Schlumberger Geology

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1. The field originated during the 1960s with the study of the stratigraphy of the continental USA, ...
where numerous unconformities could be correlated widely, and led to the proposal that major
unconformities might mark synchronous global-scale events. Through sequence stratigraphy,
widely-separated sediments that occur between correlatable unconformities could be compared
with each other. Studies of outcrops and seismic lines bore out these concepts, which initially were
called "Seismic Stratigraphy" and first published widely in 1977. Further study of seismic lines led
to the interpretation of the geometry or architecture of seismic events as representing particular
styles of sedimentation and depositional environments, and the integration of such
interpretations with well log and core data. Because of the simultaneous, competitive nature of
the research, numerous oil companies and academic groups use the terminology of sequence
stratigraphy differently, and new terms are added continually.
2. illite A group of clay minerals
formed during the alteration
of silicate minerals such as
mica and feldspar and
commonly found in marine
shales.
3. immature Pertaining to a hydrocarbon
source rock that has not fully
entered optimal conditions
for generation.
4. immiscible Pertaining to a condition in
which two fluids are
incapable of forming
molecularly distributed
mixtures or attaining
homogeneity at that scale.
The fluids separate into two
phases with an interface
between them. For example,
oil and water are immiscible.
5. impermeable Pertaining to a rock that is
incapable of transmitting
fluids because of low
permeability. Shale has a
high porosity, but its pores
are small and disconnected,
so it is relatively
impermeable. Impermeable
rocks are desirable sealing
rocks or cap rocks for
reservoirs because
hydrocarbons cannot pass
through them readily.
6. incompetent Pertaining to strata that are
relatively ductile and tend to
flow under stress rather than
deform by brittle faulting or
fracturing. The bed thickness
of incompetent beds tends
to change during
deformation.
7. injectite Structures formed by sediment injection. Because they resemble intrusive and extrusive igneous features, much of the
vocabulary for describing injectites, or clastic intrusions, comes from igneous geology. Sills are emplaced parallel to
bedding, whereas dikes cut through bedding. The strata containing the intrusion are called host strata and the layers that
feed the intrusion are the parent beds. Sand-injection features exhibit size scales from millimeters to kilometers, and have
been seen in cores, borehole image logs, seismic sections, outcrops, aerial photographs and satellite images.
8. inversion The reversal of features, particularly structural features such as faults, by reactivation. For example, a normal fault might
move in a direction opposite to its initial movement.
9. isochore A contour connecting points of equal true vertical thickness of strata, formations, reservoirs or other rock units. A map
that displays isochores is an isochore map. The terms isopach and isopach map are incorrectly used interchangeably to
describe isochores and isochore maps. Isopachs and isochores are equivalent only if the rock layer is horizontal.
10. isopach A contour that connects points of equal thickness. Commonly, the isopachs, or contours that make up an isopach map,
display the stratigraphic thickness of a rock unit as opposed to the true vertical thickness. Isopachs are true stratigraphic
thicknesses; i.e., perpendicular to bedding surfaces.
11. isotropic Directionally uniform, such that the physical properties of the material do not vary in different directions. In rocks,
changes in physical properties in different directions, such as the alignment of mineral grains or the seismic velocity
measured parallel or perpendicular to bedding surfaces, are forms of anisotropy. (Compare with homogeneity).
12. isotropy A quality of directional uniformity in material such that physical properties do not vary in different directions. In rocks,
changes in physical properties in different directions, such as the alignment of mineral grains or the seismic velocity
measured parallel or perpendicular to bedding surfaces, are forms of anisotropy. (Compare with homogeneity.)
13. joint A surface of breakage, cracking or separation within a rock along which there has been no movement parallel to the
defining plane. The usage by some authors can be more specific: When walls of a fracture have moved only normal to
each other, the fracture is called a joint.
14. kaolinite A type of clay mineral from the kaolin group that forms through the weathering of feldspar and mica group minerals.
Unlike some clay minerals like montmorillonite, kaolinite is not prone to shrinking or swelling with changes in water
content.
15. karst A type of topography formed in areas of widespread carbonate rocks through dissolution. Sink holes, caves and pock-
marked surfaces are typical features of a karst topography.
16. kerogen The naturally occurring, solid, insoluble organic matter that occurs in source rocks and can yield oil upon heating. This is
the portion of naturally occurring organic matter that is nonextractable using organic solvents. Typical organic
constituents of kerogen are algae and woody plant material. Kerogens have a high molecular weight relative to bitumen,
or soluble organic matter. Bitumen forms from kerogen during petroleum generation. Kerogens are described as Type I,
consisting of mainly algal and amorphous (but presumably algal) kerogen and highly likely to generate oil; Type II,
mixed terrestrial and marine source material that can generate waxy oil; and Type III, woody terrestrial source material
that typically generates gas.
17. lacustrine Pertaining to an environment of deposition in lakes, or an area having lakes. Because deposition of sediment in lakes can
occur slowly and in relatively calm conditions, organic-rich source rocks can form in lacustrine environments.
18. lamination A fine layer (~ 1 mm thick) in strata, also called a lamina, common in fine-grained sedimentary rocks such as shale,
siltstone and fine sandstone. A sedimentary bed comprises multiple laminations, or laminae.
19. lease 1. The act of acquiring acreage for exploration or production activity. 2. An area of surface land on which exploration or
production activity occurs.
20. limestone A carbonate sedimentary rock predominantly composed of calcite of organic, chemical or detrital origin. Minor amounts
of dolomite, chert and clay are common in limestones. Chalk is a form of fine-grained limestone.
21. lineament A long linear or gently curving feature on the surface of a terrestrial planet or moon that is suggestive of an underlying
geologic structure or contact. Most lineaments are identified through remote sensing, such as satellite imagery or
topographic, gravimetric and magnetic data.
22. listric A normal fault that flattens with depth and typically found in extensional regimes. This flattening manifests itself as a
fault curving, concave-up fault plane whose dip decreases with depth.
23. lithification The process by which unconsolidated sediments become sedimentary rock. Sediments typically are derived from
preexisting rocks by weathering, transported and redeposited, and then buried and compacted by overlying
sediments. Cementation causes the sediments to harden, or lithify, into rock.
24. lithofacies A mappable subdivision of a stratigraphic unit that can be distinguished by its facies or lithology-the texture,
mineralogy, grain size, and the depositional environment that produced it.
25. lithologic The surface that separates rock bodies of different lithologies, or rock types. A contact can be conformable or
contact unconformable depending upon the types of rock, their relative ages and their attitudes. A fault surface can also
serve as a contact.
26. lithology The macroscopic nature of the mineral content, grain size, texture and color of rocks.
27. lithosphere The brittle outer layer of the Earth that includes the crust and uppermost mantle. It is made up of six major and
several minor tectonic plates that move around on the softer asthenosphere. The lithosphere of the oceans tends
to be thinner (in some oceanic areas, less than 50 km [30 miles] thick) and more dense than that of the continents
(more than 120 km [70 miles] thick in places like the Himalayas) because of isostasy. The movement of the plates
of the lithosphere results in convergence, or collisions, that can form mountain belts and subduction zones, and
divergence of the plates and the creation of new crust as material wells up from below separating plates. The
lithosphere and asthenosphere are distinguished from the crust, mantle and core of the Earth on the basis of their
mechanical behavior and not their composition.
28. lithostatic The pressure of the weight of overburden, or overlying rock, on a formation; also called geostatic pressure.
pressure
29. lithostratigraphy The study and correlation of strata to elucidate Earth history on the basis of their lithology, or the nature of the
well log response, mineral content, grain size, texture and color of rocks.
30. littoral Pertaining to an environment of deposition affected by tides, the area between high tide and low tide. Given the
variation of tides and land forms from place to place, geologists describe littoral zones locally according to the
fauna capable of surviving periodic exposure and submersion.
31. low velocity Also known as weathered layer, a near-surface, possibly unconsolidated layer of low seismic velocity. The base of
layer the weathered layer commonly coincides with the water table and a sharp increase in seismic velocity. The
weathered layer typically has air-filled pores.
32. Ma Mega annum. The abbreviation for million years that is most commonly used in the geologic literature.
33. mafic Pertaining to minerals or igneous rocks composed of minerals that are rich in iron and magnesium, dense, and
typically dark in color. The term comes from the words magnesium and ferric. Common mafic minerals are olivine
and pyroxene. Basalt is a mafic igneous rock. (Compare with felsic.)
34. magma The molten rock in the Earth that can either rise to the surface as lava and form extrusive igneous rock or cool
within the Earth to form plutonic igneous rock.
35. Magnetic The periodic switching of the magnetic north and south poles of the Earth throughout time, probably as a result of
Reversal movement of fluid within the Earth's core. The onset and duration of the many episodes of reversed polarity have
Sequence been documented by examining the polarity of magnetic minerals within rocks of different ages from around the
(MRS) world, particularly in basalts or igneous rocks of the oceanic crust. Oceanic basalts record the Earth's magnetic
field as they solidify from molten lava symmetrically on each side of the midoceanic ridges. These data have been
compiled to create a time scale known as the geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS). In the oil field, borehole
recordings allow direct correlation to GPTS and well-to-well correlations.
36. mantle The intermediate layer of the Earth beneath the crust that is about 2900 km thick [1820 miles] and overlies the core
of the Earth. The mantle consists of dense igneous rocks like pyroxenite and dunite, composed of the minerals
pyroxene and olivine. The crust, mantle and core of the Earth are distinguished from the lithosphere and
asthenosphere on the basis of their composition and not their mechanical behavior. The Mohorovicic discontinuity
abruptly separates the crust from the mantle, where the velocity of compressional waves is significantly higher.
37. marine Pertaining to sediments or environments in seas or ocean waters, between the depth of low tide and the ocean
bottom.
38. marsh An environment from which water rarely drains that supports primarily grassy vegetation and does not form peat.
39. massif A block of rock that forms a structural or topographic feature, such as a block of igneous of metamorphic rock
within an area of mountain building, or orogeny. A massif can be as large as a mountain and is typically more
rigid than the rocks that surround it.
40. matrix The finer grained, interstitial particles that lie between larger particles or in which larger particles are
embedded in sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and conglomerates.
41. maturity The state of a source rock with respect to its ability to generate oil or gas. As a source rock begins to mature, it
generates gas. As an oil-prone source rock matures, the generation of heavy oils is succeeded by medium and
light oils. Above a temperature of approximately 100 oC [212 oF], only dry gas is generated, and incipient
metamorphism is imminent. The maturity of a source rock reflects the ambient pressure and temperature as well
as the duration of conditions favorable for hydrocarbon generation.
42. metamorphic One of three main classes of rock. These rocks form from the alteration of preexisting rocks by changes in
ambient temperature, pressure, volatile content, or all of these. Such changes can occur through the activity of
fluids in the Earth and movement of igneous bodies or regional tectonic activity. The texture of metamorphic
rocks can vary from almost homogeneous, or nonfoliated, to foliated rocks with a strong planar fabric or
foliation produced by alignment of minerals during recrystallization or by reorientation. Common foliated
metamorphic rocks include gneiss, schist and slate. Marble, or metamorphosed limestone, can be foliated or
non-foliated. Hornfels is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock. Graphite, chlorite, talc, mica, garnet and staurolite are
distinctive metamorphic minerals.
43. metamorphism The process by which the characteristics of rocks are altered or the rock is recrystallized. Metamorphism of
igneous, sedimentary, or preexisting metamorphic rock can produce new metamorphic rock. Such alteration
occurs as rocks respond to changes in temperatures, pressures and fluids, commonly along the edges of
colliding lithospheric plates. The pressures and temperatures at which metamorphism occurs are higher than
those of diagenesis, but no clear boundary between the two has been established.
44. methane The lightest and most abundant of the hydrocarbon gases and the principal component of natural gas. Methane
is a colorless, odorless gas that is stable under a wide range of pressure and temperature conditions in the
absence of other compounds.
45. methane hydrate An unusual occurrence of hydrocarbon in which molecules of methane are trapped in ice molecules. More
generally, hydrates are compounds in which gas molecules are trapped within a crystal structure. Hydrates form
in cold climates, such as permafrost zones and in deep water. To date, economic liberation of hydrocarbon
gases from hydrates has not occurred, but hydrates contain quantities of hydrocarbons that could be of great
economic significance. Hydrates can affect seismic data by creating a reflection or multiple.
46. mica A group of sheet silicates characterized by a platy appearance and basal cleavage most common in igneous
and metamorphic rocks. Several clay minerals, such as chlorite and glauconite, are closely related to the mica
group.
47. micrite Dense, fine-grained carbonate mud or rocks composed of mud that forms by erosion of larger carbonate
grains, organic precipitation (such as from algae), or inorganic precipitation. The grains in micrite are generally
less than 4 microns in size.
48. micropaleontology The study of microfossils too small to be seen without the use of a microscope. Marine microfossils such as
foraminifera are important for stratigraphic correlation.
49. midoceanic ridge The mountainous, linear axis of ocean basins along which rifting occurs and new oceanic crust forms as
magma wells up and solidifies. The most prominent midoceanic ridges are those of the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans. The new crust is made of mafic igneous rock called basalt, commonly referred to as midocean ridge
basalt, or MORB, whose composition reflects that of the deeper mantle of the Earth. The presence of the
spreading plate boundaries of the midoceanic ridges; their symmetrically spreading, successively older crust
outward from the ridge; and the lack of oceanic crust older than approximately 200 Ma support the theory of
plate tectonics and the recycling of oceanic crust through the process of subduction.
50. migrate For hydrocarbons to move from their source into reservoir rocks. The movement of newly generated hydrocarbons
out of their source rock is primary migration, also called expulsion. The further movement of the hydrocarbons into
reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of accumulation is secondary migration. Migration typically
occurs from a structurally low area to a higher area because of the relative buoyancy of hydrocarbons in
comparison to the surrounding rock. Migration can be local or can occur along distances of hundreds of
kilometers in large sedimentary basins, and is critical to the formation of a viable petroleum system.
51. migration The movement of hydrocarbons from their source into reservoir rocks. The movement of newly generated
hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary migration, also called expulsion. The further movement of the
hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of accumulation is secondary migration.
Migration typically occurs from a structurally low area to a higher area because of the relative buoyancy of
hydrocarbons in comparison to the surrounding rock. Migration can be local or can occur along distances of
hundreds of kilometers in large sedimentary basins, and is critical to the formation of a viable petroleum system.
52. Milankovitch The variation of the Earth's exposure to the sun's rays, or insolation, that results from variations in the orbit of the
cycles Earth and the tilt of its axis, and that might affect climate, sea level and sedimentation. Such variations are thought
to occur in distinct time periods on the order of thousands of years. Ice ages might be a consequence of
Milankovitch cycles. Milutin Milankovitch (1879 to 1958) was a Yugoslavian mathematician and physicist who
specialized in studies of solar radiation and the orbit of the Earth.
53. millions of What is MYBP
years before
present
54. mineral A crystalline substance that is naturally occurring, inorganic, and has a unique or limited range of chemical
compositions. These are homogeneous, having a definite atomic structure. Rocks are composed of These, except
for rare exceptions like coal, which is a rock but not a mineral because of its organic origin. Minerals are
distinguished from one another by careful observation or measurement of physical properties such as density,
crystal form, cleavage (tendency to break along specific surfaces because of atomic structure), fracture
(appearance of broken surfaces), hardness, luster and color. Magnetism, taste and smell are useful ways to identify
only a few minerals.
55. miscible Pertaining to a condition in which two or more fluids can mix in all proportions and form a single homogeneous
phase.
56. Moho The boundary between the crust and the mantle of the Earth, which varies from approximately 5 km [3 miles]
under the midoceanic ridges to 75 km [46 miles] deep under the continents. This boundary, commonly called "the
Moho," was recognized in 1909 by Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic on the basis of its abruptly higher
compressional wave (P-wave) velocity.
57. Mohorovicic The boundary between the crust and the mantle of the Earth, which varies from approximately 5 km [3 miles]
discontinuity under the midoceanic ridges to 75 km [46 miles] deep under the continents. This boundary, commonly called "the
Moho," was recognized in 1909 by Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic on the basis of its abruptly higher
compressional wave (P-wave) velocity.
58. moldic porosity A type of secondary porosity created through the dissolution of a preexisting constituent of a rock, such as a shell,
rock fragment or grain. The pore space preserves the shape, or mold, of the dissolved material.
59. montmorillonite A type of smectite clay mineral that tends to swell when exposed to water. this forms through the alteration of
silicate minerals in alkaline conditions in basic igneous rocks, such as volcanic ash that can accumulate in the
oceans. Montmorillonite is a component of bentonite commonly used in drilling fluids.
60. My Abbreviation for million years apart from Ma.
61. natural A crack or surface of breakage within rock not related to foliation or cleavage in metamorphic rock along which
fracture there has been no movement. A fracture along which there has been displacement is a fault. When walls of a
fracture have moved only normal to each other, the fracture is called a joint. Fractures can enhance permeability of
rocks greatly by connecting pores together, and for that reason, fractures are induced mechanically in some
reservoirs in order to boost hydrocarbon flow. Fractures may also be referred to as natural fractures to distinguish
them from fractures induced as part of a reservoir stimulation or drilling operation. In some shale reservoirs, natural
fractures improve production by enhancing effective permeability. In other cases, natural fractures can complicate
reservoir stimulation.
62. natural gas A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbon gases that is highly compressible and expansible. Methane [CH4] is
the chief constituent of most natural gas (constituting as much as 85% of some natural gases), with lesser amounts of
ethane [C2H6], propane [C3H8], butane [C4H10] and pentane [C5H12]. Impurities can also be present in large
proportions, including carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen and hydrogen sulfide.
63. neritic Describing the environment and conditions of the marine zone between low tide and the edge of the continental
shelf, a depth of roughly 200 m [656 ft]. A neritic environment supports marine organisms, also described as neritic,
that are capable of surviving in shallow water with moderate exposure to sunlight.
64. nonconformity A geological surface that separates younger overlying sedimentary strata from eroded igneous or metamorphic
rocks and represents a large gap in the geologic record.
65. normal fault A type of fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall, and the fault surface dips steeply,
commonly from 50º to 90º. Groups of normal faults can produce horst and graben topography, or a series of
relatively high- and low-standing fault blocks, as seen in areas where the crust is rifting or being pulled apart by
plate tectonic activity. A growth fault is a type of normal fault that forms during sedimentation and typically has
thicker strata on the downthrown hanging wall than the footwall.
66. normal The pore pressure of rocks that is considered normal in areas in which the change in pressure per unit of depth is
pressure. Ask equivalent to hydrostatic pressure. The normal hydrostatic pressure gradient for freshwater is 0.433 pounds per
what is square inch per foot (psi/ft), or 9.792 kilopascals per meter (kPa/m), and 0.465 psi/ft for water with 100,000 ppm
pressure total dissolved solids (a typical Gulf Coast water), or 10.516 kPa/m.
gradient for
freshwater
and for water
with dissolved
solids
67. offset The horizontal displacement between points on either side of a fault, which can range from millimeters to
kilometers. Perhaps the most readily visible examples of offset are features such as fences or roads that have been
displaced by strike-slip faults, such as the San Andreas fault of California, USA.
68. oil field An accumulation, pool or group of pools of oil in the subsurface. A this consists of a reservoir in a shape that will
trap hydrocarbons and that is covered by an impermeable or sealing rock. Typically, industry professionals use the
term with an implied assumption of economic size.
69. oil kitchen An area of the subsurface where source rock has reached appropriate conditions of pressure and temperature to
generate liquid hydrocarbons as opposed to gas.
70. oil pool A subsurface oil accumulation. An oil field can consist of one or more of these or distinct reservoirs within a single
large trap. The term "pool" can create the erroneous impression that oil fields are immense caverns filled with oil,
instead of rock filled with small oil-filled pores.
71. oil-prone The quality of a source rock that makes it more likely to generate oil than gas. The nature of the organic matter
(kerogen) in source rocks varies from coaly, plant-like material commonly found in terrestrial source rocks to algal
or other marine material that makes up marine source rocks. Marine source rocks are commonly oil-prone.
72. oil sand A porous sand layer or sand body filled with oil.
73. oil water A bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly oil occurs and below which predominantly water
contact occurs. Although oil and water are immiscible, the contact between oil and water is commonly a transition zone and
there is usually irreducible water adsorbed by the grains in the rock and immovable oil that cannot be produced. The
oil-water contact is not always a flat horizontal surface, but instead might be tilted or irregular.
74. onlap The termination of shallowly dipping, younger strata against more steeply dipping, older strata, or the termination of
low-angle reflections in seismic data against steeper reflections. Onlap is a particular pattern of reflections in
seismic data that, according to principles of sequence stratigraphy, occurs during periods of transgression.
75. orogenic Pertaining to a major episode of plate tectonic activity in which lithospheric plates collide and produce mountain
belts, in some cases including the formation of subduction zones and igneous activity. Thrust faults and folds are
typical geological structures seen in areas of orogeny.
76. outcrop A body of rock exposed at the surface of the Earth. Construction of highways and other man-made facilities and
resultant removal of soil and rock has created spectacular outcrops in some regions.
77. overburden The weight of overlying rock. Rock overlying an area or point of interest in the subsurface.
78. overmature Pertaining to a hydrocarbon source rock that has generated as much hydrocarbon as possible and is becoming
thermally altered.
79. overpressure Subsurface pressure that is abnormally high, exceeding hydrostatic pressure at a given depth. The term geopressure
is commonly, and incorrectly, used synonymously. Abnormally high pore pressure can occur in areas where burial of
fluid-filled sediments is so rapid that pore fluids cannot escape, so the pressure of the pore fluids increases as
overburden increases. Drilling into overpressured strata can be hazardous because overpressured fluids escape
rapidly, so careful preparation is made in areas of known overpressure.
80. overthrust A thrust fault having a relatively large lateral displacement.
81. paleontology The study of fossilized, or preserved, remnants of plant and animal life. Changes in the Earth through time can be
documented by observing changes in the fossils in successive strata and the environments in which they formed or
were preserved. Fossils can also be compared with their extant relatives to assess evolutionary changes.
Correlations of strata can be aided by studying their fossil content, a discipline called biostratigraphy.
82. palustrine Describing material deposited in or growing in a marsh.
83. palynology The study of fossilized remnants of microscopic entities having organic walls, such as pollen, spores and cysts from
algae. Changes in the Earth through time can be documented by studying the distribution of spores and pollen. Well
log and other correlations are enhanced by incorporating palynology. Palynology also has utility in forensics.
84. parallel fold The deformation of rock layers in which the thickness of each layer, measured perpendicular to initial (undeformed)
layering, is maintained after the rock layers have been folded.
85. parasequence Relatively conformable depositional units bounded by surfaces of marine flooding, surfaces that separate older
strata from younger and show an increase in water depth in successively younger strata. Parasequences are usually
too thin to discern on seismic data, but when added together, they form sets called parasequence sets that are
visible on seismic data.
86. passive The margin of a continent and ocean that does not coincide with the boundary of a lithospheric plate and along
margin which collision is not occurring. Passive margins are characterized by rifted, rotated fault blocks of thick sediment,
such as the present-day Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic margins of North America.
87. pay A reservoir or portion of a reservoir that contains economically producible hydrocarbons. The term derives from the
fact that it is capable of "paying" an income. Pay is also called pay sand or pay zone. The overall interval in which
pay sections occur is the gross pay; the smaller portions of the gross pay that meet local criteria for pay (such as
minimum porosity, permeability and hydrocarbon saturation) are net pay.
88. permeability The ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to transmit fluids, typically measured in darcies or millidarcies. The term
was basically defined by Henry Darcy, who showed that the common mathematics of heat transfer could be modified
to adequately describe fluid flow in porous media. Formations that transmit fluids readily, such as sandstones, are
described as permeable and tend to have many large, well-connected pores. Impermeable formations, such as shales
and siltstones, tend to be finer grained or of a mixed grain size, with smaller, fewer, or less interconnected pores.
Absolute permeability is the measurement of the permeability conducted when a single fluid, or phase, is present in
the rock. Effective permeability is the ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid through a rock when
other immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir (for example, effective permeability of gas in a gas-water reservoir).
The relative saturations of the fluids as well as the nature of the reservoir affect the effective permeability. Relative
permeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to absolute
permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in a rock, its relative permeability is 1.0.
Calculation of relative permeability allows for comparison of the different abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of
each other, since the presence of more than one fluid generally inhibits flow.
89. petrography The examination of rocks in thin section. Rock samples can be glued to a glass slide and the rock ground to 0.03-mm
thickness in order to observe mineralogy and texture using a microscope. (A petrographic microscope is a transmitted-
light polarizing microscope.) Samples of sedimentary rock can be impregnated with blue epoxy to highlight porosity.
90. petroleum A complex mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbon compounds found in rock. Petroleum can range from solid to
gas, but the term is generally used to refer to liquid crude oil. Impurities such as sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are
common in petroleum. There is considerable variation in color, gravity, odor, sulfur content and viscosity in petroleum
from different areas.
91. petroleum Geologic components and processes necessary to generate and store hydrocarbons, including a mature source rock,
system migration pathway, reservoir rock, trap and seal. Appropriate relative timing of formation of these elements and the
processes of generation, migration and accumulation are necessary for hydrocarbons to accumulate and be
preserved. The components and critical timing relationships of a petroleum system can be displayed in a chart that
shows geologic time along the horizontal axis and the petroleum system elements along the vertical axis. Exploration
plays and prospects are typically developed in basins or regions in which a complete petroleum system has some
likelihood of existing.
92. pinch out To taper to a zero edge.
93. plane table A flat drawing board mounted on a tripod used in combination with an alidade to construct topographic or geologic
maps in the field. A sheet of paper or mylar covering the plane table is annotated during map construction.
94. plankton Minute organisms that float or drift passively near the surface of oceans and seas. Plant-like plankton, or
phytoplankton, include diatoms. Zooplankton are animals that have a limited ability to move themselves. The changes
in plankton over time are useful for estimation of relative ages of rocks that contain the fossilized remains of plankton.
95. plastic Pertaining to a material that can deform permanently without rupturing.
96. plastic Permanent mechanical or physical alteration that does not include rupture. Plastic deformation of rocks typically
deformation occurs at high temperatures and pressures, conditions under which rocks become relatively viscous.
97. plateau A topographic feature consisting of a large flat area at a relatively high elevation with steep sides.
98. plate The unifying geologic theory developed to explain observations that interactions of the brittle plates of the lithosphere
tectonics with each other and with the softer underlying asthenosphere result in large-scale changes in the Earth. The theory of
plate tectonics initially stemmed from observations of the shapes of the continents, particularly South America and
Africa, which fit together like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle and have similar rocks and fossils despite being separated by a
modern ocean. As lithospheric plates heat up or cool down depending on their position, or their tectonic environment,
relative to each other and to warmer areas deeper within the Earth, they become relatively more or less dense than the
asthenosphere and thus tend to rise as molten magma or sink in cold, brittle slabs or slide past each other. Mountain
belts can form during plate collisions or an orogeny; diverging plates or rifts can create new midoceanic ridges; plates
that slide past one another create transform fault zones (such as the San Andreas fault); and zones of subduction occur
where one lithospheric plate moves beneath another. Plate tectonic theory can explain such phenomena as earthquakes,
volcanic or other igneous activity, midoceanic ridges and the relative youth of the oceanic crust, and the formation of
sedimentary basins on the basis of their relationships to lithospheric plate boundaries. Convection of the mantle is
postulated to be the driving mechanism for the movement of lithospheric plates. Measurements of the continents using
the Global Positioning System confirm the relative motions of plates. Age determinations of the oceanic crust confirm
that such crust is much younger than that of the continents and has been recycled by the process of subduction and
regenerated at midoceanic ridges.
99. platform A relatively flat, nearly level area of sedimentary rocks in a continent that overlies or abuts the basement rocks of a
craton.
100. play An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur. For example the shale gas plays in
North America include the Barnett, Eagle Ford, Fayetteville, Haynesville, Marcellus, and Woodford, among many others.
Outside North America, shale gas potential is being pursued in many parts of Europe, Africa, Asia, and South America.
101. plunge The angle between a linear feature and a horizontal line in a vertical plane containing both lines.
102. point bar An arcuate deposit of sediment, usually sand, that occurs along the convex inner edges of the meanders of channels and
builds outward as the stream channel migrates.
103. pore A discrete void within a rock, which can contain air, water, hydrocarbons or other fluids. In a body of rock, the percentage
of pore space is the porosity.
104. pore The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir, usually hydrostatic pressure, or the pressure exerted by a column of
pressure water from the formation's depth to sea level. When impermeable rocks such as shales form as sediments are
compacted, their pore fluids cannot always escape and must then support the total overlying rock column, leading to
anomalously high formation pressures. Because reservoir pressure changes as fluids are produced from a reservoir, the
pressure should be described as measured at a specific time, such as initial reservoir pressure.
105. pore The change in pore pressure per unit of depth, typically in units of psi/ft or kPa/m. Pressure increases predictably with
pressure depth in areas of normal pressure. The normal hydrostatic pressure gradient for freshwater is 0.433 psi/ft, or 9.792 kPa/m,
gradient and 0.465 psi/ft for water with 100,000 ppm total dissolved solids (a typical Gulf Coast water), or 10.516 kPa/m.
Deviations from normal pressure are described as high or low pressure.
106. porosity The percentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume within rock that can contain fluids. Porosity can be a relic
of deposition (primary porosity, such as space between grains that were not compacted together completely) or can
develop through alteration of the rock (secondary porosity, such as when feldspar grains or fossils are preferentially
dissolved from sandstones). Porosity can be generated by the development of fractures, in which case it is called fracture
porosity. Effective porosity is the interconnected pore volume in a rock that contributes to fluid flow in a reservoir. It
excludes isolated pores. Total porosity is the total void space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid flow. Thus,
effective porosity is typically less than total porosity. Shale gas reservoirs tend to have relatively high porosity, but the
alignment of platy grains such as clays makes their permeability very low.
107. porous Pertaining to rocks that incorporate pores or void spaces, which can contain air, water, hydrocarbons or other fluids.
In a body of rock, the percentage of pore space is the porosity. Porosity can be a relic of deposition (primary
porosity, such as space between grains that were not compacted together completely) or can develop through
alteration of the rock (secondary porosity, such as when feldspar grains or fossils are preferentially dissolved from
sandstones). Porosity can be generated by the development of fractures, in which case it is called fracture porosity.
Effective porosity is the interconnected pore volume in a rock that contributes to fluid flow in a reservoir. It excludes
isolated pores. Total porosity is the total void space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid flow. Thus,
effective porosity is typically less than total porosity. Shale gas reservoirs tend to have relatively high porosity, but
the alignment of platy grains such as clays makes their permeability very low.
108. preservation The phase of a petroleum system after hydrocarbons accumulate in a trap and are subject to degradation,
remigration, tectonism or other unfavorable or destructive processes.
109. pressure The change in pressure per unit of depth, typically in units of psi/ft or kPa/m. Pressure increases predictably with
gradient depth in areas of normal pressure. The normal hydrostatic pressure gradient for freshwater is 0.433 psi/ft, or 9.792
kPa/m, and 0.465 psi/ft for water with 100,000 ppm total dissolved solids (a typical Gulf Coast water), or 10.516
kPa/m. Deviations from normal pressure are described as high or low pressure.
110. primary The expulsion of newly generated hydrocarbons from a source rock. The further movement of the hydrocarbons into
migration reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of accumulation is secondary migration.
111. primary The porosity preserved from deposition through lithification.
porosity
112. production The phase that occurs after successful exploration and development and during which hydrocarbons are drained
from an oil or gas field.
113. progradation The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which beds are deposited successively basinward because sediment
supply exceeds accommodation. Thus, the position of the shoreline migrates into the basin during episodes of
progradation, a process called regression.
114. prospect An area of exploration in which hydrocarbons have been predicted to exist in economic quantity. This is commonly an
anomaly, such as a geologic structure or a seismic amplitude anomaly, that is recommended by explorationists for
drilling a well. Justification for drilling a prospect is made by assembling evidence for an active petroleum system, or
reasonable probability of encountering reservoir-quality rock, a trap of sufficient size, adequate sealing rock, and
appropriate conditions for generation and migration of hydrocarbons to fill the trap. A single drilling location is also
called a prospect, but the term is more properly used in the context of exploration. A group of prospects of a similar
nature constitutes a play.
115. pyrolysis A type of geochemical analysis in which a rock sample is subject to controlled heating in an inert gas to or past the
point of generating hydrocarbons in order to assess its quality as a source rock, the abundance of organic material in
it, its thermal maturity, and the quality of hydrocarbons it might generate or have generated. Pyrolysis breaks large
hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules. This process is used to determine the quality of shale as a source
rock and is instrumental in evaluating shale gas plays.
116. quartz An abundant rock-forming mineral composed of silicon and oxygen, also called silica. Quartz sand grains are a
major constituent of sandstone and other clastic sedimentary rocks.
117. radial Multiple faults whose fault planes strike outward from a common center. Such faults typically are associated with salt
faulting domes, impact craters or volcanoes.
118. reef A mound, ridge, or buildup of sediment or sedimentary rock, most commonly produced by organisms that secrete
shells such as corals. These are typically taller than the sediment that surrounds them, resistant to weathering and
wave action, and preserved within sediment of a different composition. Carbonate reefs form in a limited range of
temperatures, water depths, salinities and wave activities, so their occurrence can be used to interpret past
environmental conditions. Because the rocks that surround reefs can differ in composition and permeability, porous
reefs can form stratigraphic traps for hydrocarbons. Porosity of reefal limestones depends on post-depositional
diagenetic changes.
119. regression The migration of shoreline into a basin during progradation due to a fall in relative sea level. Deposition during a
regression can juxtapose shallow-water sediments atop deep-water sediments.
120. relative age The approximate age determination of rocks, fossils or minerals made by comparing whether the material is
younger or older than other surrounding material. Relative age is estimated according to stratigraphic and
structural relationships, such as superposition, and by fossil content, since the relative ages and successions of
fossils have been established by paleontologists. The measurement of the decay of radioactive isotopes, especially
uranium, rubidium, argon and carbon, has allowed geologists to more precisely determine the age in years of rock
formations, known as the absolute age. Tree rings and seasonal sedimentary deposits called varves can be counted
to determine absolute age. Although the term implies otherwise, "absolute" ages typically have some amount of
potential error and are inexact.
121. relative A dimensionless term devised to adapt the Darcy equation to multiphase flow conditions. This is the ratio of
permeability effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to absolute permeability of that fluid at total
saturation. If a single fluid is present in a rock, its relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative permeability
allows comparison of the different abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each other, since the presence of
more than one fluid generally inhibits flow.
122. reservoir A subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and permeability to store and transmit fluids. Sedimentary
rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because they have more porosity than most igneous and metamorphic
rocks and form under temperature conditions at which hydrocarbons can be preserved. A reservoir is a critical
component of a complete petroleum system.
123. reservoir The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir, usually hydrostatic pressure, or the pressure exerted by a
pressure column of water from the formation's depth to sea level. When impermeable rocks such as shales form as
sediments are compacted, their pore fluids cannot always escape and must then support the total overlying rock
column, leading to anomalously high formation pressures. Because reservoir pressure changes as fluids are
produced from a reservoir, the pressure should be described as measured at a specific time, such as initial reservoir
pressure.
124. retrogradation The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which beds are deposited successively landward because
sediment supply is limited and cannot fill the available accommodation. Thus, the position of the shoreline migrates
backward onto land, a process called transgression, during episodes of retrogradation.
125. reverse fault A type of fault formed when the hanging wall fault block moves up along a fault surface relative to the footwall.
Such movement can occur in areas where the Earth's crust is compressed. A thrust fault, sometimes called an
overthrust if the displacement is particularly great, is a reverse fault in which the fault plane has a shallow dip,
typically much less than 45o.
126. rheology Generally, the study of how matter deforms and flows, including its elasticity, plasticity and viscosity. In geology,
rheology is particularly important in studies of moving ice, water, salt and magma, as well as in studies of
deforming rocks.
127. rhombohedral The most compact arrangement in space of uniform spheres (atoms and molecules in mineral crystals, or grains in
packing sedimentary rocks) that results in a structure having no more than 26% porosity. Rhombohedral packing is more
stable mechanically than cubic packing. Cubic packing is the most porous packing arrangement, with about 47%
porosity in the ideal situation. Most sediments, however, are not uniform spheres of the same size, nor can they be
arranged in a cubic structure naturally, so most sediments have much less than 47% porosity of ideal cubic packing
and commonly less than the 26% porosity of ideal rhombohedral packing.
128. rift (noun) Region in which the Earth's crust is pulling apart and creating normal faults and down-dropped areas or subsidence.
129. Rift (vt.) To pull apart the Earth's crust.
130. rock An aggregate of minerals or organic matter (in the case of coal, which is not composed of minerals because of its
organic origin), or volcanic glass (obsidian, which forms a rock but is not considered a mineral because of its
amorphous, noncrystalline nature). Rocks can contain a single mineral, such as rock salt (halite) and certain
limestones (calcite), or many minerals, such as granite (quartz, feldspar, mica and other minerals). There are three
main types of rocks. Sedimentary rocks like sandstone and limestone form at the Earth's surface through deposition
of sediments derived from weathered rocks, biogenic activity or precipitation from solution. Igneous rocks originate
deeper within the Earth, where the temperature is high enough to melt rocks, to form magma that can crystallize
within the Earth or at the surface by volcanic activity. Metamorphic rocks form from other preexisting rocks during
episodes of deformation of the Earth at temperatures and pressures high enough to alter minerals but inadequate to
melt them. Such changes can occur by the activity of fluids in the Earth and movement of igneous bodies or
regional tectonic activity. Rocks are recycled from one type to another by the constant changes in the Earth.
131. sabkha An environment of coastal sedimentation characterized by arid or semiarid conditions above the level of high tide
and by the absence of vegetation. Evaporites, eolian deposits and tidal-flood deposits are common in sabkhas.
132. salt [NaCl] A soft, soluble evaporite mineral also known as halite or rock salt. Because salt is less dense than many
sedimentary rocks, it is relatively buoyant and can form salt domes, pillars or curtains by flowing and breaking
through or piercing overlying sediments, as seen in the Gulf of Mexico and the Zagros fold belt. Halite can be critical
in forming hydrocarbon traps and seals because it tends to flow rather than fracture during deformation, thus
preventing hydrocarbons from leaking out of a trap even during and after some types of deformation.
133. salt dome A mushroom-shaped or plug-shaped diapir made of salt, commonly having an overlying cap rock. Salt domes form
as a consequence of the relative buoyancy of salt when buried beneath other types of sediment. The salt flows
upward to form salt domes, sheets, pillars and other structures. Hydrocarbons are commonly found around salt
domes because of the abundance and variety of traps created by salt movement and the association with evaporite
minerals that can provide excellent sealing capabilities.
134. sand A detrital grain between 0.0625 mm and 2 mm in diameter. This is larger than silt but smaller than a granule
according to the Udden-Wentworth scale. Sand is also a term used for quartz grains or for sandstone.
135. sandstone A clastic sedimentary rock whose grains are predominantly sand-sized. The term is commonly used to imply
consolidated sand or a rock made of predominantly quartz sand, although sandstones often contain feldspar, rock
fragments, mica and numerous additional mineral grains held together with silica or another type of cement. The
relatively high porosity and permeability of sandstones make them good reservoir rocks.
136. saturation The relative amount of water, oil and gas in the pores of a rock, usually as a percentage of volume.
137. scout To inspect an area or to monitor activity.
138. scout A petroleum industry worker who tracks competitive exploration and production activity, either for a company or on a
free-lance basis. Scouts can facilitate trading of technical data such as well logs among companies before such data
enter the public domain unless the operations or data are held "tight."
139. scout ticket A brief report about a well from the time it is permitted through drilling and completion. This typically includes the
location, total depth, logs run, production status and formation tops.
140. seal A relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or cap above and around
reservoir rock such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the reservoir. A seal is a critical component of a complete
petroleum system. The permeability of a seal capable of retaining fluids through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to 10-8
darcies.
141. secondary The movement of generated hydrocarbons into a reservoir after their expulsion, or primary migration, from a source
migration rock.
142. secondary The porosity created through alteration of rock, commonly by processes such as dolomitization, dissolution and
porosity fracturing.
143. sediment The unconsolidated grains of minerals, organic matter or preexisting rocks, that can be transported by water, ice or
wind, and deposited. The processes by which sediment forms and is transported occur at or near the surface of the
Earth and at relatively low pressures and temperatures. Sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation and lithification
of sediment. Sediments are classified according to size by the Udden-Wentworth scale.
144. sedimentary A depression in the crust of the Earth formed by plate tectonic activity in which sediments accumulate. Continued
basin deposition can cause further depression or subsidence. Sedimentary basins, or simply basins, vary from bowl-shaped
to elongated troughs. If rich hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination with appropriate depth and duration of
burial, hydrocarbon generation can occur within the basin.
145. sedimentary These rocks are formed at the Earth's surface through deposition of sediments derived from weathered rocks,
rocks biogenic activity or precipitation from solution. Clastic sedimentary rocks such as conglomerates, sandstones,
siltstones and shales form as older rocks weather and erode, and their particles accumulate and lithify, or harden,
as they are compacted and cemented. Biogenic sedimentary rocks form as a result of activity by organisms,
including coral reefs that become limestone. Precipitates, such as the evaporite minerals halite (salt) and gypsum
can form vast thicknesses of rock as seawater evaporates. Sedimentary rocks can include a wide variety of minerals,
but quartz, feldspar, calcite, dolomite and evaporite group and clay group minerals are most common because of
their greater stability at the Earth's surface than many minerals that comprise igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Sedimentary rocks, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, can contain fossils because they form at
temperatures and pressures that do not obliterate fossil remnants.
146. sedimentation The process of creation, transportation and deposition of sediments.
147. seep A naturally occurring, typically slow leakage of fluid—water, oil or gas—at the Earth's surface. This results from
migration of the fluid from its source or reservoir formation because the formation pressure exceeds the formation's
seal capacity such as during rapid loading of the overburden by sedimentation or during fluid expansion or from
damage to the seal such as by faulting or tectonism.
148. seismite An injectite attributable to earthquake or seismic shaking.
149. sequence A group of relatively conformable strata that represents a cycle of deposition and is bounded by unconformities or
correlative conformities. Sequences are the fundamental unit of interpretation in sequence stratigraphy. Sequences
comprise systems tracts.
150. sequence A surface that separates older sequences from younger ones, commonly an unconformity (indicating subaerial
boundary exposure), but in limited cases a correlative conformable surface. A sequence boundary is an erosional surface that
separates cycles of deposition.
151. sequence A field of study in which basin-filling sedimentary deposits, called sequences, are interpreted in a framework of
stratigraphy eustasy, sedimentation and subsidence through time in order to correlate strata and predict the stratigraphy of
relatively unknown areas. Sequences tend to show cyclicity of changes in relative sea level and widespread
unconformities, processes of sedimentation and sources of sediments, climate and tectonic activity over time.
Sequence stratigraphic study promotes thorough understanding of the evolution of basins, but also allows for
interpretations of potential source rocks and reservoir rocks in both frontier areas (having seismic data but little well
data) and in more mature hydrocarbon provinces. Prediction of reservoir continuity is currently a key question in
mature hydrocarbon provinces where sequence stratigraphy is being applied.
152. s.g. The dimensionless ratio of the density of a material to that of the same volume of water. Most common minerals
have specific gravities between 2 and 7.
153. shale A fine-grained, fissile, detrital sedimentary rock formed by consolidation of clay- and silt-sized particles into thin,
relatively impermeable layers. It is the most abundant sedimentary rock. Shale can include relatively large amounts
of organic material compared with other rock types and thus has potential to become a rich hydrocarbon source
rock, even though a typical shale contains just 1% organic matter. Its typical fine grain size and lack of permeability,
a consequence of the alignment of its platy or flaky grains, allow shale to form a good cap rock for hydrocarbon
traps. Gas shows from shales during drilling have led some shales to be targeted as potential gas reservoirs.
Various clay types and volumes influence the quality of the reservoir from a petrophysical and geomechanical
perspective. The quality of shale reservoirs depends on their thickness and extent, organic content, thermal maturity,
depth and pressure, fluid saturations, and permeability, among other factors.
154. shale oil Oil obtained by artificial maturation of oil shale. The process of artificial maturation uses controlled heating, or
pyrolysis, of kerogen to release the shale oil.
155. shear strain The amount of deformation by shearing, in which parallel lines slide past each other in differing amounts. The
measurement is expressed as the tangent of the change in angle between lines that were initially perpendicular.
156. shelf The area at the edges of a continent from the shoreline to a depth of 200 m [660 ft], where the continental slope
begins. The shelf is commonly a wide, flat area with a slight seaward slope. The term is sometimes used as a for
platform.
157. silica A chemically resistant dioxide of silicon that occurs in crystalline (quartz), amorphous (opal) and cryptocrystalline
(chert) forms.
158. silicate A group of rock-forming minerals in which SiO4 tetrahedra combine with cations. These minerals are the most
mineral abundant type of mineral. Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, quartz and feldspar are types of silicate minerals.
159. siliciclastic Silica-based, noncarbonaceous sediments that are broken from preexisting rocks, transported elsewhere, and
sediment redeposited before forming another rock. Examples of common siliciclastic sedimentary rocks include conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone and shale. Carbonate rocks can also be broken and reworked to form other types of clastic
sedimentary rocks.
160. similar fold A type of fold in which the thickness of the layers remains constant when measured parallel to the axial surface and
the layers have the same wave shape, but the thickness along each layer varies. The folded layers tend to be thicker
in the hinge of the fold and thinner along the limbs of the fold.
161. sinistral Pertaining to a strike-slip or left-lateral fault in which the block across the fault moves to the left; also called a
sinistral strike-slip fault. If it moves to the right, the relative motion is described as dextral. Counterclockwise rotation
or spiraling is also described as sinistral.
162. smectite A group of clay minerals that includes montmorillonite. This type of mineral tends to swell when exposed to water.
Bentonite includes minerals of the smectite group.
163. soft rock A general term for sedimentary rocks, although it can imply a distinction between rocks of interest to the petroleum
industry and rocks of interest to the mining industry.
164. sorting The range of sedimentary grain sizes that occurs in sediment or sedimentary rock. The term also refers to the process
by which sediments of similar size are naturally segregated during transport and deposition according to the velocity
and transporting medium. Well-sorted sediments are of similar size (such as desert sand), while poorly-sorted
sediments have a wide range of grain sizes (as in a glacial till). A well-sorted sandstone tends to have greater porosity
than a poorly sorted sandstone because of the lack of grains small enough to fill its pores. Conglomerates tend to be
poorly sorted rocks, with particles ranging from boulder size to clay size.
165. sour Contaminated with sulfur or sulfur compounds, especially hydrogen sulfide. Crude oil and gas that are sour typically
have an odor of rotten eggs if the concentration of sulfur is low. At high concentrations, sulfur is odorless and deadly.
166. source rock A rock rich in organic matter which, if heated sufficiently, will generate oil or gas. Typically these are usually shales or
limestones and contain about 1% organic matter and at least 0.5% total organic carbon (TOC), although a rich source
rock might have as much as 10% organic matter. Rocks of marine origin tend to be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial source
rocks (such as coal) tend to be gas-prone. Preservation of organic matter without degradation is critical to creating a
good source rock, and necessary for a complete petroleum system. Under the right conditions, source rocks may also
be reservoir rocks, as in the case of shale gas reservoirs.
167. spill point The structurally lowest point in a hydrocarbon trap that can retain hydrocarbons. Once a trap has been filled to its
spill point, further storage or retention of hydrocarbons will not occur for lack of reservoir space within that trap. The
hydrocarbons spill or leak out, and they continue to migrate until they are trapped elsewhere.
168. strain The permanent deformation evident in rocks and other solid bodies that have experienced a sufficiently high applied
stress. A change in shape, such as folding, faulting, fracturing, or change, generally a reduction, in volume are
common examples of strain seen in rocks. Strain can be described in terms of normal and shear components, and is
the ratio of the change in length or volume to the initial length or volume. For more on strain: Means WD: Stress and
Strain. New York, New York, Springer-Verlag, 1976.
169. strata Layers of sedimentary rock.
170. stratigraphic An analysis of the history, composition, relative ages and distribution of strata, and the interpretation of strata to
analysis elucidate Earth history. The comparison, or correlation, of separated strata can include study of their lithology, fossil
content, and relative or absolute age, or lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and chronostratigraphy.
171. stratigraphic A variety of sealed geologic container capable of retaining hydrocarbons, formed by changes in rock type or pinch-
trap outs, unconformities, or sedimentary features such as reefs. Structural traps, in contrast, consist of geologic structures
in deformed strata such as faults and folds whose geometries permit retention of hydrocarbons.
172. stratigraphy The study of the history, composition, relative ages and distribution of strata, and the interpretation of strata to
elucidate Earth history. The comparison, or correlation, of separated strata can include study of their lithology, fossil
content, and relative or absolute age, or lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and chronostratigraphy.
173. stratum A layer of sedimentary rock. The plural form is strata.
174. stress The force applied to a body that can result in deformation, or strain, usually described in terms of magnitude per unit
of area, or intensity.
175. strike The azimuth of the intersection of a plane, such as a dipping bed, with a horizontal surface.
176. strike-slip A type of fault whose surface is typically vertical or nearly so. The motion along a strike-slip fault is parallel to the
fault strike of the fault surface, and the fault blocks move sideways past each other. A strike-slip fault in which the block
across the fault moves to the right is described as a dextral strike-slip fault. If it moves left, the relative motion is
described as sinistral. Local deformation near bends in strike-slip faults can produce pull-apart basins and grabens.
Flower structures are another by-product of strike-slip faults. A wrench fault is a type of strike-slip fault in which the
fault surface is nearly vertical.
177. structural The geometry and spatial arrangement of rocks. The structure or deformation can include many mechanisms, such as
folding, faulting and fracturing. Structure can usually be interpreted in terms of the deformation of the crust of the
Earth as continents and tectonic plates move and collide.
178. structural A variety of sealed geologic structure capable of retaining hydrocarbons, such as a fault or a fold. Stratigraphic traps
trap form where changes in rock type can retain hydrocarbons.
179. structure A geological feature produced by deformation of the Earth's crust, such as a fold or a fault; a feature within a rock,
such as a fracture or bedding surface; or, more generally, the spatial arrangement of rocks.
180. structure A type of subsurface map whose contours represent the elevation of a particular formation, reservoir or geologic
map marker in space, such that folds, faults and other geologic structures are clearly displayed. Its appearance is similar
to that of a topographic map, but a topographic map displays elevations of the Earth's surface and a structure map
displays the elevation of a particular rock layer, generally beneath the surface.
181. stylolite Wave-like or tooth-like, serrated, interlocking surfaces most commonly seen in carbonate and quartz-rich rocks that
contain concentrated insoluble residue such as clay minerals and iron oxides. Stylolites are thought to form by
pressure solution, a dissolution process that reduces pore space under pressure during diagenesis.
182. subduction A plate tectonic process in which one lithospheric plate descends beneath another into the asthenosphere during a
collision at a convergent plate margin. Because of the relatively higher density of oceanic lithosphere, it will typically
descend beneath the lighter continental lithosphere during a collision. In a collision of plates of continental
lithosphere, the density of the two plates is so similar that neither tends to be subducted and mountains form. As a
subducted plate descends into the asthenosphere, Earthquakes can occur, especially in the Wadati-Benioff zone, but,
if the plate descends deeply into the mantle, it will eventually be heated to the point of melting. Volcanoes can form
above a descending plate.
183. subsalt An exploration and production play type in which prospects exist below salt layers. Until relatively recently, many
explorationists did not seek prospects below salt because seismic data had been of poor quality below salt (i.e., it
was not possible to map traps accurately) or because they believed that reservoir-quality rock or hydrocarbons did
not exist below salt layers. Advances in seismic processing and compelling drilling results from exploration wells
encouraged companies to generate and drill prospects below salt layers, salt sheets and other previously
disregarded potential traps. The offshore Gulf of Mexico contains numerous subsalt-producing fields, and similar
areas are being explored internationally.
184. subsidence The relative sinking of the Earth's surface. Plate tectonic activity (particularly extension of the crust, which promotes
thinning and sinking), sediment loading and removal of fluid from reservoirs are processes by which the crust can be
depressed. Subsidence can produce areas in which sediments accumulate and, ultimately, form sedimentary basins.
185. superposition The stratigraphic principle that, in the case of undeformed, flat-lying strata, younger layers are deposited atop older
ones, such that the top layer is youngest and underlying layers increase in age with depth. Nicolaus Steno
articulated the law of superposition of strata in the 17th century.
186. swamp A wetland depositional environment in which water is present either permanently or intermittently and in which trees
and large woody plants can grow but peat does not form. Swamps can contain considerable quantities of organic
matter.
187. sweet Pertaining to crude oil or natural gas lacking appreciable amounts of sulfur or sulfur compounds.
188. syncline Basin- or trough-shaped fold in rock in which rock layers are downwardly convex. The youngest rock layers form the
core of the fold and outward from the core progressively older rocks occur. Synclines typically do not trap
hydrocarbons because fluids tend to leak up the limbs of the fold. An anticline is the opposite type of fold, having
upwardly-convex layers with old rocks in the core.
189. synthetic A type of minor fault whose sense of displacement is similar to its associated major fault. Antithetic-synthetic fault
fault sets are typical in areas of normal faulting.
190. systems Subdivisions of sequences that consist of discrete depositional units that differ in geometry from other systems tracts
tract and have distinct boundaries on seismic data. Different systems tracts are considered to represent different phases of
eustatic changes. A lowstand systems tract develops during times of relatively low sea level; a highstand systems
tract at times of high sea level; and a transgressive systems tract at times of changing sea level.
191. tectonic Location relative to the boundary of a tectonic plate, particularly a boundary along which plate tectonic activity is
environment occurring or has occurred.
192. tectonics Also known as plate tectonics, the unifying geologic theory developed to explain observations that interactions of the
brittle plates of the lithosphere with each other and with the softer underlying asthenosphere result in large-scale
changes in the Earth. The theory of plate tectonics initially stemmed from observations of the shapes of the
continents, particularly South America and Africa, which fit together like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle and have similar
rocks and fossils despite being separated by a modern ocean. As lithospheric plates heat up or cool down
depending on their position, or their tectonic environment, relative to each other and to warmer areas deeper within
the Earth, they become relatively more or less dense than the asthenosphere and thus tend to rise as molten magma
or sink in cold, brittle slabs or slide past each other. Mountain belts can form during plate collisions or an orogeny;
diverging plates or rifts can create new midoceanic ridges; plates that slide past one another create transform fault
zones (such as the San Andreas fault); and zones of subduction occur where one lithospheric plate moves beneath
another. Plate tectonic theory can explain such phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic or other igneous activity,
midoceanic ridges and the relative youth of the oceanic crust, and the formation of sedimentary basins on the basis
of their relationships to lithospheric plate boundaries. Convection of the mantle is postulated to be the driving
mechanism for the movement of lithospheric plates. Measurements of the continents using the Global Positioning
System confirm the relative motions of plates. Age determinations of the oceanic crust confirm that such crust is
much younger than that of the continents and has been recycled by the process of subduction and regenerated at
midoceanic ridges.
193. tectonism Plate tectonic activity.
194. temperature Also known as geothermal gradient, the rate of increase in temperature per unit depth in the Earth. Although the
gradient geothermal gradient varies from place to place, it averages 25 to 30 °C/km [15 °F/1000 ft]. Temperature gradients
sometimes increase dramatically around volcanic areas. It is particularly important for drilling fluids engineers to
know the geothermal gradient in an area when they are designing a deep well. The downhole temperature can be
calculated by adding the surface temperature to the product of the depth and the geothermal gradient.
195. terrestrial Pertaining to sediments or depositional environments on land or above the level of high tide.
196. thermal Also known as geothermal gradient, the rate of increase in temperature per unit depth in the Earth. Although the
gradient geothermal gradient varies from place to place, it averages 25 to 30 °C/km [15 °F/1000 ft]. Temperature gradients
sometimes increase dramatically around volcanic areas. It is particularly important for drilling fluids engineers to
know the geothermal gradient in an area when they are designing a deep well. The downhole temperature can be
calculated by adding the surface temperature to the product of the depth and the geothermal gradient.
197. thrust fault A type of reverse fault in which the fault plane has a very shallow dip, typically much less than 45o. The hanging wall
fault block moves up the fault surface relative to the footwall. In cases of considerable lateral movement, the fault is
described as an overthrust fault. Thrust faults can occur in areas of compression of the Earth's crust.
198. tight Describing a relatively impermeable reservoir rock from which hydrocarbon production is difficult. Reservoirs can be
tight because of smaller grains or matrix between larger grains, or they might be tight because they consist
predominantly of silt- or clay-sized grains, as is the case for shale reservoirs. Stimulation of tight formations can
result in increased production from formations that previously would have been abandoned or produced
uneconomically.
199. tight gas Gas produced from a relatively impermeable reservoir rock. Hydrocarbon production from tight reservoirs can be
difficult without stimulation operations. Stimulation of tight formations can result in increased production from
formations that previously might have been abandoned or been produced uneconomically. The term is generally
used for reservoirs other than shales.
200. tight oil Oil found in relatively impermeable reservoir rock. Production of tight oil comes from very low permeability rock
that must be stimulated using hydraulic fracturing to create sufficient permeability to allow the mature oil and/or
natural gas liquids to flow at economic rates.
201. TOC The concentration of organic material in source rocks as represented by the weight percent of organic carbon. A
value of approximately 0.5% total organic carbon by weight percent is considered the minimum for an effective
source rock, although values of 2% are considered the minimum for shale gas reservoirs; values exceeding 10% exist,
although some geoscientists assert that high total organic carbon values indicate the possibility of kerogen filling
pore space rather than other forms of hydrocarbons. Total organic carbon is measured from 1-g samples of
pulverized rock that are combusted and converted to CO or CO2. If a sample appears to contain sufficient total
organic carbon to generate hydrocarbons, it may be subjected to pyrolysis.
202. topographic A contour map that displays the elevation of the Earth's surface. This map is commonly used as the base map for
map surface geological mapping.
203. tortuosity A measure of the geometric complexity of a porous medium. This is a ratio that characterizes the convoluted
pathways of fluid diffusion and electrical conduction through porous media. In the fluid mechanics of porous media,
tortuosity is the ratio of the length of a streamline—a flow line or path—between two points to the straight-line
distance between those points. Tortuosity is thus related to the ratio of a fluid's diffusion coefficient when it is not
confined by a porous medium to its effective diffusion coefficient when confined in a porous medium. Tortuosity is
also related to the formation factor, which is the ratio of electrical resistivity of a conductive fluid in a porous
medium to the electrical resistivity of the fluid itself.
204. transform A particular type of strike-slip fault that is a boundary of an oceanic tectonic plate. The actual movement of a
fault transform fault is opposite to its apparent displacement because of the interplay of spreading and faulting between
tectonic plates.
205. transgression The migration of shoreline out of a basin and onto land during retrogradation. A transgression can result in sediments
characteristic of shallow water being overlain by deeper water sediments.
206. transpression The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and compression, or convergence, of the Earth's crust. In areas of
transpression, rocks can be faulted upward to form a positive flower structure. Areas of strike-slip faulting in rifting
or diverging crust are experiencing transtension, in which rocks can drop down to form a negative flower structure.
207. transtension The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and extension, rifting, or divergence of the Earth's crust. In areas
of transtension, rocks can be faulted downward to form a negative flower structure. Areas of strike-slip faulting in
converging crust are experiencing transpression, in which rocks can be faulted upwards to form a positive flower
structure.
208. trap A configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and sealed by a relatively impermeable formation
through which hydrocarbons will not migrate. Traps are described as structural traps (in deformed strata such as
folds and faults) or stratigraphic traps (in areas where rock types change, such as unconformities, pinch-outs and
reefs). A trap is an essential component of a petroleum system.
209. trend The azimuth or orientation of a linear feature, such as the axis of a fold, normally expressed as a compass bearing.
210. true The thickness of a bed or rock body after correcting for the dip of the bed or body and the deviation of the well that
stratigraphic penetrates it. The values of true stratigraphic thickness in an area can be plotted and contours drawn to create an
thickness isopach map.
211. true vertical The thickness of a bed or rock body measured vertically at a point. The values of true vertical thickness in an area
thickness can be plotted and contours drawn to create an isochore map.
212. tuff Lithified volcanic ash.
213. tuffaceaous Containing tuff, which is lithified volcanic ash.
214. turbidite Sedimentary deposits formed by turbidity currents in deep water at the base of the continental slope and on the
abyssal plain. Turbidites commonly show predictable changes in bedding from coarse layers at the bottom to
finer laminations at the top, known as Bouma sequences, that result from different settling velocities of the
particle sizes present. The high energy associated with turbidite deposition can result in destruction of earlier
deposited layers by subsequent turbidity currents.
215. turbidity current An influx of rapidly moving, sediment-laden water down a slope into a larger body of water; also called a
density current because the suspended sediment results in the current having a higher density than the clearer
water into which it flows. Such currents can occur in lakes and oceans, in some cases as by-products of
earthquakes or mass movements such as slumps. The sedimentary deposits that form as the current loses energy
are called turbidites and can be preserved as Bouma sequences. Turbidity currents are characteristic of trench
slopes of convergent plate margins and continental slopes of passive margins.
216. Udden- A grade scale for classifying the diameters of sediments. Particles larger than 64 mm in diameter are classified
Wentworth scale as cobbles. Smaller particles are pebbles, granules, sand and silt. Those smaller than 0.0039 mm are clay.
Several other grain size scales are in use, but the Udden-Wentworth scale (commonly called the Wentworth
scale) is the one that is most frequently used in geology.
217. unconfined A measure of a material's strength. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) is the maximum axial compressive
compressive stress that a right-cylindrical sample of material can withstand under unconfined conditions—the confining stress
strength is zero. It is also known as the uniaxial compressive strength of a material because the application of
compressive stress is only along one axis—the longitudinal axis—of the sample.
218. unconformity A geological surface separating older from younger rocks and representing a gap in the geologic record. Such a
surface might result from a hiatus in deposition of sediments, possibly in combination with erosion, or
deformation such as faulting. An angular unconformity separates younger strata from eroded, dipping older
strata. A disconformity represents a time of nondeposition, possibly combined with erosion, and can be difficult
to distinguish within a series of parallel strata. A nonconformity separates overlying strata from eroded, older
igneous or metamorphic rocks. The study and interpretation of unconformities locally, regionally and globally is
the basis of sequence stratigraphy.
219. unconformity A type of hydrocarbon trap whose closure is controlled by the presence of an unconformity. There is
trap disagreement about whether unconformity traps are structural or stratigraphic traps.
220. unconventional An umbrella term for oil and natural gas that is produced by means that do not meet the criteria for
resource conventional production. What has qualified as unconventional at any particular time is a complex function of
resource characteristics, the available exploration and production technologies, the economic environment, and
the scale, frequency and duration of production from the resource. Perceptions of these factors inevitably change
over time and often differ among users of the term. At present, the term is used in reference to oil and gas
resources whose porosity, permeability, fluid trapping mechanism, or other characteristics differ from
conventional sandstone and carbonate reservoirs. Coalbed methane, gas hydrates, shale gas, fractured
reservoirs, and tight gas sands are considered unconventional resources.
221. underpressure Pore pressure less than normal or hydrostatic pressure. Underpressure, or a zone of underpressure, is common in
areas or formations that have had hydrocarbon production.
222. underpressured Referring to pore pressure less than normal or hydrostatic pressure. Underpressure, or a zone of underpressure,
is common in areas or formations that have had hydrocarbon production.
223. undrained test This test is one in which the fluid in the sample is not able to flow and equilibrate to imposed pore pressure
conditions; the fluid mass remains the same while the fluid volume and pressure will vary.
224. uniaxial A measure of a material's strength. The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) is the maximum axial compressive
compressive stress that a right-cylindrical sample of material can withstand before failing. It is also known as the unconfined
strength compressive strength of a material because confining stress is set to zero.
225. uniformitarianism The geological principle formulated by James Hutton in 1795 and publicized by Charles Lyell in 1830 that
geological processes occurring today have occurred similarly in the past, often articulated as, "The present is
the key to the past."
226. Universal A worldwide grid system of rectangular map coordinates that uses metric (SI) units. A location is specified on the
Transverse basis of its location within one of 60 zones worldwide of 6o of longitude and 8o of latitude each that are subdivided
Mercator into subzones that are 100,000 m [330,000 ft] on each side. Locations consist of a series of numbers and letters that
grid (UTM) can be accurate to within an area of one square meter. The headquarters of the Geological Society of America are at
13TDQ8743172 (Merrill, 1986). Information about the UTM grid, including grid ticks on quadrangle maps, can be found
on most maps produced by the US Geological Survey. Latitude and longitude coordinates, or geographic coordinates,
are another means of locating a point at the Earth's surface, but the accuracy, computer compatibility and uniqueness
of UTM have resulted in its finding acceptance within the scientific community.
227. updip Located up the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In a dipping (not flat-lying) hydrocarbon reservoir that contains
gas, oil and water, the gas is updip, the gas-oil contact is downdip from the gas, and the oil-water contact is still
farther downdip.
228. varve A rhythmic sequence of sediments deposited in annual cycles in glacial lakes. Light-colored, coarse summer grains
are deposited by rapid melting of the glacier. The summer layers grade upward to layers of finer, dark winter grains of
clay minerals or organic material that are deposited slowly from suspension in quiet water while streams and lakes are
icebound. Varves are useful to the study of geochronology because they can be counted to determine the absolute
age of some Pleistocene rocks of glacial origin.
229. vesicle Bubble-shaped cavities in volcanic rock formed by expansion of gas dissolved in the precursor magma.
230. vesicular Pertaining to vesicles, bubble-shaped cavities in volcanic rock formed by expansion of gas dissolved in the precursor
magma.
231. vesicular A type of porosity resulting from the presence of vesicles, or gas bubbles, in igneous rock.
porosity
232. virgin The original, undisturbed pressure of a reservoir prior to fluid production.
pressure
233. vitrinite A type of woody kerogen that is relatively uniform in composition. Since vitrinite changes predictably and consistently
upon heating, its reflectance is a useful measurement of source rock maturity. Strictly speaking, the plant material that
forms vitrinite did not occur prior to Ordovician time. Also, because vitrinite originated in wood, its occurrence in
marine rocks might be limited by the depositional processes that act in a given depositional environment.
234. vitrinite A measurement of the maturity of organic matter with respect to whether it has generated hydrocarbons or could be
reflectance an effective source rock.
235. volcanic Pertaining to surface features of the Earth that allow magma, ash and gas to erupt. The vent can be a fissure or a
conical structure.
236. volcano A surface feature of the Earth that allows magma, ash and gas to erupt. The vent can be a fissure or a conical
structure.
237. vug A cavity, void or large pore in a rock that is commonly lined with mineral precipitates.
238. vuggy Containing vugs, which are cavities, voids or large pores in a rock that are commonly lined with mineral precipitates.
239. vugular Referring to vugs, which are cavities, voids or large pores in a rock that are commonly lined with mineral precipitates.
240. vugular Pore space consisting of cavities or vugs. Vugular porosity can occur in rocks prone to dissolution, such as limestone,
porosity in which case it is secondary porosity.
241. Wadati- A zone of the upper mantle in which earthquakes occur when a lithospheric plate is subducted, named in honor of
Benioff seismologists Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff. The dip of the Wadati-Benioff zone coincides with the dip of the
zone subducting plate. The Wadati-Benioff zone extends to a depth of about 700 km [435 miles] from the Earth's surface.
242. weathered A near-surface, possibly unconsolidated layer of low seismic velocity. The base of the weathered layer commonly
layer coincides with the water table and a sharp increase in seismic velocity. The weathered layer typically has air-filled
pores.
243. weathering The physical, chemical and biological processes that decompose rock at and below the surface of the Earth through
low pressures and temperatures and the presence of air and water. Weathering includes processes such as dissolution,
chemical weathering, disintegration and hydration.
244. Wentworth Another name for the Udden-Wentworth scale, a grade scale for classifying the diameters of sediments. Particles
scale larger than 64 mm in diameter are classified as cobbles. Smaller particles are pebbles, granules, sand and silt. Those
smaller than 0.0039 mm are clay. Several other grain size scales are in use, but the Udden-Wentworth scale
(commonly called the Wentworth scale) is the one that is most frequently used in geology.
245. wet gas Natural gas that contains less methane (typically less than 85% methane) and more ethane and other more complex
hydrocarbons.
246. wrench A type of strike-slip fault in which the fault surface is vertical, and the fault blocks move sideways past each other.
fault Given the geological complexity of some deformed rocks, including rocks that have experienced more than one
episode of deformation, it can be difficult to distinguish a wrench fault from a strike-slip fault. Also, areas can be
deformed more than once or experience ongoing structuring such that fault surfaces can be rotated from their original
orientations.
247. yield point The elastic limit, or the point at which a material can no longer deform elastically. When the elastic limit is exceeded
by an applied stress, permanent deformation occurs.
248. zone An interval or unit of rock differentiated from surrounding rocks on the basis of its fossil content or other features, such
as faults or fractures. For example, a fracture zone contains numerous fractures. A biostratigraphic zone contains a
particular fossil or fossils.