47

Polyphase Systems

Most electric power applications employ three phases, that is, three-separate power-
carrying circuits, with voltages and currents staggered symmetrically in time are used.
Two major reasons for the use of three-phase power are economical use of conductors
and nearly constant power flow.
Systems with more than one phase are generally termed polyphase. Three-phase systems
are the most common, but there are situations in which a different number of phases may be
used. Two-phase systems have a simplicity that makes them useful for teaching vehicles and
for certain servomechanisms. This is why two-phase machines show up in laboratories and
textbooks. Systems with a relatively large number of phases are used for certain specialized
applications such as controlled rectifiers for aluminum smelters. Six-phase systems have
been proposed for very high power transmission applications. Five-phase systems are some-
times used for motor drives with high reliability requirements.
Polyphase systems are qualitatively different from single-phase systems. In some sense,
polyphase systems are more complex, but often much easier to analyze. This little paradox
will become obvious during the discussion of electric machines. It is interesting to note that
physical conversion between polyphase systems of different phase number is always
possible.

4.1 Two-phase Systems

The two-phase system is the simplest of all polyphase systems to describe. Consider a pair of
voltage sources sitting side by side with

v1 = V cos ωt = Re V ejωt 41
ωt − π2
v2 = V sin ωt = Re V ej 42

Suppose this system of sources is connected to a “balanced load,” as shown in Figure 4.1.
The phasor diagram for this two-phase voltage source is shown in Figure 4.2. Here,
“balanced” means both load impedances have the same value Z. To compute the power
flows in the system, it is convenient to re-write the voltages in complex form.

Electric Power Principles: Sources, Conversion, Distribution and Use, Second Edition. James L. Kirtley.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Kirtley/electricpowerprinciples
48 4 Polyphase Systems

i1 i2 Figure 4.1 Two-phase system.

+ +
v1 Z v2 Z
– –

v1
If each source is connected to a load with impedance,

Z = Z ejψ
then each of the two-phase networks has the same value
for real and reactive power:

V 2 jψ
v2 P + jQ = e 43
2Z
Figure 4.2 Phasor diagram for or
two-phase source.
V2 V2
P= cos ψ Q= sin ψ
2Z 2Z
Using expression 2.2 from Chapter 2, it is straightforward to show that, for a system with
voltage of the form described by Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2), instantaneous power is given by

V2 V2
p1 = cos ψ 1 + cos 2ωt + sin ψ sin 2ωt
2Z 2Z
V2 V2
p2 = cos ψ 1 + cos 2ωt − π + sin ψ sin 2ωt − π
2Z 2Z
Note that the time-varying parts of these two expressions have opposite signs. Added
together, they give instantaneous power:

V2
p = p1 + p2 = cos ψ
Z
At least one of the advantages of polyphase power networks is now apparent. The use of a
balanced polyphase system avoids the power flow pulsations due to ac voltage and current,
and even the pulsations due to reactive energy flow. This has obvious benefits when dealing
with motors and generators or, in fact, any type of source or load for which constant power
is advantageous.

4.2 Three-phase Systems

Now consider the arrangement of three voltage sources illustrated in Figure 4.3.
Assume that the three-phase voltages are
 4.2 Three-phase Systems 49

Figure 4.3 Three-phase voltage source.

+ + +
va vb vc
– – –

100

50

–50

–100
Phase A Phase B Phase C
0 5 10 15

Figure 4.4 Three-phase voltages.

va = V cos ωt = Re V e jωt 44
2π ωt − 2π
vb = V cos ωt − = Re V e j 3 45
3
2π ωt + 2π
vc = V cos ωt + = Re V e j 3 46
3
These three-phase voltages are illustrated in the time domain in Figure 4.4 and as com-
plex phasors in Figure 4.5. Note the symmetrical spacing in time of the voltages. As in earlier
examples, the instantaneous voltages may be visualized by imagining Figure 4.5 spinning
counterclockwise with angular velocity ω. The instantaneous voltages are just projections of
the vectors of this “pinwheel” onto the horizontal axis.
Consider connecting these three voltage sources to three identical loads, each with com-
plex impedance Z, as shown in Figure 4.6.
If voltages are as given by (4.4–4.6), then the currents in the three phases are
V jωt V j ωt − 2π V j ωt + 2π
ia = Re e ib = Re e 3 ic = Re e 3
Z Z Z
Complex power in each of the three phases is

V2
P + jQ = cos ψ + j sin ψ
2Z
Then, remembering the time phase of the three sources, it is possible to write the values of
instantaneous power in the three phases:
50 4 Polyphase Systems

C Figure 4.5 Phasor diagram: three-phase voltages.

Ia

Ib
+ + + Ic
va vb vc
Z Z Z
– – –

In

Figure 4.6 Three-phase source connected to a balanced load.

V2
pa = cos ψ 1 + cos 2ωt + sin ψ sin 2ωt
2Z
V2 2π 2π
pb = cos ψ 1 + cos 2 ωt − + sin ψ sin 2 ωt −
2Z 3 3
V2 2π 2π
pc = cos ψ 1 + cos 2 ωt + + sin ψ sin 2 ωt +
2Z 3 3
The sum of these three expressions is total instantaneous power, which is constant:

3 V2
p = pa + pb + pc = cos ψ 47
2 Z
It is useful in dealing with three-phase systems to remember that
2π 2π
cos x + cos x − + cos x + =0
3 3
regardless of the value of x.
Consider the current in the neutral wire, in, in Figure 4.6. This current is given by
V jωt 2π
ωt − 3
2π
ωt + 3
in = ia + ib + ic = Re e + ej + ej =0 48
Z
This shows the most important advantage of three-phase systems over two-phase systems:
a wire with no current in it does not have to be very large. In fact, the neutral connection
may be eliminated completely in many cases.
 4.3 Line–Line Voltages 51

There is a fundamental difference between grounded and ungrounded systems if perfectly

balanced conditions are not maintained. In effect, the ground wire provides isolation
between the phases by fixing the neutral voltage at the star point to be zero. If the load impe-
dances are not equal the load is said to be unbalanced. If an unbalanced system is grounded
there may be current in the neutral. If an unbalanced load is not grounded, the star point
voltage may not be zero, and the voltages will be different in the three phases at the load,
even if the voltage sources all have the same magnitude.

4.3 Line–Line Voltages

A balanced three-phase set of voltages has a well-defined set of line–line voltages. If the
line–neutral voltages are given by Eqs. (4.4)–(4.6), then line–line voltages are
2π
vab = va − vb = Re V 1 − e − j 3 e jωt
2π 2π
vbc = vb − vc = Re V e − j 3 − ej 3 ejωt
2π
vca = vc − va = Re V e j 3 − 1 e jωt

and these reduce to

π
vab = Re 3Ve j 6 e jωt
π
vbc = Re 3Ve − j 2 e jωt
5π
vca = Re 3Vej 6 e jωt

The phasor relationship of line–neutral and line–line voltages is shown in Figure 4.7. Two
things should be noted about this relationship:

• The line–line voltage set has a magnitude that is larger than the line–neutral voltage by a
factor of 3.

• Line–line voltages are phase shifted by 30 with respect to the line–neutral voltages.

vc
vca vca vab
vc
va
va

vbc vab
vb vb

vbc

Figure 4.7 Line–neutral and line–line voltages.

52 4 Polyphase Systems

Va – +

– Vca Vab
– Vb + –
– +
Vc
+ – Vbc +

Figure 4.8 Wye- and delta-connected voltage sources.

Clearly, line–line voltages themselves form a three-phase set just as line–neutral voltages
do. This is shown conceptually in Figure 4.8. Power system components (sources, trans-
former windings, loads, etc.) may be connected either line–neutral or line–line. The former
connection is often called wye, the latter is called delta, for obvious reasons. It should be
noted that the wye connection is at least potentially a four-terminal connection, and could
be grounded or ungrounded. The delta connection is inherently three-terminal and neces-
sarily ungrounded.

4.3.1 Example: Wye- and Delta-connected Loads

Loads may be connected in either line–neutral or line–line configuration. An example of the
use of this flexibility is in a fairly commonly used distribution system with a line–neutral
voltage of 120 V, RMS (about 170 V, peak). In this system the line–line voltage is 208 V, RMS
(about 294 V, peak). Single-phase loads may be connected either line–line or line–neutral.
Suppose it is necessary to build a resistive heater to deliver 6 kW, to be made of three ele-
ments which may be connected in either wye or delta. Each of the three elements must dis-
V2
sipate 2000 W. Thus, since P = R, the wye-connected resistors would be

1202
RY = = 7 2Ω
2000
while the delta-connected resistors would be

2082
RΔ = = 21 6 Ω
2000
As is suggested by this example, wye- and delta-connected impedances are often directly
equivalent. In fact, ungrounded connections are three-terminal networks which may be
represented in two ways. The two networks shown in Figure 4.9, combinations of three pas-
sive impedances, are directly equivalent and identical in their terminal behavior if the rela-
tionships between elements are as given in Eqs. (4.9–4.14).
Z a Z b + Zb Z c + Zc Z a
Zab = 49
Zc
Z a Z b + Zb Z c + Zc Z a
Zbc = 4 10
Za
 4.3 Line–Line Voltages 53

a a

Za
Zca Zab
Zb

Zc Zbc
c b c b

Figure 4.9 Wye- and delta-connected impedances.

Z a Z b + Zb Z c + Z c Z a
Zca = 4 11
Zb
Zab Zca
Za = 4 12
Zab + Zbc + Zca
Zab Zbc
Zb = 4 13
Zab + Zbc + Zca
Zbc Zca
Zc = 4 14
Zab + Zbc + Zca
A special case of the wye–delta equivalence is that of balanced loads, in which
Z a = Z b = Zc = ZY
and
Zab = Zbc = Zca = ZΔ
in which case
ZΔ = 3ZY

4.3.2 Example: Use of Wye–Delta for Unbalanced Loads

The unbalanced load shown in Figure 4.10 is connected to a balanced voltage source.
The problem is to determine the line currents. Note that this load is ungrounded (if it were
grounded, this would be a trivial problem). The voltages are given by
va = V cos ωt
2π
vb = V cos ωt −
3
2π
vc = V cos ωt +
3
To solve this problem, convert the source to delta equivalent and use Eqs. (4.9)–(4.11)
convert the load to delta equivalent as well, as shown in Figure 4.11. The values of the three
resistors are
54 4 Polyphase Systems

Ia

+
Va Ra = 1
–
–
Vc –
Vb Rb = 2 Rc = 2
+ Ib
+

Ic

Figure 4.10 Unbalanced load.

Figure 4.11 Delta equivalent.

– + Ia
Vca
Vab Rab = 4 Rca = 4
+
–

Ib Rbc = 8
– Vbc +

Ic

2+4+2
r ab = r ca = =4
2
2+4+2
r bc = =8
1

The complex amplitudes of the equivalent voltage sources are

π
Vab = Va − Vb = V 1 − e − j 3
2π
= V 3ej6
π
Vbc = Vb − Vc = V e − j 3 − ej 3 = V 3e − j2
2π 2π

2π 5π
Vca = Vc − Va = V ej 3 − 1 = V 3ej 6

The currents in each of the equivalent resistors are

Vab Vbc Vca

Iab = Ibc = Ica =
r ab r bc r ca
 4.4 Problems 55

3
V
4
3
V
4
3
− V
8

Figure 4.12 Line currents.

The line currents are then just the difference between current in the legs of the delta:
π 5π
ej6 ej 6 3
I a = I ab − I ca = 3V − = V
4 4 4
π π
e − j2 ej6 3 3
I b = I bc − I ab = 3V − = − +j V
8 4 8 4
π
e − j2
5π
ej 6 3 3
I c = I ca − I bc = 3V − = − −j V
4 8 8 4

These are shown in Figure 4.12.

4.4 Problems

4.1 Shown in Figure 4.13 is a three-phase voltage source. The three phase voltages are
+

va
–

vc – – vb
+ +

Figure 4.13 Three-phase voltage source.

va = 2 120 cos ωt
2π
vb = 2 120 cos ωt −
3
2π
vc = 2 120 cos ωt +
3
56 4 Polyphase Systems

Note that the center point of this source is grounded.

For each of the six loads shown in Figure 4.14, find currents drawn from the three
sources.

A A A

120 Ω 120 Ω
360 Ω
120 Ω 120 Ω 120 Ω 120 Ω

C B C B B
Load A Load B Load C

A A
A
120 Ω
360 Ω 360 Ω 360 Ω 360 Ω
120 Ω

C B C B B
360 Ω
Load D Load E Load F

Figure 4.14 Resistive loads.

4.2 The situation is as shown in Figure 4.15. A three-phase current source is feeding a
three-phase resistive load. The currents are actually square waves, as shown in
Figure 4.16. Assume the amplitude of the currents is 100 A and that each of the resis-
tances in Figure 4.16 is 5 Ω. Estimate and draw a dimensioned sketch of each of the
four voltages: va, vb, vc, and vg.

ia

+
va
– vg + –
– vb
– +
+ vc
ib

ic

Figure 4.15 Current source feeding resistive load.

 4.4 Problems 57

π
3

ia ωt

ib

ic

Figure 4.16 Currents.

4.3 A three-phase ungrounded voltage source is shown in Figure 4.17. It is connected to

an unbalanced wye-connected load as shown. Assume the source is a balanced,
120 V, line–neutral (208 V, line–line) sine wave voltage source.
Find the voltage between the neutral of the voltage source and the center point of
the unbalanced load.

Ia

+
Va Ra = 1
–

Vc – –
Vb Rb = 2 Rc = 2
+ + Ib

Ic

Figure 4.17 Voltage source and load.

4.4 A voltage source consisting of three square-wave sources, connected in wye, is con-
nected to a wye-connected resistive load consisting of three 10 Ω resistors. Neither
source nor load is grounded. The square waves are as shown in Figure 4.18, with
amplitude of 100 V.
A Find the three lead currents and draw a dimensioned sketch of their time behavior.
B What is the voltage between the neutral of the wye-connected resistors and the neu-
tral of the voltage source?
58 4 Polyphase Systems

π
3

va ωt

vb

vc

Figure 4.18 Voltage source waveforms.

4.5 A balanced three-phase source has line to neutral voltage of 100 V, RMS. As shown in
Figure 4.19, it is loaded between phases B and C by a single resistor of value R = 10 Ω.
Find the real and reactive power drawn from each of the three voltage sources.

+
va
– –
vb
+
–
+ vc

Figure 4.19 Load line to line.