CE2134 Hydraulics

AY2010 Lecture Set 02

Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

1. Stress at a point

Surface and body forces

Two types of forces on a parcel of fluid can be defined – body forces and surface forces.
Body forces include all external forces developed with the parcel of fluid without
physical contact. The dominant body force in fluid mechanics is that due to gravity.
Body forces are usually expressed in terms of per unit mass of the fluid parcel. Surface
forces are those exerted on the boundary of the fluid parcel through direct contact.

In general, the surface forces acting on an elemental area of the surface of the fluid parcel
consists of a couple and a resultant force. In the limit, the couple vanishes as the
elemental area diminishes to ‘zero’ whilst the surface resultant force gives rise to normal
and tangential stresses. (Fig. 1.1)

Fig. 1.1

(1.1)

Since most fluids cannot withstand appreciable tensile stress, we shall consider only
compressive normal stresses.

For convenience, we can choose an infinitesimal volume shown and attach an orthogonal
coordinate frame to it (in this case, a rectangular coordinate system) and define the
stresses acting on the infinitesimal surfaces. (Fig.1.2). The normal convention for the
subscript of the shearing stresses is – the first subscript indicates the direction of the
normal to the plane associated with the stress, while the second subscript denotes the
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

direction of the stress itself. We note that the following stresses are present
which can be arranged to give the stress tensor

σ xx τ yx τ zx 
 
(1.2) τ xy σ yy τ zy =τ
τ 
 xz τ yz σ zz 

Fig. 1.2

(a) Stationary or Uniformly Moving Fluid

A fluid cannot withstand a shear stress and a stationary fluid must be completely
free of any shear stress. A uniformly moving flow is one where all the fluid elements
have the same velocity and since the variation of velocity in all directions for the uniform
flow is zero, there is no velocity gradient and all the shear stress are zero.

Fig. 1.3 Normal stresses on fluid element in stationary fluid

CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

With gravity as the only body force and in the absence of any shear stress, using
Newton’s law for the infinitesimal fluid element shown (Fig. 1.3),

σ yy (δz.δx ) = σ nn (δs.δx )cos

 α
δz /δs

→ σ yy = σ nn
1 
(1.3) σ zz (δx.δy ) + ρg δx.δy.δz = σ nn (δx.δs)sin
 α
2  δy /δs

→ σ zz + ρgδz /2 = σ nn
→ σ zz = σ nn δz → 0

In a stationary fluid or for a uniformly flowing fluid, the stress at a point (fluid element
shrunk to zero) is independent of direction and is a scalar. Since only negative normal
€
stresses are possible in a fluid, the pressure intensity p is related to the normal stress as

(1.4)

(b) Non-viscous fluid in motion

A non-viscous fluid is also called an inviscid fluid or a fluid with zero viscosity.
Here the fluid infinitesimal element may undergo acceleration and Newton’s law is
rewritten as

δxδyδz
−σ yy (δz.δx ) + σ nn (δs.δx )cos
 α=ρ ay
δz /δs 2
→ σ yy = σ nn
1  δxδyδz
−σ zz (δx.δy ) − ρg δx.δy.δz + σ nn (δx.δs)sin
 α=ρ az
(1.5) 2  δy /δs 2
ρδz
→ −σ zz − ρgδz /2 + σ nn = az
2
→ σ zz = σ nn δz → 0
→ σ nn = σ xx = σ yy

Since only negative normal stresses are possible in a fluid, the pressure intensity
represents the stress at a point and is a scalar quantity.
€

(c) Viscous fluid in motion

In this case, the full suite of shearing stresses in the stress tensor is mobilized and
there are some properties in the stress tensor that should be noted. The stress tensor is
symmetric and we have
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

τ xy = τ yx
(1.6) τ yz = τ zy
τ zx = τ xz

Consider the fluid element as shown and writing down the moment of all the forces about
the z-axis as shown,
€

Fig.1.4

dω z
M z = Izz + ( Iyy − Ixx )ω xω y
dt
δx  ∂τ  δx
→ τ xyδyδz + τ xy + xy δx δyδz
2  ∂x  2
δy  ∂τ  δy
−τ yxδxδz −  τ yx + yx δy δxδz
2  ∂y  2
(1.7) 1 2 2 dω z
= ρδxδyδz
12
{
(δx ) + (δy ) } dt
1 2 2 2
+ ρδxδyδz
12
{ }
(δx ) + (δz) − (δy ) − (δz) ω xω y

In the limit
→ τ xy = τ yx

The other results follow with the same analysis for the other axes. The bulk stress is
defined to be the average of the normal stresses.
€

(1.8)
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

For a non-viscous fluid, we have shown that σ xx = σ yy = σ zz and it follows that

σ xx = σ yy = σ zz = σ . It has been found that for a perfect gas, the bulk stress is equal to the
pressure intensity in magnitude.
€
(1.9)
€
This result is also found to be applicable to real gases except when it approaches the
critical point. It can also be used with confidence for liquids.

2. Pressure
For stationary fluids and frictionless fluids, the stress distribution is given by the
scalar field p . From Fig 2.1, we consider an infinitesimally small imaginary volume of
dimensions (Δx,Δy,Δz) in the fluid with a corner at the point ( x, y,z) where the pressure
at ( x, y,z) is p . The pressure at the two faces along, say, the y-direction are given by
their
€ Taylor approximations.
€ €
€ €

Fig. 2 .1

∂p Δx ∂p Δz
p1 ≈ p + +
∂x 2 ∂z 2
∂p
p2 ≈ p1 + 1 Δy
∂y
(2.1) ∂p Δx ∂p Δz ∂p ∂  ∂p Δx ∂p Δz 
= p+ + + Δy +  + Δy
∂x2∂z
2 ∂y
 ∂y  ∂x
2 ∂z 2 
p1 terms of order ( ΔxΔy ) or ( ΔzΔy )
∂p Δx ∂p Δz ∂p
≈ p+ + + Δy
∂x 2 ∂z 2 ∂y

The net force per unit volume due to the pressure intensity in the y direction is given by
€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

∂p
ΔFy = p1ΔxΔz − p2ΔxΔz ≈ − ΔxΔyΔz
∂y 
 
(2.2) = Δ∀

dFy ∂p
→ =−
d∀ ∂y

Similarly, in the x and z directions, the net force per unit volume due to pressure intensity
are
€
dF ∂p
→ x =−
d∀ ∂x
(2.3)
dF ∂p
→ z =−
d∀ ∂z

The pressure distribution p is expressed in terms of a vector field expressed by the force
€
per unit volume of the fluid

€   dFx dFy dFz   ∂p ∂p ∂p 

(2.4) f = , ,  = − ,− ,−  = −∇p
 d∀ d∀ d∀   ∂x ∂y ∂z 

The pressure force always acts normal to the surface. Fig. 2.2 shows the pressure forces
acting on a curved surface.
€

Fig. 2.2
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

3. Fluid Statics

Fig. 3.1

Consider the equilibrium of the infinitesimally small fluid element of volume Δ∀ shown
in Fig. 3.1 in a stationary fluid with a free surface. Let Δ∀ = Δx.Δy.Δz and the force on
the infinitesimally small fluid element is
€
 ∂p ∂p ∂p 
− Δ∀,− Δ∀,− Δ∀€
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

The weight of the fluid element is the only other force present. Hence, we have
€ ∂p ∂p
− Δ∀ = 0 → =0
x
∂  ∂x
acting along
x direction

∂p ∂p
(3.1) − Δ∀ = 0 → =0
∂ y
  ∂ y
acting along
y direction

∂p ∂p
− Δ∀ −  ρgΔ∀ =0→ = − ρg
z
∂  weight acting ∂z
upwards in downwards
z direction against
z direction

The pressure distribution in static fluids can only vary with depth even without a free
surface. For a liquid in static equilibrium, the pressure at a given depth below the free
€ atmosphere) remains constant for that depth. If A and B are in the same
surface (to the
horizontal plane in the same liquid, dp = 0 since dz = 0 whatever the value of ρ . The
pressure is constant throughout a horizontal plane and the density must not vary
horizontally too.
€ € €
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Example 3.1
For an incompressible stationary fluid of constant density ρ with a free surface and for
the coordinates frame as shown in Fig. 3.1, it was shown that

∂p ∂p ∂p
= 0, = 0, = − ρgz €
∂x ∂y ∂z

Interpret the physical meaning of these equations.

€
Solution

∂p /∂x = 0 means that p does not change along x for a given ( y 0 ,z0 ) and hence p is
constant along the line for y = y 0 (See Fig above). ∂p /∂y = 0 means that p does not
change along y for a given ( x 0 ,z0 ) and hence p is constant along the line for x = x 0 (See
€ Fig above). € We can now decide to choose€ z0 , then the€two partial differential
€ equations
tell us that p does€not change in the horizontal
€ plane through z0 since
€ we could choose
any €set of ( x 0 , y 0 ) . € €
€
€
€ From ∂p /∂z = −ρg €
€
p = −ρgz + Ax + By + C
At z = 0, p = 0 at the free surface for all x, y → A = 0, B = 0, C = 0
→ p = −ρgz
At z0 , p = −ρgz 0
everywhere on horizontal plane through z0

In the case where there is no free surface,

€
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

From ∂p /∂z = −ρg

p = −ρgz + Ax + By + C
∂p
= A=0
∂x
∂p
=B=0
∂y
At z = 0, p = p0
→ p = p0 − ρgz vary linearly with depth
At z0 , p = p0 − ρgz0
everywhere on horizontal plane through z0

The above result can be used to determine pressures involving manometers. For the case
€ of a manometer connected to a pressure tank, points M and N in the tube are at the same
horizontal plane and are joined by the same liquid. The pressures at M and N will be
equal.

Fig. 3.2
pM = pN
pgas = γh, neglecting g gas since g >> g gas

Fig. 3.3
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Fig. 3.3a
pR + s3γh3 = pB Fig. 3.3b
pL + s2γh2 + s1γh1 = pA pL = pA + s1γh1
pL = pR pR = pB + s2γh2 + s3γh3
→ pA − pB = s2γh2 + s1γh1 − s3γh3 → pA − pB = s2γh2 + s3γh3 − s1γh1

€
€

Fig. 3.4

Gases in A and B
pL = pA + γ1 ( − δ )
pR = pB + γ1 ( − d ) + γ 2 d
pL = pR
→ pA − pB = (γ 2 − γ1 ) d + γ1δ

€ on submerged surfaces
4. Hydrostatic thrusts

(a) Submerged Plane Surface

Fig. 4.1 Hydrostatic forces on submerged plane surface

 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

We consider herein an incompressible homogeneous fluid with density in static

equilibrium on the upper surface of the plane of arbitrary shape. The pressure intensity of
a fluid exerts a pressure thrust on a submerged surface. The pressure force always act
normal to the surface. The plane surface makes an angle with the horizontal free
surface (Fig. 4.1). The y-axis is defined along the sloping plane starting from O at the
water line and the x-axis also lies on the plane but runs along the free surface. Pressure
force on elemental area is given by

dF = pdA = ρghdA = ρgy sin θ dA

All the elemental forces are parallel because the submerged plane surface and the liquid
are in static equilibrium. The total force on the submerged plane surface is
€

F= ∫ dF = ρgsinθ ∫ ydA
A A

(4.1) = ρgsin θ ( Ay )
= ρgAh

A is the total area of the submerged arbitrary surface with centroid given by ( x, y ) . Eq.
(4.1) shows that the total pressure force depends on the depth of the centroid of the
€
submerged plane surface. In Fig. 4.1, C denotes the centroid of the plane of arbitrary
€ shape and h is the vertical depth of the centroid.
€
The centre of pressure is the point on the submerged plane where the line of action of the
total pressure force meets the plane. The moment of the force on the elemental area
€
about the axis Ox is dM = ypdA = yρghdA = ρgy 2 sin θ dA . Let the centre of pressure be
at P ≡ ( xCP , yCP ) , then the total moment about Ox is

€
€
FyCP = ∫ ρgy 2
sin θdA
A
(4.2) 2
∫ y dA ( Ak ) 2
A Ox
→ yCP = =
Ay Ay

The slant depth, measured down the plane, of the centre of pressure is given by Eq. (4.2).
Note that the centre of pressure is always lower than the centroid, except when the
€ is horizontal. This can be shown by using the parallel axes theorem,
submerged plane
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

( Ak )
2
Ox
= ( Ak 2 )CG + Ay 2

→ yCP =y+
( Ak ) 2
CG
=y+
2
kCG
Ay y
(4.3) 2
hCP h kCG
With = +
sin θ sin θ h /sin θ
k2
→ h0 = h + CG sin 2 θ
h

Where the depth is very large and the submerged plane is small, the centre of pressure
may be taken to be approximately the same as the centroid. The same may be said where
the fluid is a €
gas where pressure changes very little with depth.

The x coordinate of the centre of pressure is determined by taking moments of the

pressure force about the line Oy.

FxCP = ∫ xρgy sinθdA = ρgsinθ ∫ xydA

A A
(4.4) ∫ xydA
A
→ xCP =
Ay

When the submerged plane has an area with an axis of symmetry, the axis of symmetry
can be conveniently taken as Oy so that ∫ xydA = 0 . This means that the centre of
€ A
pressure lies on the axis of symmetry.

Example 4.1 €
This example is intended to elucidate more on the idea of the centre of pressure and the
second moment of area.

Fig. Ex. 4.1a & b

CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

First, we look at the idea of the first and second moment of area. For simplicity, we
consider a rectangular area (2a by 2b as shown in Fig. Ex.4.1a) set with the CG at the
coordinate origin. Consider elemental area shown as shaded. The second moment of this
elemental area about YY is

dIYY = x 2 dA = x 2 (2adx ) = 2ax 2 dx

The second moment of area about YY is obtained by integrating for the entire area of the
rectangle
€
b  x 3 b
IYY = ∫ dI YY
2 2
= ∫ 2ax dx = ∫ 2ax dx = 2a 
 3 −b
A A −b

2a 3 4
=
3
[ 3
b − (−b) = ab 3
3
]
Similarly, we can start all over again and find the second moment of area about XX;
except that this time, our elemental area will be dA = 2bdy , dIXX = 2by 2 dy and
€ 4
integration is from y = −a to y = a . This will give IXX = ba 3 .
3
€
Thus, it is important that you specify the axis through the€CG about which the second
moment is € taken. The
€ results given above are for the axis passing through the CG of the
plane. Suppose we want to find the second€ moment of area about an axis which is at a
distance S away from the CG, we can make use of what is known as the parallel axis
theorem.

Let us now look at the rectangular plane which is now at a distance such that the CG is S
from the origin as shown in Fig. Ex.4.1b. It is important to remember that the x-y
coordinate plane is in the same plane as the rectangle. Consider the elemental area shown
as shaded in the figure. The second moment of this elemental area about YY is

dIYY = x 2 dA = x 2 (2adx ) = 2ax 2 dx

The second moment of area about YY is obtained by integrating for the entire area of the
rectangle
€
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

s+b  x 3 s+b
IYY = ∫ dI YY
2 2
= ∫ 2ax dx = ∫ 2ax dx = 2a 
 3 s−b
A A s−b

 3 3 
2a ( s + 3s b + 3sb + b ) 
2 2
2a
=
3
[ 3 3
(s + b) − (s − b) = ]
3 −( s3 − 3s2b + 3sb 2 − b 3 )
 
2a 4ab 2
= [6s2b + 2b 3 ] = ( 3s + b 2 )
3 3
2 4 3
= 4ab
 s + ab
A 3

= I YY thru
CG

The parallel axis theorem tells us that if we want to find the second moment of area about
an axis OO which is at a distance s away and parallel to the axis through the CG of a
plane€of any shape with area A, then

Ioo = ICG + As2

€
It is important to note that axis 00 and axis through the CG must be parallel. The two
axes and the surface concerned must all lie in the same plane.
€

Example 4.2
A thin rectangular plate (B by D) which is immersed in still water. Determine the
resultant hydrostatic force on the plate and the line of action of this force.

Solution
Let us now look at the forces due to hydrostatic pressure on the upper face. (Fig. below).
Consider the elemental area dA = Bdy which is at a distance y from the axis OO and at a
depth h . The elemental force on this elemental area is

dF = p dA = ( ρgh )( Bdy ) = ρg h Bdy

€ = ρgh =
Bdy = y sin θ €
€
= ρgBsin θ .ydy

€
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

The moment about OO (clockwise in the figure) due to this elemental force is

dM = ydF = ρ
gBsin
  θ .y 2 dy
not a function
of y

The total moment of the fluid pressure forces on the upper face of the rectangular plane is
€ s+D s+D
M= ∫ dM = 2 2
∫ ρgB sinθ .y dy = ρgB sinθ . ∫ y dy

A s s
all elemental
moments over
entire area
A

1
[
= ρgBsin θ ( s3 + 3s2 D + 3sD 2 + D3 ) − s3
3
]
 
 2 D 2
D 2

g BD
=ρ  sin θs + sD + + 
4 12 
=γ = A   
 = ( s+D / 2) 2

 I  D2 BD3 I
= ρgBDsin θy 2 + CG , where = = CG
 BD 12 12BD BD

This moment may be represented by a force F located at some point yCP from the axis
OO .
€

€
€
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

M = FyCP
 I 
γBDsin θ . y 2 + CG 
M  BD I
→ yCP = = = y + CG ⇐
F γBDy sin θ BD

The force F is given by

€ dF = ρgBsin θ .ydy
s+D
s+D y2
→ F = ρgBsin θ ∫ ydy = ρgBsin θ 
 2 s
s

1
= ρgBsin θ .(2sD + D2 )
2
g BD
=ρ  sin θ .( s + D /2) ⇐
A
 
γ h = y sin θ

Note that in general, the hydrostatic pressure force on a plane surface of arbitrary shape is
given by Eq. 4.1
€
F = γAh

where A = surface area of the plane, h = vertical distance of the CG of the plane surface
from the water surface. Further, note that in general, the centre of pressure of a plane
€ of arbitrary shape is given by
surface
€ €I
yCP = yCG + CG
AyCG

Note that we are measuring along y through OO , i.e. along the line through the plane
surface.
€

€
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

(b) Submerged Curve Surface

Fig. 4.2 Hydrostatic forces on submerged curved surface

Consider a small elemental surface shown shaded in Fig. 4.2. The area of this elemental

area is dA . A unit normal vector n can be drawn from this elemental area. The pressure
force on the elemental area is pdA and the direction of this pressure force is opposite to

the direction of n . The pressure force on the small elemental area on a curved surface

€ can bewritten as −npdA€ or − pdA . The x-component of this elemental pressure force is
    
(
dFx = i • − pdA = − €) ( ) ( )
p dA • i . However, dA • i = dAx is the projected area of dA on
the plane
€ normal to the x-axis. Consequently, the resultant thrust on the submerged
curved surface
€ will have to be summed vectorially. It follows that in any given direction,
the horizontal hydrostatic force on a submerged curved surface is equal€to the force on
€ €
the projection of the curved surface on the vertical plane perpendicular to the given
direction. The line of action of the horizontal force on the submerged curved surface is
the same as that of the force on the vertical projection.
   
( ) ( )
The z-component of the elemental pressure force is dFz = k • − pdA = − p dA • k . From
 
( )
(3.1), dFz = ρgh dA • k = ρghdAz which is none other than the weight of the column of
fluid above the curved elemental surface.
€
€ Example 4.3
The curved surface OR (see figure below) has water on one side. From first principles,
determine the hydrostatic forces acting on the curved surface and the line of action of this
resultant force.

Solution €
The figure above shows a curved surface OR such that there is water above it. The
arrows show the pressure forces acting on the water side of the curved surface.
Remember that pressure always act normal to the surface. We consider a unit width (into
the paper) such that if we observe from the top, we see the rectangular projection
€
RR' S' S . The shaded area of an element of RR' S' S has dimensions 1 by dx . Note that
distance AB is also dx and it is the projection of the small dimension ds .

€ € €
€ €
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Consider the pressure force dF on the small surface (1 by ds).

dF = p( ds.1) = ρgy ( ds.1)

dFV = dF.cos θ = ρgy ( ds.1) cos θ = ρgy1.ds.cos
  θ
=1.dx
projection
of ds to x
axis

= ρg 1.y.dx

≈vol ABCD
= d∀ or 1.dA

If we do the same for the entire curved surface,

€
 ∑ ρg d∀
FV = lim  = ρg ∀

dx →0 ∀ =1.y.dx vol above
curved

surface
weight of
water above
curved surface

Note ∀ = 1.A A = area ROS

This makes sense since the total vertical component of the hydrostatic force on the curved
€ is the weight of the water above it. However, note that we have been silent on
surface
where this force acts. Do you know where? It acts vertically down through the CG of
the curved area ROS. Do you know how to show this result?

Take moments of the vertical component of the force on ds about the axis through O into
the paper. We have dFv acting at a distance x measured horizontally from O. Let the CG
of the curved area ROS be at a horizontal distance x 0 from the axis through O.

€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

 ∑ xdFV
(FV )( x 0 ) = lim
dx →0

 
 ∑ xρg1.ydx
 ( x 0 ) = lim
→  ρg ∀   = ρg ∫ xdA
 1.dA  dx →0 = d∀ or
1.dA

→ x0 =
∫ xdA = CG of area above curved surface
A

We shall now look at the horizontal force on the curved surface.

€
dFH = dF.sin θ = p(1.ds) sin θ
= ρgy.1.ds.sin
 θ
= dy
= projection
of ds to y
axis

If we do this for the entire curved surface,

€ y at O
FH = ∫ ρgy.1.dy = ρg.1. ∫ ydy
y at S

y  2 SO
SO
= ρg.1.  = ρg. 1..SO.

 2 0 area RR'O'O 2
y of
RR'O'O

In short, the horizontal force is simply

€ FH = ρg y A

projected area
CG of
projected RR'O'O
area RR'O'O

Do you know where does this horizontal force act? It acts through the centre of pressure
which is below the CG. Do you know how to find the centre of pressure? You find the
€ the vertical plane RR'O'O which is the same as the vertical plane SO with a
CP using
width of 1 unit.

€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Example 4.4

Fig. A shows the curved surface AB with water on the upper side. Determine the
magnitude and line of action of the hydrostatic forces on the curved surface.

Fig. B shows the same curved surface AB with water on the underside. Determine the
magnitude and line of action of the hydrostatic forces on the curved surface.

Solution
Remember that pressure forces are only acting on the water side of the curved surface. In
Fig. A, the vertical component, V (acting downwards), will be equal to the weight of the
water above the curved surface. It acts through CG of the area EDBACE. The
horizontal force H is acting through the centre of pressure of the plane CA, which is the
projection of the curve AB. H = ρgyA , where A=area CC' A' A .

In Fig. B, the vertical force V (acting upwards) is equal to the weight of the imaginary
€ surface. It acts through€
water above the curved CG of the area EDBACE. The horizontal
force H is acting through the centre of pressure of the plane CA, which is the projection
of the curve AB. H = ρgyA , where A=area CC' A' A .

€ €
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

5. Buoyancy

Fig 5.1 Centre of buoyancy of a completely

submerged body

Fig. 5.2 Floating body with interface

For a body which is completely or partially submerged in a fluid and is in equilibrium,

there will always be a resultant upward force exerted by the fluid on the body because the
pressure variation is such that it increases with depth, i.e dp = −ρgdz , with z measured
positive vertically upwards. This force is known as the buoyancy force.

Consider the completely submerged body shown in Fig. 5.1. We choose the vertical z
coordinate to originate from the free surface. For € the small cylinder, the net upward force
is given by ( pL − pU ) dAz = ρg( zU − zL ) dAz . The pressures on the under and upper sides

elemental volume
of the cylinder are p = −ρgz and p = −ρgz respectively. For the entire €
U U L L submerged
body, all the elemental cylinders are summed and the buoyancy force is the net upward
force and is given by the weight of the volume of fluid displaced by the submerged body.
€
€ €
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Buoyancy = ∫ ρg(z U − zL ) dAz

Az

= ρg ∫ (z
− zL ) dAz
U
(5.1) 
Az

volume submerged body

= ρg∀
= weight of displaced fluid

The centre of buoyancy is the point through which the resultant buoyancy force acts.
Since the buoyancy force is always vertical, we have
€
FB x 0 = ∫ ρgx (z U − zL ) dAz = ρg ∫ xd∀
Az ∀
(5.2)
FB y o = ∫ ρgy (z U − zL ) dAz = ρg ∫ yd∀
Az ∀

The centre of buoyancy is the centroid of the submerged volume. This result also applies
to the floating body where the centre of buoyancy is the centroid of the submerged
portion of the€floating body.

Suppose we have the case of a body immersed partly in two immiscible fluids as shown
in Fig. 5.2. The upper fluid has a mass density and the lower fluid has a mass density
of . The upper and lower submerged volumes are and respectively. The
buoyancy forces on the upper and lower body are ( ρU g∀U ) and ( ρ L g∀ L ) respectively.
Taking the interface as the datum from which z is measured (positive vertically upwards),

Buoyancy = ∫ (ρ U gzU − ρ L gzL ) dAz

€ €
Az

= g ∫ {( ρU a) − ρ L (−b)}dAz

Az

mass submerged body

= g( ρU ∀U + ρ L ∀ L )
= weight of displaced fluids

However, the centres of buoyancy are not in the same vertical line. That is, the upward
buoyancy forces on the upper body ( BU ) and the lower body ( BL ) are not in line.
€
However, the resultant buoyancy force ( B = BU + BL ) will have to pass through the
centroid of the entire body for the body to be in equilibrium. Suppose in Fig. 5.2, the
fluid above the floating body is air. Since BU = ( ρU g∀U ) is very small as the mass
€ €
density of air is very much smaller than the mass density of a liquid, it can be neglected.
€

€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Thus for a floating body in equilibrium, its dry weight is exactly balanced by the
buoyancy force ( ρ L g∀ L ) .

6. Stability of Submerged and Floating Bodies

€

Fig. 6.1

For a body which is completely immersed in a fluid, there are three states of equilibrium.
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it returns to its original position when it is
given a small displacement and released. The immersed body in Fig 6.1 is in stable
equilibrium because of the restoring couple Wx which is possible when the centre of
gravity of the immersed body G is below its centre of buoyancy B. An immersed body is
unstable if it does not return to its original position but moves further away from it when
it is given a small displacement and released. This is expected to occur when G is above
B. If B and G coincide, the body is in neutral equilibrium.

Fig 6.2
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

The angular stability of a floating body is somewhat more complicated. Fig. 6.2a shows a
floating body whose centre of gravity is at G. The centre of buoyancy B is the centroid
of the submerged volume of the body and the upthrust due to the surrounding fluid passes
through it and is in the same vertical line as the weight W of the body. The upthrust is
also equal in magnitude with the dry weight of the body in order for the body to remain in
equilibrium.

When the body is given a small tilt , the shape of the submerged volume changes and
the centre of buoyancy shifts slightly from its original position B to the new position B’
such that it gives rise to a restoring moment in order to have stable equilibrium. The
centre of gravity of the body remains the same and W (which is equal to the upthrust)
acts vertically downwards through G. The restoring couple is W .GM sin θ ≈ W .GM.θ
since is very small. The intersection of the line of action of the buoyancy (upthrust)
with the axis BG is the point M, which is called the metacentre. Note that the floating
body remains stable so long as M is above G in order to have a restoring couple. For
€
small angle , M is practically constant. The metacentric height is the distance GM.

Fig. 6.3 (a) Original equilibrium position (b) New equilibrium position

In Fig 6.3a, a floating body has a load such that the dry weight of the body . When
floating upright, the combined centre of gravity G and B are in the same straight line.
This is the original equilibrium position. The line of action of the upthrust (=P+W) is
coincident with the line of action of the combined weight of the load and the floating
body.

When the load is shifted a distance x along the deck as shown, the floating body assumes
a new stable configuration and the centre of gravity of the combined floating body and
the load moves to G’. Also, the shape of the submerged volume (due to the tilt) is
changed resulting in the shift of the combined centre of buoyancy to B’. In the new
(tilted) equilibrium position, the upthrust must be equal to the total combined weight of
the floating body and the load and G’ and B’ must be in line. To find GG’, we make use
of geometry to find the new location of the combined centre of gravity at G’. Taking
moments about the line BGM,
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Px = (W + P ).GG'= (W + P ).GM tan θ

(6.1) Px
GM = cot θ
(W + P )

Eq. (6.1) gives a simple method of determining the metacentric height GM of a floating
body. €

Example 6.1
Consider the rod of weight w and two other weights w1 and w2 at distances a1 and a2 from
the centre of the rod respectively such that the CG of the combined system is at the centre
of the rod. If the weights w1 and w2 are shifted b1 and b2 to the right as shown.
Determine the shift in the CG of the combined system and explain how this can be
introduced for the case where a vessel has a moving weight on the deck and how such
movement affects the restoring forces to the vessel.

Solution
For the original system to have the combined CG in the middle of the rod, we have

w1a1 = w 2 a2

When the weights are shifted, the new CG is at G’ such that by taking moments about G
€ ( w + w + w )(GG') = w ( a + b ) − w ( a − b ) = ( w a − w a ) + w b + w b
  1

2 2 2 2 1 1 1
 1
2 2
1 2 2 1 1
W =0

w
 2b2 + w
1b1
moment shift moment shift
→ GG'=
W

combined weight

For the vessel in question, the new CG is at G’ (to the right of G) and the moment shift is
Px where the mass is moved to the right. Total weight of vessel and mass is (W + P )
€
and

€ €
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Px
GG'= ⇐
W +P

€
Metacentric Height

Fig. 6.3.

Consider a floating body with similar cross sectional shape and a waterline planform
shape given by Fig. 6.3c. In Fig. 6.3a, the axis of rotation is the horizontal line centred at
O where the waterline gives a planform shape shown in Fig. 6.3c. When the body, whose
dry weight is W, is given a small angular displacement , the centre of buoyancy B
moves to a new location B’. Geometrically, taking moments about the axis Oy (coming
out of the paper at O),

W .( BB') = ρg ∫ x ( z + x tan θ ) dA
A

(6.2) = ρg ∫ xzdA + ρgtan θ ∫ x 2 dA

A  A 
= 0 if body I Oy
is symmetrical

= ρgtan
 θ ( IOy )
≈θ

€
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

ρg( IOy ) tan θ IOyθ

(6.3) BB'= ≈
W
 ∀
= ρg∀

BB' IOy
(6.4) € BM = =
θ ∀

Example 6.2€(AY2009)
A rectangular pontoon is 15 m wide and 25 m long and 5 m deep weighs 6500 kN and
floats in sea water of density 1025 kg/m3. The centre of gravity of the pontoon may be
taken to be at the centre of the volume 15 m x 25 m x 5 m.

A load of 3000 kN is placed in the middle of the pontoon as shown in the figure below.
The centre of gravity of this load is 1 m above the deck. What is the distance of the centre
of buoyancy (B) and the centre of gravity (G) of the combined pontoon and load from the
point O? Also, determine the distance OM where M is the metacentre of the combined
pontoon and load.

The load is now moved a distance 1 m across the width of the deck. What is the resulting
angle of roll of the combined pontoon and load? Assume that the angle of roll θ is small
so that tan θ ≈ θ

€
€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Solution

Pontoon floating with load at mid-width – to find the position of the combined CG

(W + w )(OG) = (W )(d /2) + (w )( d + 1)

(6500 + 3000)(OG) = (6500)(5 /2) + (3000)(5 + 1)
9500(OG) = 16250 + 18000 = 34250
→ Combined CG OG = 3.605 m ⇐

To find the position of the combined centre of buoyancy B

€
∀ = seawater displaced by combined pontoon & load
h = draft of combined pontoon & load
(W + w ) = ρseawater g∀
(6500 + 3000)k = 1025(9.8)∀
→ ∀ = 945.74 m 3
= (15)(25)
→ h = 2.52 m
Centre of buoyancy OB = 1.26 m ⇐

To find the metacentre M

€
I00 (25)(15 ) /12
3

BM = = = 7.43 m
∀ 945.74
OM = OB + BM = 1.26 + 7.43 = 8.69 m ⇐

€
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

For the angle of tilt

 = (W + w )(GG')
wx
moment
due to
load shift

GG'=
(3000k )(1) = 0.316 m
(6500k + 3000k )
From geometry

BB' GG'
€ θ= =
BM GM
GM = OM − OG = 8.69 − 3.605 = 5.085 m
0.316
θ= = 0.062 rad = 3.56 0 ⇐
5.085

As a check: Load is moved 1 m across the width and the resulting roll is 3.560. To find
€
the metacentric height

wx
GM = cot θ
W +w
(3000k )(1) cot 3.56 0
=
6500k + 3000k
( )
= 0.316(16.07) = 5.079 m ok ⇐

€Example 6.3 (AY2009)

A cylindrical buoy 1.35m in diameter and 1.8m high has a mass of 770kg. Show that it
will not float with its axis vertical in sea water of density 1025 kg/m3. If one end of a
vertical chain is fasten to the base, find the pull required just to keep the buoy vertical.
The centre of gravity of the buoy is 0.9m from its base. [Douglas et al 4680N]
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Solution.

Let A be the base of the cylinder to which the chain is fastened. Before the chain is
fastened, it is required to determine the stability of the cylinder as a floating body. Body
floats when dry weight of buoy = weight of seawater displaced. Assume it floats upright,
we have to show that this is not possible.

 = (1025) g
770g ∀
*
wt of buoy displaced vol

→ ∀* = 0.7512 m 3
(πd
2
/4 ) h
 draft
= ∀* → h = 0.525 m
1.431

4
πd 4 π (1.35)
I
€ BM = Oy = 64 = 64 = 0.217 m
∀* ∀* 0.7512

€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

PB = h /2 = 0.2625 m
PG = 1.8 /2 = 0.9 m
BG = 0.9 − 0.2625 = 0.6375 m
GM = BM − BG > 0 for stability
= 0.217 − 0.6375 = −0.4205 m

Cylinder will not float on its axis by itself. With the chain, there will be a tension and a
new draft. Buoyancy force must balance the chain tension and the weight of the buoy.
€
Figure 1a shows the cylinder floating with its axis horizontal because it is not stable
vertically. To make it float vertically, we attach a chain to one end of the cylinder and
apply a tension. Figure 1b shows the cylinder floating with the chain in tension T1. The
centre of buoyancy is at B. B is the CG of the submerged portion.

If we increase the tension to T2, the cylinder will have increased draft. It floats at an
angle which is not small. (Fig. 1c). It will have a new centre of buoyancy at B for the
new submerged volume. As we increase the tension, the draft increases and the angle the
cylinder axis makes with the vertical becomes smaller.

When the angle is very small, the cylinder is nearly vertical. This is the tension which
the question wants. Further submergence will mean higher chain tension.

For the very small angle, the centre of buoyancy B is slightly away from B0, which is at
h/2, h being the draft for this tension. In Fig 1d, B is at the tip of the arrow for (T+W).
The displaced volume for this tension is ∀ . The shift in the centre of buoyancy from B0
to B is due to the shifting moment arising from the wedge of water. The shifting moment
due to the shifting of the wedge of displaced water from ORS to OUT is, for very small
angle,
€
(Total
  ( B0 B) = ρgθI00
upthrust)
ρg∀

θI00
→ ( B0 B) =
∀

Note that shifting moment due to shifting of a weight causes a change in the position of
€ of the floating body from G to G’. The shifting of water wedges causes a change
the CG
in the position of the CB (centre of buoyancy) from B to B’ (or B0 to B in this discussion).

The line of action of the total upthrust (T+W or weight of liquid displaced) is through the
centre of buoyancy B. (See Fig 1d)
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

T
  = (1025) g
+W ∀

total upthrust displaced vol

T + 770g = 1025g∀
∀ = 0.7512 + T /(1025g)
   
1  0.715 + T /(1025g)  1  T 
→ AB0 =   = 0.525 + 
2   1.431
  2  14389
 
 draft h for tension T   additional draft 

For the very small angle of tilt, the shifting of the wedges of liquid results in a shift in the
centre of buoyancy from B0 to B such that
€
π 4
BB' I00 (1.35) 0.163
= = 64 =
θ ∀ 0.7512 + T 0.7512 +
T
1025g 10045

Taking moments about A,

€  BB' 
(T + W ) AB0 +  = W ( AG)
 θ 
 
1  T  0.163 
(T + 770g) 0.525 + +  = ( 770g)(0.9) = 6791
2  14389  0.7512 + T 
 10045 
→ T = 4640 N ⇐

Floating Body Containing Liquid

 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Fig. 6.4 Shift of G to G’ with small angular tilt of tank

Consider now a rectangular water tank a containing a liquid. Fig 6.4a may represent such
a tank. The origin of the coordinate frame is taken at the liquid surface. Original liquid
depth is h. When the tank is given a small angular displacement , the liquid assumes a
new configuration and the centroid of the liquid moves from G to G’. The new
coordinate position of G’ is . The cross sectional area of the liquid is . To
find ,
B /2
a.xL = ∫ x (h + x tanθ )Ldx
−B / 2
B /2 B /2
= ∫ xhLdx + tanθ ∫ x Ldx 2



−B / 2 

−B / 2
(6.5) = 0 if body I Oy
is symmetrical

= tan
 θ ( IOy )
≈θ

I0yθ
x=
∀T

a is the cross sectional area of the liquid in the tank, L is the length of the tank, B is the
width of the tank and ∀T = aL is the volume of liquid in the tank. To find the vertical
shift in the new€centre of gravity, we take moments about the base,
€
€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

1 B /2 2
a.L( h − z ') = ∫ ( h + x tan θ ) Ldx
2 −B / 2
1 B /2 2
= ∫ ( h + x 2 tan 2 θ + 2hx tan θ ) Ldx
2 −B / 2
B /2
1 1
= h 2 BL + tan 2 θ .( IOy ) + tan θ ∫ xhLdx
2 2 −B / 2
B /2
1 1
= h∀T + tan 2 θ ( IOy ) + ∫ xhLdx
2 2

−B / 2

= 0 if body
is symmetrical

h 1
(6.6) h − z '= + tan 2 θ .( IOy )
€ 2 2∀T
h 1
− z '= tan 2 θ .( IOy )
2 2∀T

The vertical shift in the new centre of gravity is seen to be negligibly small for very small
angular displacements. Thus, for small angular displacements, the shift in the centroid of
the liquid in €
the tank is essentially lateral by the amount GG’ where

θIOy
(6.7) GG'=
∀T

where is the second area moment of the liquid surface of the tank about the
horizontal axis
€ Oy at the liquid surface, is the volume of liquid in the tank and is
the small angular displacement of the tank about Oy.
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

Vessel with Liquid Tanks

Fig. 6.5 Vessel with tanks

Imagine a vessel with two tanks, each containing liquid of volumes and densities given
by ∀1,∀ 2 and ρ 2 , ρ 2 . I1 and I2 are the second moments of area of the free surfaces of the
liquids in the tanks respectively. The displacement volume of the vessel is (combined
vessel with tanks and contents) and the second moment of area of the water plane in the
axis of roll is I.
€
Initially, the vessel and the tanks with the liquids are in equilibrium with the combined
CG located in the middle at G. If the tanks of dimensions (2b1,L1 ) and (2b2 ,L2 ) are
located at the positions shown, and the level of liquids in the tanks are h1 and h2
respectively, then for the combined centre of gravity G to be in the middle

(6.8) (2b1h1a1L1 )ρ1g = (2b2 h2 a2 L2 ) ρ2 g € €

When the vessel is tilted through a very small angle (see Fig. 6.5), the centres of gravity
I θ I θ
of the€liquids in the tanks will move G1G1' = Oy1 and G2G2' = Oy 2 respectively. Here
∀1 ∀2
IOy1 and IOy 2 are the second moment of area of the liquid surface in tank 1 and tank 2
respectively. The resultant action is that the combined centre of gravity of the vessel and
the contents in the tanks, which is originally at G , will now move to G' .
€
€ €To find the shift in the combined centre of gravity, we note that the centre of gravity of
the empty vessel remains at the vertical axis of the vessel. The moment shifts due to the
liquids in the tanks are € €
 CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

I θ
w 2b2 ≡ ρ g∀
22 (GG

) '
2 = ρ 2 g∀ 2  OY 2 
 ∀2 
w2 shift CG of liquid

I θ
w1b1 ≡ ρ
 g∀
11 (GG

'
1) = ρ1g∀1 OY 2 
 ∀1 
w1 shift CG of liquid

The moment shift of the entire vessel is ρg∀(GG') and this is contributed by the moment
shifts of the liquids in the tanks.
€

ρ1gIOY1θ +€ρ 2 gIOY 2θ ( s1IOY1 + s2 IOy 2 )θ

(6.9) GG'= =
ρ
 g∀ ∀
W = weight of seawater
displaced

If the argument for Eq. 6.9 is difficult to comprehend, we can look at the problem in
€ way using the idea of the rod and system of shifting weights and from first
another
principles. When the vessel is tilted slightly, its overall CG has moved from G to G’.
We have
b1

ρg∀(GG') = ∫ (a + x )(h + x tanθ )L ρ gdx

1 1 1 1 1 1 1


−b1
clockwise
b2

− ∫ (a
− x 2 )( h2 + x 2 tan θ )L2 ρ 2 gdx 2
2


−b 2
 
counter clockwise

 
 b1 b1 b1 
=  ρ1g ∫ ( a1 + x1 ) h1L1dx1 + a1ρ1gtan θ ∫ x1l1dx1 + ρ1gtan θ ∫ x12 L1dx1 
  −b1
  
−b1
 
−b1

 = 2b1 h1 a1 L1 ρ1 g = 0 symmetry I OX 1 
 
 b2 b2 b2 
 
2
−  ρ 2 g ∫ ( a2 − x 2 ) h2 L2 dx 2 + a2 ρ 2 gtan θ ∫ x 2 l2 dx 2 − ρ 2 gtan θ ∫ x 2 L2 dx 2 
 −b 2    
−b 2
  
−b 2
 = 2b 2 h 2 a 2 L 2 ρ 2 g = 0 symmetry I OY
2

= ρ1IOy1θ + ρ 2 IOy 2θ, tan θ ≈ θ small θ

(6.10) → GG'=
(s I 1 Oy1 + s2 IOy 2 )θ
∀

€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

At the displaced position, the vertical through G' intersects the original vertical at N.
Further, the vertical through B' (the new position of the centre of buoyancy) cut the
original vertical at M (the metacentre). Note that B' is the position of the centroid of the
submerged volume of the vessel with all its contents and BM remains at IOy /∀ where IOy
€
is the second moment€of area of the planform plane of the vessel across the water line and
is the displacement volume of the combined
€ vessel and contents.

GG' s1IOy1 + s2 IOy 2 € €

(6.11) GN = =
θ ∀

The effective metacentric height is

€ NM = hB + BM − ( hG + GN )
(6.12) I s1IOy1 + s2 IOy 2
= hB − hG + −
∀ ∀

This result shows that the effect of the liquids in the tanks is to reduce the metacentric
height and stability is reduced. Subdivision of the tanks into many smaller tanks will
help limit the€sI and hence helps to reduce the impairment of the stability of the vessel.

€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

7. Relative Equilibrium

Fig. 7.1

If all the fluid particles move uniformly in a straight line with no acceleration, there are
no shear forces. In this case, the hydrostatic equations apply. On the other hand, if all
the fluid particles go through constant acceleration in a straight line as though it moves as
a solid such that no layer moves relative to the other, then no shear stresses are present.
In both cases, the fluid particles are said to be in relative equilibrium.

In Fig. 7.1, a container of arbitrary shape carries a liquid with a free surface. The
horizontal line represents the original position of the free surface. The container is now

given a constant linear acceleration a = ( ax ,az ) . After a while, the liquid and the
container will move as though it is a solid. At this stage, consider the forces acting on the
liquid element.

x − direction €
 ∂p 1   ∂p 1 
 p − dx  −  p + dx  dydz = ρdxdydz.ax
 ∂x 2   ∂x 2 
∂p
→ = −ρax
∂x
(7.1)
z − direction
 ∂p 1   ∂p 1 
 p − dz −  p + dz dydx − ρgdxdydz = ρdxdydz.az
 ∂z 2   ∂z 2 
∂p
→ = −ρ ( az + g)
∂z

The surface with a constant pressure ( p = p0 at x = x 0 , z = z0 ) can be found to be a

plane€from

€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

∂p ∂p
dp = dx + dz
∂x ∂z
= −ρ
 ax dx − ρ ( g + az ) dz
 
const const

(7.2) p = −ρax x − ρ( g + az ) z + C
C = p0 + ρax x 0 + ρ ( g + az ) z0

Example 7.1
In the figure, ax = 4.9m /s2 ay = 0 , find the pressures at A, B and C. [4.08kPa; 16.82
€
kPa; 4.08kPa Problem 2.123 Streeter, Wylie & Bedford]

In the figure, the tube is filled with liquid with specific gravity 2.4. When it is
accelerated to the right at 2.45 m/s2, draw the imaginary free surface and determine the
pressure at A. For pA = 55kPa vacuum determine ax. [3.52kPa;43 m/s2 Problem 2.127
Streeter, Wylie & Bedford]

Solution:
(a) Closed tank accelerated to the right. To note that the water volume (and hence, the
air volume) remains the same throughout (assuming that the air is originally
atmospheric).
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

For imaginary surface slope, dp = 0

dz a 9.8
=− x =− = −1
dx g + az 9.8
Imaginary surface slope is 45 0 to horizontal
dp = −ρax dx − ρ( g + az ) dz
= −ρax x − ρ( g + az ) z + c ax , az being constan t

1 2
Let surface be as shown with air volume = x
2
€
1 2
No change in air volume → x = (0.3)(1.3) = 0.39
2
x = 0.8832m Choose N as origin

AN = (1.3 − 0.883) = 0.417m

€ At A, x = 0, z = −0.417
→ pA = −1000(9.8 + 0) − (−0.417) = 4.08kPa ⇐
At B, x = 0, z = −(0.417 + 1.3) = −1.717m
→ pB = −1000(9.8 + 0)(−1.717) = 16.82kPa ⇐
At C, x = 1.3m z = 1.717m
→ pC = −1000(9.8)(1.3) −1000(9.8 + 0)(−1.717)
= −12.74k + 16.82k = 4.08kPa ⇐

The U tube has an open end and is filled with liquid of specific gravity 2.4

For imaginary surface slope, dp = 0

€
dz a 2.45
=− x =− = −0.25
dx g + az 9.8 + 0
Imaginary surface slope is 1V to 4H
dp = −ρax dx − ρ( g + az ) dz
= −ρax x − ρ( g + az ) z + c ax , az being constant

€
CE2134 Hydraulics
AY2010 Lecture Set 02
Fluid Statics & Floating Bodies

p = −(2.4 )(1000)(2.45) x − (2.4 )(1000)(9.8 + 0) z + c

= −5880x − 23520z + c
Take open end as origin, p = 0
At A, x = 0.6m, z = 0.3m
pA = −5880(0.6) − 23520(−0.3) = 3528Pa = 0.512 psi ⇐