are shining in the
sky.
Cliff
3. Cliff a steep, high face By flashcard The sign said,

of a rock
the cliff.
The students
will note down
to move slowly & By flashcard the difficult
without resistance in the water
words in their
in air and water notebook
Silent P.T. will ask the students to do the silent reading of Students will
reading by the passage. do the silent
the students reading of the
passage.
Contd.
Q.1 Royina Grewal Royina Grewal

hension Q.2
Q.3 White temples White temples
Q.4 What offerings does one find inside the
coins
Q.5 Name the two waterfalls mentioned in the
lesson.
Review Questions
HOME WORK
(a) splash (b) gleam (c) reinforced (d) innumerable
Summary
Prose is the most important form of literature which appeals to the head and there is no
rhythm in prose.
students for the examination. They rarely teach prose for making the students learn the
language.
Prose could be in the form of essay, novel, short stories, biography, composition, play and
so on.
help to enrich the learner’s active vocabulary by promoting the skill of listening and
speaking.
Specific objectives help to enrich learner’s active and passive vocabulary by promoting
the skill of reading and writing and also help in improving pronunciation.
Prose lessons can be of two types, Intensive and Extensive. Intensive lesson means
detailed study of the prose. Extensive lesson means non detailed study of the prose.
Prose may be read loudly or silently. Loud reading means reading by producing sound
audible to others and Silent reading means reading something without producing sound
audible to others.
Terms to Remember
Prose “Prose is the words in their best order”.
Essay A loose sally of the mind, an irregular, indigestion piece, not a regular and orderly
performance.
Novel A long narrative in prose detailing the action of the fictitious people.
Short story
can not be treated with the same detail as in the novel.
Biography The history of the lives of the individual men as a branch of literature.
Composition Composition is an art of self expression. “It is called the expressive aspect of
language”.
Play Play presents fiction or fact in a form that could be acted before an audience. A play has a
plot, character, dialogue and atmosphere and outlook on the life much as a novel has, but is a rule
intended to be performed in public, not read in private.
Intensive reading
Extensive reading Non detailed study of the prose.
Global question
Factual question
Inferential question
paragraph.
Evaluation question
question and give the answer from his point of view.
Loud reading
Silent reading
Exercises
2. Write the general objectives of teaching prose.

3. Write the specific objectives of teaching prose.
5. State the differences between general and specific objectives of teaching prose.
3. Give a detail description of aims and objectives of teaching prose.

4. Prepare a detailed lesson plan on prose for class viii.

8 Teaching of Poetry
— William Wordsworth
Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
INTRODUCTION
The word poetry is derived from the Greek term poesis. It is a
form of literary art used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities.
In literary sense, both poetry and prose are taught as forms of
writing in English language. However, poetry differs in form
from prose and offers a visual form in words. Poetry commonly
appears as a sequence of lines arranged in stanzas. Poetry uses
rhyme and relies heavily on figurative language.
Poetry can tell a story, describe an object or a situation,
narrate an event, or simply express one’s feelings. Irrespective
of the substance of the remarks and the ultimate message, poetry
is characterized by experts as the literary form that goes beyond
standard sentence structure.
Teaching of Poetry 67
Above all, poetry involves those aspects of English language that appeal to a person’s aesthetics,
and is communicated by rhyming sounds and visualization. It is for these reasons that we cannot
really speak of restating poetry. Indeed, this is one reason why many people find poetry difficult to
comprehend.
DEFINITIONS OF POETRY
Poetry is defined as a literary form, in which emphasis is laid upon the expression of ideas and
feelings by the use of a distinctive style and rhythm. Poetry, as described by few famous poets is
given below.
William Wordsworth defined poetry as, “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings.”
Emily Dickinson said, “If I read a book and it makes my body so cold no fire ever can warm me,
I know that is poetry.”
In the words of Dylan Thomas, “Poetry is what makes me laugh or cry or yawn, what makes my
toenails twinkle, what makes me want to do this or that or nothing.”
To quote Robert Frost “A poem begins with a lump in the throat, a home-sickness or a love-
sickness. It is a reaching-out toward expression; an effort to find fulfillment. A complete poem is one
where the emotion has found its thought and the thought has found the words.”
Think! Poetry can be caught, cannot be taught. Discuss.
Though poem and poetry are used interchangeably to mean the same, however there is a
fundamental difference between the two. Poetry is a literary art form, whereas a poem is a written
piece of the same, the composition itself. It can be said that poetry is one of the literary art form and
poem is the fundamental unit of the same.
literature.
anger, and love.
of elemental truth and beauty. In John Keats’ words,

“Poetry is artistically rendering words in such a way as to evoke intense emotion or an
Ah Ha! Experience from the reader.”
Why poetry is regarded as noble thoughts and noble emotions caught in noble
Think! language. Discuss.
Characteristics of Poetry
The characteristics of poetry can be categorized as:
Fig. 8.1 Characteristics of poetry
Objectives of Teaching Poetry at Different Levels
part of poetry.
Present position of teaching poetry

1. Teachers just translate the poem into their vernacular.
2. Teachers ask their students to learn the summary of the poem.
3. Teachers usually dictate notes on poetry and ask them to summarize and reproduce the same
in class in oral or written form.
Arguments against the practice of teaching poetry
1. The teaching of poetry does not help learners acquiring mastery over language skills.
2. We cannot use poetry to enrich the vocabulary of the students.
3. The settings of most English poems are unfamiliar to Indian students.
4. There are very few teachers who love poetry and can reinstate this love in their students.
Arguments in favour of teaching poetry
1. Poetry largely appeals to children and is best way of inculcating their love for the language.
2. Poetry shows our emotions and increases our imaginative powers.
3. Poetry imparts the pleasure of reading among the students.
4. Poetry introduces variety in the English language course.
5. Poetry is easily memorable than prose because of its rhythmic structure.
A successful poetry lesson should leave the students with some insight into the
Think! delight or beauty that is portrayed. Discuss.
TEACHING OF POETRY IN SCHOOLS

From the above arguments, it can be concluded that poetry constitutes an important part of literature
education system. Teaching poetry is very important and it must be given its due place in language
learning. Poetry creates love for language and by studying poems; a learner can develop the power
of imagination and aesthetic sense. Another important reason for teaching poetry is that it shows
the rhythm of a language more clearly than the prose.
Making Teaching of Poetry Easy and Interesting

The teacher can adopt the following methods to make the study of poetry easy and interesting for
the students.
learners.
Aims of Teaching Poetry

The aims of teaching poetry apply to all poems irrespective of style.
Steps in Teaching Poetry

It is an accepted argument that poetry cannot be taught. A teacher can only create the conditions in
which the poem holds significance for the learners. The teacher should always keep in mind that
poetry is meant for giving aesthetic pleasure rather than knowledge.
Step 1: Introducing a Poem
Before teaching a poem, the teacher should give an appropriate introduction to poem to arouse the
interest of students and to create the proper atmosphere for the poem. Introduction differs from
poem to poem.
Thompson and Wyatt have suggested three ways to introduce a student to poetry:
1. Firstly, the best method is to read a parallel poem similar in subject matter with the poem to
be taught. If possible, the parallel poem should be by the same poet.
on that.
3. Thirdly, teachers must give the life sketch, style and characteristics of the poet.
Introduction can also be done in the following steps:
1. Introduction can be done by playing same music.
2. The teacher can ask some questions on the previous knowledge of students.
3. If the poem to be learnt is descriptive, a picture can be shown.
Step 2: Model recitation by the teacher
Teachers give first model recitation of the poem with a proper stress; intonation and gestures. The
students will keep their books closed and follow the poem.
Step 3: Second Model recitation by the teacher
The second model recitation is also given by the teacher but the students will be asked to keep their
books open.
Step 4: Meaning of difficult words and phrases

Teachers explain the meaning of difficult words and phrases that students may find incomprehensible.
Step 5: Imitation recitations by the students
Teachers ask two or three students to recite the poem one by one. This helps them to capture the
correct pronunciation, intonation and stress.
Step 6: Appreciation questions
to ask questions which must be carefully answered. These questions are going to reveal their power
of imagination in terms of appreciation of imagery, thoughts, emotions, style and aesthetics of the
language.
Step 7: Assignment
The assignment can be related to creative tasks. The teacher may ask the students to memorise or
pictures based on the theme of the poem.
Importance of Poetry
Rhythm is a universal phenomenon of poetry and this inherent phenomenon of poetry naturally
appeals to the child satisfying his natural urges to speak rhythmically. Poetry increases the child’s
sensitiveness to beauty of language and thought and helps to develop his imagination. It also helps
him to appreciate spiritual things of life. While studying poetry the students not only develop their
Fig. 8.2 Diagrammatic representation showing the importance of poetry

power of imagination but also learn to appreciate the aesthetics of this literary form. The learners
feel the pleasure and naturally appreciate the reality behind the written words of a poem. Another
important reason for teaching poetry is that it illustrates the rhythm of language. Figure 8.2 shows
the importance of teaching poetry.
Classroom Situation for Poetry Teaching

Here are some of the classroom situations that can be adopted for teaching poetry:
in a team. This is an effective way to match students and nurture their personal interests. In a
class, students usually come from a variety of family backgrounds, religion, caste, economic
can relate to.
their reading and performance skills.
students to make whistling, snapping, snoring sounds as they come up in the poem.
behind the poem.
How the method of teaching poetry should be reoriented to make the poetry
Think! enjoyable?
Difference between Prose and Poetry
Table 8.1:
Prose Poetry
1. Prose is defined as, “words in their best order.” 1. Poetry is defined as, “best words in their
best order.”
2. Prose usually gives information. 2. Poetry delights the readers.
3. Prose is devoid of rhythm. 3. Rhythm is the very soul of poetry.
4. Prose is essentially meant for reading. 4. Poetry is meant for recitals.
5. The main aim of the prose is to enrich the vocabulary 5. The main aim of the poetry is to acquire
and to enable the students to grasp the idea and speech rhythms.
arguments of the author.
6. Prose is for knowledge 6. Poetry is for appreciation
Poetry is an expression of aesthetic experience of a poet. At the time it is written, it consists of

phrases that have a strong rhythmic beat. But when it is printed and published, we have merely a
colourless record of this emotion and music. It is the duty of the teacher to recreate and convey
the students this original rhythm and emotional intensity; for, the printed words are only symbols,
which may or may not arouse the imagination and feelings of the students to the required degree.
Therefore, the teaching methodology of poetry should be simple and spontaneous, stressing the
emotional and sound values of the poem.
should be given privileged position in the school syllabus.

“The matter and method for teaching poetry to Indian children should be completely
re-oriented, if the teaching of poetry is to be any value to them.”—Menon and Patel.
MODEL LESSON PLAN ON POETRY

P.T’S ROLL NO. – PERIOD_________
CLASS – X DURATION–30 Min
SUBJECT – ENGLISH DATE_________
TOPIC – “The Road not Taken”(poem)
Instructional Aids to be Used

A chart depicting two roads diverged in a yellow forest and flashcards showing the pictures of
difficult words.
Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Terms
Knowledge: 1. The students will be able to recognize the ideas contained in the poem.
2. They will be able to recall the thoughts given in the poem.
Understanding:
2. They will be able to understand the use of rhyming words in the poem.
3. They will be able to understand the thematic content of the poem.
Skills: 1. The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills like
listening, speaking, reading, writing.
Application: 1. The students will be able to apply the art of reciting a poem in their
different life situations.
2. They are able to make sentences using difficult words of the poem.
SUBJECT CONTENT
The Road Not Taken
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same;
And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Two roads diverged in a wood, and—

I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference. (Robert Frost)
Q.2 Which poem do you liked the most?

Q.3 Recite that poem.

Q.4 Have you read the poem “The Road not Taken”?

Dear students, today we shall study the poem “The Road not Taken” of your book.
Presentation
Teaching P.T.’s Activities Students’ Chalk Board
Point Activities Writing
A celebrated American poet, Robert Lee Listen carefully

Frost, was honoured with the Pulitzer Prize
four times in his lifetime. He is very often
Brief idea of quoted. The main idea of this poem is
the poet and that decisions in life are easy to make but
poem executing the same becomes difficult.
Robert Frost
First model The P.T will do the first model recitation

recitation of with proper stress, rhythm and intonation their books close
The Road
the poem by and listen carefully.
the P.T. not Taken
P.T. will do the second recitation with proper

recitation of stress, rhythm and intonation their books open
the poem by and listen carefully
the P.T.
Imitation P.T. will ask the students to recite the poem

recitation of with rhythm and appropriate gestures. the poem
the poem by
students
Contd.
Difficult Meaning Technique Context

words
Two roads are
1. Diverged To deviate By flashcard diverging in a The students will
forest note down the Diverged
difficult words in
A large their notebook
area of land Wild animals
2. Forest By flashcard
covered with lives in forest
thick trees
Forest
A mass of They used

bushes and their knives The students will
plants that to clear a path note down the
By flashcard
growth grow close through the difficult words in
together their notebook
Undergrowth
under trees growth
4. Fair Attractive By flashcard always been

just as fair
Just as fair
Explanation P.T. Explains the poem to the students

of poem carefully
Q.1 Where did the two roads diverge? Ans. 1 The two Ans. 1 The two roads
roads diverged in a
diverged yellow forest.
in a yellow
Appreciation forest.
Questions
Q.2 Why was the road grassy and wanted Ans. 2 The road Ans. 2 The road
wear? was grassy was grassy
because because few
led upon it upon it

Review Questions
Q.1 Which road was grassy and wanted wear?
Q.2 What is the theme of the poem?
Q.3 Tell the rhyming word of wood?
HOME WORK
Q.1
Q.2 Write the rhyming words of the following
Both
Fair
Claim
Fair
Q.3 Write the main idea of the poem.
Summary
Poetry commonly appears as a sequence of lines arranged in stanzas which relies on the
Poetry is evocative. It typically evokes in the reader an intense emotion: joy, sorrow,
anger, catharsis, love.
Poetry is the very soul of literature, best form of expression and source of enjoyment.
Objectives of teaching poetry are different at different levels. At primary level the main
objective of teaching poetry is to read aloud with proper stress and intonation and to
enjoy recitation of the poem. On secondary level the objective is to develop the power
of appreciation of beauty and to make students understand the thoughts and imagination
while on the higher secondary level the main objective is to train the emotions and
creation of love for English literature.
Present position of teaching poetry is that teachers dictate notes on poetry and ask
students to cram and reproduce the same in class, either orally or in written form.
students’ knowledge but to increase the power of appreciation of beauty.

Poetry leads to all round development of the students. It develops aesthetic sense,
creativity and imparts enjoyment or pleasure.
Poetry is an expression of aesthetic experience of a poet. On the printed page we have

merely a colourless record of this emotion and music. It is the duty of the teacher to
recreate and convey to the student this original musical beauty and emotional intensity;
the teaching methodology of poetry should be simple, natural, and spontaneous, stressing
the emotional and sound values of the poem. Thus, poetry has a special appeal for the
in the school syllabus.
Terms to Remember
Poetry
Teaching Poetry Teaching poetry is an integral part of teaching English.
Difference between Prose and Poetry Prose lacks rhythm whereas poetry is all about rhythm.
Exercises
1. Write the meaning and characteristics of poetry.
2. Discuss the aims of teaching poetry.
3. What is the difference between prose and poetry?
4. What is the purpose and importance of teaching poetry?
5. Write the objectives of teaching poetry at different levels.

1. Write the steps of teaching poetry.
2. Prepare a lesson plan on the poem ‘Daffodils’.
9 Teaching of Composition
“The power of expression in a language is a matter of skill rather than of knowledge."
— Thomson and Wyatt
Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
INTRODUCTION
Speech is the beginning of all language learning. In face-to-face
communication, speech is the best method. However, when the
conveyer (speaker) and the receiver (listener) of the message are
not physically present and there is no other means to establish
any verbal link, then written form is the only choice. They
must know how to organize the ideas in their proper sequence.
Therefore, teaching of composition has an important place in
any programme of teaching English.
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF COMPOSITION

The word ‘composition’ has been taken from the word ‘compose’ which means to put together. So,
composition means the act of putting together words and sentence.
Definitions
Some common definitions of composition are given below.
Prof. Chapman, “Almost any written exercise is in fact composition”.
George Sampson, “The person who cannot make a lucid and intelligible statement in speech or
in writing is not an educated person.”
A.W. Frisby, “The facility for expression must grow out of the
earliest mechanical activity of sentence making the use of words.”
Bhatia and Bhatia, “Composition is the expression of
child’s thoughts, his own ideas, and feelings and observations.
It includes both the process and product of composing”.
It can be said that composition refers to the process of
collecting thoughts, arranging them in accordance with
recognized standards of forms. The product may take the shape
of a letter, an application, a paragraph, a story, an essay, a
description or narration, a poem and so on.
Is expansion of a line or a sequence into few sentences and reduction of few lines
Think! into one are important way of doing composition work.
Prerequisites for Teaching Composition

There are certain prerequisites for teaching composition. (See Figure 9.1)
Fig. 9.1 Flowchart showing the prerequisites for teaching composition

Teaching of Composition 81
1. Command Over Language

To be able to compose any piece of writing, one has to master the language with the following
pre-requisite skills:—
Knowledge of vocabulary
2. Ideas
For the expression of the ideas, topic should be according to the mental level of the students. It is
advisable that the teacher chooses a subject with which Indian students can easily relate to.
3. Organization of Ideas
Ideas should be arranged in a logical sequence so that one thought flows from another. To sum up,
the students should know what to say and how to say.
4. Stages of Writing
Teaching students how to write letters of the alphabet.
Helping students acquire sufficient practice to write the letters of the alphabet
automatically.
Writing on some topics of interest in a systematic way.
Fig. 9.2 Pyramidal structure of stages of writing

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITION
(i) The process of writing is divided into four stages:—
Structuring
Copying
Transcribing
Composition
(ii) Composition is the expression of students’ thoughts, ideas, feelings, observations, and
experiences in written form.
(iii) Composition is the process of collecting thoughts or information, arranging them in a
sequence.
(iv) Composition is the process as well as product. The product may take the shape of a letter, an
application, a story, an essay, a poem, a description or a narration.
(v) Composition means to write on some topic in an interesting way.
Think! Free composition should start after several years of guided composition. Discuss.
1. Present Position of Teaching Composition

Good composition works in the hand of an efficient teacher results in effective learning of the
language. However it is a pity, the way English composition is taught in Indian classrooms. Some
instances are cited below:—
1. Some teachers simply translate the topics into vernacular and ask the students to cram the
material.
2. Some teachers dictate notes on composition and ask the students to learn those by heart.
The aforementioned ways of dealing with composition results into following maladies:
Unable to think and write

Mental faculties are not properly developed
Students end up learning for the sake of appearing in the exams and not for gaining
knowledge.
2. Aims of Teaching Composition

The aims of teaching composition are as follows:—
1. To use appropriate language using the proper words and structure of the language.
2. To recall adequate and appropriate vocabulary and use it properly in sentences.
3. To enable the students to make use of appropriate punctuation marks for clarity of ideas.
4. To encourage the students to express their ideas in writing in an organized and systematic
way.
5. To develop the communicative competence through writing.
3. Principles of Teaching Composition

Writing is a powerful instrument of expressing thought. The act of writing is accomplished through
a process in which the writer imagines the readers, sets goals, develops ideas, produces notes, drafts,
revise the text, and then finally edits to meet the readers’ expectations. As the process unfolds, the
writer may turn to any one of these activities at any time. We can teach students to write more
effectively by encouraging them to make full use of the each activity that comprise the act of
writing, not by focusing only on the final written product and its strengths and weaknesses.
Principle of proper selection: Topics should be meaningful and should appeal to every
student and they should be able to comprehend the content.
Principle of gradation: Topics should be selected according to the age, ability and the
intellectual level of the students.
Principle of utility: To make things easier, the topics selected should be related to day-to-day
life of the students.
Principle of oral practice: To reduce the chances of making mistakes in writing, oral
composition practice should be given to the students.
Principle of sequence: The subject matter should be arranged in proper sequence for the
students to grasp the concept.
Principle of follow-up: After pointing out the difficulties and problems of students, the
teacher should find suitable remedial measures to remove their difficulties and mistakes.
4. Major Steps in Teaching Composition

Think! While correcting the composition, over-correction should be avoided. Discuss.
Step 1: Oral composition is developed by the teacher. He or she may use pictures or charts for this
purpose. Another option is to sum up the meaning of the composition in a few sentences.
Step 2: Listening to the teacher while he or she speaks on a certain topic helps the students. The
teacher motivates them to develop composition orally and then related questions could be asked.
Step 3: The students may be asked to compose an essay or a paragraph on their own.
Step 4: Common mistakes of the students should be discussed openly in the class.
TYPES OF COMPOSITIONS
There are mainly two types of compositions, written and oral which can be further subdivided into
guided and free as shown in Figure 9.3.
Fig. 9.3
Oral Composition
Oral language development presents the basis of written language. The level of attainment in oral
language directly affects the level of growth of writing skill.
In the words of Grenning, “Oral composition is still the best means of getting good results.
Writing is at best slow and laborious process and while a boy is writing one sentence, he could say
a dozen and so get a correspondingly greater practice in expressing his ideas.”
Written Composition
The expression of one’s thoughts, ideas and feelings through writing is referred to as written
composition. Written composition provides an opportunity to the students to express in writing
what they feel. It is divided into two types:-
1. Guided composition: “Guided composition is not panacea for all the problems of
teaching composition to foreign students, there is still much that needs further exploration and
experimentation.”—Allen and Camp Bell.
It is also known as controlled or directed composition. The teacher provides the necessary
vocabulary and language structures so that students can express their thoughts and ideas. Actually,
guided compositions are written exercises that are recall based and the utterances are already known
to the students orally. This is a test for the students to be able to write them down. The job of the
teacher is to make necessary corrections in the students’ composition. It is also called controlled
composition because the teacher exercises control of structures, vocabulary and ideas. Students
should be acknowledged for their correct attempt and if there are mistakes in it, the teacher should
make an attempt to correct them.
At an early stage, the composition whether oral or written, should be strictly guided because the
students should proceed from initiation to improvisation. There are certain principles which are
required to be followed for guided compositions.
Principles for guided compositions: The major principles for guided compositions are
enlisted below.
The topic should be chosen according to the mental level of the students.
The teacher should choose a topic, which the students are familiar with.
The teacher should guide students with vocabulary and structure.
All work is done orally and then writing work is carried on.
1. To enable the students to write correctly.

2. To enable them to express their ideas, thoughts and feelings.
3. To enable them to organize their thoughts in composition.
4. To develop their writing ability.
Exercise for Guided Composition

Examples on Guided Composition Exercises

1. The teachers write a paragraph on chalkboard with some words missing in it. The students are
asked to fill in the blanks.
Once a crow felt ________. He went in search of water. Soon he
saw a________. It had no________. He put pebbles in to it. The________rose up. He
drank________and flew away.
(Once a crow felt thirsty, he went in search of water. Soon he saw a jug. It had no water. He
put pebbles into it. The water rose up. He drank water and flew away)
2. The teachers may give some words and ask the students to speak or write sentences on it.
Sheep, wool. (A sheep is a useful animal. It gives wool)
3. The teachers give some key words. Then the students are asked to develop composition based
on the given keywords.
(The postman is a busy person. He collects letters from the post office. He delivers the letters
to the respective address.)
4. Conversion of the tenses: The teachers ask the students to convert the sentences into the
various tenses.
My mother is a teacher of English. My mother was a teacher of English.

She likes teaching. She liked teaching.
She reads many books. She read many books.
The students like her very much. All the students liked her very much.
Replacement of words: Teachers write the paragraph and ask the students to rewrite the
paragraph by using ‘I’ in place of ‘you’.
You are a student. You should behave like a good student. You should read
more books to get good marks.
(I am a student. I should behave like a good student. I should read more books to get good
marks.)
5. Changing gender:
The teacher asks the students to change the gender of the subject in the sentence and then
frame it again.
My father is a teacher. He is the son of rich man. He prays every morning.
(My mother is a teacher. She is the daughter of rich man. She prays every morning.)
6. Conversion into negative form:
I like dancing. My dance teacher helps me. My friends learn dance with me.
(I do not like dancing. My dance teacher does not help me. My friends do not learn dance
with me.)
7. Inter-connected questions: A number of inter-connected questions are put to the students.
1. What is your name?

2. What is your mother?
3. Where do you live?
4. Which school do you go to?
1. My name is Suruchi.
2. My mother is a lecturer.
3. I live in Rewari.
8. Arranging jumbled sentences:

A few sentences are given in jumbled form. The students are asked to put them in order.
(i) I went for a walk.
(ii) I thanked my trainer.
(iii) Yesterday I got up early.
(iv) Then I took bath.
(Yesterday I got up early and then went for a walk. I thanked my trainer. Then I took bath.)
9. Substitution tables:
A set of two or more than two substitution tables are provided to the students. They help
students to exercise inter-connected sentences through speaking or writing.
My Father Is A
Brother Businessman
Friend Teacher
He Is Fifty Years Old

Thirty
Twenty five
10. Action performed by the teacher: A number of actions are performed by the teachers, while
the students are asked to follow them and speak.
The teacher entered the class. He is closing the door. Now the teacher is
writing on the board.
11. Small topic of discussion: A small topic is given for discussion. The students are asked to
speak on it. It improves their power to organize the ideas.
Without discipline nothing moves. We should maintain discipline in our life to be successful.
We can complete our work in time and pay attention to all the required works. Our life can
change totally by simply making ourselves more disciplined.
show a picture and then ask the students to develop or construct an idea on the lines of the
same. Figure 9.4 highlights the steps for picture composition.
Fig. 9.4 Steps for picture composition
Two or three pictures are shown by the teacher. He asks students to interpret them and
speak few inter-connected sentences. The teacher should take care of the following points in
picture composition:—
Advantages of picture composition:—
13. Summarizing and taking notes: Summarizing helps a good deal in learning composition. The
students are asked to prepare notes based on class lectures.
14. Creative writing: All types of writing gradually enable a person to write free composition and
that paves the way to creative writing.
Merits of Guided Composition
The teacher can correct mistakes of the students at the very beginning.
Students also learn structures.
Free Composition
According to H. Champion, “the ultimate aim of composition is to enable the pupils to arrange
their own ideas in their own way, freely and to choose their own words, to express their own ideas,
freely”. Hence, the terms ‘free composition’.
Free composition is one in which the student is given a subject, and is asked to write on that
subject with no further help from the teacher. It often seems to be thought that the ability to write
good English will somehow develop in the student largely of its own accord. It is also known as
creative or imaginative writing.
In free composition:-
1. No restrictions on students for use of vocabulary and structure.

2. No restrictions on the length of the composition.
3. Students are free to tackle the topic set for them.
4. Students can think freely.
The learners will Heavy load of Learner cram the topics Structure & vocabulary
commit a number of correction work for getting good marks are not given much
error in exams practice
Thus, there are many dangers of introducing free composition in early stages. Therefore, the
beginning of teaching composition should be made with guided composition. Free composition
should start only after some years of guided composition.
Importance of Free Composition

Free composition is important because:
Correction Work
Correction work is very important in the case of languages. Writing composition will be of no use
if it is not corrected by the teacher. Aims of correction work are as follows:-
How to Reduce Mistakes

There are certain ways by which mistakes can be reduced. Table 9.1 shows the same.
Table 9.1: Ways to Reduce Mistakes
Oral Assignments Drill Work List of Mistakes Mental Level of Students

Every written assignment Common mistakes done Exercises given by
should first be dealt with plenty of drill work in by the students should the teachers should be
orally. In oral correction, the class. be commonly discussed. according to the mental
the pupils are made aware level of the students.
of their mistakes.
Correction of Mistakes
Æ S—Spelling mistakes
Æ
Æ T—Tense mistakes
Æ A—Article mistakes
Æ W—Wrong word usage
Æ G—Grammatical mistakes
Æ O—Omission
Æ E—Wrong English
Æ I—Irrelevant matter
1. Teachers can adopt any symbol that they like but the students should be made conversant with
these symbols. All the English teachers should follow the same symbol.
2. Teachers select a number of leaders, in each class, who are good in English. These leaders
assist the teachers in correction work.
3. Teachers should distribute the notebooks of junior class students to the senior class students.
The senior students are asked to do correction work within five to seven minutes.
4. Teachers should discuss the common mistakes with the entire class. Students benefit from
such a discussion.
Conclusion
The aim of teaching composition is to develop creativity and imagination among the students. With
the help of composition one is able to express oneself precisely, accurately and efficiently.
“Writing (make) an exact man”—
MODEL LESSON PLAN ON COMPOSITION

– –30 Min
_________
–
A chart, showing the four stages of the story “The fox and the Crane”.
Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Term
2. Understanding
The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills like listening,
reading, speaking learning etc.
The students will be able to apply the art of composition of story in their day
to day life.

Q.1 Which is your favourite story?
Q.2 What is the moral of that story?
Q.3 Who is the cleverest animal in the jungle?
Q.4 Have you heard a story of a fox and a crane?

Presentation
Teaching Point P.T’s Activities Students Chalk Board
Activities Writing
Narration of the First stage Students listen
story with the help of picture carefully and
the help of picture i.e., once there was a fox and looked at the
Stage 1 a crane. They became good picture.
friends. One day fox invited
the crane to dinner. The crane THE CRANE
accepted the invitation.
The Fox and the Crane

Q. Q. Who invited the crane Ans. Fox invited
for dinner? the crane for
dinner.
Oral development of stage Teacher will motivate the Once there was a fox and
students to respond a________. They became
with the help of students good ________. One
day fox invited the crane
for ________. The crane
accepted the ________.
Narration of the second

stage of the story by the the story that, the crane
reached the fox’s house.
Stage 2 The fox had prepared soup

for dinner. He served the
soup in a flat saucer. The
fox enjoyed it. But the crane
could not do so because of its
long beak. It had to remain
hungry.
Q. Q. Who enjoyed the Ans. The Fox

dinner? enjoyed the
dinner.
Contd.
Oral development of stage Teacher will motivate the The crane reached
students to respond the ________ house.
with the help of students The fox had prepared
the ________ for dinner.
He served the ________ in
a flat saucer. The fox
________ it. But the crane
could not do so because
of its long ________. It
had to remain ________.
Narration of the third stage Students listen
the story with the help of carefully and
the help of picture picture that, the crane wanted looked at the
Stage 3 to take revenge. Crane also picture.
invited the fox to dinner. The
fox reached the crane’s house.
The crane served pieces of
meat in a bottle. The neck
of the bottle was long and
narrow. The Crane enjoyed
the dinner. But the fox could
not manage to reach the
bottom of the pitcher. He had
to go without dinner. Thus the
crane took its revenge.
Q. Who wanted to have Ans. The crane
revenge? wanted
to have
revenge.
Oral development of stage The crane wanted to
have ________. Crane
with the help of students also invited the fox
to ________. The fox
reached the crane’s
________. The crane
served pieces of _______
in a bottle.
The neck of the bottle
was ________ and narrow.
The Crane enjoyed
the________. But the fox’s
mouth could not entered
into the ________. He
remained ________. Thus
the crane had its ________.
Contd.
Moral of the story —As you sow, so The students will

shall you reap. write compo-sition AS YOU SOW, SO
in their notebook
Writing Composition
write composition in their
notebook
Correction Work
correction.
Exercises
—
1. A fox and a crane ________ good friends.
2. One day fox invited the crane________.
3. Fox serve the food in a ________ saucer.
4. But the crane could not enjoyed the dinner because of its ________.
5. The crane wanted to have ________.
6. Crane served pieces of meat in a ________ bottle.
7. Fox remained ________.
Q.1 Fill up the following blanks:-

(a) Fox served the soup in a ________.
(b) The ________ wanted to have revenge.
(c) The crane also invited ________ to dinner.
Q.1 What is the moral of the story “The fox and the crane”?
Q.2 Who wanted to have revenge and why?
Q.1 Write another story which is based on moral ‘as you saw, so shall you reap’.
Q.2 Write the brief summary of the story “The fox and the crane”.
Summary
In face to face communication speech is the best choice. But when the conveyer (speaker)
and the receiver of the message are not physically present and there is no other means
to establish verbal link, then written form is the only choice. They must know how to
organize the ideas in their proper sequence. Therefore the teaching of composition has an
important place in any program of teaching of English.
The word ‘composition’ has been taken from the word ‘compose’ which means to
put together. So composition means the act of putting together words and sentence.
Composition is the process as well as product. The product may take the shape of a letter,
an application, a story, an essay, a poem, a description or narration and so on.
Mastery of language, ideas and organization of ideas are the three prerequisites for
teaching composition.
Structuring, copying, transcribing, composition are the four stages of writing.
simply translate the topics into the mother tongue and asks the students to cram the
material.
The aim of teaching composition is to encourage the students to express their ideas in
writing in an organized and systematic way and to develop the communicative competence
through writing.
Major Steps in Teaching Composition are oral development of composition by the
teacher, oral development of composition by the student, writing of composition by the
students and correction work.
Written composition is the expression of one’s thoughts, ideas and feelings. It should
follow the oral composition. Written composition provides an opportunity to the pupil to
write what they feel.
Guided composition are those written exercises in which utterances are already known
to the students orally but they are asked to write them down. In this type of composition,
guidance may be given from hundred percent to one percent. In guided composition if
one hundred percent guidance is given by the teacher and then students reproduce it
exactly then it is called reproduction exercise. It is also called controlled composition
because there is control of structures, vocabulary, ideas etc by the teacher.
At the early stage, the composition whether oral or written should be strictly guided
because pupils should proceed from initiation to improvisation, from reproduction to an
oral expression.
is called picture composition. Same picture can be used for junior and senior level. Two
or three pictures are shown by the teacher. He asks the students to interpret them and
speak few inter connected sentences.
Free Composition is one in which the student is given a subject, and is asked to write on
that subject with no further help from the teacher. Free composition paves the way for
creative writing.
Correction work is very important in the case of languages. Writing composition will be
of no use if it is not corrected by the teacher.
Composition helps a person to express his feelings, ideas and emotions clearly and freely.
Terms to Remember
Composition A short piece of writing, often taught in school curriculum.
Paraphrasing To express what someone has written using different words.
The practice of writing prose involving more than one character in conversational
form.
The practice of writing a message on paper addressed to someone. Often included
in school curriculum.
Any writing that goes beyond professional boundaries. Students are asked to
indulge into creative writing in order to enhance their writing skills.
Form of letter writing which is formal and absolutely professional. A person
usually adopts this method while applying for jobs.
The practice where students are taught to summarize a long piece of writing
highlighting its main points.
Exercises
(word limit 150)
1. Write the meaning and characteristics of composition.
3. What is the difference between guided and free compositions?

4. Write a note on picture composition.
5. What are the dangers of using free composition at early stage?
6. What are the principles of teaching composition?
(word limit 1000)

1. Guided composition leads towards free composition. Explain with examples.
2. Explain in detail the types of composition. What steps will you take in teaching composition
to the students of standard VII?
Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

10 Teaching of Grammar
“The rules of grammar are like the laws of nature. The laws were not made for nature to
obey, but are simply a few facts which wise men have observed as to the way nature acts.
So, the grammarian merely examines the language of the best speakers and writers and
deduce rules from their use of it.”
— C. E. Eckersley
Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
INTRODUCTION
Grammar is the theory of language. Grammar is the rules in
a language used for changing the forms of words and joining
them into sentences. Every language has its own grammar. The
knowledge of grammar is perhaps more important to a second
language learner than to a native speaker. This is because the
native speaker has intuitively internalized the grammar of his or
her language whereas the second language learner has to make
conscious efforts to master those aspects of the language which
account for grammatically.
Teaching of Grammar 99
MEANING OF GRAMMAR
Grammar means different things to different persons. For a layman, grammar may simply highlight
the correct and incorrect usages involved in a language. In other words it is the sum total of rules
and regulations of the language.
According to Ballard, “Etymologically grammar means the study of letters. It is the science that
lies behind the art of literature and composition”.
Dr. Sweet, “The practical analysis of language, its anatomy”.
Dr. West, “Grammar is not a code of rules, it is, like etiquette and table manner, a statement of
convention, it summarizes what is done by cultural people, and like etiquette it is a state of constant
change.”
Champion has given a comprehensive definition of grammar. According to him, “grammar is
the study of language by specialist made in order to establish the rules and principles which are
followed less unconsciously or instinctively by the native speakers.”
In short, it can be said, “The meaningful arrangement of forms in a language constitutes its
grammar.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAMMAR
The major characteristics of grammar are enlisted below.
to establish the rules and principles which are followed by the speakers and writers.
First meaning—to set formal patterns of arranging words of language.

Second meaning—Analytical aspect of a language.
Third meaning—Linguistic etiquette or norms.
Think! Is grammar a servant or a master of language? Discuss.
PRESENT POSITION OF GRAMMAR

IN INDIAN CLASSROOMS
In India, teaching of grammar is structure-based and quite formal. The normal pattern to undertake
a grammar class is to give the students some rules using a lot of terminologies and asking students
to solve a few mechanical and monotonous exercises. This leads the learners to nowhere. Even if
the student’s performance is fairly good, there is no assurance that they would be able to speak and
write in English proficiently. In most cases, grammar is taught as an end in itself rather than a means
to an end; and apparently instructor’s focus is more on teaching the rules of grammar rather than
enhancing the communicative aspects of language proficiency.
The present position of grammar in the schools is pitiable because
EXPECTED ROLE OF GRAMMAR

1. Grammar should assist in learning the language. It should be a means to learn the
language properly.
2. At the initial stages, children should be allowed to learn in a natural way. Grammar
should be introduced after two, three years of learning the language. It means the ability
to use language correctly is more important than the ability to name parts of speech.
3. Teachers should be conscious of introducing or practicing points of grammar.
In the words of A.W. Frisby—
“Grammar must always follow. It must be behind reading and writing.”
OBJECTIVES/AIMS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR

The main objectives of teaching grammar are,
memorization
Three Safeguards
The three safeguards of grammar are as follows.
First—The grammar should not be begun until student has acquired a working knowledge of the
language.
Second—The grammar should never form the sole subject of a full period.
Third—No opportunity should be missed to stress those points at which the highly inflicted
vernaculars of India differ from English.
TYPES OF GRAMMAR
There are two types of grammar, formal and functional grammar.
1. Formal Grammar
It is also called perspective or theoretical grammar. Formal grammar is that grammar which is
taught in a formal way and deals with the definitions and rules of a language. In this type of
grammar the main emphasis is on rules and regulations and any departure from those rules is not
allowed. The students proceed from rules to examples.
Limitations:
1. Grammarians forget that language is ever-changing and ever-growing.
‘Brunch’ is a new word.
2. Rules of a language are not universal
Examples:
Plural Chair Æ Chairs
Girl Æ Girls
But Child Æ Children
Tenses Watch Æ Watched
Pass Æ Passed
But Go Æ Went
2. Functional Grammar
It is also called descriptive grammar. The main emphasis is laid on the functional side of the language.
It helps the learners in the achievement of real aims of language learning. So, it is recommended
for teaching purposes in schools. Learners can learn a new language without learning the formal
grammar because we learn mother tongue without learning formal grammar. Table 10.1 highlights
the differences between formal grammar and functional grammar.
Table 10.1:
Formal Grammar Functional Grammar

1. It is taught with the help of grammar book. 1. It is taught not as a separate subject but along
with the graded reader.
2. It lays emphasis on rote memorization of its 2. It lays emphasis upon assimilating the correct
rules and definitions of parts of speech. patterns of the language without learning them
by rote.
Contd.
3. Rules of the grammar are consciously 3. Rules of grammar are acquired unconsciously
memorized by the student. by the student through imitation and practice.
4. It is taught deductively i.e. rules and definitions 4. Functional grammar is taught inductively i.e.,
are told to the students and then examples are examples are given first and students arrived at
explained. rules with the help of examples.
5. It is taught theoretically without its functional 5. It is taught in situations which really happen
utility. and the class can understand.
6. It is taught formally and hence its lesson is dull 6. It is taught informally and hence it creates
and difficult. interest and learning becomes automatic.
7. It is also known as theoretical grammar or 7. Functional grammar is known as descriptive
perspective grammar. grammar.
8. It is not based on its day to day functional utility 8. This is a grammar having a utility for day to day
life.
Functional grammar is strongly recommended because of its practical value. A good deal of
grammar is absorbed unconsciously and by the process of imitation.
Formal grammar fails to provide a general mental training, does not enable teachers
Think! to eradiate solecism, does not aid in composition and takes up time which could
much more profitable be devoted to the study of literature. Discuss.
How much grammar should be taught: The ability of a person learning a language is not to be
judged on the basis of quantity of grammar known, but to make proper use of language.
METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR

The various methods for teaching of grammar are:
The traditional method.
The inductive deductive method.
The incidental or correlation method.
The informal method.
1. The Traditional Method

In this method a text book is used. It contains definitions, examples. The teacher’s task is to make
the definitions and rules more clear to the students with the help of suitable examples. He or she
proceeds from definition and rules to examples, and then he asks students to do some exercise and
memorize the definitions and rules by heart.
Demerits
to complex, particular to general, and from example to rule.
2. Inductive and Deductive Methods

“Even when facts are discovered inductively the acquired knowledge has to be applied deductively.
Table 10.2 gives a detail explanation of both the methods.
Table 10.2:
Inductive Method Deductive Method

Inductive means to proceed from observation to law Deductive means to proceed from law and rule to
and rules. observation and examples.
Inductive process: Deductive process:
systematic way
analysis
Merits:—This method breaks the monotony in the Merits:—It lays emphasis on the teaching of formal
classroom by making teaching more interesting grammar
It lays emphasis on the teaching of functional
grammar
Limitations:—It requires competence on the part of Limitations:—Uninteresting and monotonous me-
the teacher teaching English. thod
It consumes a little more time to teach particular Does not provide any synthesis between thought
grammatical concepts as compare to teaching and expression
through grammar translation method
3. The Incidental or Correlation Method

It is also called reference method. In this method grammar is taught incidentally. The rules of
grammar are taught separately in class, when teaching from the textbook. Complex structures of the
language are explained with the help of the examples that appear in the text.
Merit:—This method is very suitable as a supplementary to the inductive deductive method.
Demerit:—It is not a complete method. It can interfere with normal teaching.
4. The Informal Method

This method advocates the teaching of grammar through usage. By continuous practice of using
words while speaking, reading, and writing, grammar can be mastered.
According to Suri and Bhardwaj, “the informal method is a necessity in the early stages when
students have not mastered enough vocabulary.”
Demerits:
Which Method is Better?

It is difficult to decide which method is better. It depends upon the teacher, the learner and the
general background of the learners.
Why should grammar be taught functionally at the lower classes and formally in the
Think! higher classes? Discuss.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
Teaching grammar has certain advantages. Grammar helps in the following developments:
Disadvantages
SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR
students.
MODEL LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR

Before teaching a lesson on grammar, it is very important to set a few goals. The process is explained
below.
Goal: The purpose of this lesson is allowing students to explore, learn, and understand the rules
and regulations of a language.
P.T.’S ROLL NO. – PERIOD ________

CLASS – DURATION ________
SUBJECT – DATE ________
TOPIC – Common and Proper noun (Grammar) SCHOOL ________
Instructional Aids
Flash cards showing various examples of common and proper noun
Instructional Objectives
Knowledge: The students will be able to know the difference between common and proper noun.
Understanding: The students will be able to understand the difference between common and
proper noun.
Skills: The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills like listening, speaking,
reading and writing.
Application: The students will be able to make use of proper and common noun in their day to
day life.
Previous Knowledge Assumed

The teacher assumes that the students know about nouns.

To test the knowledge of students, the teacher asks the following questions:
1. Give the definition of noun
2. Give two examples of nouns
3. Do you know about the types of noun?

Finding a negative answer of the students, the P.T will say, dear students, today we shall study about
common and proper noun“ ________ ”.
Presentation
Students’ Chalk
Teaching Point Teacher’s Activities Board
Activities Writing
Brief Introduction Students, there are many different types Students
of nouns such as common noun, proper listen
noun, countable noun, uncountable noun, carefully
concrete noun, abstract noun, singular
noun, plural noun but today we will discuss
about common and proper nouns
Common Noun The name of a common person, place or a
thing is called common noun
Let us look at the following sentences. The students Common
He is a boy. will note Noun
down in their
notebooks.
I go to the market.
She has a pet dog.
The book is on the table.
Examples Girl, school, book, princess, classroom, The students

temple etc. will note
down in their
notebook
Contd.
Proper Noun The name of a proper person, place or a Proper Noun

thing is called proper noun.
Let us look at the following sentences.
Sandra has a pet Dog
Sandra
Taj Mahal is in Agra.
Taj Mahal
Examples Breeza, Sheetal, Jaipur, etc.
Recapitulation
Pick out common and proper nouns in the following sentences.
I have two children.

The lion is the king of the beasts.
Solomon was the wisest of all kings.
Birds of a feather flock together.
The Nile is the longest river.
Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India.
HOME WORK
VERY SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between Common and Proper noun
2. Pick out common and proper noun in the following sentences
The early bird catches the worm
It was Thomas Edison who invented the phonograph
You can’t pump the ocean
Summary
Grammar is the study of the organization of words into sentences. Every language has its
own grammar. A knowledge of grammar is perhaps more important to a second language
learner than to a native speaker. This is because the native speaker has intuitively
internalized the grammar of the language whereas the second language learner has
to make conscious efforts to master those aspects of the language which account for
grammatically.
The present position of teaching grammar in schools is pitiable because students look at
grammar from examination point of view and are least bothered about its nuances.
The main aim of teaching grammar is to enable the students to express their ideas logically
and correctly in speech writing.
Formal grammar is that grammar which is taught in a formal way and deals with the
definitions and rules of a language while functional grammar helps the learners in the
achievement of real aims of language learning. The ability of a person learning a language
is not to be judged on the basis of quantity of grammar known, but to make proper use of
language.
The various methods for teaching of grammar are the traditional method, the inductive
deductive method, the incidental or correlation method and the informal method. It is
difficult to decide which method is better. It depends upon the teacher, the learner and the
general background of the learners.
Therefore, the method of teaching should be chosen keeping in view the age and general
standard of students and errors should be pointed out and analyzed both in speech and
writing.
Terms to Remember
Grammar The practical analysis of language, its anatomy.
Formal grammar It is the grammar which is taught in a formal way and deals with the definitions
and rules of a language.
Functional grammar It is also called Descriptive Grammar. The main emphasis is laid on the
functional side of the language.
The traditional method In this method the teacher proceeds from definition and rules to
examples, and then he asks students to do some exercise and memorize the definitions and rules by
heart.
Inductive method Means to proceed from observation to law and rules.
Deductive Method Deductive means to proceed from law and rule to observation and examples.
The incidental or correlation method In this method grammar is taught incidentally.
The informal method This method advocates the teaching of grammar not by rules but by usage.
Exercises
1. Write the meaning and definition of grammar.
2. Discuss the aims and objectives of teaching grammar.
3. What are the characteristics of grammar?
4. What is the difference between formal and functional grammar?
5. What are the various methods of teaching grammar?
6. What are the advantages of teaching grammar?
1. How can teaching of grammar in Indian classrooms be improved? What methods do you
suggest for teaching grammar to students in India?
2. In right form, right place, right measure and right way, the teaching of grammar is indispensable
to any course in English. Elucidate.
11 Micro-Teaching
“Micro teaching is a real, constructed, scaled down teaching encounter which is used for
teacher training, curriculum development and research.”
— Encyclopedia of Education
Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
INTRODUCTION
Micro-teaching is so called since it is analogous to putting the
teacher under a microscope so to say while he is teaching so that
all the shortcomings in teaching methodology are brought into
perspective for the observers to give a constructive feedback. It
eliminates some of the complexities of learning to teach in the
Micro-Teaching 111
classroom situation such as the pressure of length of the lecture, the scope and content of the matter
to be conveyed, the need to teach for a relatively long duration of time and the need to face large
numbers of students, some of whom are hostile temperamentally.
Micro-teaching also provides skilled supervision with an opportunity to get a constructive
feedback. To go back to the analogy of the swimmer, while classroom teaching is like learning to
swim at the deeper end of the pool, micro-teaching is an opportunity to practice at the shallower
and less risky side.
DEFINITIONS OF MICRO-TEACHING
The main objective of the micro-teaching session is to provide the participants with an environment
for practice-based teaching to instill self-evaluative skills. These sessions are usually conducted
with a small group.
According to Dwight Allen “Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in class size
and time. Allen and Eve has defined micro-teaching as a system of controlled practice that makes
it possible to concentrate on specific teaching behaviour and to practice teaching under controlled
conditions.” Figure 11.1 shows the various ways of Micro-teaching.
The acquisition of a good style of questioning may be laid down definitely as one of
Think! the essential ambition of younger teachers. Discuss.
Fig. 11.1 Methods of micro-teaching

MICRO-TEACHING CYCLE
1. Defining a specific skill A specific skill is defined in the form of teaching behaviour and
the knowledge of this defined skill is provided to the teacher trainee by the teachers.
2. Demonstration of the skill The skills are demonstrated through the micro-teaching
lessons.
3. Micro-lessons plan The trainee and the teachers prepare micro lesson plans.
4. Teaching a small group A session for small group of 5-10 students is conducted. The
teacher trainee teaches the lesson to a small group of pupils, supervised by the supervisor and peers.
5. Feedback On the basis of the observation of a lesson, the supervisor gives feedback to the
teacher trainee. The supervisor reinforces the instances of effective use of the skill and draws
attention of the teacher trainee to the points where he could not do well.
6. Re-planning, re-teaching, and re-evaluation In the light of the feed-back given by the
supervisor, the teacher trainee re-plans the lesson plan in order to use the skill in more effective
manner in the second trial.
In this way, the cycle of re-planning, re-teaching and re-evaluation goes on till the teacher trainee
develops a certain level of teaching skill. Figure 11.2 gives an idea of micro-teaching cycle.
Fig. 11.2 Micro-teaching cycle

Micro-Teaching 113
TIME DURATION OF MICRO-TEACHING

Micro-teaching should be of a certain duration, which is given below:
Teaching session = 6 minutes
Feedback session = 6 minutes
Re plan session = 12 minutes
Re teach session = 6 minutes
Feedback session = 6 minutes
Total = 36 minutes
The above mentioned programme will help the trainee-teachers to master the art of teaching
effectively. It allows them to learn one skill at a time which is later integrated as a whole and
transferred into a real teaching situation.
TEACHING SKILL
A teaching skill is an activity or action which is repeated number of times while teaching. Teaching
skills are effective in bringing about the desired changes in student teachers.
Number of skills Educationists have different opinion about number of teaching skills.
There is no common view regarding their numbers. Views of some educationists are given below.
Allen and Ryan’s—suggested 14 skills

B.K. Passi—suggested 13 skills
Dr. L.C. Singh—suggested 22 skills
Some of the major skills are described below:
Keeping the prescribed syllabus in view, a few skills are being described hereunder:
Every teacher should make efforts to acquire the skill of reinforcement. Once
Think! acquired, it will also help him to achieve the desired type of response from the
students. Discuss.
QUESTIONING
It is one of the major devices used by a teacher. Teaching is a bi-polar process; therefore, the teacher
puts questions to the class in order to involve the students fully in the process of teaching-learning.
According to Calvin, “The efficiency of instruction is measured in a large degree by the nature
of the questions that are asked and the care with which they are framed”. Figure 11.3 highlights the
important points of Micro-teaching.
Fig. 11.3 Important points of micro-teaching
Purpose of Questioning Skill

The questioning skill serves five major purposes as listed below:
the teacher ask such question.

Example
of the students on some fundamental points.
redirecting to think and speak on the right lines.
teacher can develop critical awareness in the student.

Micro-Teaching 115
Aims of Questioning
Major aims of teaching comprise the following:
Figure 11.4 highlights the aims of questioning.
Fig. 11.4 Aims of questioning
Classification of Questions
Broadly questions can be divided into two categories, formal questions and natural questions. Formal
questions can be divided into teaching questions and developing questions. Teaching questions can
be further sub-divided into preliminary questions and review questions.
Formal questions
In this category the teacher already knows the information which he asked for. These are of two
types:
Teaching Questions
Teaching questions are of two types:
1. Preliminary Questions—
2. Recapitulatory Questions—
Developing Questions
Natural questions—
he asks.
BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS

OF MICRO-TEACHING
The method of micro-teaching has its own benefits and drawbacks. These are enlisted below.
Benefits
Micro-teaching focuses on sharpening and developing specific teaching skills and eliminating
errors.
beginning of their career but also for more senior teachers.
constructive feedback. The learner remains active in the teaching-learning process.
Drawbacks
said to be (wrongly) a form of play-acting in unnatural surroundings and it is feared that the
MICRO LESSON PLAN

SKILL-QUESTIONING
P.T.'S ROLL NO. : DATED:

SUBJECT : ENGLISH SKILL: QUESTIONING
CLASS : VII DURATION: 6 MIN.
TOPIC : Mahatma Gandhi (Comprehension Passage)
Micro-Teaching 117
Criteria of the Skill

(i) Structuring the language of the questions appropriately
(ii) Asking more questions within specific time
(iii) Encouraging the students to respond
(iv) Maximum participation of students
(v) Improving the correctness of responses
(vi) Developing critical awareness among the students
Opening Statement
try to give the answers.
Content Teacher's Activity Students' Activity

Q.1 Ans. 1
on October 2, 1869.
Q.2 Ans. 2
Q.3 Ans. 3
Q.4 Ans. 4
Bai.
Q.5 Ans. 5
Q.6 Ans. 6
2nd Oct., 1869 at Porbander in
were his weapons.
Q.7 Ans. 7
mother's name was Putli Bai. dead.
Q.8 Ans. 8
Violence were his weapons.

Observation Schedule
Sr. Components Q.1 Q.2 Q.3 Q.4 Q.5 Q.6 Q.7 Q.8
No. Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No
1.
correct
2. Specific
3. Relevant
4.
5. Fluency
6.
in the class
Signature of the Supervisor

Signature of the Observer
SKILL OF INTRODUCTION (SET INDUCTION)

“Set induction helps the teacher prepare students for the lessons in order to induce maximum pay off in
learning. Its main purpose is to clarify the goals of instruction, using students’ present knowledge and
skills to involve them in the lesson”
– Allen and Ryan
It is always wise to begin a lesson with something the students already knows in a general
enthusiasm of the students, half the game is won. Much depends upon starting the lesson in the right
way. The lesson should be started with an interesting example or incident.
Various Components of Set Induction

1. Utilization of the existing knowledge of the students: Learning is a continuous experience.
Introduction of the lesson should be based on the previous learning as well as direct and
indirect experiences of the students. Therefore the teacher should provide a link between the
existing knowledge and the new one. This step may involve:
Micro-Teaching 119
2. Use of Appropriate Devices: The teacher should use appropriate devices for introducing
the lesson. These devices should appeal to various senses of the students and hence motivates
Illustrating and Role playing.

3. Maintenance of Continuity: Continuity means the logical sequence of idea or information.
Proper introduction of a new lesson requires the continuity in the sequence of ideas or
information. The activity done at a particular moment should be properly related to the
preceding activity or statement for the maintenance of continuity. Moreover, a pleasing well
modulated voice and clear pronunciation of the teacher also help in capturing the attention
and interest of the students.
4. Relevance of Verbal and Non-Verbal Behaviour
Verbal behaviour: It includes use of relevant ideas or words to introduce the lesson. It
Non-Verbal Behaviour:
category we have
MICRO LESSON PLAN

SKILL-INTRODUCTION (SET INDUCTION)

SUBJECT : ENGLISH SKILL: INTRODUCTION
CLASS : VII Duration: 6 Min.
TOPIC : Adjectives
Importance of the Skill

(i) Linking previous knowledge with the new knowledge
(iii) Planning to present the lesson systematically

(iv) Arousing interest among the students
(v) Encouraging the students to participate in the lesson.
Teacher's Activity Students' Activity
Taj Mahal, Table, Book, Sita etc.
They describe the noun. Tell us more about them.
STATEMENT
Dear students, today we shall learn about the describing words, which we call adjectives in grammar.
Micro-Teaching 121
S. No Components Tallies Satisfactory Good Very Good

1.
of the students
2.
3. Maintenance of continuity
4. Relevancy of verbal or non verbal
behaviour

SKILL OF EXPLAINING
Explanation refers to a statement, fact or situation that tells one, why something happened.
Explanation plays a major role in the teaching-learning process. It is the duty of the teacher to
present the subject matter in simple and interesting way. This method is termed as skill of explaining.
Components of Explaining Skill

Explaining skills comprises the following components.
(i) Beginning Statement:—Beginning statement is used to announce the topic. It makes the
students ready in the class to listen to what is going to be explained.
(ii) Concluding Statement:—These statements give a consolidated picture of what has been
explained earlier to the students.
(iii) Explaining Links:—(but, so, hence, thus, etc.) means creating links or bringing the
continuity in statements to explain the concept. A good teacher should make use of explaining
skill as much as possible.
(iv) Covering Main Points:—Explanation should cover all the main points.
(v) Correctness of the Language:—The language used by the teachers should be simple, clear
and correct.
The merits and demerits of Explaining Skills
Merits
Demerits
The major demerit of Explaining Skill is that, it becomes difficult to determine as to what extent the
use of this technique is appropriate and sufficient.
MICRO LESSON PLAN

SKILL-EXPLANING

SUBJECT : ENGLISH SKILL: EXPLAINING
TOPIC : Noun (Grammar)
Purpose of Explanation Skill

(i) Introducing an idea or concept to the students
(iii) Covering main ideas of the content/concept

(iv) Keeping optimum normal speed in explanation
(v) Attending completion of idea/concept
Opening Statement
Dear students, today I shall explain you the concept of noun.
Content P.T.'s Activity Students' Activity

(i)
Then P.T. will tell students that
Contd.
Micro-Teaching 123
(ii)
the picture of Taj Mahal, the P.T. will
The students will answer–in Agra.
Then P.T. will tell students that

Agra is the place where Taj Mahal is
situated.
(iii) Showing an apple, the P.T. will ask The students will say–an apple.
Then P.T. will tell students that an

apple is a thing.
So based on above discussion, the The students will try to understand

P.T. will now conclude with the and note down this definition in
definition of a noun as– their note-books.
or thing
Sita is eating an apple.
the blackboard and ask the students The books are on the table.
to underline noun/nouns. Rahul is dancing.
Delhi is the capital of India.
Sr. No. Components Satisfactory Good Very Good
1. Opening Statement
2. Closing statement
3. Covering main ideas
4. Speed
5. Correctness of the language
6. Spoken English of the Student Teacher
7. Explaining links (so, but, hence, such as, etc.)

SKILL OF ILLUSTRATION
To illustrate means to make a point or idea clear. It means to elucidate or exemplify ideas with the
help of verbal or non-verbal aids. It is because; it becomes difficult to explain certain abstract ideas.
Illustrations make the subject matter clear, simple, understandable and interesting. The value of
illustration depends upon the skill with which easy and familiar things can be used to explain new
and difficult ideas. It will be much better if these examples are taken from students’ daily life.
Objectives of Skill of Illustration

To make the lesson interesting.
To link unknown knowledge to known.
To use various senses of the students.
Components of the Skill of Illustration

To make illustration easy and natural and to attain mastery in this skill, it is desirable to be proficient
by the following behaviours–
Simple Examples—Teacher should formulate simple and clear examples keeping in mind
age, previous knowledge, family background and experience of the students.
Understandable Examples—The teacher should give examples which help the students to
understand the topic. Examples related to the topic produces significant effect on students’
learning.
Relevant Examples—The examples illustrated by teacher should be relevant to the topic.
Teacher should avoid such examples which are not directly related to the concept.
Approaches—There are two basis approaches used by the teacher to clear a concept or idea.
Inductive Approach—The teacher starts with examples based on the concept and then
try to draw inferences on the basis of these examples.
Deductive Approach—The teachers state the facts, concepts and then give examples to
support or illustrate.
The teachers are advised to use both the approaches, so that they may help the students
—Illustration should be presented with suitable and effective

mediums which make its effect perfect.
There are two major types of illustrations, verbal and non-verbal. These are explained
below.
of related ideas expressed in words. It can be further divided into stories and description,
analogies and comparison, similes and words.
Micro-Teaching 125
Non-Verbal or Concrete Illustrations—These illustrations are of great potential value than

the verbal illustrations. This category includes concrete material such as sketches, actual,
objects and specimens, models, pictures, diagrams, maps and graphs.
Aims of Illustration
Illustration attract attention
Facilitate understanding
Stimulate the imagination of the students
Illustration overcome and clear up difficulties of comprehension
Develops the retention power of the students
Suggestions While Making Use of Illustrations

It is advisable to keep in mind these points while making use of illustrations.
Illustrations should be exact and accurate.
They should be easy and intelligible.
They should be interesting.
Too many illustrations should not be used.
Illustrative aids should be attractive, colourful and appeal to the students.
There should be a variety and novelty in the use of illustrations.
Think! Why there should be a variety and novelty in the use of illustration? Discuss.
MICRO LESSON PLAN

SKILL-ILLUSTRATING WITH EXAMPLES
P.T.'S ROLL NO. : DATE:
EXAMPLES
CLASS : VII
TOPIC : Prepositions (Grammar) Duration: 6 Min.
Criteria of the Skill
(ii) Making illustrations interesting and effective

Opening Statement
Dear students, today I shall illustrate the usage of prepositions with some explains.
Content P.T's Activity Students' Activity

(i) the P.T. will The students will answer—The
ask—what do you see in this Cat is on the table.
(ii) putting chalks in the box, The students will say—The

chalks are in the box.
(iii) Thereafter, The students will answer—The

card cat is (sitting) under the table.
Thus, the words on, in and

under used in the sentences are
prepositions
Definition of Preposition The P.T. will ask the students to The students will try to
write the definition of preposition understand and note down the
as– definition of preposition in their
“a word usually placed before a note books.
noun or a pronoun to govern it
and show its relation with other
words in a sentence”.
Contd.
Micro-Teaching 127
1. The rat is______the box. Showing a chart, the P.T. will ask (i) The student will answer—
the students to insert appropriate The rat is on the box.
preposition in the given sentences.
2. The ball is______the (ii) The ball is under the table.

table.
3. The water is______the (iii) The water is in the glass.

glass.
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
Sr. No. Components Average Good Very Good

1. Simple
2. Relevant
3.
4. Interesting
5. A.V. Aids used
6. Demonstration
Contd.
7. Students involvement
8. Approach
(a) Inductive
(b) Deductive

SKILL OF STIMULUS VARIATION

What to change, When to change and How to change requires a skill on the part of the teacher for
securing and sustaining attention at high level. Such a skill is named as skill of Stimulus Variation”.
– Sneha Joshi
Psychologists have proved that for any learning to take place, the learner should be attentive to
the information. Therefore, a good teacher goes on varying the stimulus in order to bring variety in
his teaching. Thus the teachers are trained in movements, gestures, focusing interaction styles and
so on.
The skill of stimulus variation is based on the principle that, change in stimulus in one’s
perception, captures the subject’s attention. So stimulus variation generates interest among the
students in their learning.
Every teacher uses some stimulus in order to have a desired type of response from the students.
If he continues using the same stimulus for the same students, the desired response will not come
up. So there is need of Stimulus Variation. It generates interest among the students in their learning.
COMPONENTS OF STIMULUS VARIATION

The major components of stimulus variation are explained below.
1. Gesture of the Teacher in the classroom:—It is advisable that the teacher moves around in
the classroom while lecturing. This action draws the attention of the students and inculcates
a feeling of being supervised.
2. Voice of the Teacher:—In order to lay emphasis on a particular point the teacher can make
sudden changes in the tone, volume or speed of verbal expression. But these changes should
be according to the situation and need of the students.
3. Pauses:—
to sustain their attention, the teacher should pause during teaching, not only to secure the
attention of the students but to give time for the ideas and concepts to simulate.
Micro-Teaching 129
4. Body language:—The teacher can make various gestures with the help of movement of hand,
point being taught and express emotions on the part of the teacher.
5. Students’ Involvement:—It includes active participation of students in the classroom.
During the lesson like handling equipments, writing on blackboard, it will arouse interest and
motivation in teaching-learning process.
6. Change in Sensory Focus:—There are different sensory focuses during a lesson like
listening, spelling, doing writing and demonstrating etc. Changes in sensory focus helps
in maintaining the level of attention. Such changes can be brought about through judicious
combination of various means of communication as, Aural to Visual, Aural to Aural Visual,
Visual to Aural Visual.
MICRO LESSON PLAN

SKILL-STIMULUS VARIATION
P.T.'S ROLL NO. : DATE:
SUBJECT : ENGLISH SKILL: STIMULUS VARIATION
CLASS : VIII DURATION: 6 MIN.
TOPIC : Genders (Grammar)
Purpose of the Skill

1. Drawing students’ attention
2. Clarification of the contents
3. Maximum involvement of the students
4. Creating interest among the students
Opening Statement
Content P.T.'s Activity Students' Activity

The P.T. will tell the topic and write
it on the B.B. (Pause)
Then P.T. will explain what gender
The students will listen carefully

and try to understand the meaning
which means kind or sort.
classification of sexes (Pause)

Contd.
There are four genders in English

(Pause)
depicting the pictures of all four

kinds of gender one by one.
The P.T. will first explain The students will give the
Masculine gender as the names following examples:
of the male species, for examples. 1. Man
Boy, Dog etc. The P.T. will ask
the students to give some more
examples. (gesturing)
2. Ox
The P.T. will then explain feminine The students will give the
gender as the names of the female following examples:
species. For example girl, cow, etc.
The P.T. will ask students to give 2. Bitch
some more examples.
Contd.
Micro-Teaching 131
The P.T. will now explain the The students will give the
common gender as a noun that following examples:
denotes either a male or female. 1. Baby
For example, Child, Student 2. Friend
(gesturing)
The P.T. will ask the students to
give few examples (Pause)
Contd.
The P.T. will explain the fourth The students will give the
following examples:-
as a noun that denotes a thing that 1. Table
is neither male nor female or in 2. Chair
other words non-living.
The P.T. will give the following
1. Book
2. Pen (Pause)
The P.T. will now ask the students
gender
By writing on Blackboard
find out which kind of gender are

the following:—
1. Peacock
2. Master
3. Bag
The students will answer:-
5. Friend (Pause) 1. Masculine gender
2. Masculine gender
4. Feminine gender
5. Common gender
Closing Statement
say Yes).
Sr. No. Components Average Good Very Good

1.
2. Body language
3. Voice modulation
4. Pauses
5. Movements of the students
6. Shifting sensory channels (Visual, Audio and Audio Visual)
Micro-Teaching 133
SKILL OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement is response change or modification and is based on the feedback which means that
the reduction or satisfaction of an organic need or drive stimulus increases the probability of future
responses of the kind that the organism emitted immediately prior to its being satisfied.
Reinforcers: Reinforcers may be positive or negative. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus

whose presentation increases the probability of the response to reoccur in future, whereas a
negative reinforcer is any stimulus whose withdrawal strengthens that behaviour. In both the cases
the behaviour is strengthened. A positive reinforcement consists of presenting something like
food, water or teacher’s smile, etc., to the students. A negative reinforcement consists of removing
something or teacher’s frown, imparting punishment or threat and so on.
Word of caution:
Reinforcement involves presentation of a positive stimulus or removal of negative one, while
punishment consists of presentation of a negative stimulus or removal of positive one. Also,
punishment is a process that weakens a response. Punishment is not considered a proper procedure
for behaviour modification as it hardly provides relatively permanent change in behaviour and
temporarily suppresses wrong or undesirable behaviour.
Reinforcement in Classroom: Reinforcement is not only used to promote learning, but

also to secure attention, to motivate students. Sometimes the use of reinforcement in the classroom
is: to initiate students’ participation, to facilitate learning, to motivate the learner and to maintain
the level of motivation, to modify undesirable behaviours, to develop desirable behaviours and to
develop self-management of learning experience through self- reinforcement.
Meaning of the Skill of Reinforcement: In class, the students who respond should be
given due recognition. This acts as an immense motivation for the students. They make further efforts
effort of the students, the latter’s interest diminishes. It can be said that skill reinforcement “involves
the teacher to use more and more positive reinforces and to decrease negative reinforces, so that
student’s participation in the class is maximized”. (Passi, 1976, p.234).
COMPONENTS OF THE SKILL REINFORCEMENT

For the effective use of the skill or reinforcement, we must acquaint ourselves with the behavioural
components of the skill which are explained below in details.
(i) Positive Verbal Reinforcement It involves giving verbal or linguistic expressions which
(ii) Positive Non-verbal Reinforcers -

iours to reinforce the student responses, it is known as positive non-verbal reinforcement.
This component has four elements:
(b) Moving towards the responding student
It has been found that positive non-verbal reinforcement is more effective in bringing about
behavioural changes, as repeated use of positive verbal reinforcers reduces their effectiveness
and ultimately become part of teacher’s mannerism.
(iii) Negative Verbal Reinforcers Though the purpose of this type of reinforcement is to
strengthen the occurrence of a particular behaviour, but in practice, the uses of certain
undesirable Reinforcers weaken the described behaviour. The other effect of this type of
negative verbal reinforcers and should not be used extensively in order to facilitate learning.
(iv) Negative Non-verbal Reinforcer This type of reinforcement can be given to students
conscious of certain undesirable behaviours. This can be done through such behaviours like
avoiding the particularly student and moving away from him.

(v) Extra Verbal Cues
tend to lower the effectiveness as reinforcers and become a part of teacher’s mannerism.
(vi) Repeating and Rephrasing Student’s Response Teacher repeats the correct response of
the student or rephrases it for the benefit of other students in the class. Such behaviours have
reinforcing effect on the students, but the teacher should repeat only those answers by the
students which are novel and significant.
Some Cautions Regarding the Use of Skill Reinforcement

The following points should be born in mind while using the skill of reinforcement:
(i) Frequent use of reinforcement should be avoided.
(ii) Only few correct and novel responses should be reinforced.
(iii) A variety of reinforces should be used to avoid monotony and to increase the effectiveness of
reinforcers.
used.
Micro-Teaching 135
(v) Reinforcement may be given to the whole class from time to time as well as to the individual
student.
reinforcement may be given in cases where a long answer was to be given in parts by the
student(s), but delayed reinforcement should be normally avoided.
(viii) Meaningful reinforcers have more effect on student learning. The reinforcement should be
given keeping in view student’s level of maturity and the context of classroom discourse
so that the student have an understanding of the relationship of the reinforcement to their
behaviours.
Think! Which types of reinforcement is better Positive or Negative and why so? Discuss.
MICRO LESSON PLAN

SKILL-REINFORCEMENT

SUBJECT : ENGLISH SKILL: REINFORCEMENT
TOPIC : Mahatma Gandhi
Purposes of Skill Reinforcement
Components of Skill Reinforcement

Opening Statement
to give the answers.
Teacher's Activity Students' Activity Remarks and Component

Q.1 Ans. 1
on October 2, 1869. Reinforcement)
Q.2 Ans. 2
Reinforcement)
Q.3 Ans. 3
and Repharsing student’s response)
Q.4 Ans. 4
Putli Bai. Reinforcement)
Q.5 Ans. 5 Very good (Positive verbal
Reinforcement)
Q.6 Ans. 6
were his weapons.
Q.7 Ans. 7
him dead. the blackboard (writing student’s
response on the blackboard)
Q.8 Ans. 8
reinforcement)
Correct (Positive verbal
Reinforcement)
Micro-Teaching 137
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
Sr. No. Components Yes/No Average Good Very Good

1 2 3
1. Positive verbal reinforcers
2. Positive non verbal reinforcer
3.
4.
5. Extra verbal reinforcers
6. Repeating and rephrasing student’s responses
7
Summary
Micro-teaching is a real teaching reduced in time, number of students and range of
activities.
The duration of micro-teaching cycle is 36 minutes.
A teaching skill is an activity or action which is repeated number of times during the
course of teaching. Teaching skills are effective in bringing about desired changes in
pupil teachers.
Micro-teaching provides expert supervision and a constructive feedback and the learner
remains active in the teaching learning process but all types of knowledge cannot be
imparted by this technique.
Questioning is one of the major devices used by a teacher. Teaching is a bi-polar process;
therefore, the teacher puts questions to the class in order to involve the students fully
in the process of teaching-learning. Purpose of questioning skill is prompting, seeking
further information, refocusing, redirection and increasing critical awareness.
Set induction It is always wise to start the lesson with something the pupils already
knows in a general way or with something they are interested in. Much depends upon
starting the lesson in the right way. The lesson should be started with an interesting
example or incident. For introducing a lesson we should keep the following things in
mind.
Explanation means the group of those meaningful statements which are related to
the content and arranged in systematic order. It helps to develop good reasoning and
imagination ability but sometimes it is difficult to determine as to what extent the use
of this technique is appropriate and sufficient.
Illustration means to elucidate or exemplify ideas with the help of verbal or non
verbal aids. Illustrations should be exact and accurate. Too many illustrations should
not be used.
Stimulus Variation It is defined as the change in teacher’s behaviour to attract
student’s attention.
Reinforcement is not only used to promote learning, but also to secure attention, to
motivate pupils. Sometimes the use of reinforcement in the classroom is: to increase
pupil participation, to facilitate learning, to motivate the learner and to maintain the
level of motivation, to modify undesirable behaviours, to develop desirable behaviours
and to develop self management of learning experience through self reinforcement.
Meaningful reinforcers have more effect on pupil learning. The reinforcement should
be given keeping in view pupil’s level of maturity and the context of classroom discourse
so that the pupil have an understanding of the relationship of the reinforcement to
their behaviours.
Exercises
8. Explain micro-teaching cycle.

1. Prepare a lesson plan on the skill of questioning.
5. Prepare a lesson plan on the skill of reinforcement.

12 Methods of Teaching
English
“The questions, what should be taught? And how should it be taught?
Are intimately connected because if better methods of teaching are devised, it is possible to
learn more”.
— Bertrand Russell
Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives
Introduction
Origin of Method This chapter will enable the reader to:
Method
INTRODUCTION
The methods of teaching a language differ according to the
aims for which it is taught. The methods of teaching a foreign
language like English are determined by the aims for which it is
taught. When aims are formulated, it must be considered which
method should be adopted to achieve a particular aim. If the
aim of teaching English were restricted to obtain information,
the corresponding stress would be on enrichment of vocabulary
necessitating an appropriate method to achieve this aim. It would
have little to do with the ability to master linguistic aspects such
as speech sounds and loud reading. If the aim is to master the
linguistic aspects of English, then an entirely different strategy,
approach and method may be needed. Methods of teaching English depend on the aims of teaching
English as shown in Figure 12.1.
Fig. 12.1 Methods of teaching English depends on aims of teaching English
“Even the best curriculum and the most perfect syllabus remains dead unless quickened into life by the
right methods of teaching and the right kind of teachers”.
— Secondary Education Commission
DEFINITIONS OF METHOD
The dictionary defines “A method is a way of doing things”. Teaching methods deal with how to
teach.
According to Anthony “Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language
material, no part of which is based upon the selected approach.”
According to M.Verma, “Matter is important for determining method. The common teaching
matter may be of three types; hence all the methods can be classified under three categories as
shown in Figure 12.2.
Fig. 12.2 Categories of teaching

PROCESSES OF TEACHING
Teaching methods is a body of techniques that a teacher adopts in classroom teaching-learning
situations to put across the subject matter in an effective way. Figure 12.3 highlights the processes
of teaching.
Fig. 12.3 Various processes involved in teaching
Maxims:—These are the general truths drawn from science of experience teaching.
Techniques:—These are referred to the ways of implementing a method. Different techniques
may be employed within one method.
Fig. 12.4 Brief outline of various techniques and methods of teachings

Teaching Method:—It is a style of the presentation of content in the classroom.

Approach:—It is related to process and goals of education.
Table 12.1: Explains the Various Processes Involved in Teaching
Maxims (order of teaching) Simple to complex, concrete to abstract etc.

Techniques (teaching technologies) Copying, drilling etc.
Method (how to teach) Lecture, question answer etc. project method.
Approach (what to teach) Evaluation approach, management approach.
APPROACHES OF TEACHING-LEARNING
The educational process has used several methods of teaching and learning. The procedure indicates
the steps of organizing teaching or managing teaching-learning. Technically the procedure of
teaching-learning is called as an approach.
The following are the main approaches of teaching-learning.
Herbartion Approach
Evaluation Approach
Morrison Approach
Management Approach
Multimedia Approach
Table 12.2:
Point Approach Method

1. Exponent Herbert, B.S. Bloom, L.K. Devics, Morrison Socrate, Kilpetric, Herbert, Morrison
2. Meaning It is process or procedure of education It is an abstract entity, which is
determined by content
3. Nature Content-centred, objective centred, Teacher centred
learner centred
4. Purpose To realize the goals of education To make effective presentation of
subject content in classroom
5. Objectives To achieve educational and national To have the memorization of facts and
objectives content. To reproduce the content
6. Components Steps of the approach, method and Techniques of teaching, Maxims of
technique, strategies, models and tactics teaching, Device of teaching, Modes
of teaching
Contd.
7. Effectiveness Criterion measures, change of behaviour, Qualitative measurement,

attainment test achievement test, observation
8. Example Evaluation approach, management Lecture, Question answer, Project
approach, multimedia approach method, story telling, demonstration,
translation and direct method
METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH

The following are the major methods of teaching English as a second language.
1. Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

“Under the Translation-cum-Grammar method, the meaning of English words, phrases and sentences
is taught by means of word to word translation into the mother tongue.”
— Champion
Introduction:
of helping students read and appreciate world literature. In this method, while teaching, the teacher
translates every word, phrase from English into the mother tongue of learners. Further, students are
required to translate sentences from their vernacular into English. These exercises in translation are
based on various items covering the grammar of the target language. The method emphasizes the
study of grammar through deduction that is through the study of the rules of grammar. A contrastive
study of the target language with the vernacular gives an insight into the structure not only of the
foreign language but also of the vernacular.
Principles of Translation Method
Clarity and firmness: Translation interprets the words and phrases of the foreign languages in the
best possible manner.
Domination of vernacular: The vernacular dominates in this method.
Parallel study of two languages: The structures of the foreign languages are best learnt when
compared with those of vernacular.
Maxim of known to unknown: The fundamental principles of proceedings from known to unknown
are followed.
Word as a unit of teaching: The unit of teaching is word not a sentence.
Content and Characteristics

1. Classes are taught in vernacular, with little active use of the target language
2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words
3. Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given
form and inflection of words

5. Reading of difficult classical text is begun early
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical
analysis
7. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target
language into the mother tongue
8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation
Typical Techniques Techniques closely related with the grammar translation method are
summarized below.
1. Translation of a literary passage Translating target language to native language
2. Reading comprehension questions Finding information in a passage, making inferences and
relating to personal experience
3. Antonyms/synonyms Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words
4. Cognates Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target
language
5. Deductive application of rule Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then
applying them to new example
6. Fill-in-the-blanks Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular
grammar type
7. Memorization Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms
8. Use words in sentences Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use
of new words
9. Composition Students write about a topic using the target language
Advantages and Disadvantages of Grammar Cum Translation Method
The typical technique has the following advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
(i) The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained.
(ii) Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one language
into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items in the second language is
found time consuming. A lot of time is wasted if the meanings of lexical items are explained
through definitions and illustrations in the second language.
(iii) Learners acquire some sort of accuracy in understanding synonyms in the source language
and the target language.
(iv) Teacher’s labour is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother
tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension questions on the text taught in the vernacular.
(v) Students will not have much difficulty in responding to questions in vernacular. So, the
teacher can easily assess whether the students have learnt what he has taught them.
(vi) Communication between the teacher and students does not cause linguistic problems. Even
teachers who are not fluent in English can teach English through this method. That is perhaps
the reason why this method has been practiced so widely and has survived so long.
(vii) It enables a comparative study of English grammar and the vernacular.
(viii) Abstract words and phrases can be easily explained with the help of translation.
(ix) This method is useful for a large class.
(x) It is easy, quick and economical method as it is based on the maxims of teaching.
(xi) It does not require teaching aid.
Disadvantages The disadvantages of the same are enlisted below
(i) It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking,
reading and writing. That is the way how the child learns his mother tongue in natural
starts with the teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses problems.
writing. It neglects speech. Thus, the students who are taught English through this method
fail to express themselves adequately in spoken English. Even at the undergraduate level
they feel shy of communicating through English. It has been observed that, where English is
taught through this method, learners listen to vernacular more than that of the second/foreign
language. Since language learning involves habit formation, such students fail to acquire
habit of speaking English.
(iii) Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation
from one language to another is not always possible. A language is the result of various
customs, traditions, and modes of behaviour of a speech community and these traditions
differ from community to community. There are several lexical items in one language, which
have no synonyms/equivalents in another language. For instance, the meaning of the English
word ‘table’ does not fit in such expression as the ‘table of contents’, ‘table of figures’,
‘multiplication table’, ‘timetable’ and ‘table the resolution’ and so on. English prepositions
are also difficult to translate. Consider sentences such as ‘We see with our eyes’, ‘Bombay is
far from Delhi’, ‘He died of cholera’, He succeeded through hard work’. In these sentences
‘with’, ‘from’, ‘of ’, ‘through’ can be translated into the Hindi preposition ‘se’ and vice
versa. Each language has its own structure, idiom and usage, which do not have their exact
counterparts in another language. Thus, translation should be considered an index of one’s
proficiency in a language.
(iv) It is dull and mechanical method.
(v) It does not help the learner to accurate pronunciation.
(vi) It prevents self-expression.

(vii) It makes the students passive learner.
(viii) It stops the student from thinking freely in English language.
(ix) It encourages bookish language.
(x) This method is based on cramming.
(xi) It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes
does not provide any such practice to the learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach
language through rules and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak
any language, whether native or foreign entirely by rule is quite impossible.
Language learning is a skill, which can be learnt through practice and not by just memorizing
rules. Those who have learnt a foreign or second language through this method find it
difficult to give up the habit of first thinking in their vernacular and than translating their
ideas into the second language. They, therefore, fail to acquire proficiency in the second
language approximating that in the first language. The method, therefore, suffers from certain
weaknesses for which there is no remedy.
Some Practical Suggestions
2. The Direct Method

Towards the end of the late 1800s, a revolution in language teaching philosophy took place that is
seen by many as the dawn of modern foreign language teaching. Teachers, frustrated by the limits
students, began to experiment with new ways of teaching language. The appearance of the “Direct
Method” thus coincided with a new school of thinking that dictated that all foreign language
teaching should occur in the target language only, with no translation and an emphasis on linking
meaning to the language being learned.
The basic premise of the Direct Method was that second language learning should be more like first
language learning. The method would include lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of language,
no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammar rules. This
method is also known as Reform Method/Natural Method/Phonetical Method/Anti-grammatical
Method.
Therefore, if possible, the teacher should try to create a natural learning environment within the
classroom.
(i) Second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural
way humans learn any language, and so vernacular has no place in second language learning.
(Baby never relies on another language to learn its first language).
(ii) Printed word must be kept away from second language learner for as long as possible (same
as first language learner, who does not use printed word until he has good grasp of speech).
(iii) The written word/writing should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced.
(iv) The learning of grammar/translating skills should be avoided because they involve the
application of the mother tongue (MT).
(v) All above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral proficiency.
Objectives
The sole and the most important objective of the direct method is to, communicate in the target
language, partly by learning how to think in that language and by not involving L1 in the language
learning process.
Principles of the Direct Method
The direct method is based on certain principles which are explained below.
1. Inhibition of the vernacular: Classroom instruction should be conducted exclusively in
the target language.
2. Limited vocabulary: Only everyday vocabulary and sentences should be taught.
3. Enhancing Communication Skills: Oral communication skills should be built up in a

carefully planned manner
4. Descriptive Teaching Grammar:
5. Practice: New teaching points should be taught through modeling and practice
6. Emphasis is laid on pronunciation: Correct pronunciation and grammar should be
emphasized.
Example
The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.
Steps Involved in Typical Techniques
answer in full sentence

follow-up questions, tone
target language
and various models
Advantages
(i) The understanding of English becomes easier due to the inhibition of the linguistic
interferences of the vernacular.
(ii) Direct association between word and meaning tends to improve expression in speech as well
as writing.
(iii) This method is psychologically sound as it follows the principles of education, e.g., proceed
from particular to general, concrete to abstract.
(iv) Direct association between the object and the English word and between the English word
and its meaning facilitates understanding of English without using vernacular.
(v) It is a natural method. It teaches English language in the same way in which the child learns
his mother tongue.
(vi) It makes more use of audio-visual aids.
(vii) This method helps the teacher and the learner to cover-up more syllabi in less time.
(viii) This method is an interesting method as it involves many activities.
(ix) In this method cramming of words and their meaning are discouraged.
(x) This method helps to bring the words of passive vocabulary to active vocabulary.
(xi) It emphasizes on pronunciation of the language.
(xii) This method helps in self-expression.
Disadvantages
(i) The direct method promotes the oral aspect of language learning and undermines the
significance of reading and written work.
(ii) This method aims at directly associating word with meaning, it restricts the scope of
vocabulary as all words cannot be directly associated with their meanings.
(iii) E.g., Abstract nouns like ‘honesty’, ‘integrity,’ ‘beautiful’, ‘truth’, etc. cannot be directly
associated with their meanings.
Implementation of this method requires a proper atmosphere which is conducive to learning
English.
(iv) Our schools do not have requisite audio-visual materials and/or equipment to facilitate proper
teaching of English.
(v) Lack of linguistically useful material and equipment because of its expenses hampers the
progress of this method.
(vi) Direct method suits those students who are linguistically oriented, as its basic principle is that
the aural oral appeal is stronger than the visual in learning English.
(vii) In this method teacher has to spend a lot of time for the preparation of the lesson.
(viii) In this method grammar is not taught systematically.
(ix) In this method much time is consumed in creating situations.
(x) This method is not fit for the overcrowded class.
(xi) The Direct Method was an important turning point in the history of foreign language
is progressive and heading in the right direction.

“Direct association between the word and the thing gives better
results than translation.”
Some Practical Suggestions
In spite of the limitations of the direct method, it can be successfully applied in the lower and the
middle classes. This method should be practiced to prepare a sound background of the oral work at
the earlier stage and minimize his future difficulties.
3. The Bilingual Method

The bilingual method is comparatively a recent method developed by Prof. C.J. Dodson of Wales.
This method stands for the use of two languages i.e., the vernacular and the target language in
teaching second language. This method is based on the similarities and differences which exists
between two languages.
The similarities and differences may be of situation, sounds, vocabulary, structures and so on.
When a child learns a foreign languge, he becomes familiar with the situations and picks up the
language correctly. While learning the foreign language, the situations are created in order to make
the child learn the language. The advocates of this method believe that it is merely a waste of time
as there is duplicity of the same thing. So there is no need of creating the situation again and time
saved must be utilised for giving practice in sentence pattern.
Philosophy behind the Bilingual Method
When a child learns his vernacular, he forms the concept and grasps the situation and learns the
meaning of words simultaneously. The advocates of the Bilingual Method believe that it is a waste
of time to recreate the situation while teaching a foreign language. Their argument is that teaching-
learning process is facilitated if only the vernacular, equivalents are given to the learner without
duplicating the situation. The Bilingual Method, therefore, makes use of the mother tongue in this
restricted manner.
Objectives of the Bilingual Method
1. To make the learners of a second/foreign language fluent and accurate in the spoken word.
2. To make the learners accurate in the written word.
3. To prepare the learners in such a manner that he may be able to achieve through bilingualism.
Bilingual Method Principles
The bilingual method follows certain principles as explained below.
Teaching-learning process is facilitated if only the mother
tongue equivalents are given to the learner without duplicating the situation. So the vernacular
is used at initial stage to explain the meaning of words.
The use of the vernacular saves the time of the teacher from
creating artificial situations.
More pattern practice The advocates of the Bilingual Method believe that it is a waste of
time to recreate the situation while teaching a foreign language, so time saved from creating
situations can be used for giving more pattern practice to the students.
It is the teacher who uses the vernacular. Students only
practice patterns of English.
The unit of speech is a sentence and not word. Emphasis is laid on
speaking full sentences.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Bilingual Method

Advantages
1. The teacher is saved from the botheration of creating artificial situations in order to convey
the meanings in English.
2. The time thus saved is utilized in giving pattern practice to the learner.
3. Even an average teacher of English can teach through this method without any elaborate
preparation.
4. The Bilingual Method promotes both fluency and accuracy. It promotes theory as it lays
emphasis on speech and pattern practice. It promotes accuracy as the meanings of new words
are given in the mother tongue of the learner.
5. It does not require any teaching aids and is suited to all kinds of schools—rural and urban.
6. Unlike the Direct Method, which ignores the linguistic habits already acquired by the learner
in the process of learning the first language, the Bilingual Method makes use of them.
7. Judicious use of mother tongue by the teacher does not spoil the environment of teaching
English.
8. It helps in developing different linguistic skills i.e., Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing.
Disadvantages
1. A possible disadvantage of the method is that if the teacher is not imaginative enough,
drawbacks.
2. The Bilingual Method is useful at the secondary stage; the Direct Method is more useful than
the Bilingual Method at the primary stage.
3. This method can confuse the students due to contrast between the features of two languages
i.e., English and mother tongue.
4. It is not possible to provide an exact word which is equivalent to the vernacular.
5. The bad habit of learning everything by filtering through mother tongue may be formed.
The bilingual method is worth trying in India. This method is suitable for both the students and
the teacher because of its time saving characteristics. The teacher can handle it with confidence
without bothering for the creation of situations in the class with teaching aids.
Difference between Grammar Translation

Method and Bilingual Method
1. In the Bilingual Method it is the teacher who always makes use of the mother tongue to
explain meanings and not the students.
2. The learner is sufficiently subjected to sentence pattern drills, which are not provided in the
introduced early in the course of language teaching and there is an integration of the speaking
and writing skills. Table 12.3 highlights the differences between the three methods.
Table 12.3:
Translation method Direct method Bilingual method

It is a classical method of It came as a reaction to the It is a modified version of both
teaching. translation method. the translation method and direct
method.
It makes excessive use of the The use of mother tongue is Vernacular is used in restricted
mother tongue. prohibited. manner.
The teachers as well as students Neither the teacher nor the In the Bilingual Method it is the
use the mother tongue in students use the mother teacher who always makes use
explaining the sentences, meanings tongue. of the mother tongue to explain
etc. meanings and not the students.
Students are not given any practice It lays more emphasis on The learner is sufficiently
in the drill of sentence patterns. pattern practice. subjected to sentence pattern drills.
Contd.
Students have less practice in Students have greater Students have greater practice in
Speaking English. practice in speaking English. speaking English.
It is not much improved method of It is an improved method of It is an improved method of

teaching English. teaching English. teaching English.
This method is less costly. This method is very costly. This method is less costly.
It suits to both the average and It suits only brilliant It suits to both the average and
below average students. students. below average students.
It suits to majority of teachers. It suits to the expert language It suits to the average teacher.
teacher.
WHICH METHOD IS THE BEST?

The objective of language learning is to enable the learners to learn the target language and for this
students should be actively involved in the learning process. So a good teacher is always in search
of an effective method of teaching. The goals of language teaching can be obtained by selecting an
appropriate method of teaching. After discussing the various methods of teaching English in India,
it can be concluded that there is perhaps no single method which is workable in Indian classrooms.
Why not go in for a rainbow effect in which the best of each method be incorporated depending
upon the competence of the teacher. The thing that concerns us the most is the output. Methods
are good or bad with reference to the output/outcomes of the linguistic abilities. The crux of the
linguistic learning is that one is able to use it fluently, correctly and effectively as a matter of habit
or, as master of course without any obvious stain on the thinking process. Every teacher of English
should be able to achieve this target irrespective of the method implemented while teaching. So, it is
advisable that the teacher should adopt eclectic and pragmatic approach because no single approach
is useful in all the situations. The teacher should consider the following factors while making a
choice of his method.
Conclusion
A good teacher is the judge of the methods; the best method is one that works well in the hands of
the teacher because the right method in the hands of only right teachers can help in the attainment
of goals. The methods are to serve us in our teaching process hence to be our servants and not our
masters as “the methods are meant are meant for us and not we for the methods.”
Summary
Teaching is a process of building of a person’s mind and character through its methodology.
So methods are the links for connecting aims with its values.
Teaching methods is a body of techniques that a teacher adopts in classroom teaching-
learning situations to put across the subject matter in an effective way.
method, Direct method and Bilingual method

Procedure of teaching-learning is called as an approach. The main approaches of
teaching-learning are Herbartion Approach, Evaluation Approach, Morrison Approach,
Management Approach and Multimedia Approach.
Terms to Remember
Methodology A systematic and logical study of principles guiding scientific investigations and
for reaching at highest degree of efficiency.
Maxims Maxims are the general truths drawn from science of experience teaching.
Techniques Techniques are the ways of implementing a method. Different techniques may be
employed with-in one method.
Teaching method It is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part
of which is based upon the selected approach.
Approach It is related to process and goals of education.
Exercises
1. Explain the meaning and definition of a method.
2. What is the difference between a method and approach?
3. How maxims, techniques, methods and approaches are linked to each other?
Long Answer Question (word limit 1000)
1. Define method and approach. Explain the differences between the two.

13 Learner Centered
Approaches
Learning is not a spectator sport.
— Bloch
Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives
Introduction
Role of Learner and Teacher This chapter will enable the reader to:
Objectives
Types of Approaches
Structural Approach
Constructive Approach
Communicative Approach
Teaching of Structures
Communicative Functions of a Language
INTRODUCTION
A learner-centered approach in language instruction is founded
on the concept that the learner is central in the learning process.
Learners learn primarily because of what they bring, in terms
of their perceived needs, motivations, past experiences, back-
ground knowledge, interests and creative skills to their class-
room experience. Teachers, on the other hand, are seen as “facil-
itators, helpers, and resources”. Students are active participant
in their learning; they learn at their own pace and use their own
strategies; they are more intrinsically than extrinsically moti-
vated; learning is more individualized than standardized.
Learner Centered Approaches 155
Role of Learner
Learners are active as opposed to passive recipients of knowledge. Learners may assume a decision-
making role in the classroom. Learners often decide what is to be learned, through which activities,
and at what pace. Learners can also produce materials and provide activities for the classroom.
Role of Teacher
To put this approach into practice, teachers need to help students set achievable goals; they
encourage students to assess themselves and their peers; help them to work co-operatively in groups
and ensure that they know how to make use of all the available resources for learning.
Objectives
The objective of learner-centered approach is—
Think! Students acquire effective study skills through learner-centered approach.
TYPES OF APPROACHES
In teaching learning process we use different teaching methods and approaches. Method is a study
subject but in case of an approach, we do not have such type of alternatives. We use different
approaches for teaching English like the following:—
STRUCTURAL APPROACH
The structural approach to English is teaching the learner certain selected structures in a certain order.
— C.S. Bhandari
This approach is also known as oral-aural approach and speech—first approach. The expression
structural approach comprises of two words as—
Structural + Approach
Thus approaching English on the basis of selected structures is called structural approach. In
this approach, the main emphasis is laid on the mastery of structures.
The learners are given drill of the structures till they are able to use them automatically without
straining their minds.
Definitions
“Structural approach is a scientific study of the fundamental structures of the English language, their
analysis and logical arrangement”
— Breminton
“Structural approach is based on the belief that in the learning of a foreign language, mastery of
structures is more important than acquisition of vocabulary”
— Menon and Patel
Structure or pattern is made of words which are arranged in specific order. Hence it is called Structural
Approach.
Therefore, the structural approach can be defined as the arrangement of words in a suitable pattern
— Siva Mohan and Man Singh
Objectives of Structural Approach

According to Menon and Patel, the following are the main objectives of structural approach
active use
graded structures.
Meaning of Structure
The arrangement of words in English is very important. The meaning of an utterance changes with
a change in the word order.
e.g., Take this sentence.
“You are there”
We can make two other sentences by using same words put in different order.
“Are you there?”
“There you are”
So the arrangement of words in the above three sentences is different but made with the same
words.
The different arrangement or patterns of words are called “structures”.
F.D. French has defined a sentence pattern in these words, “The word-pattern means a model
from which many things of the same kind can be made.”
vocabulary. Hence, it is more important for the learner of the language to master the structure more
than vocabulary. Hornby has made a study of sentence, patterns or structures in English. He found
master all of them.
Examples of Structures
Words are not ordered randomly, but joined together according to certain rules. An awareness of
these rules helps us to write correct sentences. There are five basic patterns around which most
English sentences are built. They are explained in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1: Examples of Structures

S-V Subject-Verb John sleeps.
Jill is eating.
Jack will arrive next week.
S-V-O Subject-Verb-Object I like rice.
She loves her job.
He’s eating an orange.
S-V-Adj Subject-Verb-Adjective He is funny.
The workers are lazy.
Karen seems angry.
S-V-Adv Subject-Verb-Adverb Jim is here.
Flowers are everywhere.
No one was there.
S-V-N Subject-Verb-Noun She is my mom.
The men are doctors.
Mr. Jones is the teacher.
At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be
added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern as explained in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2: S-V Pattern
She sleeps.
She sleeps soundly. An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.
She sleeps on the sofa. A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.
She sleeps every afternoon. A time expression is added to tell when she sleeps.
She is sleeping right now. Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship remains the same.
Mary will sleep later. Subject is named and another tense is used.
The dogs are sleeping in the garage.
Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.
Table 13.3: The following Sentences are Examples of the S-V-O Pattern
They like rice.

The people like rice. Specific subject
The friendly people like rice. Subject modified with an adjective
The people in the restaurant like rice. Subject modified with an adjective
The people like boiled rice. Object modified with an adjective
The people like hot, white rice. Object modified with more than one adjective
Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
Table 13.4: The following Sentences are Examples of the S-V-Adj Pattern
He is fine. Basic sentence with “be” verb

He seems happy. Basic sentence with another linking verb
Jordan is tall, dark and handsome. Series of adjectives
He appears very comfortable. Adverb or intensifier added
George became sick last night. Different tense and linking verb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern.
Table 13.5
The teacher is here. Basic sentence

The teacher is over there. Using an adverb phrase
Teachers are everywhere. Plural noun and verb used
The teachers are in the lobby. Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.
Table 13.6
The man is a doctor. Basic sentence

The women are doctors. Using plural noun and verb
My father is a nice guy. Modified subject and complement
My grandparents are senior citizens. Modified plural subject and complement
The fundamental structures of English language can be mastered through the

Think! structural approach. Discuss.
Types of Structures
1. Sentence pattern:—In this type of structure, if the essential part of a sentence gets change,
the meaning of whole sentence changes.
E.g.,
Sandra is crying for Surucha
Surucha is crying for Sandra
The sentence may be of different designs
E.g.,
He is a doctor
He is not a doctor
Is he a doctor?
2. Phrase pattern:—Phrase may be defined as word or group of words which express an

idea. It is not a sentence or a clause.
E.g. under the table, on the chair.
3. Formulae:—Formulae means group of words, used regularly on certain occasions.
E.g. Thank you, goodbye, see you, that’s right.
4. Idioms:—Group of words that must be taught as a whole and not as separate ones.
E.g. Born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth.
Characteristics
1. Importance of forming language habits—The structures are practiced till the
students are able to use them as a matter of habit.
2. Importance of speech—Structures are presented orally and the students practice them
the basis of reading and writing.
3. Importance of student activity—Structural approach lays emphasis on pupil activity.
They are active learners. They learn through activities. Their learning of English becomes
interesting and effective because they are active participants in the teaching learning process.
4. Situational teaching—Structures are better learnt in meaningful situations. Situations
are created with the help of objects, pictures, flashcards, actions, gestures. It makes learning
meaningful and effective.
5. Selection and gradation—The structures are selected and graded on the principles of
6. Multi-skill approach—Structural approach aims at achieving the four fold linguistic

aims of teaching.
7. Deductive teaching of grammar—Grammatical concepts are presented deductively
and the students comprehend them.
Principles of Structural Approach

The structure approach is based on the following principles:
1. The importance of a speech:—In structural approach, speech is given more importance,
other skills like reading and writing. The importance of a speech is necessary for fixing firmly
all the ground works.
2. Importance of forming language habits:—When language is based on the principle

of habit formation, everything becomes natural with the language learner. All the skills are
efficiently learnt through practice. In such a case, the language becomes a natural gift with
the persons who make use of it.
3. Students’ activities:—The students’ own activities are important rather than the activities
of the teacher.
4. Emphasis on drills:—The structure approach just lays emphasis on drills. Learning a
language means the ability to speak the language. The structures, therefore, are drilled orally
first before the learner can read or write them. Moreover, since language learning is a matter
the learning process. A class in which language is taught through the structural approach, is
livelier than other classes in which only teacher speaks and the students remain mere listener.
5. Principle of selection:—The selection of structures to be taught depends on the abilities
principles should be born in mind while selecting structures:
(a) Usefulness
(b) Productivity—Some structures are productive; other structures can be built on them.
For instance, we have two sentence patterns:
(i) Mr. John is here
(ii) Here is Mr. John.
The former pattern is productive because we can frame many sentences on the
same pattern like: ‘He is there’, or ‘She is there’, etc.
(c) Simplicity—The simplicity of structure depends on the form and meaning. The structure
‘I am playing cricket’ is far simpler in form and meaning than ‘The patient had died
before the doctor came’. The simpler structure should be preferred to the complicated
one.
(d) Teach-ability—Some structures can be taught more easily than others. For example, the
structure ‘I am writing’ can be taught easily because the action, which it denotes can be
demonstrated in a realistic situation. To teach this structure the teacher will say:
(i) I played at 4 yesterday.
(ii) I played at 4 the day before yesterday.
(iii) I will play at 4 tomorrow.
(iv) I play at 4 everyday.
6. Principle of gradation:—Structures are to be graded in the order of difficulty. Simple
structures should precede the more difficult ones. The following are some of the patterns that
should be taught at early stages:
1. Two-part patterns
He/goes.
He/plays/cricket.
She/gave/me/a book.
4. Patterns beginning with ‘there’
There are twenty students in this class.
Is she coming?
Will he go?
Has he brought the book?
Sit down
Please come here, etc.
Of the six types of patterns mentioned above, the three part patterns and the pattern
grammar and only one meaning of one word is taught at a time. Moreover, the structures
are graded in such a manner that a structure follows the preceding one naturally. During
the learning of the structures the child automatically learn grammar also (learns grammar,
word order and the use of words or usage). Thus he avoids common error in grammar and
composition.
Teaching of Structures
For teaching structure, the teacher should take the students
through four stages as given in Fig. 13.1.
Methods of Teaching Structure

The various methods of teaching English are explained below.
1. Oral teaching
Steps of oral teaching—
(i) Teacher gives oral drills to the class:—
(a) Individually (b) Group Fig. 13.1 Teaching of structure
(ii) Reading and writing.
“The speech is the language. The written record is a secondary
representation of the language. To master a language, it is necessary to read it but it is
extremely doubtful whether one can really read the language, without mastering it orally.”
2. Situational Teaching
It means teaching by creating situations. With situational teaching we can establish close
relation between an expression and its meaning.
“A structure or word becomes meaningful for the learner when

it is used in an appropriate situation. The teacher should use a particular situation in order
to practice the structure with its meaning and to build up a vocabulary of content words.
How to Create Situations
(i) By using actual objects:–
E.g., This is a pen.
(ii) Through gestures and actions:–
E.g., I am teaching.
(iii) By using models, charts:–
E.g., Model of elephant.
(iv) Verbal situations by speaking something:
E.g., I am going out of the class.
(v) Action chains:–
A number of continuous actions preferred by the teachers.
E.g.,
(a) I am opening the door.
(b) I am writing with chalk.
(c) I am shutting the window.
Benefits of Structural Approach

The benefits of structural approach are as follows:
can not be separated from sound.
creating meaningful situations.
sentence patterns which constitute the frame of the language.
there is immediate check by the teacher.
order of getting mastery over the skills.

Limitations of Structural Approach
dull and mechanical.
our country.
Conclusion
Structural approach provides knowledge of structures. In the teaching-learning process, the
knowledge of grammar can be mastered through structural approach. If, in one day, one sentence
approach is a presentation of structures, which stresses on successful and definite teaching of

English.
COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
The term communicative approach is made up of two words, communicative meaning sharing
of ideas and feeling and approach meaning coming near. Thus communicative approach enables
the students to communicate their ideas freely in and outside the classroom. The communicative
approach aims at communicative competence including linguistic competence and ability to use the
language appropriately.
Out of the many approaches and methodologies available to the language teacher, the
It is therefore the teacher’s responsibility to create situations which are likely to promote
Approach prioritizes communicative competence over accurate grammar.

It is important to remember that as individuals most of us do not learn a language in order to
communicate. In this approach, first of all learners will try to communicate, and in doing so, they
will learn!
Communicative Competence
discourse.” It refers to the knowledge of both rules of grammar, vocabulary and semantics and
rule of speaking.” It represents what a speaker needs to know to communicate effectively in
culturally significant setting. Linguistic competence is a part of communicative competence and
the development of communicative skills involves most areas of the former as essential part of the
product.
Objectives of Communicative Approach

The objectives of communicative language teaching are given below:
structures
Characteristics of Communicative Approach

The following comprises the characteristics of communicative approach
errors is but natural.
learning process itself.
to classroom learning.
Principles of Communicative Approach
Fluency, accuracy and appropriateness—Fluency, accuracy and appropriateness are the

goal of communicative approach.
Communication is meaning based, conventional, appropriate and interactional—
There should be a proposition among these which should be appropriate to the age, sex, familiarity
and role of the speaker.
Base for reading and writing—The communicative tasks provide a basis for reading and
writing.
Suitable situation—Language without a suitable situation is not realistic and functional.
Communicative Functions of a Language

Dell Hymes gave seven basic functions of language which bring communicative competence.
Using language to get things done
Expressing personal feelings and emotions

Using language to learn and to discover
Using language to create a world of the imagination
Using language to communicate information
Types of Learning Techniques
communication like
functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain language skills and
functions, but which involve communication
social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role
plays
Communicative Activities
Activities related to communication are very important when it comes to teaching students. The
teacher plays a very vital role in this, because it is the verbal communication that defines the
relationship between the teachers and the students. A teacher should be clear and adopt teaching
methods with which students can relate to. Figure 13.2 highlights some of the communicative
activities.
Fig. 13.2 Communicative activities

Advantages
1. Focuses on language as a medium of communication. Recognises that all communication has
a social purpose—learner has something to say or find out.
apologising/expressing likes and dislikes, etc)
early stage.
communicative way for meaningful activities.

normal medium for classroom management and instruction reflects
needs and interests.
exploited enough by teachers fearful of noisy class.

8. Primacy of oral work, emphasis is laid on oral and listening skills in the classroom.
9. Errors are a natural part of learning language. Learners trying their best to use the language
and express themselves—form of language becomes secondary.

not just limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need
to be developed to promote pupils’ confidence in all four skill areas. By using elements
encountered in variety of ways (reading/summarising/translating/discussion/debates)—
makes language more fluid and students’ manipulation of language more fluent.
11. Language analysis and grammar explanation may help some learners, but extensive
experience of target language helps everyone. Pupils need to hear plenty said about the topic
in the second language at regular and recurrent intervals, so they are exposed to the topic and
can assimilate it.
of pupils. Meaningful language is always more easily retained by learners.
14. Never feel that textbook must be used from cover to cover. It is only a tool/starting point.
With a little inspiration and imagination, text-book can be manipulated and rendered more
communicative.
—important to provoke practical communicative
language.
Disadvantages
Trained teachers are not available who can teach through this method.
It ignore rules and regulation of grammar.
It is not properly developed yet.
Suggestions
The teacher of English should be trained in this approach so that best results of this methods could
be achieved.
Conclusion
emphasis on the use of language. It enables the students to communicate their ideas in better way.
So properly trained teacher can bring proficiency in the language of their students.
Summary
Learner-centered approach is based on the concept that the learner is central to the
process of learning.
effective study skills; discover their own learning style among others.
There are three types of approaches, viz., structural approach, communicative approach
and constructive or cooperative learning.
activities related to teaching comprise describing artificially created situations, narrating

stories among others.
students are taught according to their levels of ability. Group discussions, face to face
interaction are parts of cooperative learning.
Terms to Remember
Learner-centered Approach An approach based on the concept that the learner is central to the
process of learning.
Structural Approach It is the scientific study of the fundamental structures of the English
language.
Communicative Approach The teaching approach which aims at enhancing the communicative
competence among learners.
Cooperative Learning A teaching method, where students of different levels of ability use a
variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject.
Exercises
Short Answer Questions
1. Define learner-centered approach.
4. Define structural approach and enlist the types of structural approach.
6. Explain in brief the concepts of constructive approach and communicative approach.
Long Answer Questions

1. Define learner-centered approach and enlist its objectives.
4. Draft the types of structures and explain the characteristics of the same.
6. Enlist the benefits and limitations of the structural approach.
8. Elucidate the characteristics and principles of communicative approach.

9. What are communicative activities? Elaborate its advantages.
the same in English teaching.

14 Instructional Material
“It is easier to believe what you see than what you hear, but if you both see and hear, than
you can understand more readily and retain more lastingly.”
— Albert Duret
Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
Meaning of Instructional Material
INTRODUCTION
Gone are the days when education was imparted without the
use of audio-visual aids. At present teaching without these
aids is considered to be impossible. Senses are the gateway
of knowledge. Therefore we should provide students as many
sensory experiences as possible, inside the classroom and
outside it.
So audio-visual aids are the different types of useful
materials, devices and symbols that make the study of a subject
more comprehensible and interesting.
Instructional Material 171
There is an old Chinese proverb

“One seeing is worth hundred telling”
Thus audio-visual aids make the teaching lively and effective
According to Joseph J. Weber, our perceptions about various things are based on—:
40% of visual experience, 25% on audio experience, 17% on touch experience, 3% on taste
experience and small experience, and +15% on other physical experience.
The foundation of all learning consists in representing clearly to the sense, sensible
Think! objects so that they can be appreciated easily. Discuss.
MEANING
The term ‘instructional aids’ is made up of two words i.e. instructional + aids
Instructional + aids
related to help or support
teaching and
learning experience
The term ‘audio-visual aids’ is made up of three words audio + visual + aids
Audio—hearing the words
Visual—seeing
Aids—help or support
It means audio-visual aids are those things that appeals to our sense;. i.e, sense of hearing and
the sense of sight. Figure 14.1 highlights some of the audio-visual aids.
Fig. 14.1 Various audio-visual aids

DEFINITIONS
C.V. Good, “A.V. Aids are any devices by means of which the learning process may be increased
and carried on though the sense of hearing or the sense of sight.”
Comenius, “The foundation of all learning consists in representing clearly to sense the sensible
objects so that they can be appreciated easily.
Mahatma Gandhi, “True education of the intellect can only come through a proper exercise and
training of bodily organs—hands, feet, eyes, ears and nose.”
Burton, “Audio-visual materials are those sensory objects or images which initiates, stimulate and
reinforce learning.”
Edger Dale, “Audio-visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas
between persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped. These are also
termed as multi sensory materials.
OBJECTIVES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

The major objectives of audio-visual are as follows:—
Fig. 14.2 Objectives of audio-visual aids

Effective audio-visual aids are
Instructional aids have certain limitations such as,
Certain points are to be considered while implementing instructional aids
Audio-visual aids are devices that appeal to the eyes and ears of the learners. Thus Audio-visual
aids motivate learners, economize teaching time and help teachers in teaching effectively.
CLASSIFICATION OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

Audio-visual aids can be classified into four major parts. These are explained below.
Audio Aid: This refers to sound making devices used in teaching and learning.
Visual Aid: This refers to maps, pictures etc.
Audio-Visual Aid: This refers to hardware equipment and media used in learning.
Multi Media Packages: This refers to the packages in which more than two modes of
communication were involved.
The major aids have individual gadgets which help teachers in teaching. Three major aids have
different gadgets. These are listed below:
Gadgets for Audio Aids

Radio
Tape recorder
Gadgets for Visual Aids
assist in the process of teaching through instructional material. Figure 14.3 highlights the major
Fig. 14.3 Gadgets used in visual aids
Audio-Visual
The audio-visual aid assists in the process of teaching as well. Some of the gadgets used in this case
are explained below.
Television—Television happens to be a powerful gadget when it comes to imparting knowledge.
It can be used as a catalyst to get the students read. Following up on programme and recommending
books on the same subject, keeps up the interest of the students.
Video cassette and video discs—Screening of educational films has been used for teaching
adaptations of novels or stories prescribed in the syllabus can be arranged for students. This will
not only keep up the students’ interest but will help them in interpreting texts in a better way.
Multi Media Packages

Slide + record + workbook = teleconferencing
Slide + radio + video = video conferencing
Television + documents = e-learning
CHARACTERISTICS OF
GOOD AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
The characteristics of audio-visual aids are as follows:—
A teacher should select only those aids which are completely related to the topic.
The teacher should be careful that the aid should be such that it gives a true picture of the
topic and the student are not confused to see it.
Aids should neither be too small, that the entire students can not see them, nor it should be
too big to disturb their attention. The aids must be adequate size so that all may be able to see
them from the entire angle.
Our society is dynamic. A lot of inventions are taking place. Therefore, there is no use if the
teacher uses old and obsolete aids. He should use more recent aids.
If the impact is almost the same with the help of simple and cheap aids on the one hand and
costly and complex aid on other, in that case, simple and cheap aids are more useful.
intelligence of the learners

While selecting aids, the teacher must be careful that it is according to the experiences and
intelligence of the students.
There is no use of using aids at all times. It must be used at the proper time when it is needed
the most.
Using of too many aids in a lesson makes it cumbersome. Therefore, only one or few aids
should be used.
When an aid is purchased, it is new. But if not kept properly, it gets spoiled and does not
remain worthy to be used. Therefore, efforts should be made to keep it in good condition.
Audio-visual aids may supplement the classroom teaching but they can never take place of a
teacher.
The supply of teaching aids to every school is essential for the improvement of the
Think! quality of teaching. Discuss.
PRINCIPLES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

Audio-visual aids abide by certain principles. These are enlisted below:
The teaching aids should not be used without any purpose. The teacher should ascertain the
purpose before teaching the lesson and can tell it to the students so that the students can take
interest in the lesson and can be attentive.
2. Principle of selection
The aids should be selected while keeping in mind their utility, need, mental level of the
in using them.
Selected aids help to make the lesson effective and meaningful. Their effectiveness depends
upon the utility and capacity of the teacher. Teaching would become effective and interesting
when the teacher use the aids effectively in the classroom.
The use of aids speeds up the learning process. They make students attentive by acting as a
stimulus for them. They take part in teaching learning through senses, which is long lasting.
Thus these principles should be followed by the teacher so as to teach in systematic and
effective manner.
5. Principle of presentation
The presentation of aids should be good enough so that students can draw the maximum
benefits.
ADVANTAGES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

Following are the advantages of audio-visual aids:
While learning through audio-visual aids, learning is based on experiences and is functional
instead of being theoretical.
an element of novelty. it brings healthy changes in the general activities of the school like
reading, writing and hearing etc.
If judicious selection of audio-visual aids is made, the element of forgetfulness will be

diminished and the knowledge will become stable. It is because where a new lesson taught
with the help of audio-visual aids, the student takes a lot of interest in it. The experience of
expressions are generally vague and ambiguous.

4. Appropriate for less intelligent students
Audio-visual aids are very appropriate for less intelligent students. Such type of students do
not understand much either from the lecture of the teacher or from text books. They can learn
quite easily with the help of audio-visual aids.
Audio-visual aids bring reality in classroom because verbal expressions are generally vague.
Sometimes a teacher explains a lot of abstract things which the children can not understand.
The use of audio-visual aids brings reality in the classroom.
Audio-visual aids are supplementary to the direct experiences. If after giving a direct
experience of an event, some audio-visual aids are also used, it will make the student learn
faster.
While a teacher is giving a verbal lesson in the classroom it is possible that the attention of
the student may wander. But if appropriate aids are used, the attention of the student will be
centered on a point. For example if a lesson is taught with the help of a motion picture, in that
case the attention of the student will remain concentrated.
Audio-visual aids develop the power of imagination and analysis. The student no longer
remains passive listener.
We are living in an age where there is continuous expansion in the size of classes. It is not
possible for a teacher to solve individual difficulties, but he can do so with the help of audio-
visual aids.
Audio-visual aids bring reality in the classroom, therefore are related to life.
Audio-visual aids make even the most difficult content material quite easy and understandable.
Therefore learning becomes more faster.
Audio-visual aids are very interesting and inspiring means. It brings about clarity and
correctness in the learning. The children are active by nature and they have interest in seeing
and listening various things and processes. As a result audio-visual aids serve as a good
motivating force in the teaching learning process.
13. Helpful in transfer of learning and training
Whatever is learnt by the student during the teaching-learning process at one time can be
reinforced only when the student make use of the same in other situation, subjects or areas
related to it. It is possible when student develop the abilities of transferring these abilities
to another situation. Thus audio-visual aids prove helpful for the development of these
capabilities.
Audio-visual aids arouse curiosity among the students and thus help in effective teaching.
Audio-visual aids prove very helpful in providing adequate impressions or images which
prove very helpful in providing stable and effective learning experiences.
Think! A picture is better than thousand words. Discuss.
PRECAUTIONS FOR THE

USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
The last but not the least step in the handling of aids is to use them with complete precautions. As
we all know that “precaution is better than cure”. The wrong use of aids may lead to confusion on
the part of students rather than creating the concept. Therefore, the following precautions should be
followed while using the teaching aids:
Use of equipments should not be for sake of using some aid while teaching. It should be
integrated with the subject content being presented. The equipment should be removed, so
that it does not distract the attention when the teacher has switched over to lecturing.
While using teaching equipments intelligence level of students should be kept in mind.
The teacher should be well versed with the uses of equipments. They should be able to
handle the gadgets, to make dark room arrangements where needed and should rehearse the
demonstration before the class.
Teacher should use the equipments only when they are required i.e. never confuse them
with the source of entertainment over the use of equipment. This can lead to in attention and
become boring for students and the value of teaching equipments is massed.
All equipments should be protected against any damage from sunlight, humidity etc.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF AIDS

The descriptions about various types of aids are explained below.
1. Tape Recorder
Item Description Uses Precaution

TAPE “If used intelligently, 1. OVERCOMING POOR 1. The working of
RECORDER the tape recorder SPEECH HABITS: One of the the tape recorder
can help the teacher most significant uses of the tape should be tested
to provide a wide recorder is its value of overcoming before using it in
range of linguistic poor speech habits and correcting the classroom.
experience, variety actual speech defects.
in material and a real
stimulus to individual
effort.”
— S.R.Ingram
A tape recorder is 2. HELPFUL IN THE LEARNING 2. Good quality
an instrument used OF LANGUAGES: The use of cassettes should
to record speeches, tape recorder proves quite helpful be chosen for
lectures, songs or in the learning of language. Here better sound
music, which may be the children may be provided clarity.
played back at any with records of their own reading
time and any number pronunciation, conversation etc.
of times. If some They may compare it with the
piece or selections model and corrected ones and note
is not needed after a the difference. It may lead them
particular time, it may to learn how to speak correctly
be erased and the tape and express their ideas clearly,
may be used for concisely, and logically.
Contd.
recording some other 3. Tape recorder may also help

speech or song. in learning the art and skills of
Tape recorder proves various activities related with
especially effective speech, conversation, lecturing and
in developing discussion.
worthwhile standards 4. FOR EVALUATION OF
of correct speech TEACHING LEARNING
by providing PROGRAMMES: The
opportunities to the recording services of tape recorder
students to listen to may prove as an effective aid for
their own speeches the evaluation of teaching learning
and compare them programme carried out in the
to the speeches of institution.
respected and well
known personalities. 5. FOR RECORDING
PURPOSES: It may be used
in recording the working of the
various seminars, workshops
and conferences organised in
institution.
6. FOR PREPARING
RECORDED EDUCATIONAL
PROGRAMMES: A tape
recorder may help in preparing
recorded educational programmes
to be used at the right time as and
when desired.

Television Television has been described as 1. A television 1. There should be
“The queen of audio-visual aids.” brings the most prior information of
It is very important scientific talented teachers to the programme to
achievement of twentieth century. education institutions be broadcasted on
Through radio, we can hear only throughout the television.
the voice of great educationists and country.
artists, but on television we can 2. The selection of the
see them participating in various can be used in the programme should be
activities. Television is a better aid lesson broadcast on according to the mental
than the radio as in addition television. level of the students.
Contd.
to the sense of hearing, it appeals 3. 3. The students should be

to the sense of sight also. Like the taught easily because fully prepared mentally
radio, the television also needs their presentation is before the start of the
co-ordination with the school easy, interesting and television lesson.
programme. attractive. 4. Television should be
Kinds of Educational T.V.: set at appropriate place
of the good teachers and where it is clearly
1. Open circuit could be possible. visible and audible to
Television: Usual type of all.
telecast by commercial or non 5. Can present images
commercial stations of excellence 5. After the broadcast, the
by making teacher should remove
2. Closed circuit
improvements in the the difficulties of the
television: Selective telecast
which can be turned in only by art and skill of his students.
specially equipped receivers. profession.
6. Live telecast makes
the lesson realistic
for the students.
opportunities to all
the students.
8. The lessons are
economical because
students all over the
country can see this
broadcast at one
time.
Limitations
1. Television is a costly equipment.
3. Fear of getting out of order.

4. Ill effect on eyes.
6. The programme can not be repeated immediately.

7. The problem of electricity.

Film Film strips proves 1. There should be proper
Strips to be much superior concretized with the help of arrangement for showing slides
to all the visual or slides and film strips. These
audio-visual aids. It is help in making teaching should be a special room for this
due to the presence of clear, interesting and purpose.
the movement. This is intelligible.
really an interesting 2. With the help of this, small teacher himself handles the
way to provide direct things can be shown in big projectors so that he can show a
experiences to the form and shape. particular slide or film according
learner. They are 3. Children are attracted to need.
more flexible than towards picture by nature. 3. It would be better if the students
cinema and very These can develop are told before hand about the
useful in classroom children’s interests in slides or filmstrips to be shown so
teaching. The as to motivate them.
outstanding advantage 4. Their use brings variety in
of the film strip is teaching. the students to ask questions.
that any picture may 5. The sequence of events 5. It should be helpful in the
be projected until the seen through film strips and development of the lesson.
discussion is going on slides are retained by the 6. The film screened should be
in the classroom. students for a longer period according to the age, ability and
of time in their memory. interest of the students.
Introduction
The name comes from the fact that the projector is behind and over the head of the speaker. In an
overhead projector, a transparent visual is placed on a horizontal stage on the top of light source.
The light passed through this transparency then is reflected at 90° angle on the screen at the back
of the speaker. Using over head projector is not a new concept. It dates back to World War II when
the armed services employed this equipment.
Construction and Working
The overhead projector consist of a projector lamp to act as a source of light, condensing lenses to
concentrate all the light into a usable beam, a polished mirror and lens assembly and a blower for
cooling the system. The uniqueness of overhead projector can be summarized as:
Vertical Projection—It contains an area of vertical projection besides the straight horizontal
path of light available with usual projector.
The path of light rays is changed into a horizontal one by mirror placed at
an angle of 45° and continues over the shoulder of the teacher to the screen.
It contains a large aperture of size 20 ¥ 20 cm for placing the slides and

other usual materials.
It provides both focusing of the image on the screen by vertical
movements of the projection.
—There is a provision of a constant flow of air to pass the lamp by a cooling fan
in the base of the projector.
Advantages of Overhead Projector
The advantages of the overhead projector are as follows:—
Large image
A very large projected image from a minimum of projection distance is obtained.
Identify with the user
Whether in a teaching or a presentation situation the audience sees the visualisation from the
same point of view as the communicator. Thus the feeling of oneness with the communicator
is created.
Light weight
The comparative light weight of the equipment makes it protable.
Flexible and total presentation
The user operated visualisation may be integrated into total presentation with complete
flexibility.
Low cost
it is permanent.
Bright image
The lens and the mirror arrangement in overhead projector make it possible to have a bright
image even in a well lit room.
Simple operation
It is simple, easy and convenient to operate the overhead projector. It does not need a separate
projector operator or instructor. Also the slides can be changed easily.
Disadvantages of Overhead Projectors
bulky and heavy to transport.
bulky and difficult to store.
too small for audience to read.

less professional” than slides in a formal setting.
Precautions Regarding Overhead Projectors
While using a slide projection, the teacher should take following precautions:
Removing dust
Always remove dirt or dust from the projecting glass and also from the outside lens surface by
brush.
Do not touch the lamp
The lamps should not be touched by hand.
No mechanical vibrations
The projector should not be subjected to mechanical vibrations.
A voltage stabilizer should be used to avoid voltage fluctuations.
“A language laboratory is a classroom containing equipments designed and arranged to make foreign
language learning more effective than is usually possible.”
— A.S. Hayas
Language laboratory occupies the most important place among the technological aids in teaching-
learning process. Though it originated in the United States, it gained popularity all over the world.
Language laboratory is a very popular technical innovation. It provides opportunity to the students
to hear the language spoken by a native and to practice speaking the language themselves. Language
lab is a teaching room equipped with electronic and mechanical devices to aid foreign language
learning. In this special lab students may practice speaking and listening with the help of sound
equipments .The sound equipments include tape recorders, earphone, microphone and so on. There
is facility for recording and reproducing voice.
Students sit in a sound proof booth where they can listen to a master tape and record their
responses. The teacher who controls the operations can talk to any student. It is a self-learning device
which follows individualistic approach. It is designed in such a manner that a student can practice
pattern of drills. Thus a teacher is relieved of repetition as in traditional teaching. In the beginning,
the lab consisted of tape recorder, amplifiers, headphones and microphone to aid fast learning. Then
microprocessors were added which controlled different functions like communication. Computers
are used now days as multimedia players.
Objectives of language laboratory
The major objectives of language laboratory are to
THE SYSTEM CONSOLE

It is the teachers’ desk which controls all the operations. There are switches with the help of which
the teacher can be connected with any of the learner.
There are sound proof compartments for learners. The learner receives programme from the console
and records it. He receives an utterance, there is a pause and he has to give response. The response
is compared with the right response, received from the console.
Source
The sources include recorded cassettes which are used for recording of a programme from the
console on the master tape.
Broadcast Type/Audio Active

Learner can listen to voice in head set, respond orally to teacher’s head set using a microphone.
There is no recording of response. It is similar to classroom learning.
Library Type/Audio Active Comparative
There is provision for comparison of the learner’s recorded response with the right response from
the teacher.
Computerized Language Lab
The latest language labs eliminate the use of tape recorders, amplifiers etc. and are fully computerized.
The processing of lessons and interaction are in the digital format so that maximum clarity and
Language consists of a habit which has to be acquired through much imitation and practice. Hence in
intensive drill practice, student should be able to stop the tape, hear again the sounds and to practice
them by imitation as often as desired. In programmed instruction, the student cannot advance until
he has mastered the previous frame. But in language laboratory although the program is linear, the
next step automatically appears irrespective of the success of the student in the previous frame. If
he decides that he has not, the student must be able to repeat the defective frame until he succeeds.
Self-Pacing
In the language laboratory every student works at his own speed. A slow worker would be one who
does much retracing and a fast worker would do less retracing.
The Console
This is the control centre where the instructor’s equipments are located. It has the following switches:
(a) Distribution switches
To direct the recorded programme to the selected student booths.
(b) Monitoring switches
for
Correcting errors in procedure
Correcting linguistic errors
(c) Intercom switches

To permit a two-way conversation with any individual student.
(d) Group call switches
a console source.
(e) All call switches
For making announcements to all students in a laboratory, regardless of the nature of the
programme.
Language laboratories have certain advantages which are enlisted below.
Limitations of language laboratory includes the following:
Summary
Audio-visual materials are those sensory objects or images which initiates, stimulate and
reinforce learning.
The main objective of instruction aids is to improve retention ability of the students by
making the presentation more effective.
Audio-visual aids motivate learners, economize teaching time, and help teachers.
media packages.
The teaching aids should not be used without any purpose. The aids should be selected
presentation of aids should be good enough so that students can draw the maximum
benefits.
Terms To Remember
Audio-visual aids These are any devices by means of which the learning process may be increased
and carried on though the sense of hearing or the sense of sight.
Audio aid This refers to sound making devices used in teaching and learning.
Visual aid This refers to maps, pictures etc.
Audio-visual aid This refers to hardware equipment and media used in learning.
Multi media packages This refers to the packages in which more than two modes of communication
were involved.
Flow charts These are used to indicate flow of directions.
Graphic charts These are used to present the topic in a graphic way.
Table chart These are used to present the things in a tabular form.
Tree chart These are used for displaying divisions and subdivisions.
Picture chart These are used for drawing a picture.
Time chart These are used for expressing different events.
Exercises
2. What do you mean by Instructional materials?
4. Write the educational uses of filmstrips.

1. A good instructional aid should help a teacher to teach better and the learner learn better.
2. The use of instructional materials makes teaching both interesting and enriching. How far do
you agree with the statement? Justify your answer by citing example.
charts to make your teaching effective?

15 Development of
Listening Skills
We were given two ears but only one mouth.
This is because God knew that listening is twice as hard as talking.
— Larry Alan Nadig
Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives
Introduction
Meaning of Listening This chapter will enable the reader to:
Steps of Listening Process
Present Position of Listening Skill
Objectives of Listening Skill
Principles of Teaching Listening
Different ways of Conducting Oral Work
Improvement of Listening Skills
Advantages of Listening Skills
Suggestions for the Improvement of
Listening Skill of Language
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
The first impact of any language comes from the spoken
word, whether we are concerned with the baby in the cradle
or the students in college. Listening is one of the four main
language skill along with reading, writing and speaking. Whilst
in reading and writing we talk about sentences, the spoken
(or heard) equivalent is an utterance. Listening is the most basic
advising skill. The elements of listening behavior include eye
contact, body language, verbal responses, and vocal tone.
Often we confuse a lot between the act of hearing and listening and use these words interchangeably;
however there is a difference between the two. Hearing is a physical ability while listening is a skill.
Listening skills allow one to make sense of and understand what another person is saying. In other
words, listening skills allow you to understand what someone is “talking about”.
SUB-SKILLS OF LANGUAGE
There are two major sub-skills of learning a language, receptive skills and expressive skills. The
former comprises listening and reading and the latter comprises speaking and writing.
1. Receptive skills:—Listening + Reading
2. Expressive skill:—Speaking + Writing.
Figure 15.1 shows the different sub-skills of a language
Fig. 15.1
Comprehension can be extensive or intensive. This idea has been explained in Fig. 15.2.
Fig. 15.2
Development of Listening Skills 191
Æ Listening Æ Extensive (Not close listening)

e.g., Listen to radio programme while writing.
Æ Listening Æ Intensive/Focused (listen to radio news).
Difference between Listening and Hearing

Listening and hearing are not the same. Hearing is the first stage of listening. Hearing occurs when
your ears pick up sound waves which are then transported to your brain. This stage is your sense
of hearing.
Meaning of Listening
Listening means that audio makes sense to the sound which is created by speech or to receive the
sound which is meaningful.
Speech Æ audio sense Æ to attentive listeners + able to understand the meaning of words.
Thus
Listening is With The Mind
Listening is Consciousness
An Active Process of Eliciting Information
Oral Exchange of Ideas
Steps of Listening Process

Real listening is an active process that comprises three basic steps which are explained below.
1. Hearing—Hearing just means listening enough to catch what the speaker is saying. For
example, say you were listening to a report on zebras, and the speaker mentioned that no two are
alike. If you can repeat the fact, you have heard what has been said.
2. Understanding—The next part of listening happens when you take what you have heard and
understand it in your own way. Let us go back to that report on zebras. When you hear that no two
are alike, think about what that might mean. You might think, “Maybe this means that the pattern of
stripes is different for each zebra.”
3. Judging—After you are sure you have understood what the speaker has said, think about
whether it makes sense. Do you believe what you have heard? You might think, “How could the
stripes be different for every zebra? But then again, the fingerprints are different for every person.
I think this seems believable.”
Hearing—Understanding—Judging
DEVELOPING LISTENING SKILLS IN CLASSROOMS

Most of the time the students find it difficult to concentrate in a class lecture. Often they do not
get the opportunity to the correct English pronunciation and often in Indian classrooms the teacher
ends up speaking in the vernacular. Listening as a skill is not given much importance in the teaching
methods adopted by teachers.
Probable Solution
Objectives of Listening Skill
Principles of Teaching Listening

Correct pronunciation: Sounds produced by the teacher should be clear and audible.
Vital preparation: Teachers should be well prepared.
Various devices for developing listening skills: A teacher should use various devices for
developing listening skills such as
Repetition exercises
Question answers
Classroom activities
DIFFERENT WAYS OF CONDUCTING ORAL WORK

Different ways of conducting Oral Work are explained below:
1. Repetition Exercises
In this type of exercise, the teacher produces a sound or speaks words and sentences and asks the
students to listen carefully and then reproduce in exactly same manner as shown in Fig. 15.3.
Fig. 15.3
2. Performing Actions
The actions are performed by the students or the teachers and the students are asked to speak what
they are doing.
The teacher gives the outline of the story and the students
are asked to think and then speak few sentences about it.
A topic is chosen by the teacher. The teacher provides an extempore on
that topic and later on asks the students to speak on the same topic.
A teacher uses various audio aids like gramophone, linguaphone, headphone
or any other modes to enhance the listening skills of students.
IMPROVEMENT OF LISTENING SKILLS

There are various ways by which listening skills can be improved. Some of which are listed below:
Strength of the Class—The ratio between teacher and student should be such that the teacher
is able to pay attention to every student. Less the number of students, more substantive would be
the lecture and more the students will benefit.
Maintain Eye Contact with the Instructor—It is advisable for the students to build an
eye contact with the speaker or lecturer as this helps in focusing on the job and keeps you involved
in the lecture.
Avoid Emotional Involvement—When you are too emotionally involved in listening, you
tend to hear what you want to hear—not what is actually being said. Try to remain objective and
open-minded.
Avoid Distractions—
papers near you. If the classroom is too hot or too cold, try to accommodate or compromise in such
a situation.
Treat Listening as a Challenging Mental Task—As a student one needs to participate

actively in a class lecture, because listening essentially happens to be an active act. Students need
to pay full concentration while attending a lecture.
Stay Active by Constant Questioning—Active listening keeps you on your toes. Here
are some questions you can ask yourself as you listen. What key point is the professor making? How
does this fit with what I know from previous lectures? How is this lecture organized? It makes the
students active by participating in the process of learning and teaching.
Use the Gap between the Rate of Speech and your Rate of thought—You can
think faster than the lecturer can talk. That’s one reason your mind may tend to wander. All the
above suggestions will help you keep your mind occupied and focused on what being said. You
can actually begin to anticipate what the teacher is going to say as a way to keep your mind from
straying. Your mind does have the capacity to listen, think, write and ponder at the same time, but
it does take practice.
Advantages of Listening Skills

It improves the comprehending ability of the students.
Learning nursery rhymes and reciting them orally gives the students a lot of pleasure.
It lays the foundations of good speech.
It helps the students to form the habit of using correct sentences patterns.
It makes the students active participating in the process of teaching learning.
Conclusion
Learning of a language is a skill subject which can be acquired through a lot of practice. A language
learner can reach the level of acquisition if he practices the language.
Summary
In the acquisition of language, the preliminary stage is listening to the language and the
attempt to understand it. Information is an intangible substance that must be sent by the
speaker and received by an active listener.
Listening and hearing are not the same. Hearing is the first stage of listening. Hearing
occurs when your ears pick up sound waves which are then transported to your brain.
Listening means that audio sense make sense to the sound which is created by the speech.
Listening is an active process that involves three basic steps i.e., hearing, understanding
and judging.
For developing listening skill among the students, the teachers should be well prepared
and should use various devices such as reproduction exercise, question answer etc.
Different ways of conducting oral work are reproduction exercises, role playing and
actions performed by the students.
Listening skills can be improved by following some of the strategies—
Maintaining eye contact with the instructor
Terms to Remember
Listening
Reproduction Exercises In this type of exercise, the teacher produces a sound or speaks words
and sentences and asks the students to listen carefully and then reproduce in exactly same manner.
This activity deals with the task of playing the role of somebody by the students.
Exercises
(word limit 150)
1. How will you make oral work a grand success in your classroom teaching?
2. What is listening skill? Write the present position of teaching listening skill to the students.
3. Write the ways of improving listening skill.
4. What are the objectives and principles of listening skill?
(word limit 1000)

1. Listening is considered as an important linguistic skill. What points should be highlighted by
the teacher while developing this skill among the students?
2. What is the utility of oral work in classroom situations? How will you carry on oral work
successfully in a classroom situation? Write by giving suitable examples.
16 Development of
Speaking Skills
Speaking comes by nature…
— German proverb
Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives
Introduction
Acquiring Speaking Skills This chapter will enable the reader to:
Drilling
Pronunciation
Organs of Speech
The Sounds of English
Exceptions
INTRODUCTION
Speaking is referred to as the productive skill in the oral mode.
Like the other skills, speaking is more complicated than it seems
at first and involves more than just pronouncing words. As you
can see, speaking is the second language skill, and probably
the one that most language learners wish to perfect as soon as
possible.
ACQUIRING SPEAKING SKILLS

When we learn a language, there are four skills that we need for
complete communication. When we learn our native language,
Development of Speaking Skills 197
we usually learn to listen first, then to speak, then to read, and finally to write. These are called the
four “language skills”:
As you can see, speaking is the second language skill, and probably the one that most language
learners wish to perfect as soon as possible.
Types of Speaking Skills

Speaking happens to be a crucial part in the process of language learning. The process of speaking
involves more than just putting words together and pronouncing them. Speaking as a skill comprises
three situations such as
conferencing in which we are, alternately, listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance
to ask for clarifications, repetitions, or even request our conversation partner to slower the speed of
speech.
it is the speaker who does the talking for most part of the conversation whereas the audience is
engaged in listening.
broadcast.
Figure 16.1 given below highlights the four major methods of communication
Fig. 16.1 Methods of communication

DRILLING
structural patterns through oral practice. Drill is a device used for fixing the subject matter in the
minds of the learner.
Types of Drills
The different types of drills are as follows:
1. Repetition Drill
controlled practice stage in which they have the chance to focus exclusively on the new language
and start to familiarize themselves with it. What the student says and how it is said is controlled by
the activity and restricts the student to the target item. The lower the level, the more important this
stage is. The students do not have to speak spontaneously, and therefore do not have to focus on what
The simplest and most controlled of these types of activity is a repetition drill where the teacher
simply says a sentence containing the target structure (or even just the lexical item being taught)
and the students repeat it. This can be done:
Silently: The students repeat the sentence or word to themselves in their minds to try and
The whole class, or in a larger class, groups of students repeat the sentence/
word together.
The teacher calls on one student at a time to repeat the target item.
The staging Silent–In Chorus-Individual repetition is in increasing order of challenge for the
sometimes be useful to backtrack to an earlier stage. Here are some to do’s and don’ts for repetition
drill.
2. Substitution Drill
After acquiring the basic sentences by repetition, substitution drill becomes most powerful and
useful to overcome the restricted ability of being able to speak only a set of sentences of the same
structure. This drill is also called replacement drill.
The sentence is composed of segments within a frame, the position of which is in a fixed relation
to the position of other slots. The general structure of the sentence is retained but there will be
changes in the semantic content.
Sometimes, substitution introduced into one frame necessitated a change of one or more segments
of the sentence. Substitution drill may be of various types according to the mechanism of operation
and they are:
(a) Single substitution drill
(b) Double substitution drill
(c) Multiple substitution drill
first modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. The teacher then substitutes one or
more key words, or changes the prompt, and the learners say the new structure.
The following sequence is an example of a substitution drill:
as a classroom technique, many teachers still
learner to lead the activity.

Here are some examples of substitution drill questions:
(a) Single Substitution
This type of drill enables the learners to assimilate the structure and the variation in a single frame.
Illustrations
Teacher—‘Sita is a good girl’
Student—‘Sita is a bad girl’
Teacher—‘Vasanta is a very intelligent girl’
Student—‘Vasanta is a very mischievous girl’.
(b) Double Substitution Drill
Illustration
Student—Geetu is my friend (single substitution)

Student—Geetu is my sister (double substitution)
(c) Multiple Substitution Drill
Illustration
Student—Geetu is my friend (single substitution)

Student—Geetu is my sister (double substitution)

Student—Geetu is your sister (multiple substitutions)
3. Addition Drill
The possibility of adding one word after the other enables the learners to acquire the basic mechanism
by which a sentence can be expanded without affecting the basic structure.
This drill is otherwise called expansion/extension drill. The filler sentence is expanded by adding
new items to it. While the drill is administered, the learners’ familiarity with the lexical elements of
know the grammatical category of the item to be added to the filler sentence in appropriate slots.
Addition may be internal or external and is explained with the following sentences:
External Addition
Illustrations
Internal Addition
Illustrations
By the use of expansion drill, the learner will become aware of the fact that sentence consists of
stringing together various clauses, phrases and words. Thus this drill helps the learners to build up
longer sentences by combining words, phrases and clauses starting from the basic sentence.
4. Completion Drill
This drill enables the learners to know the grammatical category of the item to be filled in a given
sentence and the position of its occurrence.
Illustrations
‘Leela is a ________ girl (Beauty)
‘Leela is a beautiful girl’
‘Madhavi ________ a very ________ girl (Mischief)'
‘Madhavi is a very mischievous girl’
5. Chain Drill
and answer the question. This forms a chain
6. Transformation Drill
The most common situations of applying the transformation drill is what, when, how and why.
for example:
sentences into another. Suppose the teacher wants to give drill of negative sentences of present
continuous tense, then drill will be given as below.
Illustrations
Teacher—She is studying
Student—She is not studying
Teacher—The girls are doing homework
Student—The girls are not doing homework
7. Synthetic Drill
them so as to make them a meaningful sentence.

Teacher—Yet she is bold, although she is a girl
Student—Although she is a girl, yet she is bold.
8. Question and Answer Drill

This drill is otherwise called the response drill.
This drill gives an opportunity to the learners to react automatically to situations, making use of
the sentence patterns they have already learnt in the target language.
Illustrations
dosa in the morning.
Importance of Drills
Thompson and Wyatt have rightly said, “The power of expression in language is a matter of skill
rather than of knowledge; it is a power that grows by exercise, not merely by knowing the meanings
or rules.”
The drills help in fixing up the subject matter. Drills should be used to form correct speech
habits on which further learning of language will go on smoothly. Thus drills can work wonders in
providing listening and speaking practice to the learners.
how should a drill be used.

Drills should be used very carefully. Drill can be practiced in a classroom by individual students
or in a group of students. Two major methods are adopted for the purpose of drilling. These are
explained below:
Individual Drill
Chorus Drill
When the whole class or a majority of the students in a class fails to produce a sound accurately
or is unable to speak a word or phrase, chorus drill is practiced. This is particularly done in lower
classes.
Don’t make the students drill too much and keep drill activities and levels lively.
pronounce or memorise words or master language chunks.
language perfect and more memorable.

it can be of great value to our learners and can do wonders in providing listening and speaking
practice to the learners.
PRONUNCIATION
physical cooperation form and training of the tongue and mouth to form the correct sounds.
However, with practice, patience, and tips from the following free resources, you will not only be
Learners should be encouraged not to completely eliminate their accents, but to improve their
ORGANS OF SPEECH
Almost all of us have studied about the role of nose and lungs in the respiratory system and the
function of mouth in the digestive system. However, most of us do not know much about the role of
these organs in enhancement of our speech. Although numerous complex effects are produced by
the human voice, the inner system that makes the sounds (which make up the speech) is extremely
simple in its nature.
The organs, which take part in the production of speech sounds, are called the speech organs.
When we speak, air comes out through the lungs and is interfered at various places for the production
of sounds. These speech organs are called articulators and points of articulation. Sounds can be
produced only by the process of inhaling and exhaling. The main organs of speech are shown in
Fig. 16.2:
Fig. 16.2 Organs of speech

The following are the important organs that assist in correct pronunciation:
Soft palate
Hard palate
6. Vocal cords
The Lips
produce different vowels.
The Teeth
The teeth take part in the production of the consonant sounds. The upper teeth only take part in the
production of the speech sounds. The lower teeth do not take part in the production of sounds. The
sound produced with the help of the upper teeth is called the dental sound (q, r).
The Alveolar Ridge

The alveolar ridge is the part between the upper teeth and the hard palate. The sound produced with
the tongue touching the alveolar ridge is called alveolar sounds, e.g., /s/, /t/, /d/ and so on.
to know the movement and the placement of each organ to produce the particular sounds with
perfection. The above descriptions and functions of the organs of speech help teachers to guide the
students to produce the various phonetic sounds the right way.
The Tongue
divided into four parts: the tip, the blade, the front and the back. The variety of vowel sounds is
produced with the help of the tongue. Vowel sounds differ from each other because of the positioning
of the tongue.
The tip of the tongue helps to produce sounds like /t, d, z, etc/. The blade of the tongue helps to
produce /tÚ, dŒ, Ú, etc/. The front of the tongue helps to produce palatal sound /j/ and the back of the
tongue helps to produce /k/, /g/ sounds.
The Vocal Cords

The larynx contains two small bands of elastic tissues. They are called vocal cords. The opening
between the vocal cords is called the glottis. When we breathe in or out, the glottis is open. This
is the position that produces filler sounds or voiceless sounds, e.g., /f/, /s/, /h/, etc. /f/, /s/, /h/ are
production of voiced sounds, vocal cords vibrate. So, the main function of the vocal cords is to
produce both, voiced and voiceless, sounds.
Fig. 16.3 The larynx or the voice box
The Soft Palate
separates the oral and nasal cavities. The last part of the soft palate is called the uvula. When it is
lowered, the nasal sounds (/m, n, /) are produced. When it is raised, the air passes out through the
oral cavity and the oral sounds (/p, t, k, s, etc/) are produced.
Fig. 16.4 The soft palate

The Hard Palate

The hard palate is similar to the alveolar ridge; the tongue touches and taps the palate while
articulating speech.
Pronunciation
and models for the pronunciation methods:
What is good English pronunciation?

There are three levels in learning :
sounds used by the speaker.
Notice that good pronunciation is not “perfect American or British accent”.

Learners should aim to fairly accurate as native possible?
THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH
Vowels
A speech sound produced by the passage of air through the vocal tract, with relatively little or no
obstruction. All vocal cords are therefore voiced sounds. Vocal cords vibrate while producing these
sounds.
Fig. 16.5 English vowels
Classification of Vowels
The classification of vowels is based on five major aspects:
Tongue Height
Vowels are classified in terms of how much space is there between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth, which is determined by the height of the tongue.
There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: high, low, and mid.
Fig. 16.6
æ
These are vowels with a relatively wide space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth.
e
between the high and low vowels.
As illustration of tongue height, observe the diagrams (Fig. 16.6) e æ
æ e
the two.
Tongue Backness
Vowels are classified in terms of how far the raised body of the tongue is from the back of the
mouth, which is called the backness of the tongue
There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: front, back, and central
(spoken with the help of tip or front of the tongue)
(spoken with the help of centre of the tongue)
(spoken with the help of back of the tongue)
Front Vowels
e/—bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/
æ/—cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/
Fig. 16.7 Articulation of front and back vowels
Central Vowels
:/—burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol / :/.
/—about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the
neutral vowel sound—it never occurs in a stressed position.
/—cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers
in the Midlands and further north in Britain.
Back vowels
�/—put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/
:/—corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o:/
/—dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/
:/—hard, far (long low back spread vowel)
As you can see from Fig. 16.7
Lip Movement
Another aspect of vowel classification is the presence or absence of lip rounding. Some vowels,
e
are called un rounded.
Another aspect of vowel classification is commonly characterized in terms of the tenseness or
e
without a high degree of tenseness, and are called lax vowels.
Vowels may be classified on the basis of the length of time that the vowel sounds spend in the
throat. These are as follows:
Fig. 16.8 Examples of short and long vowels
Since there are only a handful of vowels, they work extra hard and make two types of sounds:
slowly, you’ll notice that the vowels make different sounds. The letter a, for example, makes a
particular sound in the words game and late and another type of sound in the words cat and lack
the first pair of words, the sound is a long a and in the second pair, it is a short a. We use the terms
short and long to describe the length of time the vowel sounds spend in the throat. A short a needs
lesser time to be pronounced and sounded than a long a. The following list gives some examples of
of the vowel.) Fig. 16.8 highlights the examples of short and long vowels.
acid game
rat tame
felt scene
set flight
bit pine
wig hone
hog muse
monster unify
rug
tumble
Figure 16.9 given below highlights the rise and fall of vowels.
Fig. 16.9 Rise and fall of English vowels

Diphthongs
Diphthongs are types of vowels where two vowel sounds are connected in a continuous and gliding
motion. They are often referred to as gliding vowels. A list of diphthongs is given below:
Diphthongs
e.g. day, afraid, great
e.g. July, decide, buy
e.g. boy, voice, enjoy

e.g. close, know, moment
5. e.g. town, flower, mountain
6. e.g. hear, here, appear
e.g. hair, wear, parents
e.g. sure, January
Fig. 16.10 Use of various diphthongs
Consonants
A speech sound produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by any of various
constrictions of the speech organs, such as (p), (f), (r), (w), and (h) using articulators and points of
articulation.
as in see as in put
as in sit as in but
e as in set as in ten
æ as in sat as in den
as in calm as in calm
as in not as in got
as in bought as in kit
� as in put as in git
as in boot Ú as in church
as in but* as in judge
' as in bird as in make
as in about as in net
e as in play as in long
as in go as in light
as in my as in milk
as in now as in full
as in coil as in vole
as in here q as in thin
e as in there as in then
as in cruel as in sat
as in zeal
Ú as in ship
as in measure
as in run
as in hat
as in went
as in yet
on the basis of their articulatory points, which the articula

tors actually touch, or are closest to. This is often related to as articulatory phonetics.
Table 16.1:
Classification Articulators Examples

Bilabial /p b m w/
Dental Teeth and tip of tongue /q ð/
Lower lip and upper teeth /f v/
Alveolar Alveolar (teeth) ridge and tip and blade of tongue /t d s z r k b/
Hard palate and tip of tongue /r/
Hard palate—alveolar and tip, blade and front of tongue /f/z/ò/d /
Hard palate and front of tongue /j /
Velar Soft palate and back of tongue /k g /
Glottal Glottis (vocal cords) /h/
What is Word Stress?
one syllable. We say syllable very (big, strong, important) and

very quietly.
, and . Do they sound the same
the same syllable. So the of each word is different.
Word Shape Total syllables Stressed syllable
PHO TO GRAPH
PHO TO GRAPH ER
PHO TO GRAPH
TEACHer, JaPAN, CHINa, aBOVE,

converSAtion, INteresting, imPORtant, deMAND, etCETera, etCETera, etCETera
The syllables that are not stressed are or quiet
for the stressed
instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and your comprehension.
Implication of word stress
position of the stress.

Think again about the two words and
hear only the first two syllables of one of these words, Which word is it, photograph or
reality you will hear either or So without hearing the whole word, you probably
know what the word is ( or
Rules about word stress
There are two very important rules about word stress:
stressed.
others are weakly stressed.
feeling for the “music” of the language.

All dictionaries spell out words phonetically. This is where they show which syllable is stressed,
usually with an apostrophe (’) just or just the stressed syllable. (The notes at the front
of the dictionary will explain the system used.)
Phonetic spelling: Phonetic spelling:

Example
dictionary A dictionary B
Sentence Stress in English
cially when spoken fast.

or “beat”. You remember that word stress is

accent on within a . Sentence stress is accent on within a .
Most sentences have two or more types of words:
meaning or sense.
Structure words are not very important words. They are small, simple words that make the
sentence correct grammatically. They give the sentence its correct form or “structure”.
GONE
Somebody wants you to sell their car for them

because they have gone to France. We can add a few words and the message gets better:
GONE
The new words do not really add any more information. But they make the message more
correct grammatically. We can add even more words to make one complete, grammatically correct
sentence. You can add more connecting words message conveyed and the information is
basically remains the same:
Will GONE
Structure Words
.
Implication of Sentence Stress
language.
(t
maintain a constant beat on the stressed words. To do this, we say “my” more , and “because
. We change the speed of the small structure words so that the rhythm of the key
content words stays the same.
Syllables
GONE
t1 t1 T1 t1
Rules for Sentence Stress in English

The basic rules of sentence stress are:
and 16.3 highlight the difference between content words and structure words:
Table 16.2: Content words—stressed
Words carrying the meaning Example

Main Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
Table 16.3: Structure words—unstressed
Words for correct grammar Example

he, we, they
on, at, into
Articles a, an, the
and, but, because
Auxiliary verbs do, be, have, can, must
EXCEPTIONS
The above rules are for what is called “neutral” or normal stress. But sometimes we can stress a
word that would normally be only a structure word, for example to correct information. Look at the
following dialogue:
THEY haven’t, but WE have.
it is a content word).
Intonation Patterns
high pitch and the unstressed syllables in low pitch. So the feature of rising and falling of the pitch
while speaking the sentence is called intonation. These variations are called tones. When the pitch
of the voice is rising, it is called the rising tone. When the pitch of the voice is falling, it is called
the falling tone. These two tones can come in sequence. So we have different types of tones. They
are as follows:
(ii) The falling tone—(the glide down)
Some rules to teach intonation

|| It was ’quite ’good. ||

|| I ’wouldn’t ’mind ’seeing it again. ||
|| ’Why did you ’change your ’mind? ||

|| ’Who on the ’earth was ’that? ||
|| ’Don’t ’make a ’noise. ||

|| ’Shut the ’door. ||
|| You like it? ||

|| You ’can’t go. ||
|| ’Have you /seen him? ||

|| ’Did ’John ’post ’that /letter? ||
|| ’Can I /see it ? ||
|| ’Please ’sit, down. ||

|| ’Kindly ’give me ’some ’money. ||
|| I ’looked at him. ||
||She ’took the ’car. ||
|| ||
|| You will be late. ||

|| I ’shan’t ’tell you again. ||
\
|| ordinary. ||
|| ’What a ’beautiful \girl. ||
|| ’Good / morning. ||
|| ’Good / bye. ||
|| ’Good / night. ||
|| ’Did you ? || || Has she? ||

Rhythm
of a sentence are pronounced carefully at regular intervals whether there are unstressed syllables
more time to produce unstressed syllables and less time to produce stressed syllables, the speech
becomes rhythmless.
So the feature of rhythm suggests that the time taken by each stressed syllable to the next tone
to be the same. Since unstressed syllables are produced fast along with the stressed syllables, all
used. Here are some weak and strong forms
and /ænd/ /ń/

but /b√t/ /b´t/
him /hIm/ /Im/
he /hI/ /i:/
has /hæz/ /´z/
a /eI/ /´/
an /eIn/ /ń/
them /Dem/ /D´m/
her /h´:/ /Z:/
have /hæv/ /´v/
are /a:(r)/ /´/
Juncture
between two near sequence of phonemes. This is also known as re-bracketing, juncture loss, junctural
metanalysis, false splitting, misdivision, or refactorization. This is a common process in linguistics
where a word originally derived from one source is broken down or bracketed into a different set
hamburger taken to mean a burger with ham), or may seem to be the result of valid morphological
processes.
“an oodle”, since “an oodle” sounds just as grammatically correct as “a noodle”, and likewise “an
eagle” might become “a neagle”, but “the bowl” would not become “th ebowl” and “a kite” would
not become “ak ite”.
Technically, bracketing is the process of breaking an utterance into its constituent parts. The
term is akin to parsing for larger sentences, but is normally restricted to morphological processes
morphological decomposition, especially where the new etymology becomes the conventional
norm. The name false splitting in particular is often reserved for the case where two words mix
together but still remain two words (as in the “noodle” and “eagle” examples above). The name
juncture loss may be specially deployed to refer to the case of an article and a noun fusing (such
as if “the jar” were to become “(the) thejar”, or if “an apple” were to become “(an) an apple”).
changes that facilitate the new etymology.
Always– All ways

Wherever– Where ever
How to deal effectively with pronunciation?
developing their knowledge and skills in the following areas:
contrastive usage of sounds, which sequences of sounds occur in particular languages, how
sequences of sounds are modified in connected speech, and which patterns of stress, rhythm
language.
in their own speech, and aspects which are perhaps only important for recognition purposes
in facilitating listening comprehension.
well as isolating specific pronunciation features for focused attention.

Summary
Speaking refers to the productive skill in the oral mode. Three major kinds of speaking
where the audience simply listen when they are spoken to.
The organs, which take part in the production of speech sounds, are called speech
organs also known as articulators. Lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, tongue, larynx, vocal cords,
epiglottis, pharynx, soft palate, uvula, hard palate are major articulators.
Vowels are speech sounds produced by the passage of air through the vocal tract, with
relatively little or no obstruction. All vocal cords are therefore voiced sounds. Vocal cords
Diphthongs are combinations of two vowel sounds which are connected in a continuous
gliding motion. They are often referred to as gliding vowels.
Word stress is the kind of stress, which requires a greater degree of force to be applied to
a certain syllable which enters the shape of the word.
feature of rising and falling of the pitch while speaking the sentence is called intonation.
at regular intervals.
to differentiate between two near sequence of phonemes.
Terms to Remember
Drilling Drill is a device used for fixing the subject matter in the minds of the learner.
A speech sound produced by the passage of air through the vocal tract, with relatively
little or no obstruction. All vocal cords are therefore voiced sounds. Vocal cords vibrate while
producing these sounds.
Diphthongs are types of vowels where two vowel sounds are connected in a
continuous gliding motion. They are often referred to as gliding vowels.
A speech sound produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by
any of various constrictions of the speech organs, such as (p), (f), (r), (w), and (h) using articulators
and points of articulation.
Stress is the degree of force with which a unit of sound or a syllable or a word is uttered.
Word stress is the kind of stress, which requires a greater degree of force to be
applied to a certain syllable which enters the shape of the word.
The kind of stress in which certain words comprising a sentence carry stronger
stress than the other.
at regular intervals.
differentiate between two near sequence of phonemes.
Exercises
with appropriate diagram.

17 Development of
Reading Skills
The habit of reading is the only enjoyment in which there is no alloy; it lasts when all other
pleasures fade.
— Anthony Trollope
Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
Mechanics of Reading
Importance of Reading This chapter will enable the reader to:
Forms of Reading
Aims of Teaching Reading
Skills Involved in Reading
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
Reading is the receptive skill in written mode and it occupies its
legitimate place in the scheme of teaching English. It is a specific
skill which is to be learnt carefully and methodically. It is an
effective means of language acquisition, sharing information
and ideas and therefore requires continuous practice. It also involves interaction between the text
and the reader’s
Previous knowledge
Experiences
Attitude towards learning
Social setting
Elements of Reading
Reading is the cognitive ability which enables students to read with a purpose of extracting
thoughts, facts and information from the printed page. Reading comprises three elements, viz.,
symbol, sounds and sense (as shown in Fig. 17.1).
Fig. 17.1 The elements of reading
Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into
sounds or visual representations of language) and comprehension.
Thus reading is a process in which a written or printed symbol is translated into an appropriate
sound. For example, the child reads the word ‘cat’, first of all he will look at the symbol, translate
into a specific sound which stands for some animal called ‘cat’ and at the same time he visualizes
the concrete picture for which the symbol stands.
Reading is the rapid fusion of words, symbols into consecutive units of thoughts. Through
reading, the experiences of the readers are extended, his power of thinking is stimulated and he is
enabled to interpret life more intelligently and accurately. This is the last objective of reading.
MECHANICS OF READING
When we read, our eyes move along the line in jumps, pausing momentarily at the end of each jump.
These small pauses of the eyes between jumps are called fixations. The number of words which
Development of Reading Skills 225
the eyes can take in one complete movement is called Eye-span. A skilled reader will read many
words in each block. Thus speed reading helps to read and understand the written information more
quickly.
A poor reader, on the other hand, has shorter eye span and sometimes the eyes skip back to a
previous block of words.
Thus wider eye span helps to read
1. Number of words in each block:
It is possible by—
2. Shorting duration of the fixation:

3. Reduction in backward movement of the eye:

Running a pen /pencil along the line for smooth reading
Efficient reading includes not only the ability of wider eye span but also the ability to comprehend
the content.
Ways to improve comprehension ability are as follows—
words as complete whole.
is because of tendency of our brain to seek the ‘meaningful whole’ i.e a child can be taught
a long complicated meaningful word or phrase more readily than short individual abstract
letter symbols.
Reading brings us in contact with the mind of great authors with the written account
Think! of their experiences made by them in various fields. Discuss.
Forms of Reading Skills

There are four major forms of reading skills. These are explained below:
1. Word Attack Skills—These skills help to convert graphic symbols into intelligible language.
It is also called decoding skills.
It involves:
For Example
2. Comprehension Skills—are the skills to use prior knowledge and to understand sense of
what one reads.
It helps to predict the correct word in phrases like
“—girl and b—”
“—chair and t—”
“—husband and w—”
Example:
This skill is based on—
3. Fluency Skills—are the skills which help to read the meaningful whole by reading large
phrases.
Example:
To supply the correct words in phrases
“—black and w—”
It involves
4. Critical Skills—These skills help to analyze, evaluate and synthesize the content. Thus the
reader has to establish the relationship of ideas and meaning.
Example:
Supply the correct word
“Work hard otherwise you will f—”
“If you throw it, it will b—”
It involves
Causes of Retardation in Reading Skill

The various causes of retardation in reading skills are as follows—
Problems in Learning to Read English Language

There are certain problems intrinsic to the learning of English. Table 17.1 highlights some of them.
Table 17.1: Problems and Possible Solutions to Learning English
Problems Possible Solutions

The problem of unfamiliar sound Pronunciations of the teacher should be fairly intelligible.
The problem of words Teacher should proceed with the properly graded vocabulary
in oral work.
The problem of structures Teacher should not start the teaching of reading until the
material has been grilled orally
The problem of scripts
to left) teacher should try to remove these difficulties in the

early stage.
The problem of spelling English spellings are illogical and irregular so the teacher
should provide enough practice.
Interference from mother tongue The teacher should provide enough reading practice.
The problem of contents or subject matter Subject matter should be well selected and graded.
The problem of eye movement The word method and the sentence method should be used
instead of alphabetical method to increase eye span.
Physiological difficulties Students who stammer while reading should concert to doctor.
Psychological difficulties Some students feel nervous when they are asked to read. The
teacher should behave sympathetically with the students.
Reading does not come automatically with the ability to speak but has to learnt
Think! carefully and methodically. Discuss.
When to Start Reading?

We should start the teaching of reading when:
the teacher.
Aims of Teaching Reading

The major aims of teaching reading skills include the following:
movement
Skills involved in reading
Skills to be developed
Types of Reading
There are four major forms of reading which are explained below—
Loud reading—Reading with an audible voice is called loud reading. This type of reading is also
known as oral reading.
Silent reading—Reading without producing any sound is called silent reading. It is regarded as
the most important type of reading.
Extensive reading—It is the view of Palmer (1964) that “extensive reading” is considered as
being reading rapidly. The readers read books after books. Its attention is paid to the meaning of the
text itself not the language. The purpose of extensive reading is for pleasure and information. Thus,
extensive reading is also termed as “supplementary reading”.
Intensive reading—The work of Palmer (1921) notes that “intensive reading” means that the
readers take a text, study it line by line, and refer at very moment to the dictionary about the
grammar of the text itself.
To sum up, we can conclude that all types of the reading are important because the main goal of
reading is to comprehend the printed pages.
The differences between the various types of reading are given in Table 17.2.
Table 17.2:
Loud reading Silent reading Intensive reading Extensive reading

Objectives To read with correct To read with To increase vocabulary
pronunciation To get command over To understand the
To read with To read with English language meaning of passage
comprehension comprehension To develop To develop reading
To read with To read for vocabulary habit
expression expanding To learn English To lay stress on the
To read with practice vocabulary language subject matter of the
of speaking language
Procedure Step-1 Step 1 Teacher Step 1 Introduction of Step-1 Introduction by
reading by asks the the passage by the teacher
the teacher students the teacher Step-2 Silent reading
Step-2 to read the Step 2 by the students
reading by passage by the teacher Step-3
the students silently Step 3 questions asked
Step-3 Step 2 by the students by the teacher
sion if the Step 4 Explanation
questions students are of new words, Step-4 summarization
asked by the whispering phrases,
teacher Step 3 sentences.
nsion Step 5
questions sion questions
asked by asked by the
the teacher teacher
Contd.
Merits Saves time and Improvement in Assimilate the ideas

speech money vocabulary given in the passage
pronunciation reading speech in the class

Increase vocabulary
imitation classes learning grammar
Is used in public Forms the reading reading
English with clarity places. habit. Is useful for self study
Limitation Ignores Wide course cannot

comprehension and beginners. be covered within primary classes
understanding. Ignores limited time. Vocabulary of the
pronunciation and Procedure is long and students can not be
habitual of loud oral drill. tedious. improved
reading Ignores correction
work of a grammar grammar systematically
students are not language systematically.
checked
source of pleasure
Reading Strategies
The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you learn, the more places
you’ll go.
Reading habits can change the life. It helps to enrich the knowledge. Although the term reading
habit sounds too mechanical to the skilled readers but these strategies can enhance the grasping
power. These strategies enhance the reading process by increasing the quality and quantity of output
obtained after reading. For making the students comprehensive readers, these strategies should be
mastered at a nascent stage.
The strategies that help students to read more quickly and effectively are—
Rapid surveying: It is also called pre-viewing. Before reading, students do a rapid survey on
the reading material which is based on the following points:
Sampling
It includes
Skimming
It includes
Search reading
This type of reading is used for looking a single piece of information
This involves
Selective reading
It includes
Detailed study reading

It is used for understanding the content in detail. This type of reading may be a part of your course
work, research for a project or preparation for an exam.
Close reading
It is used for artistic appreciation. In this type of reading, every word is studied in detail.
Rapid reading
This type of reading is used to find out; ‘what happens next’.
For example
Reading a popular novel
This type of reading is for pleasure and there is no need to pay attention to every word.
Speed reading
Conclusion
We should choose our own style of reading depending upon the purpose of reading. All the books
are not read in the same way.
Techniques for Improving Reading Skills

There are two techniques for improving reading skill.
1. SQ3R Method
The SQ3R Reading Method
Survey–Question–Read–Recite–Review
Survey Exploring the chapters

Reading introductory paragraphs
Focus on important/relevant section

Question Ask yourself
3R-Read,Recite and Review

Read
Focus on the section which is important
Contd.
Try to read with understanding

Re-read passages, which are not clear
Recite Summarize, what you have just read
Focus on the arrangement of the content

Review Read the prepared notes
2. Murder Scheme:
R stands for recall the material
E stands for expanding knowledge

R stands for review
Mood This keyword helps the reader to read the text
Understanding This is the aim of reading
It includes—
Willingness or readiness to learn
Establishing links between previous knowledge with the new knowledge
Recall Repetition of important points again and again to store it in meaningful chunks. It is not
possible by rote memory
Digesting a text It involves looking and digesting the new knowledge gained
Expanding Expansion of new knowledge by exploring more about that topic
Review It involves—
Preparation of notes
Arranging the information in the order
Testing Reading Comprehension

It is defined as the level of understanding out of a passage or text. Thus understanding is an essential
part of the reading process. In this type of reading, concentration is on the subject matter. This type
of reading is also called extensive reading or rapid reading. Before introducing this type of reading,
it should be ensured that—
Reading can help
based on the present information
Value of Reading with Comprehension

Intellectual value It helps to understand the subject matter quickly
It helps to develop in the reader a taste of reading book
It helps to enhance vocabulary and sentence structures
Recreational value It helps to develop the habit of reading for pleasure
questions
The following learning experiences helps to develop comprehension ability
Conclusion
We should concentrate all our attention on the students to make them more and more book minded.
We should create in the real love for books and a good taste for reading. We wish to put them in
possession of the power gaining pleasure and profit from the printed pages. Testing is a great tool
in the assessment of student’s ability of comprehension as it provides an immediate feedback on the
progress of the students. It includes cleverly constructed set of questions related to overall meaning
of the text.
Example:
Read the passage carefully and answer the following questions—
the payment of the money he lent with such severity that he was disliked by all good men. Antonio
was another moneylender who lent money to people in distress and never took any interest for the
money he lent. Therefore, there was great enmity between the greedy Shylock and generous Antonio.
Whenever Antonio met Shylock, he abused him for hard dealing which the latter bore with seeming
patience but he secretly thought of taking revenge on Antonio.
Summary
Reading is a process in which a written or printed symbol is translated into an appropriate
sound. Thus reading consists of three elements i.e. Symbol (written or printed), Sounds
and Sense.
Speed reading aims to improve reading skills by increasing the number of words read
in each block, reducing the length of time spent reading each block and reducing the
number of times your eyes skip back to a previous block.
Word attack skills, , Fluency skills, are the
kinds of reading skills.
defective Examination system and the text books are not well graded.
Reading. All types of the reading are important because the main goal of reading is to
comprehend the printed pages.
Effective language instructors show students how they can adjust their reading behaviour
to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and reading purposes. They help
students develop a set of reading strategies and match appropriate strategies to each
reading situation.
Terms to Remember
Reading It is a multi-dimensional cognitive process of decoding symbols for the purpose of
deriving meaning (reading comprehension) and/or constructing meaning.
Word Attack Skills These are the ability to convert graphic symbols into intelligible language.
Comprehension Skills context and prior knowledge

to aid reading and to make sense of what one reads and hears.
Fluency Skills Fluency skills are the ability to see larger segment and phrases as an aid to reading
and writing more quickly.
Critical Reading synthesize what
one reads. This ability helps to develop ideas and use them as an aid in reading.
Loud Reading Reading with an audible voice is called loud reading. This type of reading is also
known as oral reading.
Silent Reading Reading without producing any sound is called silent reading. It is regarded as
the most important type of reading.
Extensive Reading Extensive reading is considered as being reading rapidly. The purpose
of extensive reading is for pleasure and information. Thus, extensive reading is also termed as
“supplementary reading”.
Intensive Reading Intensive reading means that the readers take a text, study it line by line, and
refer at very moment to the dictionary about the grammar of the text itself.
Exercises
3. Write the ways of improving listening skill.

18 Development of
Writing Skills
… everything in life is writable about if you have the outgoing guts to do it, and the
imagination to improvise
— Sylvia Plath
Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives
Introduction
Development of Writing Abilities This chapter will enable the reader to:
Teaching Writing Skills
Writing as a Process
Assessment of Writing
The Conventions of Writing
Spelling, Punctuation and Capitalization
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
Skills that enable an individual to write coherently and lucidly
can be defined as writing skills. As a skill, writing might be
more difficult than it seems. Often writing turns out to be the
most difficult activity even for the native speakers of a language
since it not only involves a graphic representation of speech
but also requires development and presentation of thoughts in a
structured way.
DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING ABILITIES

As Sylvia Plath says, “…imagination to improvise”, writing as a skill involves the power of
imagination and thereby the students gain control over their thoughts. Their thoughts and imagination
help them to pursue the skill of writing which in turn shapes not only their perception of themselves
but also the world surrounding them. Writing also aids in their personal growth. Students are often
unaware of the power of the written word, yet the written word: …enables the writer, perhaps for
the first time, to sense the power of… language to affect another. Through using, selecting and
rejecting, arranging and rearranging language, the student comes to understand how language is
used.
Teaching Writing Skills
In order to master the art of writing, students need concentration, instruction, practice, and patience.
The teacher’s mandate is to assist the students to gain control over written word. Students should:
Think! Writing is a tool which enables us to express what is in your mind. Discuss.
Teaching Learning Strategies

A teacher of English may adapt the following strategies while teaching writing skills as given in
Table 18.1.
Table 18.1: Teaching-Learning Strategies
Teaching-Learning Strategies
Teacher-Guided Student Empowerment Specific Strategies
Before Before Before
Considering the purpose Purpose and audience
and audience Topic
Planning Planning of organization
of ideas
During During During
Discussion with the students Introduction of the topic
Selection of best words Development of the topic
Conclusion of the topic
Contd.
Development of Writing Skills 239
Revising Revising Revising
CONVENTIONS OF WRITING
Language is used as a means of communication in both speech and writing. Writing is not only
material already learnt. Neat and legible writing is important. Students must be taught how to
2. Sentence structure
3. Word choice
4. Language usage
5. Spelling
6. Punctuation and Capitalization
1. Form
It is the basis of all writing. During writing, ideas are organized in a systematic way. Students
understand the range of writing forms, if instructions are clear.
Prose form
The following are the range of prose forms:
Description Paragraph, essay, sketch

Narration Paragraph, essay, story, biography, autobiography
Paragraph, essay, article, newspaper column, report
Persuasion Paragraph, essay, letter to the editor, review
In prose forms, the basic unit is the paragraph but students should learn the basic elements of
paragraph which are as follows—
All the sentences should be arranged in chronological and logical order.
Organization of sentences should be according to the purpose.
All the sentences should have meaningful relationship with each other.
Various forms of paragraph

Story form
Headline
Details of the summary
Description paragraph
Topic
Details that lead to main impression
Summary or concluding sentence
Narration paragraph
Title
Details increasing in importance
Exposition paragraph
Topic sentence
Details or main idea in chronological order
Conclusion
Persuasion paragraph
Topic sentence
Details or main idea arranged in a persuasive order
(leaving the most persuasive reason until last).
Conclusion
Essay: An essay is a prose form which usually begins with introductory paragraph stating the
topic. A body of one or more paragraphs provides the supporting ideas and the last is the concluding
paragraph that sums up the evidence presented in the body of the essay.
Format of the essay
Introductory paragraph
Body of paragraphs which provide supporting details
Concluding paragraph
Poem:
Lyrical poems Includes free verse, songs, odes,
sonnets
Narrative poems Includes ballads, epics
Dramatic poems Includes monologues, soliloques,
dialogues
2. Sentence Structure
the basic parts of a sentence can be combined and arranged in countless ways.
Discussing sentence structures with students can—
Pattern of sentences
The following are the various patterns of the sentences.
Ritu sleeps
I like mango
He is lazy
She is here
He is my dad
Sentence error: Writing requires an understanding of certain sentence conventions. It demands
possible in an appropriate order.

Common errors of the students’ are—
So teachers should use student samples to explain and clarify problems related to sentence
pattern.
3. Word Choice
Writing is a series of choice. As you work on paper, you choose the topic, approach and source.
On the left side there are some phrases that use 3 or 4 words while on the right are some shorter
substitute.
She is of the opinion that She thinks that

During the course of During
Regardless of the fact that Although
In all cases Always
Due to the fact that Because
In academic writing, students should learn to recognize clichés and try to avoid them because
Last but not the least Last

Dead as doornail Dead
Agree to disagree Disagree
Thesaurus should be used carefully. Each word listed as synonym has its own connotations or
shades of meaning
Simple words should be used to communicate the information clearly
Written words should make sense to both you and the reader. So read out your paper loud at
a slow pace.
4. Language Usage
words and structures in both speaking and writing.
and correctly used.” Yet there are no hard and fast rules of language usage but there are ranges of
audience.
So the following points should be kept in mind
Students should be sensitive to the situations. So teachers should give students various
For example
Suppose your family car meets an accident. You were in charge of it when the accident
happened. Three different audience are interested in your short written account of the incident.
Students should understand the range of appropriateness found in the language as language
differ according to the writer and the purpose.
For example
Causal Conversation
Informal Class discussions
Lecture or technical report
Students should learn standard usage of language. They should understand that even standard
English allows a variety of acceptable speech.
5. Spelling
adds to or subtracts from its status.
makes it pathetic or ridiculous. If spelling is too bad, a message may become incomprehensible or
even misleading. The teacher should, therefore, make concerted efforts to instill in each student the
desire to spell correctly in all subject matter areas.
Checking a word visually

Asking a good speller
Spell check program on computer

Students can become effective spellers by
Checking their own writing carefully
Keeping a list of their own demons and preparing a list noting sound alike (e.g their/there/
pronounced words)
by mnemonic. Principle is a rule and principal is a person.
6. Punctuation and Capitalization

Punctuation: is the system of symbol that are used to separate sentences and parts of sentences to
make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called “punctuation marks”. The purpose of punctuation
is to help the reader understand the meaning of the writer.
For example
Look at these three sentences
“Reena is there now”
“Reena is there now?”
“Reena is there now!”
All the above three sentences convey different meaning. So the variations in punctuation may
result in differences in meaning, lack of meaning, or different emphasis.
Students need to know the basic functions of punctuation marks and their use in writing.
Capitalization: is the writing of a word with its first letter as an upper case and the remaining
letters in lower case. A new sentence, a title, a name, a day, a month, a place, a holiday season, a
direction, a school subject or a language should begin with the capital letter.
Students can learn to punctuate and capitalize by—
Conclusion
HANDWRITING
Penmanship or handwriting is the art of writing with the hand and a writing instrument. Styles of
handwriting are also called hands or scripts.
Mechanics of Writing
The mechanics of writing are the rules to be followed so that the format becomes systematic. It also
specify how words should be selected. It aims to make writing precise and grammatically correct.
Think! Illegible handwriting of an individual is a sign of untidy and careless mind. Elucidate.
The goal of mechanics of writing is to make the writing precise and grammatically correct. It is
directed to make the writing systematic and being concerned about how to be correct in spelling,
punctuation, italics and so on. The mechanics of writing are the rules that must be followed so that
the format becomes systematic and consistent in all academic sectors. The mechanics of writing
specify how words should be used when printed, whereas grammar
their relationships within a sentence.
1. Spelling:—Spelling should be consistent, clean and correct in the written work. The spelling
in quotation must be the original whether correct or incorrect. If we have to divide any words,
we should not do so at the end of the line. If the word does not fit there, we should leave the
2. Punctuation:—The purpose of punctuation is to bring clarity in writing and to make it

comprehensible. Punctuation clarifies sentence structure, separating some words and grouping
others. It adds meaning to written words and guides for readers to understand as they move
through sentences. Commas, full stops, semicolons, colons, dashes and parenthesis, hyphens,
one should take account of all these marks while writing.

3. Italics (underlining):—In research papers and manuscripts submitted for publication, words
that would be italicized in print are usually underlined. In general we should underline foreign
always italicized.
4. Names of Persons:—
Researcher must not use formal titles in referring to men as women, living or dead, such as
Prof. Devkota, Dr. Sangita. Instead of it, the researcher should only write Devkota, Sangita
and so on.
5. Titles of Works:—Title of the publication works should be cited from the title page not from
the cover page.
pamphlets, periodicals, films, radio and television programs etcetera should be underlined if
hand written or italicized if printed in the research paper.
Titles of the names of articles, essays, short stories, short poems, chapters of book and so
on should be put with in quotation marks. The same is for the case of unpublished work, such
as lectures and speeches.
6. Quotations:—Only the most important words, phrases, lines and passages should be quoted
7. Capitalization:—Writers tend to err on the side of too much capitalization. The chief reason
to capitalize a word is that it is proper—not because the word has greater status than other
words. A proper noun identifies a specific member of a class, whereas a common noun denotes
(a particular member of a class) was a king of England (the class itself).
How to Improve Your Handwriting
Don’ts
Things you’ll need
Think! Fair and legible handwriting makes a man perfect in all walks of life.
TEACHING HANDWRITING
English has adopted the Roman script as its script.
The following are some of the features of the Roman script which may cause students difficulty
if their languages use a different writing system.
1. Left to Right Direction:—

Sindhi, Baluchi, and so on, with a variety of dialects, covering millions of speakers, use the right to
to bottom direction. Thus, there is a need for you to make this distinction clear to your students from
the beginning and remind them constantly of it. They will have some initial difficulty.
2. Writing on the Line:—

students to learn which letters go above and which go below. You may demonstrate this from the
beginning by drawing lines on the blackboard.
3. Shape and Size of Letters in the Handwritten Form:—Students may find it

difficult to form the basic shape of some letters. They may have some difficulty in distinguishing
between the shapes of some letters. Before they practice learning any letter, give them some practice
with curvy lines which closely resemble i, u, l and t. What is the distinction between o, p, b, and
d? What is the distinction between p, g, and q? What is the distinction between l and t? What is
the distinction between n and m? What is the distinction between l and k? What is the distinction
between u, v, and w? What is the distinction between y and g?
4. Hand Movements:—
the hand while writing the same. This conventional way must be taught, and students should be
helps in joining letters and in gaining a good speed in writing.
5. Capital Letters:—
of a few letters, capital letters and their corresponding small lower case letters are quite distinct
from each other. As a result, the second or foreign language learners of English must be taught to
recognize the capital and small letters. The first word of a sentence in English must begin with a
capital letter. Some words such as I must be written only in a capital letter whether it occurs in the
beginning or middle or end of a sentence. Proper names must begin with a capital letter. There are
several such important conventions which require the second/foreign language learner to master the
use and writing of capital letters. Hand movements for the capital letters are different from the hand
movements used for writing small, lower case letters. Students need to practice using capital letters
by writing their own names and the names of towns, countries, months, etc.
6. Small/Lower Case Letters:—

small/lower case letters. By far these letters are more frequently used than the capital letters. Once
again, the small letters form a set by themselves. The main focus of teaching the script revolves
around the mastery of recognizing, writing small letters and associating them with their sound or
sounds.
7. Joining Letters:—Conventional way of writing letters in English is to join them within

movements conducive to joining. There are several combinations of letters which are more frequent
the combinations found in words such as scythe and shotgun. A traditional way to teach joining
is to ask students to join all the 26 letters of the alphabet. Students were asked to write the model
provided by the teacher many times, so that the students mastered the joining process. These days
individual words are given to students and while they copy the word, they learn the letter joining
process as well. Remember that it is important to show clearly how we make joins from the end of
follow the following model steps: Write c and h separately on the board. Point to where c ends and
h begins and draw a line joining them. Then draw the joined letters several times, and describe the
shape… then up to the top of the h, then down…. Ask students to copy the joined letters several
8. There are Three Styles of Handwriting:—

In printing, we keep the letters separate, and they look the same as in printed books.
9. In Simple Cursive:
maintained. I understand that in Britain most children learn this style, and most adults use it.
10. In Full Cursive:—All the letters are joined, and many have different shapes from printing.
11. Italics:—Is another style used in printing for achieving certain effects. This style or convention
also needs to be learned by the second or foreign language learner.
12. Ornamental Writing:—It is hardly practiced these days. However, it continues to be

used in the titles of movies, mastheads of newspapers, in degree certificates and so on.
What kind of a script of English should be adopted to teach beginners? Give reasoned
Think! answer.
Relation among Skills
forms and functions.
According to Widdowson
“Nothing is to be spoken before it has been heard
Nothing is to be read before it has been spoken
Nothing is to be written before it has been read”
Therefore we should follow the perfect order of mastering skills i.e.,
Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing
Summary
Writing is the productive skill in the written mode. Since it involves not just a graphic
representation of speech, but the development and presentation of thoughts in a structured
way. Writing is a powerful instrument of thinking because it provides students with a way
of gaining control over their thoughts. Writing shapes their perceptions of themselves
and the world. In order to become empowered in writing, students need concentration,
instruction, practice, and patience.
Topics can come from teachers but students also need to develop the skill of using their
The writing process usually culminates in sharing and presenting. Publishing in its
broadest sense, means “making public” or sharing with others. Students should be given
the opportunity to choose pieces of writing they wish to have presented. The ways of
presenting student writing are numerous: shared reading, bulletin board, individual
books, class/school/city newspapers, student anthologies, or literary contests.
own thoughts and feelings informally. They use the transactional mode to report, inform,
place in a balanced writing program.

Effective writers can communicate clearly with a careful choice of words. Although
good word choice is partly a matter of preference, and therefore style, students should
understand that certain choices will help them communicate their ideas to their readers.
Spelling plays an important role in communicating through the written word. Students
need to realize that spelling errors detract from their overall message and that society, in
general, is less tolerant of poor spelling than of any other problems with language.
Terms to Remember
Writing A skill that enables an individual to write coherently.
Drafting This activity enables the learner to master the art of writing gradually.
Revising This activity helps students to modify errors and mistakes in writing.
Editing Editing helps in correcting written documents.
Proofreading The final stage, the process of proofreading helps eradicate simple errors.
Exercises
1. What are the characteristics of good handwriting?
2. Suggest two ways for the improvement of handwriting of school going children.
4. What are the causes of bad handwriting?
2. When should writing be introduced? What are the initial difficulties in the way of teaching
handwriting? How will you overcome them?
3. What are the essentials of good handwriting? How will you proceed to improve the writing
of your students?

19 Extracurricular
Activities Related to
English
What we learn to do, we learn by doing
— Thomas Jefferson
Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives
Introduction
Role of Extra-curricular Activities in a This chapter will enable the reader to:
Student’s Life
Language Games
Quiz
Debate
Group Discussions Skills
INTRODUCTION
An extracurricular activity is defined as a out-of-class activity,
which provides additional curriculum-related learning and
character-building experiences. Extracurricular activities are
usually voluntary as opposed to mandatory scholastic activities. It is the intent of the educational
institutions which encourage academic effort and achievement by students.
Most of the educational institutions in various different parts of the world facilitate these
activities for school and college students. Faculty is mostly involved in organizing and directing
these activities. Extracurricular activities exist at all levels of education.
EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
RELATED TO ENGLISH
Teaching English is no exception to this rule. Some of the extracurricular activities related to
English are listed below:
Objectives
The major objectives of the activities related to English are as follows:—
Importance of Extracurricular Activities in a Student’s Life

Extracurricular activities play a pivotal role in the all-round development in a student’s life. The
following points emphasize its benefits:
cooperation, leadership, diligence, punctuality and team-spirit.
others, they acquire a sense of responsibility.

hands-on training to prepare students for the outside world.
A few students are study minded, can they be motivated to take part in activities?
Think! Discuss.
LANGUAGE GAMES
‘Games encourage, entertain, teach, and promote fluency. If not for any of these reasons, they should
be used just because they help students see beauty in a foreign language and not just problems that at
times seem overwhelming.’
nuances of the language. In recent years, language researchers and practitioners have shifted
experienced writers and teachers have argued that games have far-reaching educational values and
they are not merely fun-filled activities. Practice of several language games help in sharpening all
These games offer students a fun-filled and relaxing learning atmosphere. After learning and
practicing new vocabulary, students have the opportunity to use language in a non-stressful way
while playing games; the learners’ attention lies on the message, not on the language. Rather than
paying attention to the correctness of linguistic forms, most participants will do all they can to win.
This eases the fear of negative evaluation, the concern of being negatively judged in public, which
is one of the main factors inhibiting language learners from using the target language in front of
audience. In a game-oriented context, anxiety is reduced and speech fluency is generated. Thus,
communicative competence is achieved.
Aims of Language Games

Aim of all language games is to “use the language”. However, during a game play learners also use
the target language to persuade and negotiate their way to get desired results. This process involves
Why use Game-based Learning?

When to use Games
lesson, provided that they are suitable and carefully chosen.
entertaining way. Even if these games resulted only in noise, chaos and entertained students, they
are still worth paying attention to and implementing in the classroom since they motivate learners,
promote communicative competence and generate language fluency.
Some students are very interested in co-curricular activities, can they be controlled?
Think! Discuss.
Why use Games During Classes?
interact with their environment.
the target language. For many children, who are between 4 and 12 years old, especially the youngest,
target language to life.
aware they are studying; thus without stress, they can learn a lot.
How to Choose Games?

A game must be more than just fun.
A game should involve “friendly” competition.
A game should encourage students to focus on the use of language rather than on the
language itself.
A game should give students a chance to learn, practice, or review specific language
material.
General Benefits of Games

The general benefits of the games are listed below:
Affective
Cognitive
Class dynamics
Adaptability
Think! Extra-curricular activities help in the all-round development of a student’s personality
Examples of Language Games
GAME 1
Plurals
Objectives
To investigate and identify basic rules for changing the spelling of nouns when singular is
converted into plural.
Contd.
1. Box _______________
2. _______________
3. Inch _______________
4. Baby _______________
5. _______________
6. _______________
7. _______________
Contd.
8. Shoe _______________
9. Bell _______________
10. Key _______________
GAME 2
‘Nice’ is not a ‘Nice’ Word
Choose a better word to complete these sentences.
One _______ day we decided to go out to the beach.
Tennis is _______ to watch.

“That is a _______ dress you are wearing,” said mum.
Star Wars is a _______ film to watch.
Everyone was very _______ on my first day of school.

The view was _______ over the mountains.
The orchestra was very _______ at the concert.
GAME 3
Plurals
Objective
To investigate, collect and classify spelling patterns in pluralization, construct rules for regular
Contd.
1. Bus ________________
2. Jelly _______________
3. Fox ________________
4. House ______________
5.
6.
Contd.
7. Balloon _____________
8. Baby _______________
9. Meal _______________
10. Party _______________
GAME 4
Broken Sentences
Matching Exercise
Choose words on the right to finish the sentences on the left. Match accordingly.
I go to the gym club care of their health
Julie seldom wears jeans a holiday abroad

GAME 5
Crossword
Animals
Find the words below in the grid.
S O R E C O N I H R T
E S R O H T P B E A R
A E F F A R I N H
N T P C R F R T Y
T N A I O N O E E E
E A N Y N M K R N
H T O K U N M M A
O P H B E O P Y N
P E E Y E M F K O N
E R Y C M O A T C
E N C T C H B B H
antelope elephant
bear giraffe mule
cat goat panther
cow horse rhinoceros
dog hyena tiger
lion wolf
GAME 6
Jumbled Words
Mixed-up sentence exercise. Arrange the words onto a line to form a correct sentence.
GAME 7
Missing Preposition
Fill in the Blanks with Suitable Prepositions
My name is Maria and I come __________ Spain. I am studying English __________ a
me. My neighbour’s brother is married __________ a Spanish girl. I go __________ the cinema
quite often-it depends __________ the film. I’m also interested __________ art, so I often visit
fun __________ my accent. Perhaps my English is improving!
Without financial help is it possible to conduct co-curricular activities on the school?

Think! How?
Conclusion
The experience of teachers can be utilized to create competition for our students. This process has
of using their English during game play. The competition gave students a natural opportunity to
And finally, the competition stimulated their interest in language. If not for any of these reasons;
they should be used just because they help students see beauty in a language and not just problems
that at times seem overwhelming.
Definition of Quiz
The English Language Quiz

Quiz 1
Contd.
3. Majority of English words fall into a small number of types of words. These are called word
classes. Name the word classes in this table. The first one has been done for you.
Type of Word Word Class Example

1. A word which names 1. noun Petal
2. A word which describes 2. Pretty
3. A word which describes an action 3. Push
4. A word which adds information about verbs 4. smoothly
5. A word which connects parts of speech 5. And
6. A word which replaces a noun 6. I
7. A word which indicates relationships 7. before
8. The
Answers
1. More than 2 million! 2. 2700
2. adjective
3. verb
4. adverb
5. conjunction
6. pronoun
7. preposition
8. articles
Quiz 2
Adjective or Adverb?
Choose the appropriate adjective or adverb to complete the sentences.
Q. 1 She played _____ .
beautiful beautifuly beautifully
Q. 2 The TV’s far too _____ .
loud loudly Either could be used here.
Q. 3 She speaks so very _____ .
Contd.
Q. 4 She’s a _____ learner.
Q. 5 I know them quite _____ .

good well Either could be used here.
Q. 6 Check your work _____ .
careful carefuly carefully
Q. 7 I’ve been having a lot of headaches _____ .
late lately
Q. 8 He’s a _____ actor.
terrible terribly
Q. 9 He should pass the test _____ .
easy easily
Q. 10 He’s really lazy and _____ tries.
hard hardly Either could be used here.
Q. 11 The newspapers were very _____ of the scheme.
critical critically
Q. 12 He’s _____ ill.
critical critically
Q. 13 I do not _____ agree with you.
full fuly fully
Q. 14 I was _____ shocked.
complete completely
Q. 15 It was a _____ mess.
complete completely
Q. 16 They messed things up _____ .
complete completely
Q. 17 It was a _____ day for us all.
sad sadly
Quiz 3
Preposition
Contd.
2. Be careful. You’re going to fall __________ the chair!
3. I’ll meet you __________ the cinema.
4. The fire-fighters were called because the building was __________ fire.
6. The ceremony is __________ the 4th of July.
7. Yesterday we watched a film __________ television.
8. Julie was so upset, she burst __________ tears.
DEBATE
This has been one of my
activity for language learning because it engages students in a variety of cognitive and linguistic
reflection on the validity of one’s ideas.
Some Debate Series
students.
Television Plays a Positive Role in Society. Argument For Argument Against

Students should have a Part-time Job. Argument For Argument Against
Argument For Argument Against
Contd.

Housing Reform has Become Necessary. Argument For Argument Against
Fashion Contributes to Society. Argument For Argument Against
Advantages of Debate
and active involvement required by all students. Moreover, it provides an experience by which
students can develop competencies in researching current issues, preparing logical arguments,
actively listening to various perspectives, differentiating between subjective and evidence-based
opinions based on evidence. After the debate is over, students also report that the experience is
FUN!
GROUP DISCUSSION SKILLS
that we can help our students develop to become better able to contribute effectively to group
discussions.
Why Teach Group Discussion Skills?
in multiple discussions with friends, family and colleagues. These may vary in topic and style.
You may have very informal chats about day-to-day things, to more serious topics, for example a
discussion about a recent news story or a problem that needs to be solved.
remain very similar.
all students.
Types of Discussion
There are a variety of different types of discussions that occur naturally and which we can recreate
in the classroom. These include discussions where the participants have to:
Make decisions
Give and/or share their opinions on a given topic
Create something
Some discussion topics may fall into more than one of these categories, but it is useful to consider
Useful Sub-Skills for Students
Analyse:—
can then swap their notes and assess or analyse the relevance of each of the sub-topics their partner
has included. Together, the students then draw up a fresh list and discuss how the sub-topics might
Persuade:—
members of the group that their selection is the best while compiling a second level of negotiated
list. The group members who retain the most from their original lists are the winners. Note down
for future reference.

Control emotions:—Students can practice how to control emotions by giving the students a
Support:—
an effort to get their point across and forget to listen.
do not understand the point he or she has made’.

You can then give them or elicit a list of phrases which they might use to interrupt politely
middle of the table. The other students in the group judge whether the interruption was appropriate
Use Functional Language
draw up a list of useful functional language for the students to refer to. This could include phrases
group discussion, you can then refer them to the appropriate section of the list and give them a few
moments to consider the language before beginning the discussion.
Conducting Group Discussions

group discussions in the classroom to
ensure that they run successfully.
functional language that they might find useful

which you are confident your students will find interesting
starting point
Ensure a balance between input and practice
variety of styles or types of activity
Vary Group Size and Procedure

Some companies do selection group discussions with very large groups of people—over
ten in some cases. If your students will be facing these types of group discussions in the
Encourage Group Discussions outside Class Time
perform in group discussions outside of class.
Giving and Encouraging Feedback
the group discussion they discuss how effective each of the participants was during the
discussion. Again, giving them some focused questions to guide this stage will help them.
the class to analyse. Some students find this extremely useful.
individual performances. Keeping a record of these will help you and the students to see
where they have improved.
Topics of Group Discussion

There are roughly four types of group discussion topics:
Factual topics for a group are, as the word says, about facts. This is a sample list of speech topics
on current issues and facts:
1. The pros and cons of having a credit card.
2. A chain gang is a modern form of slavery.
A controversial group discussion topic is a speech topic that has many controversies, pros and
cons. Keep in mind that all current group discussion topics are not my opinion, but just a sample
list of speech topics!
2. The pros and cons of a female President.

3. Online dating chats have nothing to do with a search for a soul mate.
Abstract group discussion topics are things that cannot be easily defined or formulated. Teachers
2. The Hippocratic Oath

3. Political Correctness
The fourth type of group discussion on selected topics is so-called case studies. You determine
a problem and together with the other group members you have to find a satisfying solution. These
are small group discussion topic ideas. Just modify and alter where necessary, these are just guiding
light topic ideas:
Conclusion
As we have seen, group discussions can be designed in a variety of formats and are useful for
practice simply to increase fluency. Students can also be prepared for extempore or free speech.
involved in participating in a group discussion and ensure that you do activities that address each
to identify areas for improvement.
Summary
According to modern-day academicians, curriculum is not only about teaching and
learning in classroom. Extra-curricular activities are a must in today’s curriculum. These
so on.
The various extra-curricular activities related to English can be, English calligraphy, Solo
otivates students to learn, immerses them in the
Through playing games, students can learn English the way children learn their mother
tongue without being aware they are studying.
Terms to Remember
Extra-curricular Activities Activities performed by students outside the realm of their academic
curriculum are referred to as extra-curricular activities.
Language Games These refer to activities surrounding English teaching such as debates, quizzes
and so on.
Exercises

20 Remedial Teaching
in English
“If the child is not learning the way you are teaching, then you must teach in the way the
child learns.”
— Rita Dunn
Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives
Introduction
Concept of Diagnostic Testing This chapter will enable the reader to:
Concept of Remedial Teaching
Characteristics of Remedial Teaching
Need for Remedial Teaching
The Process of Remedial Teaching
English as a Second Language in India

Types of Errors
Remedial Teaching for Correctness
of Errors
Remedial Worksheets
INTRODUCTION
Learning a language is a complex activity. It is more complex
in case of English because it is a foreign language. It involves
skills like speaking, listening, reading and writing. These skills,
moreover, consist of many sub-skills. As a matter of fact,
learning of English is a continuous process i.e., learning and
mastering of one structural item serves as the foundation for
further learning. Therefore, each layer of learning should be strong and long-lasting. Then only,
learning of English will be good.
However, with the passage of time and due to the law of disuse, students tend to forget some of
their lessons whereas sometimes some concepts remain unclear. These often adversely affect future
learning.
Some students may not make satisfactory progress. It is the teacher’s duty to detect the weakness
and then explain the concept accordingly. It is for this purpose, diagnostic teaching and remedial
teaching were introduced.
DIAGNOSTIC TESTING
The term ‘diagnosis’ means identification of diseases from the symptoms. The teacher, like the
physician, uses test instruments to obtain scientific and definite proof for better diagnosis of
students’ difficulties in learning. Therefore, diagnostic tests can be defined as the tests which
provide a detailed picture of strengths and weaknesses in the areas of students’ learning. These tests
are instruments to find out gaps in their learning.
Administration of Diagnostic Tests

Administration of diagnostic tests is similar to that of administration of unit tests and achievement
tests. However, some precautions must be taken which are listed below.
(a) Introduction by the teacher:—The purpose of the diagnostic test should be clarified to
the students.
(b) Proper instructions to students:—Proper instructions regarding the method of answering
the questions should be given.
(c) Time limit:—Generally, no time limit is prescribed for diagnostic tests so that each pupil
works at his own speed.
Need and Utility of Diagnostic Testing

Diagnostic tests are useful to the teachers of English for many reasons. They help the teachers to–
(a) Identify students who make slow progress in English language learning
(b) Identify the causes of slow progress among students
(c) Locate specific weaknesses in an area of English learning
(d) Identify the specific areas which need remediation
(e) Ascertain the basis for planning remedial teaching in an area of linguistic skills
(f) Provide proper feedback to students
(g) Place the students properly in the learning process of English
Remedial Teaching in English 273
(h) Hasten the process of English language learning

(i) Heighten the efficiency of teaching learning process
(j) Modify and adjust methods of providing learning experiences.
REMEDIAL TEACHING
‘To remedy’ means to cure against a defect. Therefore, remedial teaching is providing instructional
correctiveness. It is a process of filling in the gaps in the process of learning, a process of removing
distortions that have crept into students’ learning. It is a type of instruction through which errors
are corrected and repetition of earlier flows is prevented. To sum up, it is an instructional effort to
upgrade underachievers by remedying their errors. Diagnostic testing and remedial teaching go
hand in hand. One cannot exist without the other.
Characterstics of Remedial Teaching

The major characteristics of remedial teaching are enlisted below.
Remedial teaching involves
Topic 1
Practical exercises of remedial teaching are the panacea of ailments in the teaching of English.
Discuss
Objectives of Remedial Teaching
performance.
and needs.
relationship, communication skills, problem-solving, self-management, self-learning,

independent thinking, creativity and the use of information technology.
Need of Remedial Teaching

Various uses of remedial teachings are given below.
which there is homogeneity in the class.
Topic 2
Justify the statement
“Remedial teaching aims at improving the standard of teaching English language.”
The Process of Remedial Teaching

The process of remedial teaching can be explained with the help of Fig. 20.1.
Significance of Remedial Teaching
learning by providing supplementary information throughout the course of study.
as well as among the students during the teaching process.
of students’ individual needs, their performances in class and difficulties encountered while
learning.
education.
other, so that teaching effectiveness can be further enhanced.
aids, tasks and worksheets and so on.

Fig. 20.1 Process of remedial teaching

ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE IN INDIA

English is spoken as a second language in many countries. If a language is used for limited purposes
like trade and commerce, travel etc., it is considered to be a foreign language. If it is used for other
purposes than these such as, education, media etc., it is considered as the second language in a
country.
Second language refers to the language acquired or learned subsequent to the first language.
COMMON ERRORS COMMITTED BY LEARNERS

One of the most troubling aspects of learning English as a second language in India is, the number
and kinds of errors committed by Indian students, in spite of the fact that English is learned for
almost more than half a century in Indian schools.
The word error is derived from the Latin word ‘errare’ meaning, to wander. Nelson Brooks
writes in his book Language and Language Learning,
“Like sin, error has to be avoided and its influence overcomes;
But its presence is to be expected”.
Types of Errors
Errors of competence are caused by the application of the rules of the target language wrongly,
and the errors of performance are the result of repeatedly committed mistakes while using a
language. In addition to this, there is another problem for students of English which is the lack of
correspondence between the spelling and the sound. This problem results in wrong pronunciation.
Errors in pronunciation occur mainly due to the interference of the vernacular. This is also
called as the negative transfer. This happens when the target language and the learner’s vernacular
are different from each other. Students use the sounds of the vernacular instead of those of the
(e.g.,children, equipments etc.)
The Contrastive Analysis Hypotheses (CAH)
while learning a second language. This method is nothing but comparing students L1 and L2 to
analyse possible difficulties that a learner might encounter in L2 learning situation. This is mainly
because of the differences in the linguistic structures of these two languages. Hindi does not have
word-initial consonants like sk, st, and s. As a result, students who have Hindi as their mother
tongue make mistakes in learning such clusters. That is why they say ‘mishtake’ instead of the word
‘mistake’ and they pronounce the word ‘school’ as ‘iskuul’.
L1 and the L2 should help us
correct the inaccuracies of the students. This might act as a probable solution to this problem.
Even the native speakers make mistakes. These mistakes are very common. For example, a native
speaker of English may use certain words like ‘the’, ‘well’, ‘then’ etc. repeatedly. There are many
lapses and slips in a native speaker’s speech as well as writing.
Remedial Teaching for Correctness of Errors

Remedial treatment is necessary to avoid the learner’s errors, but all errors may not need the same
remedial treatment. The errors due to carelessness should be tackled with individual care. The best
way to correct the learner’s errors is to let him correct his own errors with the teacher’s help and the
second best way is to let one of his peers correct his error. The teacher can supervise and observe
the students who are correcting the errors. Self-correction, peer-correction and then the teacher-
correction is the best method of evaluation.
she may have an idea of the common errors. A common practice among most of the teachers is to
use some set of symbols in the student’s notebook to denote the type of error; e.g. Sp for denoting
spelling error; w for wrong word; gr for grammatical error; p for error in punctuation and ? for
something is missing. A teacher can use as many symbols as possible, which should be understood
by the students and the teacher has to use them consistently. Students make very few errors in
grammar in the early classes because most of the time they imitate the teacher’s sentences.
sound alike, but have quite different meanings. Such words are very easy to confuse and the teacher
has to explain the difference between these words and should ask the students to pronounce these
words, so that they can understand the difference. Errors in pronunciation can be rectified easily.
A good pronunciation dictionary can be prescribed. Tongue twister sentences like ‘She sells sea
shells on the sea shore’; ‘Purple, Paper, People’ etc., can be given to the students, to improve their
pronunciation.
Remedial teaching can become monotonous after a certain point. In order to break the monotony,
classroom activities like turn coat, just a minute and one-minute speech should be given to improve
their speaking skills. These activities will also help the students to get rid of their nervousness.
especially come from rural areas, think that learning English is a difficult task. It is the duty of a
teacher to encourage the students; they should counsel them to bring a change in their attitude.
Summary
Learning English is a continuous process i.e., learning and mastering of one structural
item serves as the foundation for further learning. Therefore, each layer of learning
should be strong and long-lasting. Sometimes, some concepts are not correctly and fully
understood. All these drawbacks create obstacles in the process of future learning. In a
class, there may be some students who do not seem to make satisfactory progress while
learning English. The teacher, like the physician, uses test instruments to obtain scientific
and definite proof for making better diagnosis of students’ difficulties in learning.
Remedial teaching is a process of filling the gaps in the previous learning, a process of
removing distortions that have crept into students’ learning and it provides reinforcement
to the students for future learning. It facilitates teaching and the provision of individual
guidance.
One of the most troubling aspects of learning English as a second language in India is
the number and kinds of errors committed by Indian students. Errors are the result of
partial knowledge of the system that is learned over a period of time. The errors due to
carelessness should be tackled with individual care. A teacher can plan remedial teaching
encourage the learners; they should counsel them to bring a change in their attitude.
Terms to Remember
Diagnostic Tests The tests which provide a detailed picture of strengths and weaknesses in the
areas of pupils’ learning. These tests are instruments to find out gaps in their learning.
Remedial Teaching The teaching through which errors are corrected and repetition of earlier
flows is prevented.
Exercises
3. Explain the process of Remedial Teaching.
5. Prepare a remedial worksheet for improving pronunciation.


1. Explain the concept of remedial teaching in detail.
3. Explain the concept of remedial teaching in detail.

21 Evaluation
“Evaluation is a process of gathering and interpreting evidence on change in the behaviour
of all students as they progress through school.”
— Hanna
Inside This Chapter
Learning Objectives
Introduction of Evaluation
Concept of Test This chapter will enable the reader to:
Concept of Examination
Characteristics of Evaluation
Importance of Evaluation
Steps of Evaluation
Purpose and Functions of Evaluation
Types of Evaluation
Principles of Evaluation
INTRODUCTION
There are various ways of assessing and evaluating how a
teacher teaches and what students learn. Testing, examination,
measurement and evaluation are the three popularly used
words that signify the process of assessing or grading students’
performance in examinations. Evaluation is a systematic
determination of merit, worth and significance of a course or
textbook using a set standard criteria.
Test, Examination, Measurement and Evaluation

Test, examination, measurement and evaluation are some of the
ways adopted for assessing both teachers and students alike.
These are explained below in details.
Evaluation 281
TEST
The word test is derived from the Latin word testum which means an earthen pot which was used to
test the mixture of minerals in which was used to find out whether there was any gold in it.
A test can be simply defined as a measuring instrument consisting of a standard set of questions
that need to be answered by all students.
The use of the term test is only limited to the use of some or other specific set of questions.
‘Testing’ is a process of making the students, answer a set of questions.
Evaluation is essential in the never-ending cycle of formulating goals, measuring

Think! progress towards them and determining the new goals which emerge as a result of
new warning. Discuss.
MEASUREMENT
Measurement is a one step ahead of the process of testing. It is a broader concept. Both testing and
non-testing devices are used in the process of measurement.
Fig. 21.1 The cyclic representation of measurement as a process
Definitions of Measurement
“Measurement can be defined as “an assignment of numeral, according to rules.”
—Tyler
“Measurement is a process of assigning numbers to objects according to certain rules.”

—Stanley Smith Stevens
“Anything that exists at all exits in some quantity. Anything that exits in some quantity is capable of being
measured.”
—Thorndike
Based on the above definitions, the salient features of measurement are as follows:
expressed in numbers.
dimensions of the learners.
Functions of Measurement
Functions of measurement basically provides answers to the following questions—
1. What a person can do? (Prognosis)
2. What a person cannot do? (Diagnosis)
3. What a person will do? (Prediction)
All these functions are explained diagrammatically.
Fig. 21.2 Diagrammatic representation of function of measurement

Evaluation 283
EXAMINATION
The word has been derived from the Latin word “examen” which means “the pointer” or the “tongue
of the balance”. So, examination means to weigh the achievement of the learners and to know
whether they had achieved a certain standard of learning-competencies of the subject taught.
Examination is derived from the latin word “examen”, which means ‘the pointer’ or the ‘tongue’
of the balance.
process.
Fig. 21.3 Diagram showing balance in a process through examinations
EVALUATION
Evaluation is the final stage. However, we may say that it is the last but not least important stage in
the process of gathering, using and imparting all relevant and accurate information. It is a relatively
new technical term which deals with the all-round development of a child including his physical,
social and intellectual development.
Evaluation is an integral part of teaching which includes a series of activities designed to measure
the effectiveness of the teaching-learning system as a whole.
So, we may summarize evaluation as:
alternatives.
For example:
1. A teacher measures Rohan’s height to be 120cm. She evaluates his height when she says
that he is short.
2. A teacher measures Hemlata’s achievement in English to be 56%. She evaluates her
achievement in English when she says that Hemlata’s performance is satisfactory.
Thus, the measurement of all relevant parameters is computed before a degree is assigned to any
student. Until students achieve a set standard of quality, the motive of the teacher is not achieved.
When we do so, we make an evaluation. In this way, a test results in a measurement which ultimately
leads to evaluation.
Test — Measurement — Evaluation
Measurement helps in evaluation but is not the same as evaluation. Let us consider one example
to clarify this difference.
Mohan and Sohan study in the same class. In the first test, they obtain 40 and 60 marks
respectively in mathematics. In the second test, both of them obtain 75 marks. Now, in the second
test the measurement of their achievement in mathematics is the same, yet the evaluation will differ,
when the teacher says that the rate of progress of Mohan is comparatively better than that of Sohan.
Thus, the concept of evaluation may be defined as one that:
Definitions of Evaluation
According to Quillen and Hanna
“A measurement of the all round growth of a child, including his physical, social and intellectual
development, as well as his interests, aptitudes and abilities.”
According to Goods
“Evaluation is a process of ascertaining or judging the value or amount of something by certain appraisal.”
According to Dandekar
“Evaluation can be defined as a systematic process of determining the extent to which educational
objectives are achieved by the students.”
Evaluation 285
According to Kothari Commission

“Evaluation is a continuous process; it forms an integral part of total system of education and intimately
related to educational objectives.”
According to Muffat
“Evaluation is a continuous process and is concerned with more than the formal academic achievements
of students. It is interpreted in the development of the individual in terms of desirable behavioural
changes in relation to his feeling, thinking and actions.”
Characteristics of Evaluation
learner.
learning process.
behaviour as a result of process of teaching learning.
than limiting itself to certain test or conventional examinations.
quality of the output in the light of the set objectives.
effectiveness of the instructional programs.
and evaluation procedures.
Fig. 21.4 Characteristics of evaluation
Four Aspects of Educational Evaluation

Evaluation goes beyond measurement in judging the desirability or value of the measure. Evaluation
is not only quantitative but also qualitative and includes value judgments
Evaluation = Quantitative description + Qualitative description + Value judgments
Fig. 21.5 Four aspects of educational evaluation
As language learning is largely a matter of forming habits and skills in the use of the
Think! language so the test must cover a wide range of skills and knowledge. Discuss.
Conclusion
The new concept of evaluation involves three things which are given below
The relation between educational objectives, learning experiences and evaluation can be
represented as shown in Fig. 21.6.
Evaluation 287
Fig. 21.6 The new concept of evaluation

Importance of Evaluation
Importance of evaluation may be stated as follows:
1. Evaluation is essential for sound decision-making.
2. Parents are eager to know the result of the education.
3. Educators, administrators, teachers, students and parents all work hard for the attainment of
educational goals and it is only natural that they should want to ascertain the extent to which
these goals have been realized.
4. Education is truly a giant and an important enterprise. Therefore, it is crucial that we evaluated
its process and products. For an adequate teaching-learning situation, evaluation techniques
are essential.
will play different roles in society. The special objectives of education are, to some extent,
parents and students to find out which objectives are reasonable. A sound choice of objectives
depends upon sound information about the student’s abilities, interest, attitude and character.
This information is obtained through the techniques of evaluation.
6. A good program of evaluation clarifies the aims of education.
7. It helps in the improvement of the curriculum.
8. Evaluation attempts at relating the subject matter, classroom instruction and testing procedures
problem.
9. Evaluation helps administrators, teachers and students.
Steps of Evaluation
There are ten major steps of evaluation. Figure 21.7 highlights the same:
Purpose and Functions of Evaluation

The following types of purpose and functions may be served through the results derived from the
process of evaluation.
Motivational functions:—The knowledge of the results and progress is a quite strong factor
for motivating an individual to continue his efforts in the right direction.
Informational or communicational functions:—Evaluation data may be successfully
used for providing useful information to the concerned personnel in order to maintain the essential
communication channel in the process of teaching learning like below:
1. It may provide a good feedback to the students by constantly informing them about their
progress.
Evaluation 289
Fig. 21.7 Steps of evaluation

2. It may also provide sufficient feed back to teachers in terms of the function ability and
effectiveness of their models and strategies of teaching.
3. The outcomes of the evaluation in the form of test scores, grades, stars, certificates, report
cards, comments and remarks of the teachers provide unique information to the parents about
the progress of their children.
4. Evaluation data may also provide necessary information to the school personnel. They can
know much about the learning potential, abilities and capacities, interests and attitudes of a
child concerning the different learning areas.
5. Evaluation results may also help in fixing responsibilities and accountability for the poor
performance of the students with regards to their needed development in a particular area or
subject.
Planning functions:—Evaluation, whether diagnostic, formative or summative may play its
role in exercising the following functions related with planning of the teaching learning tasks.
1. It may help in the formulation of the set objectives for carrying out the teaching learning
tasks.
2. It may help in the selection and organization of appropriate learning experiences framing
syllabus and developing curriculum.
3. The methods and strategies of teaching learning, the aid material used etc. can be properly
planned in view of the evaluation outcomes.
4. Remedial teaching, individual teaching and group activities, special educational programmes
can be better planned in the light of evaluation outcomes.
Decision-making functions:—Evaluation data may prove quite useful for taking important
decisions with regard to the welfare of students and society. It can also be helpful in improving the
processes and products of education.
1. Evaluation data help in making decisions for the selection of students to various courses and
areas of study.
2. Evaluation data may help in making decision regarding promotion or retention of the students,
assigning grades, merit position, certification and awarding of degrees and diplomas.
3. It helps in taking valuable decisions, for example, whether to continue or discontinue a
scheme of studies, methods of instruction. Introduce changes in the instructional objectives
or methods of evaluation.
4. It helps in taking decisions regarding the type and amount of the guidance needed by children
and how can it be properly imparted.
5. It may help in deciding the need of special or remedial education to the children and the ways
and means of providing such education.
6. It may help in taking valuable and serious administrative decision like rewarding or punishing
the child, maintain or dismiss a teacher or any other professional connected with the
instructional work of the school.
Evaluation 291
Types of Evaluations
Evaluation can be divided into two types on the basis of evaluation techniques:
1. Formative Evaluation
2. Summative Evaluation
Formative evaluation:—Formative evaluation occurs over a period of time and monitors
summarized as under.
to learn before achieving the set objectives.
and frequently.
modification in his teaching.
them to ask for necessary help.
among the students for making a certifying judgment. The results of such evaluation should
not necessarily appear in any official record.
Summative evaluation:—The formal techniques may include tests standardized as well as
customized by the teacher, questionnaires, interviews, rating scale, work assignments and projects.
lesson.
course of instruction.
placing them in order of merit or taking decision about their promotion and awarding degree
or diploma. It is this characteristic of summative evaluation which enables it to be called as
certifying evaluation.
Principles of Evaluation
The various principles of evaluation are explained below:
Principle of continuity
Evaluation is a continuous process. The teaching process and the evaluation procedure go on
together. It makes the students regular, punctual and systematic. Moreover, they acquire different
teaching skills involved in the process of teaching and learning.
Principle of Comprehensiveness
Evaluation is based on the principle of comprehensiveness as it takes into consideration all the
aspects of overall personality development of the student. The term ‘comprehensive’ refers to both
the scholastic and non-scholastic areas of student growth. The comprehensive evaluation covers
the whole range of student experiences in the context of total school environment which includes
aspects like physical, intellectual, emotional and social growth.
Principle of Objectives
Evaluation is directly linked with the educational objectives. It tries to find out how far the set
objectives are being achieved. This makes the teaching learning program pin-pointed.
Principle of Learning Experiences
Learning experiences means the experiences a student gain from teacher and surrounding. This
makes the curriculum better and correlated with life. It makes teaching real and more learnable.
Principle of Totality
Evaluation is concerned with total process of education. It means total behaviour of the individual,
i.e., intellectual, moral, social, cultural, physical and emotional, is the concern of the teacher. In the
teaching and learning of English, learning four skills is important.
Principle of Student-centeredness
In evaluation, child is the focus and not the subject matter and hence it should be in accordance with
abilities, interests and aptitudes of the students. When the language material will be child centered
the learner will be able to grasp it well.
Principle of Selection of Right type of Technique
To get the complete picture of the progress towards determined goals and purposes, variety of
evaluation techniques should be used.
Principle of Cooperation
Evaluation must be done in co-operation with teacher, students, parents and head of the institution.
Principle of Quantity and Quality
Evaluation takes into consideration both quality and quantity. The total information about the
personality of the child is not put up as separate entities rather they are integrated into unified
description of the child. Thus, both quantity and quality are maintained in evaluation.
Scope of Evaluation
Evaluation 293
Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation

There are three terms involved in the frame work of continuous and comprehensive evaluation.
Continuous
Education is a continuous process. So, the progress of the students should be evaluated regularly
and frequently.
Comprehensive
The term ‘comprehensive’ means to both scholastic and non-scholastic areas of student growth.
Therefore, the role of teacher is to build up the cognitive as well as non-cognitive abilities.
Evaluation
Evaluation is the process of knowing up to what extent the desired changes have taken place in the
students.
Aims of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation

The aims of comprehensive and continuous evaluation are as follows:—
1. To improve teaching learning process.
2. To provide feedback and guidance to the learners.
3. To provide diagnostic achievement data to the teacher.
4. To reduce examination phobia among children.
5. To help the children to realize their potentialities and capacities.
6. To enable teachers to evaluate those attitudes, abilities and skills which are impossible to
evaluate through traditional examination process.
7. To help teachers in improving the level of achievements.
8. To estimate emphasis on memorization.
9. To help the children to have potential feed back to judge their achievements.
10. To provide remedial and enriched instructions.
11. To develop all the aspects of child’s growth to his/her optional potential.
12. To motivate both teachers and children to improve the teaching learning process.
13. To provide opportunities for teachers to make suitable changes in their efforts.
14. To provide direction to children and parents in their efforts.
Components of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation
Fig. 21.8 Components of comprehensive and continuous evaluation
SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPREHENSIVE
EVALUATION IN TEACHING OF ENGLISH
The significance of continuous evaluation lies in the fact that all efforts of the teacher are directed
towards achievements of the students. Thus, it can be used for remedial work and feedback. So,
comprehensive evaluation in teaching English enables the English teacher:
Evaluation 295
language.
proficiency level.
Limitations
Comprehensive and continuous evaluations help the children to realize their potential. It provide
continuous feedback to the child, teacher and thus provide opportunities to make suitable change
in efforts.
DEVELOPMENT OF GOOD TEST ITEMS IN ENGLISH

Chronback defines “a good test as a test, which has a systematic procedure for comparing the
behaviours of two or more persons.”
Criteria of Good Test Items

There is two-fold classification of good test. A good test must have two key points:
Table 21.1 highlights the differences between the practical and technical aspects of a good test.
Table 21.1:
Practical Technical
1. A good test in English should adequately VALIDITY: If a test measures what it aimed
measure the attainments of students in the four to measure is called valid test. Thus every test
language skills, reading, listening, speaking, item must be valid.
and writing English.
2. There should be a variety of test items, but RELIABILITY: This property of a test item
one item should test only one skill. can be called as its ‘consistency’. If the test item
3. The language of the question should be is administered a second time, similar results
definite. It should leave no room for ambiguity, must be got in the classroom.
Contd.
4. The question should aim at testing the students OBJECTIVITY:

mastery of the structures and vocabulary item different opinions of various examiners cannot
taught to them. be possible. So examiner cannot be biased.
5. Stereo typed questions should be avoided.
6. A good test of English should cover as many ECONOMIC: It should be economic with
areas of the subject matter as possible. respect to cost and time.
7. The test instruction should be brief, clear and COVERAGE: It should cover as much of the
free from ambiguity. syllabus as possible.
8. A good test in English should be diagnostic.
It must locate the difficulties of the students
so that they may be removed by remedial
instruction.
9. The student should be able to attempt the
presented number of questions with in time
limit.
10. A good test in English should be neither too
difficult nor too easy.
11. A good test of English should be a judicious
combination (a) objective type questions
(b) questions requiring short-answer and (c)
Essay type questions.
Types of Test in English
Fig. 21.9 Three types of tests in English
Objective Type Test

Evaluation 297
The objective type tests are of following type:

Simple recall test
These are used to test the knowledge of the facts and events of the students.
Examples
Completion test
In this test the teaching unit represented by words is left blank in a given sentence or a number of
sentences. For example the teaching unit has been noun or pronoun. The following will be the form
of the questions puts to the students:
Examples
Fill in the blanks with nouns or pronouns in the following sentences:
________ is a nice boy.
________ are playing football.
True/false test
In these questions true or false statements are given. Students are required either to mark the true
or the false.
Marks the true or false against the statements in the brackets:
India is our country. (T/F)
Sun rises in the east. (T/F)

Multiple choice test
Multiple choice suggests the teacher supplies ‘multiple’ possible answers to a single question,
including the correct one. The students are asked to put a mark against the correct from the multiple
choices given.
India gained freedom in ________
(a) 1947
(b) 1946
(c) 1949
(d) 1944
Matching test
According to Benjamin, this test consists of two columns, one of the left hand side called the
‘stimulus’ column and other on the right hand side called the “response” column. In these tests
items listed in the other side. This is good for testing vocabulary, synonyms and antonyms.
Stimulus column Response column
Is not doesn’t
Does not aren’t
Has not isn’t
Are not hadn’t
Had not hasn’t
Classification test
In these tests several places, objects and persons are listed but one word among them is different than
the others. The students are asked to draw a line under it, or draw a circle around it, to distinguish it
with the rest. For example refer to the example given below: Select the odd one out
Coat, sari, shirt, box, pant
Table, glass, chair, desk, bench
Water, leg, coffee, tea, milk
Uses of Objective Type Questions

Objectivity
These types of tests are almost free from the subjectivity of the examiner.
Validity
These tests measures only that for which they are constructed. Hence, these are valid.
Reliability
These tests are reliable.
Comprehensibility
These tests have capability of testing all the aspects of a teaching subject.
Utility
These tests are constructed to test same objective.
Discrimination
These tests can easily discriminate among the average, above the average, and below the average
students.
Practicability
The duration of these tests is short, say about one hour.
Evaluation 299
Administrability
These tests are easily administered.
Scorability
These tests are easily scored.
Demerits of Objective Type Test
Difficult to Construct
The construction of objective tests requires great skill, clarity of objectives of teaching and testing.
Standardization of Instruction
These tests don’t test the thinking and critical aptitudes of the students.
Assimilation and Organization of Thoughts
As the students are required to answer the short questions by using marking yes or no which do not
allow using language, so the assimilation and organization of thoughts suffers.
Failure to Test the Whole Students
The expected short-answer in one word or fails to test the ‘whole’ and personal achievements of
the students.
Over Simplification
Sometimes these tests turn to be over simple to the extent that even the weakest students supplies
correct answers.
Conclusion
Balancing the merits and demerits of objective type tests, this can be safely said that every coin has
two sides. We must accept its advantages and avoid disadvantages. We should try to extract as much
advantage as we can.
Short-Answer Type Test

Short-answer type tests play a very important role in evaluation of English. These, therefore, should
also be included in evaluation programme of English. Here the students have to answer questions
in a few sentences. Short-answer type tests have an advantage over essay type tests. These make
it possible to have a large number of questions in the paper. So such questions can be spread over
the entire courses. Short-answer type tests have advantages over both objective type tests and essay
type tests. They are specific. But at the same time, they require the students to compose their own
answer.
Essay-Type Tests
Essay type tests are the most common tests in our schools. In these tests the students are expected to
write answers to given questions in the form of short essays. It is this type of tests which has become
encourage cramming and rote memory. Their chief drawback, however, is that there is subjectivity
in marking. Scoring is unreadable as it differs with examiner. Moreover, since only a few questions
are set, many portions of the course are not tested. Another drawback of this test is that the questions
are often vague and the students do not understand what they are expected to write. However, in
spite of all these shortcomings, we cannot entirely do away with the essay-type tests. These tests
are most important means of judging the students’ power of organization of ideas and expressions.
Conclusion
Keeping in view all these types of tests and their importance, it is suggested that in an English test
there should be a judicious combination of
2. Short-answer type questions

3. Essay type questions
MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT
IN SPOKEN ENGLISH
or three years of English. In the beginning, tests should be mostly oral. Then, as the students learn
senior stage where tests are mostly written, oral tests must not be ignored altogether. Today, we are
comprehend in English. They are also the best means of improving the pronunciation of students
and measure their oral expression. They not only keep the students alert and attentive, but also
stimulate mental activity. Therefore, the students should be encouraged to communicate in English
to build confidence and express themselves in English as often and as correctly as possible. Some
marks must be set apart from oral testing at the end of every term or whenever formal evaluation
takes place. Short questions should be put on familiar objects and topics covered in the class.
Students should be encouraged to answer them orally.
Evaluation 301
(a) Listening and Comprehension

(b) Speaking ability
(a) Listening and Comprehension

In order to know whether the students have understood what has been spoken by the teacher, the
following types of tests may be used:
(i) Picture comprehension:—The teacher shows the class a large picture depicting many
scenes. Then he makes a few statements about it. Some of which are correct and some are incorrect.
Pupils listen to their statements and write down ‘R’ for correct statements and ‘W’ for the incorrect
one.
(ii) Story comprehension:—The teacher relates a story and gives a question with three or four
possible answers, only one of which is correct. The students write down the number of correct
answer.
(iii) The body motion test:—The teacher asks a student to perform certain action and watching
his movements he tests the comprehension.
(iv) Writing answers to stories:—The teacher reads out a short anecdote, such as a fable or a
story, two or three times. The students listen and write out short answers to the questions.
(b) Testing Speaking Ability

(i) Producing different sounds:—The teacher writes pairs of words closely related in sound
such as sit-seat, pull-pool, wine-vine. The pupils read the pairs aloud.
(ii) Describe the picture:—The teacher shows a picture from the reader and the student says
two or three sentences about it.
(iii) Conversation:—The teacher and the pupil have a conversation.
(iv) Reading aloud:—The pupil reads aloud some sentences. Their stress and intonation are
noted.
(v) Describing actions:—The teacher performs a few physical actions and the students are
asked to describe them.
Measurement of achievement in reading
Students’ achievement in reading can best be measured or tested from his response to new material.
The presentations of the familiar materials may elicit only memorized response. So, tests of
conversation, negative and description. This is to ensure that the students have developed the ability
to read and comprehend different kind of prose.
Ideally, reading comprehension should be separated from expressions. Many students are able
to express themselves but they do comprehend the subject matter fairly well. In questions or
comprehensions, the examiner is expected to give marks only for comprehensions. But consciously
or unconsciously, he gets prejudiced by poor expressions and holds back the actual marks that
a student deserves. It is, therefore, desirable to set only objective type and very short-answers
questions to do justice to the student’s genuine skill in reading comprehension.
Free translation from English to one’s native language may be employed as a test of reading
ability.
For testing reading ability of students they may be asked to read a few sentences. Their stress and
intonation may be noted when they are reading the sentences.
Measurement of achievement in writing
Free compositions are not a satisfactory device to test students’ competency in learning English.
So questions should be set on some functional, contextualized topics. The test of Letter writing
may take the form of letter printed on the question paper. The students may be asked to reply to
it. Thus, the questions for testing the student’s achievement in writing should be definite, real and
purposeful. Since creative ability is not looked for in tests of composition in a second language. It
is desirable to provide the students with the necessary information. For example:
“You went to the railway station to receive a friend who was coming to stay with you for some
days”.
Write an essay in about 150 words, touching upon the following points:
Some other examples are:
1. Why did you go to the railway station?
2. How did you go to the station?
3. What interested you in and around the railway platform?
4. How long did you have to wait at station for your friend?
5. What did you do when the train was steaming in?
6. What did you do after your friend had arrived?
Some other examples are:
1. Write a piece of composition using given words
It morning, washer man, family, garden, washerwomen, sitting by, tree, smoking
Pipe, wife, talking, son, reading, under, daughter, sleeping by
2. Write a dialogue between Tinu and Binu using the following key words:
Binu: 2nd
Binu: in 1876
Evaluation 303
3. Write a story with the help of given words

The grapes are sour- - -hot summer day. Fox- - -along- - -path- - -jungle. Thirsty but no river
or- - - . Suddenly,- - -saw bunches grapes vine.- - -said himself,- - -eat- - -grapes and then
won’t be so - - -jumped but couldn’t- - -too high.- - -Several times but walked away saying- -
-sours.
IN VOCABULARY
Vocabulary tests are meant for testing the students’ knowledge of vocabulary which they are
required to master in a particular class. We can test the vocabulary by testing the following items:
1. Meaning of words and phrases
2. Uses of words and phrases
3. Word building
4. Spelling and punctuation
Meaning of Words and Phrases

1. Put in pairs the words of the same class from the given list: apples, eat, drink, desk table,
father, mother, mangoes.
2. Put in pairs the words and phrases having the opposite meaning from the given list: a lot of
little, to awake, near, to fall asleep, a long way day, high, night, low.
3. Put in pairs words and phrases of similar meaning from the given list: to eat, to die, to oppose,
to let in, to admit, to have a meal, to go against, to pass away.
4. Put in pairs words of opposite meaning from the given list: top, bitter, sweet, big, bottom,
near, far.
5. Write for associated words against each of the following: school, bus stand, village, hospital,
post office.
6. Write four words belonging to the class of each of the given words: trees, birds, animals,
vegetables, fruits.
Uses of Words and Phrases

Put a few or little whichever is correct before: People, furniture, sugar, men
Put a or an
Substitute different but suitable words for the words nice in following phrases
Put the, if necessary, before the following words

Word Building
1. Make at least three new words (not verbs) from each of the following: agree, employ, able,
prove.
2. Make adjective from given nouns: Britian, anger.
4. Make verbs from: dark, full, long and sweet.
Spelling and Punctuation
2. Make a word for each of these meanings in which the letter is silent: land surrounded by
Punctuate the following

1. if you go to delhi please see mohan.
2. here comes someone running said the amit let us see who he is.
IN STRUCTURES
Structure tests are meant for testing student’s knowledge of structures, sentence patterns, word
order etc. we can test structures by the following items:
1. Write two suitable words in the blank column below and then write three different sentences
from the table
He A pen
You A pencil
She Sugar
2. Supply the right form of the tense
Mohan _________ ill since Tuesday. (is, has been)

3. Complete the following sentences.
All that glitters _________
Walk quickly _________
Though she is rich _________
4. Fill in the blanks with the words below:
By, to, against, have, playing, over, as
We are _________ football.
He is going _________ college.
Evaluation 305
The fan is _________ my hand.

All birds _________ wings.
The ladder is _________ the wall.

Sunil is _________ the window.
5. Make the questions from these answers, beginning with word in brackets:
He likes mangoes. (Does _________ ?)
Cat is not like monkey. (Is _________)
Anil runs slowly. (How _________?)
6. Put these into the negative:
The girls are dancing.
He keeps a dog.
7. Make tag questions:
Examples: She is your sister. Isn’t she?
You have finished it _________
We are near a village _________
8. Change the voice:
They give the Prime Minister a warm welcome.
The man killed a lion.
9. Change the form of narrations:
She said, “I shall go to Delhi tomorrow”
The teacher said, “Boys, don’t make a noise”.
10. Join these into one sentence.
The actress sang a sweet song. I listened to it.
I liked it. My mother don’t like anything of it.
11. Put the following groups of words in the right order to make correct sentence:
Are drawing water/from the well/The women milk and butter/sell/went to the market/The
Milkman.
12. Combine the following sentences using the link word given against each:
Alladin opened the door of the cave. He saw some bags of gold. (when)
I like the pictures. You showed it to me. (Which)
Thus, it can be concluded that evaluation is very important for assessing achievements. Teaching
and learning English is no exception to this rule. Evaluation is of utmost importance in the
assessment of achievements in English.
Summary
The process of evaluation is of major significance in the process of teaching. It provides
quantitative as well as quantitative description of the outcomes of a teaching learning
process. It is essential for sound educational decision-making.
Evaluation serves the motivational, communicational, planning, decision-making
functions in education. There are the two types of evaluations, Summative and Formative.
Evaluation ascertain progress of students, diagnosis of the weakness in the student
and helps in achieving aim of education.
Comprehensive and continuous evaluation helps the children to realize their potential.
It provides continuous feedback to the child, and thus provides opportunities to make
suitable change in the behaviour of the student.
speak English. They are also the best means of improving the pronunciation and oral
expression.
Vocabulary tests are meant for testing the students’ knowledge of vocabulary which they
are required to master in a particular class.
Structure tests are meant for testing student’s knowledge of structures, sentence patterns,
word order etc.
Terms to Remember
Evaluation A measurement of the all round growth of a child, including his physical, social and
intellectual development, as well as his interests, aptitudes and abilities.
Formative Evaluation Formative Evaluation is administered during the lesson taught or
amount they have yet to learn before achieving the set objectives.
Summative Evaluation It summarizes the final progress of the students as a result of a course of
learning unit or lesson.
Validity If a test measures what it aimed to measure is called valid test. Thus every test item must
be valid.
Reliability This property of a test item can be called as its ‘consistency’. If the test item is
administered a second time, similar results must be got in the classroom.
Objectivity
So examiner cannot be biased.
Evaluation 307
Exercises
1. Differentiate test and examination
2. Differentiate measurement and evaluation.
3. What are the purposes of evaluation?
4. What is the difference between formative and summative evaluation?
5. Define reliability, validity, usability.
6. Write the merits of comprehensive and continuous evaluation.
7. How will you test the speaking ability of VII class students? Suggest three test items for it.
9. Discuss the merits and demerits of objective type questions.

10. What do you mean by variety of test items? Explain.

1. What is evaluation? Write the principles of evaluation in detail.
2. Write a detailed note on continuous and comprehensive evaluation.
3. What are the characteristics of a good test? Prepare a few test items for judging the written
vocabulary of class VIII students.
4. Prepare two test items for each of the following aspects:
22 Digital Portfolio: Use
of ICT in Learning
Exercise for Language
Competency
“Learning is never done without errors & defeat.”
— Vladimir Lenin
Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives
Digital Portfolio: Use of ICT in Learning Exercise for Language Competency 309
INTRODUCTION
Portfolio is a collection of work selected to achieve a specific goal that exhibits your efforts,
progress and achievements. Portfolio is not a plain record of the work you did in the past, so do
not merely collect documents in your portfolio. Portfolio should also be unique and tell about your
achievements, not a standardized specification.
DIGITAL PORTFOLIO
An electronic portfolio, also known as an e-portfolio or digital portfolio, is a collection of electronic
evidence assembled and managed by a user, usually on the Web. Such electronic evidence may
include inputted text, electronic files, images, multimedia, blog entries, and hyperlinks. E-portfolios
are both demonstrations of the user’s abilities and platforms for self-expression, and, if they are
online, they can be maintained dynamically over time. Some e-portfolio applications permit varying
degrees of audience access, so the same portfolio might be used for multiple purposes. Electronic
portfolios are a creative means of organizing, summarizing, and sharing artifacts, information, and
ideas about teaching and/or learning, along with personal and professional growth. The reflective
process of portfolio development can be as important as the final product. In many cases, they are
used as part of faculty and student evaluation along with other assessment tools such as standardized
tests. A portfolio is a sampling of the breadth and depth of a person’s work conveying the range of
abilities, attitudes, experiences, and achievements.
Think! Digital portfolio advocates the use of technology in teaching and learning. Discuss.
The multimedia portfolio is a multifaceted tool which can be used to serve several different purposes,
but the most important is that it promotes learning among both students and teachers. This type of
portfolio will be an important asset to school and individual as society heads into the Digital Age.
— (Hartnell-Young & Morriss 1999, p. 105)
Digital portfolio is a portfolio using electronic media and services. A digital portfolio can be
a combination of mixed media and services. Digital portfolio can be either off-line or on-line, or
a combination of both. Whatever the format, a digital portfolio is owned by one person, who has
complete control over its content and access.
Digital Portfolio Services

Digital portfolio services are provided on the basis of the information stored in a personal record.
Services range from assessment-support (tracking individual achievements), to orientation,
evaluation, validation, job-hunting, continuing professional development, community building and
so on.
Objectives of digital portfolio
Digital portfolios serve many purposes and have many advantages:
The trend toward increased use of educational technology in teacher education can be expected
to continue. Costs of hardware and software will continue to fall while the power of educational
technology will continue to rise. Technology literacy among students and teachers will increase,
along with an increasing need for technology proficient professionals. An increasing number
of classrooms wired for the Internet will enable more use of distance learning and distributed
education. It seems likely that performance-based assessment will continue to develop. Portfolio
assessment will be refined and become more technology based. The greater presence of technology
in schools and improved technology literacy among students and teachers will have a profound
impact on education.
Technology Requirements
There are various software programs that help in developing digital portfolios. Among the popular
choices are Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, Macromedia Dreamweaver, Macromedia Flash,
Hyperstudio and Adobe Acrobat. Other equipment requirements may be digital cameras, scanners
and a CD burner.
Materials used in making digital portfolio
Provided to the students
Students bring:
Procedure
Step 1: Digital Camera
1. Take at least 2 digital photos using the digital camera. One photo needs to be a self-portrait;
the other may be any subject of interest.
2. Insert formatted disk in digital camera.
3. Make sure that camera file is set for image size 640 ¥ 480 resolution when set in the still
mode. This will give you a file of manageable size that can be altered using a photo-imaging
program.
4. Your photos will be saved on the disk. Remove your disk from camera. Make sure your name
is on the disk!
Step 2: Scanner
1. Read and discuss directions to operate the scanner.
2. Insert the photos that you have brought to class. You will scan the photos and save to your
disks.
Step 3: Publishing
1. Take any storage device such as a compact disc or a pen drive with photo images stored in it
and open up with program such as Adobe PhotoShop, Photo Imaging Software and so on.
2. Select one of the photos and work with the editing tools cropping, sizing and so on.
3. Watch the size of the finished photo you save by saving in a medium or lower resolution,
around #3. This is necessary in order to save your photos on 1.4 Mb floppy disks.
4. Try to keep photos around 45 to 60 Kb.
Step 4: the Internet
1. Select four pieces of clip art that you would like to save and possibly use in your class
portfolio.
2. Save the clipart you have selected onto your disk. If you are using a PC, right click on the
image you would like to save and save image to your disk. If you are using a Mac, hold the
mouse button down until a window opens. It will give you a variety of options. At this time
direct it to save to your disk.
Step 5: Setting up Portfolio
Create folders on a formatted disk in drive A. (Title suggestions: Session 1, Session 2, etc. or Clip
Art, Photos, Internet, or whatever categories participant would like to establish.)
Directions for creating folders:
1. Put CD in drive.
create a new folder on your disk.

4. You can always rename a folder by right clicking on the folder. A pop-up menu bar will come
up, and you can choose the option Rename.
Step 6: E-mail
[Note: If you already have an e-mail account, compose a note to send to your instructors.]
1. Set up a free e-mail account with mail.com, or one of the many options for web based e-mail.
See collection at: http://thebestmails.bizland.com/
2. On the Internet, go to http://www.mail.com (or the company of your choice) and follow the
directions to establish a free e-mail account.
3. Once you have established your e-mail account, send your instructors an e-mail message.
Step 7: the Internet Digital Portfolio Information
http://www.indiana.
edu/~ist/programs/portfolio.html
2. Look at each of these sites and record four good ideas about digital portfolios to share with
the group during group discussion time.
Digital Portfolio has the Following Advantages

Versatility:—A key benefit of digital portfolios is their versatility. It is easy to update them
and keep them current. Users can organize and tailor information toward a specific use, be it to
demonstrate mastery over a certain subject or to apply for an internship or a job. Digital portfolios
can be a visually interesting medium for presenting disparate information.
Keeping track of academic progress:—Students can build electronic portfolios of their
educational achievement and personal growth and at the same time institutions would be able to
track the individual student’s progress and achievement. The ePortfolio's comprehensive toolset
allows learners to transform artifacts from their coursework, co-curricular life and work experience
into a cohesive, digital representation of themselves.
Collect and organize work:—The portfolio solution provides a range of tools and capabilities
that make it easy to collect and organize a student's digital artifacts. Familiar file browsing and
drag-n-drop features ensure that learners are comfortable using the ePortfolio and also promote
quick adoption.
The Digital Portfolio Supports the Following
Multiple file types—from documents and spreadsheets to sound recordings, photographs, video
clips and files that represent all types of learning.
Blogging capabilities—These are useful in enhancing course requirements, enable self-
evaluation, and engages learners in the process of developing their portfolios.
RSS feeds—stream blogs that instructors and others can subscribe to in order to enable coaching
and create connections between learners and mentors.
Rubrics—present visual representations of progress toward individual goals, to help learners
assess their personal outcomes.
Document sharing—publicly share or password-protect all or part of the ePortfolio.
Think! Versatility is the key benefit of digital portfolio. Discuss.
Warning
Without proper vision and editing, digital portfolios can be a hodgepodge of files and documents
that is difficult to navigate. There are a couple strategies that can improve a digital portfolio's
readability. You can plan the portfolio by creating a mock-up of the desired final product. You can
also write a table of contents or index for sorting disparate documents. Some people include a
vision statement to help define the purpose of the digital portfolio.
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
unless the teacher masters the educational principles behind it, all of which is patently obvious. ICT
is not a method, but a self access course. ICT means Information and Communication Technology,
or ICT, refers to technological tools that are used to communicate and to manage information.
ICT is often part of a teacher-centred class but it is easy to exploit these tools in learner-centred
activities. For example, learners can control a cassette or DVD, stopping it each time they hear a
contraction, develop their own class blog on the Internet with minimum teacher involvement, or use
a computer in a multi-media area to present their findings from a pre-reading task
ICT Learning
ICT helps students learn by enabling them to communicate, edit, annotate and arrange text quickly
and flexibly.
Using ICT can help students to:
ICTs in English
Literacy in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is fundamental to life in our
modern technological society. To equip students to be literate life-long learners and global citizens
of the 21st century we must successfully integrate ICT into both the English curriculum and English
pedagogical practice. ICT is a valuable tool to enhance teaching and learning. For teachers ICT is
a professional resource, a mode of classroom delivery, and a source of valid and valuable text
types. For students, ICT provides opportunities to communicate more effectively and to develop
literacy skills including skills in critical literacy. It is a valuable tool for researching, composing and
responding and viewing and representing in English.
Aims of ICT for language learning
ICTs and English classrooms

The use of ICT in the English classroom extends beyond its motivational value to address key
outcomes of the syllabus, and allow students to become competent users as well as consumers in
English.
Research suggests that incorporating ICT into the English curriculum can improve:
Research suggests that incorporating ICT into the English curriculum can improve:
collaborative medium, ICT allows responding, composing, and publication to be easily

shared and offers students the opportunity to explore the language of texts more creatively
and develop as speakers, writers and readers for an ever widening range of purposes and
audiences.
ICT enhances composing in English by allowing students
desktop publishing packages

software packages
range of forums (e.g. via e-mail, newsgroups, online conferencing raps) and hence promote
collaborative learning
Think! ICT helps students learn by enabling them to communicate. Elucidate.
Using ICTs in assessment

Whilst the ability to operate the technology e.g. use a word processor is basic to assessment of
ICT in English, the authentic integration of assessment must encompass more than an assessment
of basic technical skills and the ability to use the technology as a tool. Such assessment must
involve assessing the ways in which students respond to and compose ICT texts and include their
understanding of how the texts operate in their social and cultural contexts.
Basic Technical Skills

Explained below are some of the basic technical skills.
Composing: a checklist of basic technical skills such as the ability to use certain hardware
e.g. a digital camera or software e.g. word processing, email, publishing packages, PowerPoint,
Photostory or Moviemaker
Responding:
hyperlinks, icons, site maps
Research/cyberexploration skills: for example, using a search engine, locating specific
information on the web
Literacy skills
Responding: A knowledge and understanding of the distinctive features of multimedia texts e.g.
the relationship between visual text, written text and design/layout. The formulation of a personal
response to the text
Composing: The application of this knowledge and understanding of the distinctive features of
multimedia texts to the composition of such texts for a range of audience and purposes.
Critical literacy skills

An understanding of how the composer’s choices of representational medium (text, image, sound,
multimedia), transitional mode (print, electronic, spoken) position the reader, gives the text
authority, and conveys values and meaning.
The authentic integration of ICT into English assessment is problematic in an environment
where many schools and many students have poor or limited access to computers. In such cases
assessment can only occur when students have the opportunity to use the technology to develop
essential skills and literacies.
Conclusion
Thus ICT helps to improve language learning in collaborative environment.
ICT can be used to integrate speaking, listening, reading and writing. It enhances interactive
teaching and learning styles. It also extends students' ability to exercise choice, work independently
and make connections between their work in English and in other subjects.
For example, ICT can help students:
and hypertext
Summary
Digital portfolio is a collection of electronic evidence assembled and managed by a user,
usually on the Web. Such electronic evidence may include inputted text, electronic files,
images, multimedia, blog entries, and hyperlinks. Digital portfolio can be either off-line
or on-line, or combination of both.
Objectives of digital portfolio are to organize work throughout across the classes and to
have a handy, useful record of work.
There are various software programs to support the creating of digital portfolios.
Among the popular choices are Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, Macromedia
Dreamweaver, Macromedia Flash, Hyperstudio and Adobe Acrobat.
Students can build electronic portfolios of their educational achievement and personal
growth and institutions can manage evidence of program achievement but without proper
vision and editing, digital portfolios can be a hodgepodge of files and documents that is
difficult to navigate.
Terms to Remember
Portfolio A collection of work selected to achieve a specific goal.
Digital Portfolio It is a collection of electronic evidence assembled and managed by a user,
usually on the web.
Exercises
1. What is digital portfolio?
2. Discuss the role of CALL in language learning.
3. What are the objectives and usage of digital portfolio?
4. What materials do we require for making digital portfolio?

1. Discuss the different ways of using digital portfolio in language learning?
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Index
A Controlled composition 84
Aesthetic experience 73 Conversational style 56
Affability 20, 21 Copying 81, 82
Affective domain 39, 43 Coverage 24
Alveolar sounds 204 Critical skills 226
Anglo-Frisian 15 Cubice 185
Arbitrary 5 Cyber exploration skills 315
Articulators 203
Auditory signs 228 D
Decoding 224
B Dental sound 204
Behavioural objectives 37, 38 Diagnostic testing 272
Bilabial sounds 204 Dialect 2, 11
Bilingualism 150 Digital photography 315
Biography 63 Drafting 250
Blogging capabilities 312 Drills 161
Bloom’s taxonomy 38, 39 Dynamism 8
C E
Chorus drill 202 Examination 283
Class dynamics 255 Extension drill 200
Clichés 242 Extensive 190
Cognates 144 Extensive reading 57, 58
Cognitive development 56 External addition 200
Cognitive domain 39 Eye span 225
Communicative competence 253
Comprehensibility 298 F
Console 185, 186 Fictional statements 17
Content analysis 52 Fixation 224, 225
Content words 215, 216 Fluency 33
Contrastive analysis hypotheses 276 Formal grammar 101
Formative evaluation 291 N

Formulae 160 Naturalization 45
Free composition 88, 89 Non-scholastic objectives 49
Functional grammar 101 Non-verbal communication 1
G O
Gradation 24, 83, 161 Origination 44
Grammatical norms 99 Ornamental writing 248
Graphic charts 188
Graphic symbols 225 P
Paraphrasing 96
I Pedagogy 50
Idioms 160 Penmanship 244
Imitation 22 Persuasion paragraph 240
Inferential question 59 Portfolio 309
Instructional correctiveness 273 Précis 96
Instructional objectives 37 Preliminary questions 115
Intensive 190 Pre-viewing 230
Intensive reading 57, 58 Pre-writing 249
Internal addition 200 Prompting 114
Intricacies 144 Psychomotor domain 39, 44
J R
Juncture 219 Range 23, 24
Reception 30, 31
L Redirection 114
Language fluency 254 Refocusing 114
Larynx 205 Register 11
Learning experiences 53, 234, 286 Reinforced 178
Lexical sequencing 25 Reinforcers 133, 134
Lingua 2 Reliability 295
Lingua franca 15 Revising 239
Linguistic etiquette 99 Rhythm 215
Rhythm and intonation 70
M
Maxims 26, 141 S
Measurement 281 Scholastic activities 252
Mnemonic 244 Scholastic objectives 49
Multi media packages 173, 174 Script 7
Index 323
Selection and gradation 160 The incidental or correlation method 102, 103
Self-Pacing 186 The inductive deductive method 102, 103
Semantic grouping 25 The informal method 102, 104
Sentence conventions 241 Traditional method 102
Sequence 80, 81, 82, 83 Transcribing 81, 82
Similes 119 Transparency 182, 183
Situational teaching 162
Speech organs 203 U
Spoken comprehension 191 Unit analysis 48
Structure 8, 9 Uvula 205
Structure words 215, 216
Structuring 81, 82
V
Summative evaluation 291
Validity 295
Syllable 213
Velum 205
Symbols 5, 6
Verbal communication 1, 11
Syntax 9
Verbal interaction 192
System 9, 10
Vernacular 143, 144
Visual discrimination 228
T
Teach ability 160 Vocal cords 205, 206
Teaching skill 113 Voiced sounds 205, 206
Tests 281 Voiceless sounds 205

Navita Arora - English Language Teaching - Approaches and Methodologies-MC GRAW HILL INDIA (2017)

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English Language Teaching

Approaches and Methodologies

Dr. Navita Arora, a teacher-educator, is actively engaged in innovative

Dr. Navita Arora

Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

Published by the Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited,

English Language Teaching: Approaches and Methodologies

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

ISBN (13 digit): 978-0-07-107814-6

Prof. A.K. Nagar

Dr. Navita Arora

Dr. Navita Arora

About the Author ii

2. Importance and Functions of Language 13

4. Aims and Objectives of Teaching English 29

5. Stating Objectives in Behavioural Terms 36

6. Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan 47

Model Lesson Plan on Poetry 73

10. Teaching of Grammar 98

11. Micro-Teaching 110

12. Methods of Teaching English 139

13. Learner Centered Approaches 154

14. Instructional Material 170

15. Development of Listening Skills 189

16. Development of Speaking Skills 196

17. Development of Reading Skills 223

18. Development of Writing Skills 237

19. Extracurricular Activities Related to English 251

20. Remedial Teaching in English 271

21. Evaluation 280

22. Digital Portfolio: Use of ICT in Learning Exercise for

— Bloch and Trager

Inside This Chapter

According to H.E. Palmer, “language is a habit-forming process”. Argue for or against

Fig. 1.1 Origin of the word ‘language’

Fig. 1.2 Basic skills of a language

Fig. 1.3 Verbal and non-verbal language

Language most shows a man, speak that I may thee.

Language is a means of communicating thoughts.

Each community is formed by the activity of language.

Fig. 1.4 Development of language in a child

Thus, language is learnt largely through the process of imitation.

Fig. 1.5 Essentials of a language

Language is a System of Symbols

Symbols of Language are Arbitrary

Language is for Communication

Fig. 1.7 Expressing ideas through language

Communication by means of language may be done through speech or writing. Communication

Fig. 1.8 Communication by means of language

Language is Ever Changing

Language Reflects the Culture in which it Occurs

Language is Made of Habits

Language is a Skill Subject

Fig. 1.9 Skills of a language

Implications of Nature of Language for Language Teacher

If you want to learn a foreign language, is thinking in that language absolutely

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

Inside This Chapter

Think! “Language is the maker and unmaker of human civilization.” Discuss.

1. Educational importance of English

ADVANTAGES OF ENGLISH AS A LANGUAGE

Informative Language Function

Expressive Language Function