Lecture Notes – 2.

2 & Assignment
(Online / e-Learning)
( Dt: 13/09/2021 )

Dr. NGANGBAM ROMEJI

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MANIPUR

CE-405 HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING : Lecture Notes – Online Classes (Odd Sem–2021) 0

 PART-I

CE-405: HYDROPOWER STRUCTURES

(in continuation of the Class Lectures L-12.1
(Pt-B))

Ch-② DAMS

2.2 & 2.3 EMBANKMENT DAMS

(ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS, TYPES OF EMBANKMENT DAMS,
REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGN, FAILURE MODES, ETC)

(EXCERPTS OF SELECTED BOOK NOTES)

An introductory presentation on the position of embankments in the history of dam engineering, as
well as of the principal variants and their key components, are discussed in this chapter. The
structure and contents of this chapter, which is necessarily concise, are dictated by the need to
introduce basic elements of soil mechanics and applied geology in sections dealing with the nature
and classification of engineering soils and with their characteristics. The text is also influenced by
the design approach to embankment dams being in many respects less formalized than is the case for
Gravity Dams. After briefly reviewing embankment dam design principles and construction methods
this chapter concentrates on the discussion of seepage, stability and settlement as the key factors in
design. It concludes with a brief section dealing with earth and rockfill embankments.l l l

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1.1 ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS:
1.1.1 Soil load response
Soil response is important in embankment dam construction with respect to the performance of
engineered compacted soils in earthfills and that of the natural underlying foundation soils. In
earthfill construction it is necessary to consider the load-bearing characteristics of the compacted fill
and also the behaviour of the soil as construction proceeds. It is convenient to categorize problems
concerning the response of soils to specific loading conditions as problems of stability or of
deformation. Problems of stability concern the equilibrium between forces and moments and the
mobilized soil strength. When the former, arising from loading (or from the removal of support as in
a trench excavation), exceed the shearing resistance which the soil can mobilize, failure will occur.
This is generally manifested by progressive and, in the final phase, large and relatively rapid mass
displacements, e.g. of a soil slope. Stability problems involve concepts of soil shear strength and
stress–strain response.

Table 1.1 Representative physical characteristics of soils

The specific gravity of soil mineral particles, Gs ≈ 2.65 – 2.75.

e = Pore void volume relative to volume of matrix solids.

While a soil mass may be stable in the sense described above it may nevertheless undergo
deformation as a result of changes in loading or drainage conditions. A limited amount of
deformation occurs with no net volume change, and is thus comparable with the elastoplastic
behaviour of many non-particulate materials. The most significant soil deformations, however,
usually involve volume changes arising from alterations in the geometric configuration of the soil
particle assemblage, e.g. a loosely packed arrangement of soil particles will on loading adopt a more
compact and denser structure. Where the soil particles are relatively coarse, as with sands, such a
change occurs almost immediately on load application. In saturated clayey soils, however, volume
changes and settlement due to external loading take place slowly through the complex hydrodynamic
process known as consolidation.
The effective stress, σ′, can be calculated if the total stress, σ, and porewater pressure, uw, are known.
While the total stress at a point may be readily determined by statics, the local porewater pressure is
a more complex variable. In fine-grained clay-type soils the value of uw for applied increments of
total stress will depend upon the properties of the soil mineral skeleton and the pore fluid and will be
strongly time dependent. The immediate (t=0) response of porewater pressure in a particular soil to
various combinations of applied total stresses is described through the concept of pore pressure
coefficients. From consideration of volume changes in a soil element under applied total stress, the

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change in pore pressure Δu3 due to an applied change in minor principal stress of Δσ3 can be
expressed as
u3  B 3 ........................ (2.2)
where B is an empirical pore pressure coefficient.
If the major principal total stress, σ1, is also then changed, by an increment Δ σ1, the corresponding
change in pore pressure, Δu1, is given by,
u1  A.B. 1   3  ..........................(2.3)
where A is a further empirical coefficient.
The overall change in pore pressure, Δuw, due to changes in both σ3 and σ1 is then given by,
uw  u3  u1  B 3  A. 1   3  ..........................(2.4)
Pore pressure coefficients A and B permit estimation of effective stresses resulting from predicted or
known changes in applied stress. In view of the importance of effective stresses in controlling soil
behaviour, the coefficients are essential predictive tools in the solution of many soil engineering
problems. They are determined in special laboratory triaxial shear strength tests.

Fig. 2.4 Principal stress increments and porewater pressures

Equation (2.4) may be divided by 1 and rearranged as,
u w    3 
 B  B 1  1  A1   …………………….(2.5)
 1    1 

Parameter B is an overall coefficient of particular relevance in the prediction of porewater pressures

generated in the course of embankment dam construction. It is obtained from tests in which the
sample is subjected to stress changes corresponding to those anticipated within the prototype
embankment.
1.1.2 Shear Strength
The shear strength of a soil is defined as the maximum resistance to shearing stresses which can be
mobilized. When this is exceeded failure occurs, usually along identifiable failure surfaces. Shear
strength is usually quantified through two component parameters:
1. Apparent Cohesion, (c), essentially arising from the complex electrical forces binding clay-size
particles together;

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2. Angle of Shearing Resistance (ϕ), developed by inter-particle frictional resistance and particle
interlocking.
The shear strength of a soil at a point on a particular plane can be expressed as a linear function of
the normal stress (  n ), at that same point using the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion:
 f  c   n tan  …………………………..(2.6a)
where  f is the shear strength at failure.
As noted previously, shearing resistance is determined by effective, i.e. inter-particulate rather than
total, stress level. A more appropriate form of equation (2.6a) is therefore
 f  c' n ' tan  ' ….………………………(2.6b)
where c′ and ϕ′ are the shear strength parameters expressed in terms of effective stresses, and σn′ is
the effective normal stress (equation (2.1)). Equations (2.6a) and (2.6b) are represented by the failure
envelopes AB and CD respectively on Fig. 2.5(a). Any combination of normal and shearing stresses
represented by a point above the appropriate Mohr–Coulomb envelope represents a failure state for
the soil; a point below represents a sustainable stress condition. The envelopes AB and CD may be
determined from the results of laboratory shear tests, e.g. by a triaxial shear test (Fig. 2.5(b)), in
which the applied principal stresses σ1 and σ2 (=σ3) acting on a cylindrical specimen enveloped in a
rubber membrane within a water-filled cell (cell pressure, σ3 (=σ2)), are controlled in three
orthogonal directions. It is an indirect shear test in that the inclination of the failure plane is not
predetermined. The vertical (σ1) and horizontal (σ3 (=σ2)) principal stresses do not correspond to the
normal and shear stresses on the failure plane, which must therefore be obtained indirectly, e.g. by
the construction of a Mohr circle plot (Fig. 2.5(c)) or ‘p–q’ plot (not shown). The stress–strain
response of soils plotted from triaxial tests is essentially curvilinear, i.e. there is little elastic response
to load, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Coarse soils such as sands derive their shear strength essentially from particle interlock and internal
friction, and are therefore termed cohesionless (c = 0) or frictional soils. When loaded under
conditions of no drainage, saturated clays may appear to possess cohesion only. Clays are frequently
identified in generic terms as cohesive soils (c > 0, σ = 0). Soils of intermediate type, including the
majority of ‘cohesive’ soils, will exhibit both cohesion and internal friction (a ‘c–ϕ’ soil). The
shearing behaviour of each type can be represented through the Mohr–Coulomb relationships (eqns
2.6(a) and 2.6(b)), giving the example failure envelopes illustrated in Fig. 2.5. The measured shear
strength of frictional soils is controlled largely by density, a higher density giving a greater angle of
shearing resistance, ϕ (Fig. 2.6(a)).
Most engineering problems occur with fine cohesive soils, and arise from the nature of the clay
particles. Because of their low permeability and strong affinity for water, natural clay soils usually
occur in a saturated or near-saturated state. High porewater pressures are generated by changes in
external loading conditions, including construction operations, and are very slow to dissipate. There
is a clear relationship between shear strength and increasing water content: at high water contents the
cohesive forces between clay particles rapidly weaken, resulting in very much reduced shear
strengths.
The important factor influencing the shear strength and consolidation characteristics of saturated clay
is stress history rather than density. If the present in situ effective stresses are the greatest to which
the clay has historically been subjected the clay is described as normally consolidated (NC). If, on
the other hand, previous effective stress levels have been relieved, e.g. as a result of glaciation, the
clay is described as over-consolidated (OC). The ratio of previous maximum effective stress to
present in situ effective stress is the over-consolidation ratio (OCR). NC clays are relatively soft and
compressible. Their undrained shear strength, cu, developed where there is no relief of porewater
pressure by drainage, is proportional to the pressure under which they have consolidated, and
therefore increases with depth. OC clays, such as the glacial tills (OCR=1–3) frequently used in UK
embankment earthfills, are relatively stiff.

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 Fig. 2.5 Failure envelopes and the Mohr–Coulomb criterion

Fig. 2.6 Soil stress–strain response curves

2.3.3 Compressibility and Consolidation

When load is applied to a soil mass compression and settlement may occur in consequence of one or
more of three mechanisms:
1. elastic deformation of the soil particles;
2. compression of the pore fluid;
3. expulsion of the pore fluid from the stressed zone, with rearrangement of the soil particles.
Soil particles and water are sensibly incompressible, and compression or volume decrease in a
saturated fine-grained soil due to applied stress or load is therefore accounted for almost entirely by

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mechanism 3 (expulsion of porewater) as excess porewater pressures dissipate. This hydrodynamic
process is termed consolidation and is mainly relevant to clays and organic soils in which the volume
change process is comparatively slow because of their very low permeability. The consolidation
process is partly reversible, i.e. compressible soils can swell on removal of load. One-dimensional
vertical consolidation characteristics, determined in laboratory oedometer tests, are expressed in
terms of two principal coefficients.
1. The coefficient of volume compressibility, mv, is required to determine the magnitude of time-
dependent primary consolidation settlement:
mv   v /  'v …………………….(2.7)
where  v is the vertical strain increment produced by increment of vertical stress  'v , if no
lateral yielding is permitted.
2. The coefficient of consolidation, cv, is used to establish rates of settlement:
cv  k / mv .γ w ……………………………(2.8)
where k is a coefficient of permeability.

Table 2.2 Descriptive consistency of clay soils (BSI, 1999)

2.3.4 Soil Permeability

Soil permeability is important to problems of seepage, stability of slopes and consolidation. It is also
important in ground engineering processes, e.g. in grouting, and in dewatering. Relative permeability
of saturated soils is assessed by the coefficient of permeability, k, expressed in units of velocity
(m.s-1). It is the most variable of soil properties between the extremes of coarse gravel and an intact
clay, and even within the confines of a notionally uniform soil. Illustrative values of k are given in
Table 2.3. The flow of water in a saturated soil can be represented by,
dh
v  k ………………………………….(2.9)
dl
where v is velocity and dh/dl = i, the hydraulic gradient.
The above relationship applies only if the soil is at or near full saturation and if laminar flow
conditions prevail, and may be rewritten in the form of the familiar Darcy equation:
Q  kiAs …………………………………..(2.10)
where Q is the flow, and As is the gross cross-sectional area subject to flow.
Soil permeabilities are markedly anisotropic, with kh, the coefficient of horizontal permeability,
several times larger than kv, the coefficient of vertical permeability. In compacted earthfills the ratio
kh/kv may exceed 20. The coefficient of horizontal permeability is most reliably determined in situ,
e.g. via field pumping tests in boreholes. Direct and indirect laboratory techniques are also available,
but reproducibility of the results is poor and they are best regarded as indicative of relative orders of
magnitude for permeability rather than as absolute values.

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2.3.5 Compaction
Compaction is the process of densification by expulsion of air from the soil void space, and results in
closer particle packing, improved strength, reduced permeability and reduced settlement. (The
process must not be confused with consolidation, in which volume decrease is a result of the gradual
expulsion of water under applied load). Field compaction of embankment fills is normally achieved
by rolling the earthfill in thin layers, often assisted by vibratory excitation of the plant. The process
may also be applied to in situ soils, and it is the most common and cheapest of large-scale ground
improvement techniques.

The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of dry density, ρd (or dry unit weight γd), i.e.
the mass (or weight) of solids per unit volume of soil exclusive of moisture:
 d   / 1  w ………..……………….. (2.11)
where ρ is the bulk or in situ density, and w is the water content.

2.3.6 Representative engineering properties for soils

Representative ranges of values for the principal engineering properties of a number of generic soil
types in their natural state are presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Illustrative engineering properties for selected soil types (compare with Table 2.6)

1. Values of mv and kh are subject to wide variation; the figures quoted are a guide to the order of magnitude
only.
2. kh >10-4 ms-1 is necessary for good drainage, i.e. for dissipation of excess porewater pressures; kh<10-8 ms-1
corresponds to being virtually impervious.
3. The properties of coarse-grained soils are controlled by relative density and particle shape; those of clay-
type soils are influenced by their nature and stress history etc.

2.0 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF AN EMBANKMENT DAM:

Dams are a critical and essential part of the Nation’s infrastructure for the storage and management
of water in watersheds. To meet the dam safety requirements, the design, construction, operation,
and modification of an embankment dam must comply with the following technical requirements:
• The dam, foundation, and abutments must be stable under all static and dynamic loading
conditions.
• Seepage through the foundation, abutments, and embankment must be controlled and collected to
ensure safe operation. The intent is to prevent excessive uplift pressures, piping of materials,
sloughing removal of material by solution, or erosion of this material into cracks, joints, and cavities.
In addition, the project purpose may impose a limitation on allowable quantity of seepage. The
design should include seepage control measures such as foundation cutoffs, adequate and nonbrittle

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impervious zones, transition zones, drainage material and blankets, upstream impervious blankets,
adequate core contact area, and relief wells.
• The freeboard must be sufficient to prevent overtopping by waves and include an allowance for
settlement of the foundation and embankment.
• The spillway and outlet capacity must be sufficient to prevent over-topping of the embankment by
the reservoir.

3.0. SELECTION OF EMBANKMENT TYPE

a. General. Site conditions that may lead to selection of an earth or a rock-fill dam rather than a
concrete dam (or roller-compacted concrete dam) include a wide stream valley, lack of firm rock
abutments, considerable depths of soil overlying bedrock, poor quality bedrock from a structural
point of view, availability of sufficient quantities of suitable soils or rock fill, and existence of a good
site for a spillway of sufficient capacity.
b. Topography. Topography, to a large measure, dictates the first choice of type of dam. A narrow
V-shaped valley with sound rock in abutments would favour an arch dam. A relatively narrow valley
with high, rocky walls would suggest a rock fill or concrete dam (or roller-compacted concrete).
Conversely, a wide valley with deep overburden would suggest an earth dam. Irregular valleys might
suggest a composite structure, partly earth and partly concrete. Composite sections might also be
used to provide a concrete spillway while the rest of the dam is constructed as an embankment
section. The possibility of cracking resulting from arching in narrow valleys and shear cracks in the
vicinity of steep abutments must be investigated and may play a role in the selection of the type of
dam. Topography may also influence the selection of appurtenant structures. Natural saddles may
provide a spillway location. If the reservoir rim is high and unbroken, a chute or tunnel spillway may
be necessary (Bureau of Reclamation 1984).
c. Geology and foundation conditions. The geology and foundation conditions at the damsite may
dictate the type of dam suitable for that site. Competent rock foundations with relatively high shear
strength and resistance to erosion and percolation offer few restrictions as to the type of dam that can
be built at the site. Gravel foundations, if well compacted, are suitable for earth or rock-fill dams.
Special precautions must be taken to provide adequate seepage control and/or effective water cutoffs
or seals. Also, the liquefaction potential of gravel foundations should be investigated (Sykora et al.
1992). Silt or fine sand foundations can be used for low concrete (or roller-compacted concrete) and
earth dams but are not suitable for rock-fill dams. The main problems include settlement, prevention
of piping, excessive percolation losses, and protection of the foundation at the downstream
embankment toe from erosion. Non-dispersive clay foundations may be used for earth dams but
require flat embankment slopes because of relatively low foundation shear strength. Because of the
requirement for flatter slopes and the tendency for large settlements, clay foundations are generally
not suitable for concrete (or roller-compacted concrete) or rock-fill dams (Golze 1977, Bureau of
Reclamation 1984).
d. Materials available. The most economical type of dam will often be one for which materials can
be found within a reasonable haul distance from the site, including material which must be excavated
for the dam foundation, spillway, outlet works, powerhouses, and other appurtenant structures.
Materials which may be available near or on the dam-site include soils for embankments, rock for
embankments and riprap, and concrete aggregate (sand, gravel, and crushed stone). Materials from
required excavations may be stockpiled for later use. However, greater savings will result if
construction scheduling allows direct use of required excavations. If suitable soils for an earth-fill
dam can be found in nearby borrow pits, an earth dam may prove to be more economical. The
availability of suitable rock may favour a rock-fill dam. The availability of suitable sand and gravel
for concrete at a reasonable cost locally or onsite is favourable to use for a concrete (or roller-
compacted concrete) dam (Bureau of Reclamation 1984).

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e. Spillway. The size, type, and restrictions on location of the spillway are often controlling factors in
the choice of the type of dam. When a large spillway is to be constructed, it may be desirable to
combine the spillway and dam into one structure, indicating a concrete overflow dam. In some cases
where required excavation from the spillway channel can be utilized in the dam embankment, an
earth or rock-fill dam may be advantageous.
f. Environmental. Recently environmental considerations have become very important in the design
of dams and can have a major influence on the type of dam selected. The principal influence of
environmental concerns on selection of a specific type of dam is the need to consider protection of
the environment, which can affect the type of dam, its dimensions, and location of the spillway and
appurtenant facilities (Golze 1977).
g. Economic. The final selection of the type of dam should be made only after careful analysis and
comparison of possible alternatives, and after thorough economic analyses that include costs of
spillway, power and control structures, and foundation treatment.

3.1. Environmental Considerations

Public Law 91-190, National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended, and the Clean Water
Act of 1977 established the national policy for promoting efforts that will prevent or mitigate
damage to the Nation’s rivers and to the environment. The goal is to achieve clean and healthy
watersheds that support aquatic life, economic development, and human needs. Managing water
resources in a river basin has an impact on its natural water cycle. The scale of the impact depends
on the actual size and natural condition of the area to be developed and the extent of development.
Mitigation measures are essential elements in the planning, design, construction, and operation of a
project, including clearing of vegetation in the area to be flooded, multilevel outlet structures to
optimize downstream water temperature and quality, provisions for the migration of fish and other
aquatic organisms, and operational rules for regulating downstream flows at critical times to protect
habitat for reproduction or migratory routes. Appropriate site selection, together with the
implementation of these techniques, will result in both new and rehabilitated projects that minimize
unacceptable environmental impacts. Environmental conservation includes mitigation and
enhancement for new projects, maintaining the existing conditions and restoration where appropriate.

4.0 PRINCIPLES OF EMBANKMENT DAM DESIGN

4.1 Types and key elements
In its simplest and oldest form the embankment dam was constructed with low-permeability soils to
a nominally homogeneous profile. The section featured neither internal drainage nor a cut-off. Dams
of this type proved vulnerable to problems associated with uncontrolled seepage, but there was little
progress in design prior to the 19th century. It was then increasingly recognized that, in principle,
larger embankment dams required two component elements:
1. an impervious water-retaining element or core of very low permeability soil, e.g. soft clay or a
heavily remoulded ‘puddle’ clay, and
2. supporting shoulders of coarser earthfill (or of rockfill), to provide structural stability.
As a further design principle, from c.1860 the shoulders were frequently subject to a degree of
simple ‘zoning’, with finer more cohesive soils placed adjacent to the core element and coarser fill
material towards either face. Present embankment dam design practice retains both principles.
Compacted fine-grained silty or clayey earthfills, or in some instances manufactured materials, e.g.
asphalt or concrete, are employed for the impervious core element. Subject to their availability,
coarser fills of different types ranging up to coarse rockfill are compacted into designated zones
within either shoulder, where the characteristics of each can best be deployed within an effective and
stable profile. The principal advantages of the embankment dam which explain its continuing

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predominance were outlined in earlier sections. Figures 1.2 and 1.3 illustrated the more important
variants of embankment dam, and brief supplementary notes on each are given below:
Homogeneous embankments (Figs1.2(a) and (b)) are now generally confined to smaller, less
important dams and to dykes in river engineering (see Section 2.10 and Chapter 8). They require
ready availability of sufficient low permeability soil, and careful design and internal detailing is
necessary to control seepage and porewater pressures. The central core earthfill profile, illustrated in
Figs 1.2(c)–1.2(e), is the most common for larger embankment dams. Narrow cores of soft
compressible ‘puddle’ clay or of concrete, as in the profiles of Figs 1.2(c) and 1.2(d), have been
displaced since 1940–1950 by the technically superior wide rolled clay core profile of Fig. 1.2(e).
The characteristics of soft puddle clays, as used in the obsolete profile of Fig 1.2(c), are reviewed in
Moffat (2002), as there are many such dams in service. The slender core can prove vulnerable to
fracturing and internal erosion (Section 2.7.2), the wide core offering lower internal hydraulic
gradients. The change to the wide core was coincident with the development of soil mechanics
theory and with the introduction of high-capacity earthmoving and compaction plant. Core base
width is now generally 20–40% of the height of the embankment (refer also to Figs 2.10(a) and (b)).
Central and inclined core dams with shoulders of graded compacted rockfill are shown in Figs 1.2(f),
1.3(a) and 1.3(b). The inclined core profile of Fig. 1.3(b) is sometimes considered advantageous in
moderating the risk of core cracking as a result of load transfer between compressible core and stiffer
rockfill shoulder.
The decked rockfill embankment is illustrated in Fig. 1.3(c) and depicts an asphaltic or concrete
impermeable upstream membrane. Thin asphaltic membranes (0.15–0.30 m thick) are now widely
employed where soil suitable for core construction is either not available or uneconomic. An
asphaltic membrane can accept a degree of deformation without rupture. Thicker (0.6–1.2m)
asphaltic membranes are also widely employed in the less vulnerable central position indicated in
Fig. 1.3(d) (and Fig. 2.17).
Selection of the optimum type of embankment for a specific location is determined largely by the
nature and availability of different fill materials in sufficient quantity. The much steeper face slopes
possible with compacted rockfill shoulders (Figs 1.2(f) and 1.3(a)–(d)) can reduce the quantities of
fill required for a given height of dam by 30–50%.
The primary loads acting on an embankment do not differ in principle from those applicable to
gravity dams were outlined. There are, however, the conceptual differences there referred to with
regard to the water load which, in the case of all but decked embankments, is exerted inside the
upstream shoulder fill. Self-weight load, similarly a distributed internal body load, is significant with
respect to stability and internal stress for the embankment and for a compressible soil foundation.
Because of such differences, embankment dam analysis is less formalized and is carried out quite
differently from concrete dam analysis. This will be developed further following consideration of the
defects and failure modes which may affect embankment dams.

4.2 Defect Mechanisms, Failure Modes and Design Principles

The principal defect mechanisms and failure modes identifiable with embankment dams are
illustrated in schematic form in Fig. 2.8. Certain mechanisms are interrelated, e.g. overtopping may
result from inadequate spillway capacity or from a lack of freeboard which may, in turn, be the result
of long-term deformation and settlement. The internal erosion and overtopping mechanisms are of
particular concern, each being responsible for c. 30–35% of serious incidents and failures. In
drawing attention to the principal risks to be guarded against the schematic diagrams of Fig. 2.8 also
highlight the principal design considerations:
1. Overtopping and freeboard. Spillway and outlet capacity must be sufficient to pass the design
maximum flood (Section 4.2) without over-stopping and risk of serious erosion and possible washout
of the embankment. Freeboard, i.e. the difference between maximum watertight (i.e. core) level and

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minimum crest level of the dam, must also be sufficient to accept the design flood plus wave action
without overtopping, and must include an allowance for the predicted long-term settlement of the
embankment and foundation.

Fig. 2.8 Illustrative embankment defect mechanisms and failure modes

2. Stability. The embankment, including its foundation, must be stable under construction and under
all conditions of reservoir operation. The face slopes must therefore be sufficiently flat to ensure that
internal and foundation stresses remain within acceptable limits.
3. Control of seepage. Seepage within and under the embankment must be controlled to prevent
concealed internal erosion and migration of fine materials, e.g. from the core, or external erosion and

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sloughing. Hydraulic gradients, seepage pressures and seepage velocities within and under the dam
must therefore be contained at levels acceptable for the materials concerned.
4. Upstream face protection. The upstream face must be protected against local erosion as a result of
wave action, ice movement, etc.
5. Outlet and ancillary works. Care must be taken to ensure that outlet or other facilities constructed
through the dam do not permit unobstructed passage of seepage water along their perimeter with risk
of soil migration and piping. Details of the more important defect mechanisms in relation to
illustrative examples of causes and preventive measures are set out in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Embankment dam defect mechanisms and preventive measures

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 Fig. 2.10 Representative UK rolled clay core embankment dams: (a) Kielder (1982); (b) Lower Lliw (1978)

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 ASSIGNMENTS
HA(13)[ to be submitted by 17/09/2021 –1800hrs]
The section of a Solid Gravity Dam of mass concrete with specific gravity = 2.40 is shown in the
figure (on the right) with elevation in MSL. For full reservoir level (FRL) conditions, (i) analyse
the various forces at the base section of the dam (in tabular format) for no tailwater conditions.
Then determine (ii) the net moment for those respective forces about the toe of the dam to check
its stability (sign convention : take anticlockwise moments about toe as +ve).
Neglect seismic forces, silt pressure, wave forces, ice loads and wind loads. Take uplift factor as
0.70. Assume any other data not provided.

HA(14)[ to b esubmitted by 18/09/2021–1800 hrs]

The cross-section of a low gravity dam is shown in figure (on the right) with crest width of
5m. For the condition of reservoir to be full (MWL), determine:
(i) The normal stress ;
(ii) The principal stress ;
(iii) Stability of this dam section at the base. Consider full uplift forces as per U.S.B.R.
recommendations.
Neglect earthquake forces, wave pressure and silt pressure along with wind and ice loads.
Assume any other appropriate data/coefficient.

CE-405 HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING : Lecture Notes – Online Classes (Odd Sem–2021) 14

[ NB: Worked out Class Assignments/Examples are provided in following pages ]

HA (15) [  to be submitted by 21/09/2021 – 1800 hrs ]

A section of a homogeneous Earth Dam is shown in the figure below (Fig 1.10). Draw the
phreatic (seepage) line and evaluate the seepage discharge per metre length through the
body of the dam. The coefficient of permeability of the earth material used in the dam may
be taken as 8 × 10-5 m/s.

Fig. 1.10 Section of Embankment (Earth) Dam (with ref, to HA-3 & 4)
HA (16) [  to be submitted by 22/09/2021 – 1800 hrs ]
For the Earth Dam made of homogeneous material with a downstream
horizontal filter (blanket) as in the above figure (Fig. 1.10), the following data
pertains:
(A) Hydraulic Data:
Level of Top of Dam = 210.00 m
Level of deepest river bed = 192.00 m
High Flood Level (HFL) of reservoir = 208.00 m
Width of Top of Dam = 10.00 m
Upstream (U/S) slope = 2.5H:1.0V
Downstream (D/S) slope = 2.0H:1.0V
Length of horizontal filter from D/S toe = 16.0 m
(B) Material Properties of the Main Dam Body:
Dry Density = 18.0 kN/m3
Saturation Density = 21.0 kN/m3
Average angle of friction of earth material (ϕ) = 30°
Average Cohesion (c) = 16.0 kN/m3
(C) Foundation Soil Material Properties (4 m thick layer) of the Dam:
Average Unit Weight = 17.0 kN/m3
Average angle of friction of earth material (ϕF) = 7°
Average Cohesion (cF) = 54.0 kN/m3
Neglect coefficient of permeability of the foundation material.
Analyse the dam section for the following conditions:
(i) Overall stability of the dam section,
(ii) Stability (sloughing) of U/S dam slope during sudden drawdown,
(iii) Stability of dam foundation against shear (neglect vertical shear).

*******************************************************************************

CE-405 HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING : Lecture Notes – Online Classes (Odd Sem–2021) 15

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