PWA-REF-072b QSDDM Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

Volume 2
Foul Sewerage
State of Qatar -Public Works Authority
Drainage Affairs
CONTENTS
1 Sewerage Systems Design ....................................................................................... 1
1.1 Standards ..................................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Sources of Information .................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Estimation of Flows ....................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Domestic ....................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Industrial ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.3.3 Commercial ................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.4 Institutions such as Schools, Health Centres, Hospitals and Mosques ........................ 9
1.3.5 Infiltration ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Peaking Factors .......................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Hydraulic Design ......................................................................................................... 13
1.5.1 Formulae ..................................................................................................................... 13
1.5.2 Minimum Pipe Sizes and Gradients ............................................................................ 16
1.5.3 Minimum and Maximum Velocities.............................................................................. 16
1.6 Septicity in Sewage, Odour Control and Ventilation ................................................... 17
1.6.1 Explosion and Combustion Risk ................................................................................. 18
1.6.2 Corrosion ..................................................................................................................... 18
1.6.3 Impact on Subsequent Treatment Processes ............................................................. 18
1.6.4 Odours......................................................................................................................... 18
1.6.5 General Design Guidelines for Odour Control in Sewerage Systems ........................ 19
1.7 Pipeline Materials and Jointing ................................................................................... 24
1.8 Pipe Bedding Calculations for Narrow and Wide Trench Conditions .......................... 24
1.8.1 Bedding Design for Rigid Pipes .................................................................................. 25
1.8.2 Bedding Factors .......................................................................................................... 26
1.8.3 Design Strength........................................................................................................... 26
1.9 Manhole Positioning.................................................................................................... 27
1.10 House Connections..................................................................................................... 28
1.11 Construction Depths ................................................................................................... 28
1.12 Manholes, Chambers, Access Covers, and Ladders .................................................. 30
1.12.1 Inspection Chambers .................................................................................................. 30
1.12.2 Sewer System Manholes ............................................................................................ 30
1.12.3 Elements of Design ..................................................................................................... 30
1.13 Industrial Wastes ........................................................................................................ 31
1.14 Septic and Sewage Holding Tanks ............................................................................. 31
1.14.1 Design of Septic Tanks and Soakaways ..................................................................... 32
1.14.2 Sewage Holding Tanks ............................................................................................... 32
1.15 Oil and Grease Interceptors ........................................................................................ 32
1.16 Flow Attenuation Methods .......................................................................................... 32
1.16.1 Flow Controls .............................................................................................................. 33
1.16.2 Attenuation Storage Tanks and Sewers...................................................................... 33
1.17 Abandonment of Sewers............................................................................................. 39
Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page i

1st Edition June 2005 -  Copyright Ashghal
Drainage Affairs
2 Pumping Stations ....................................................................................................39
2.1 Standards ................................................................................................................... 39

2.2 Hydraulic Design......................................................................................................... 39
2.2.1 Hydraulic Principles .................................................................................................... 40
2.2.2 Pump Arrangements ................................................................................................... 41
2.3 Rising Main Design ..................................................................................................... 42
2.3.1 Rising Main Diameters................................................................................................ 42
2.3.2 Twin Rising Mains....................................................................................................... 42
2.3.3 Economic Analysis...................................................................................................... 42
2.3.4 Rising Main Alignment ................................................................................................ 43
2.4 Maximum and Minimum Velocities ............................................................................. 43
2.5 Pipe Materials ............................................................................................................. 43
2.6 Thrust Blocks .............................................................................................................. 43
2.7 Air Valves and Washout Facilities .............................................................................. 44
2.7.1 Air Valves .................................................................................................................... 44
2.7.2 Vented Non-return Valves .......................................................................................... 44
2.7.3 Wash – Outs ............................................................................................................... 44
2.7.4 Isolating Valves........................................................................................................... 45
2.8 Flow Meters ................................................................................................................ 45
2.8.1 Application and Selection ........................................................................................... 45
2.8.2 Magnetic Flowmeters.................................................................................................. 45
2.8.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters ................................................................................................ 46
2.9 Surge Protection Measures ........................................................................................ 46
2.10 Screens....................................................................................................................... 48
2.11 Pumping Station Selection.......................................................................................... 49
2.12 Pumps and Motors...................................................................................................... 52
2.13 Sump Design .............................................................................................................. 53
2.14 Suction/Delivery Pipework, and Valves ...................................................................... 55
2.15 Pumping System Characteristics ................................................................................ 56
2.16 Sump Pumps and Over-Pumping Facilities ................................................................ 59
2.17 Power Calculations including Standby Generation ..................................................... 59
2.17.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 59
2.17.2 Load Type ................................................................................................................... 59
2.17.3 Site condition .............................................................................................................. 60
2.17.4 Generator set operation and control .......................................................................... 60
2.17.5 Type of installation ...................................................................................................... 60
2.17.6 Type of Control Panel ................................................................................................. 60
2.17.7 Ventilation system....................................................................................................... 60
2.17.8 Fuel system ................................................................................................................ 60
2.17.9 Starting method .......................................................................................................... 61
2.17.10 Service facility ............................................................................................................. 61
2.17.11 Generator set sizing.................................................................................................... 61
2.18 Switch Gear and Control Panels ................................................................................. 65
2.18.1 Type–tested and partially type tested assemblies (TTA and PTTA) .......................... 65
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2.18.2 Total connected load ................................................................................................... 65

2.18.3 Short circuit level ......................................................................................................... 65
2.18.4 Type of co-ordination .................................................................................................. 66
2.18.5 Form of internal separation ......................................................................................... 66
2.18.6 Bus Bar rating.............................................................................................................. 67
2.18.7 Type of starter ............................................................................................................. 67
2.18.8 Protection device ......................................................................................................... 68
2.18.9 Interlocking facility ....................................................................................................... 70
2.18.10 Accessibility ................................................................................................................. 70
2.18.11 Cable entry .................................................................................................................. 70
2.19 PLC’s SCADA/Telemetry ............................................................................................ 70
2.19.1 PLC ............................................................................................................................. 70
2.19.2 RTU ............................................................................................................................. 71
2.19.3 SCADA and Telemetry Systems ................................................................................. 72
2.20 Lighting ....................................................................................................................... 73
2.20.1 Light Fitting Selection Criteria ..................................................................................... 73
2.21 Maintenance Access ................................................................................................... 77
2.22 Gantry Cranes and Lifting Facilities ............................................................................ 77
2.23 Ventilation, Odour Control and Air Conditioning ......................................................... 78
2.23.1 Ventilation.................................................................................................................... 78
2.23.2 Odour Control .............................................................................................................. 79
2.23.3 Air Conditioning ........................................................................................................... 80
2.24 Structural Design ........................................................................................................ 81
2.24.1 Substructures .............................................................................................................. 81
2.24.2 Superstructures ........................................................................................................... 90
2.25 Site Boundary Wall/Fence .......................................................................................... 97
2.26 Site Facilities ............................................................................................................... 97
3 Documentation ........................................................................................................ 98
3.1 Reference Standards .................................................................................................. 98

3.2 House Connection Survey .......................................................................................... 98
3.3 Building Permit ............................................................................................................ 98
4 Health and Safety .................................................................................................... 99
5 Trenchless Technologies ..................................................................................... 100
5.1 Alternative Techniques ............................................................................................. 100

5.1.1 Pipe jacking (Open/Close Face) ............................................................................... 100
5.1.2 Microtunnelling (Closed Face) .................................................................................. 102
5.1.3 Directional drilling ...................................................................................................... 104
5.2 Planning and Selection of Techniques...................................................................... 104
5.2.1 Initial Planning ........................................................................................................... 105
5.2.2 Selection Criteria ....................................................................................................... 110
5.2.3 Factors Affecting Choice Of Method ......................................................................... 110
5.3 Geotechnical Investigations ...................................................................................... 110
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5.3.1 Geological Strata Overview ...................................................................................... 110

5.3.2 Groundwater Regime................................................................................................ 110
5.3.3 Soil/Rock properties.................................................................................................. 111
5.3.4 Indicative Scope of Interpretative Reporting............................................................. 113
5.4 Design....................................................................................................................... 113
5.4.1 Feasibility Study........................................................................................................ 113
5.4.2 Pipe Design .............................................................................................................. 113
5.4.3 Shaft Design ............................................................................................................. 114
5.4.4 Ground Movements .................................................................................................. 115
5.5 Environmental Assessment ...................................................................................... 117
5.5.1 Vibration .................................................................................................................... 117
5.5.2 Noise ......................................................................................................................... 117
5.5.3 Dust........................................................................................................................... 118
5.6 Approvals – Procedures and Formats ...................................................................... 118
5.6.1 Guidance for Design Check ...................................................................................... 118
5.7 Risk Assessment ...................................................................................................... 118
5.8 Trenchless Construction References........................................................................ 122
5.9 Trenchless Construction Glossary ............................................................................ 123
6 References .............................................................................................................125
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Drainage Affairs
manholes, directing flows to numerous pumping

1 Sewerage Systems stations. The flow from each catchment is then
pumped to either the Doha South or Doha West
Design STW.
The Doha South Catchment can be broadly

This volume of the Manual covers the design of new
defined as that part of Doha being southeast of the
and existing sewerage systems, detailing the design
Salwa Road and east of the Industrial Area, along
standards, parameters and approaches to be
with the central business district within the B Ring
adopted. However, this information should not be
Road. The Catchment extends southwards to
regarded as prescriptive in all situations, as each
include Abu Hamour, the Airport area and onwards
design needs to be prepared, reviewed and
as far as Wakrah, as well as including Wukair and
approved by appropriately skilled and experienced
areas to the north and east of the Abu Hamour area.
staff, both within the designers’ and the Drainage
Afairs (DA) organisations. The extent of the system and the considerable
distances over which sewage is transferred across
The sewerage systems in Qatar are separate in that
flat terrain, necessitate some 52 sewage pumping
foul sewage, comprising domestic, commercial and
stations. The layout of the network results in foul
industrial effluent is collected in a separate system
sewage from certain locations being pumped
to that which collects stormwater runoff and ground
through as many as six or seven pumping stations
waters.
before reaching Doha South STW.
The sewerage system for Qatar collects foul flow
Development in the catchment is of predominantly
discharges from premises, located within the
low to medium density, with higher densities in the
developed areas of its towns and cities, and directs
central business district. In total, some 415km2 of
the collected flows to the Sewage Treatment Works
land falls within the catchment that it is predicted will
(STW).
be sewered to Doha South STW. In broad terms,
Sewage flows discharge, generally by gravity, into only one quarter of this area is presently developed.
the sewerage system through house connections to
The Doha West Catchment comprises some
the sewer pipelines and manholes outside the
250km2 of western and northern Doha. The area
property boundary. This network of branch and trunk
also includes North Doha, Rural and Urban Rayyan
sewers directs flows by gravity to pumping stations,
and the Umm Slal Planning Areas of Qatar. The
which pump flows to the STW.
Catchment lands rise from sea level in the east, to
The flat topography of Qatar discourages long some 35m above sea level in the west. The ground
lengths of gravity sewer due to the resulting great level at Doha West STW is about 45m above sea
depths of construction that would be required. The level.
sewerage systems therefore include many pumping
The sewerage network in the Doha West Catchment
stations, with the result that sewage flows will often
is served by a terminal pumping station (PS 32) at
be pumped several times before arriving at the
the south-west edge of the built-up area, from which
STW.
sewage is delivered in two parallel rising mains to
The major sewerage systems and STWs are located Doha West STW.
in Doha, with similar systems in the smaller towns
Development in the Catchment is of low to medium
such as Al Khor.
density, with some areas completely undeveloped.
The Doha Catchments The major future development area is located at the
northern end of Doha Bay, where high-density
The Doha sewerage system is contained within residential and commercial development is planned.
three catchments, being the Doha West Catchment
Area, the Doha South Catchment Area and the In order to minimise construction, operation and
Industrial Area. The system in each catchment is maintenance costs for pumping stations, new
similar, in that it comprises networks of sewers and designs should use gravity for the movement of
Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page 1

Drainage Affairs
sewage flows. However there are the following 1.1 Standards

practical considerations:
The following standards are of interest to designers
• Depth of trench excavation should generally in surface water and foul sewerage systems. This
not exceed 5.0m, or 7.5m maximum in extreme list is by no means exhaustive, but is intended as an
cases, dictated by excavator access and easy initial reference. (References are also included
pipeline strength, where possible. It is at the end of this volume). Volume 1, Section 1.5
acknowledged that greater depths are often also contains the complete list of references for all
necessary in Doha, but these should be manuals.
avoided because of the danger of deep
excavations and the difficulty of achieving good • BS EN 752 – Drain and sewer systems outside
compaction in the backfill; buildingsi. This supersedes BS 8005ii, which is
withdrawn, and part of BS 8301iii.
• Gradients should not be flatter than the
minimum stated herein, to minimise siltation Part 1: 1996 Generalities and Definitions
and septicity.
Part 2: 1997 Performance Requirements
In theory a separate sewerage system should Part 3: 1997 Planning
exhibit no increases in flows from rainfall. However, Part 4: 1998 Hydraulic Design and
all systems suffer from infiltration to some extent Environmental
due to faults and openings in the fabric of the Considerations
system and illegal connections of stormwater
collection systems. Many sewerage authorities deal Part 5: 1998 Rehabilitation
with such flow increases by incorporating overflows
Part 6: 1998 Pumping Installations
which divert foul flows to watercourses at times of
rainfall. However such arrangements are impractical Part 7: 1998 Maintenance and Operations
for Qatar due to the lack of watercourses operating
all year round, and the resulting unacceptable • BS EN 598: 1995 – Ductile iron pipes, fittings,
pollution which would result from discharge of foul accessories and their joints for sewerage
flows to wadis with little or no flow. applications – Requirements and test
methodsiv.
The extent of infiltration is not fully understood in
Qatar, but knowledge will improve with ongoing • BS EN 1610: 1998 – Construction and testing
studies and Drainage Area Plans. In the meantime of drains and sewersv.
the sewerage system should avoid the need for
• Sewers for Adoption – 5th Edition (WRC)vi.
overflows, with any increased flows being contained
within the sewerage system. • BS EN124: 1994 Gully tops and manhole tops
for vehicular and pedestrian areas – Design
The only overflows permitted are for emergency
requirements, type testing, marking, quality
use only, and only to be located at pumping stations.
controlvii.
These emergency overflows are only to operate on
failure of pumps, through mechanical or electrical
breakdown. Pumps are to be rated to pump all flows
expected to be received at the station.
1.2 Sources of Information
The following publications are of interest to
All elements of the sewerage system, including designers in surface water and foul sewerage
pipelines, manholes, chambers, are to be located on systems. This list is by no means exhaustive, but is
publicly owned lands. Pumping stations and intended as an easy initial reference. (References
associated facilities shall be on DA owned land. are also included at the end of this volume). Volume
Ideally, access for operation and maintenance of the 1 Section 1.5 also contains the complete list of
sewerage system should also be located on publicly references for all manuals.
owned lands. If not, wayleave agreements should be
in place to facilitate such access.
Page 2 Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

Drainage Affairs
• Department of the Environment National Water Practice Manual for England, Scotland, Wales,
Council Standing Technical Committee and Northern Ireland, London UK, CIRIA.
Reports, 1981,
• Velocity equations for the hydraulic design of
• Design and analysis of urban storm drainage - pipes – Wallingford Research.
The Wallingford Procedure, National Water
Council UK. • HR Wallingford and DIH Barr, 2000, Tables for
the Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Sewers and
• State of Kuwait Ministry of Planning & Hyder Channels, 7th Edition, Trowbridge, Wiltshire,
Consulting, 2001, Kuwait Stormwater UK Redwood Books.
Masterplan Hydrological Aspects - Final
Report. Cardiff, (AU00109/D1/015), Hyder • Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture,
Consulting. 1997, Qatar Highway Design Manual, January
1997, Qatar, MMAA.
• Highways Agency, 2002, DMRB Volume 4
Section 2 Part 5 (HA 104/02) – Geotechnics • Construction Industry Research and
and Drainage. Chamber pots and gully tops for Information Association, 1996, Design of
road drainage and services: Installation and sewers to control sediment problems, Report
maintenance, London, Highways Agency. 141, London CIRIA.
• Water Research Council, 1997, Sewerage • Clay Pipe Development Association Limited,
Detention Tanks – A Design Guide, UK, WRC. 1998, Design and construction of drainage and
sewerage systems using vitrified clay pipes,
• Construction Industry Research and Bucks, UK, CPDA.
Information Association, 1996, Report R159:
Sea Outfalls – construction, inspection and • Report for the hydraulic design of pipes –
repair, London, CIRIA. Wallingford Research.
• Building Research Establishment, 1991, • Construction Industry Research and

Soakaway Design, BRE Digest 365, BRE Information Association, 1998, Report 177, Dry
Watford UK. Weather Flows in Sewers, London, CIRIA.
• HR Wallingford DC Watkins, 1991, Report • Water Research Council, 1994, Velocity

SR271 -The hydraulic design and performance equations, UK, WRC.
of soakaways, Wallingford UK. • Bazaraa, A.S., Ahmed, S., 1991. Rainfall
• Construction Industry Research and Characterization in an Arid Area, Engineering
Information Association, 1996, Infiltration Journal of Qatar University, Vol. 4, pp35-50.
Drainage – Manual of Good Practice, London
UK, CIRIA.
1.3 Estimation of Flows
• Chartered Institution of Water and
The flows in a foul sewerage system are made up of
Environmental Management, 1996, Research
contributions from a number of different sources,
and Development in Methods of Soakaway
including: domestic properties; commercial areas;
design, UK, CIWEM.
industrial facilities; institutional contributions from
• Construction Industry Research and hospitals, schools, etc.; groundwater infiltration; and
Information Association, 2000, C522 surface run-off. The contributions to the system from
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems – Design each of these sources must be determined before
Manual for England and Wales, London UK, the required hydraulic capacity of the sewerage can
CIRIA. be established. Each of these contributions will
follow a different diurnal pattern, with flows varying
• Construction Industry Research and over a 24-hour period. The design of the system
Information Association, 2001, C523 must take these fluctuations into account and be
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems – Best

Drainage Affairs
capable of catering for the peak flows likely to be 4. Identify any existing and proposed commercial
encountered in any 24- hour period. Diurnal flow establishments within the catchment, together with
patterns will be different on working days, from the their working populations and diurnal variations.
patterns on rest days. Section 1.3.3 provides detailed guidance on this.
The starting point for the design of foul sewerage 5. Identify any existing and proposed institutional
should be the estimation of the average flow rate or establishments such as schools, health centres,
the Dry Weather Flow (DWF). This is calculated hospitals and mosques that are within the catchment
from the following formula: boundary. Determine the usage of these institutions
and derive a diurnal flow pattern for them. Section
DWF = PG + I + E Equation 1.3.1 1.3.4 provides details of this process.
DWF = dry weather flow (litres/day) 6. Determine infiltration rates into the sewerage
system using the methods described in section
P = population served
1.3.5. These may increase with time or it may be
G = average per capita domestic water consumption proposed to rehabilitate the system to reduce
(l/hd/day) infiltration.
I = Infiltration (l/day) 7. The flows that are likely to occur in the

sewerage system can now be estimated. This is
E = average industrial effluent discharged in 24 done by adding together the total daily contributing
hours flows from each upstream source to any given point
(l/day) in the network. This is usually done sub-catchment
by sub-catchment working down the trunk sewer. It
can be done graphically and will establish the
The process for establishing flow rates should follow maximum likely flow that has to be catered for at the
the sequence set out below: given location. The total daily flow from each
contributing source is calculated and summed to
1. Define catchment and sub-catchment give a total daily flow through a given point. This
boundaries for the area under consideration. This flow is then averaged for a 24-hour day to give an
should include all the properties and establishments average Dry Weather Flow or DWF. The peak flow
that contribute to the system and may include future for design purposes in upper catchment areas can
developments as well as existing. The catchment be taken as 6xDWFviii. From the peak flows the
represents the entire upstream area contributing to a required pipe sizes can be determined. However, it
point or node in the sewerage system. Generally, should be noted that the peaking factor would
catchments are taken to contribute to trunk sewers, decrease in downstream catchment areas (see
while sub-catchments contribute to branches. Thus section 1.4 for information on peaking factors).
a catchment may comprise a number of sub- Hydraulic design is described in section 1.5.
catchments.
2. Determine the numbers and types of dwellings

within the catchment and from this, determine the
existing and future contributing domestic population
and hence the flows from that population to the
network. Section 1.3.1 gives detailed guidance on
this process. Establish the diurnal flow pattern for
the domestic contribution.
3. Identify any existing and proposed industrial

establishments in the catchment, together with their
daily contributing flow and diurnal flow pattern.
Section 1.3.2 gives guidance on this.

Drainage Affairs
Table 1.3.1 below gives the discharge rates that

Figure 1.3.1 -Typical chart showing diurnal
should be used for the design of foul sewerage
variations in domestic sewage
systems. Discharges in the table below are
flows
averaged over 24 hours in the determination of DWF
2.50 because the application of peaking factors allows for
the diurnal profile.
2.00
Table 1.3.1 – Typical Daily Discharges in the ME

1.50 Development Discharge Unit
Flow, l/s
type l/day
1.00
Domestic 170 Litres/head/day
0.50 Domestic low 250 Litres/head/day

density high value
0.00 properties
00:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 00:00
Hours
Average Infiltration 100 Litres/jhead/day
Infiltration range 0- 250 Litres/head/day
Where sewerage systems are very long and the

time of flow from top to bottom is significant, peak
flows will be heavily attenuated. This is because, for The figures in this table provide general guidance for
example, locally generated domestic flows in the the design of foul sewerage systems.
lower parts of the catchment will have passed
downstream by the time the flows arrives from the The figure to be used for design purposes in Qatar
upper areas. This has the effect of smoothing out where there is no better information is 270l/h/d,
the peaks in flows. comprising 160 l/hd/day or sewage and 110 l/hd/day
infiltration.
1.3.1 Domestic Where the area to be served is low density palaces

and villas consideration should be given to the use
Domestic flows form the largest proportion of flows of 200 l/head/day. If the catchment is inland and the
in foul sewers. They derive from normal domestic ground water table level is low then the infiltration
appliances such as sinks, basins, toilets, showers, allowance can be reduced or even eliminated.
washing machines, baths, etc., and are dependent
on the number of persons in a dwelling. In order to Design populations of the existing and proposed
determine suitable domestic contributions to the properties are based on the plots indicated on the
sewerage system, it is necessary to make certain Action Plans that can be obtained from the Land
assumptions. For example, each property is Information Centre and the occupancy levels given
assumed to house a certain number of persons, and in Table 1.3.2. The number of discharge units per
this will vary from one type of property to another. property is then allotted based on BS 8301, as
The assumption is made that all properties of a shown in Table 1.3.2.
given type will contain a given number of persons.
Butler and Daviesix suggest that between 75% and

85% of water used in a dwelling in the Middle East is
returned to the sewerage system. Thus, if a property
is metered, a good assessment of return to sewer
flows can be obtained.

Drainage Affairs
Table 1.3.2 – Indicative Occupancy Levels (from

BS 8301)
Occupancy Discharge
Plot Description
Levels Units
For plots less than 1225m2 6 people 14
For plots equal to and

9 people 21
between 1225 and 2500m2
Small
For plots 15 people 35
Palaces
greater than
2500m2 Larger
25 people 58
Palaces
The dry weather flow is then obtained from Figure

1.3.2, which has been reproduced from BS 8310,
Figure 2. Where no Action Plan plot or housing
information is available, the future area can be
assumed as developed at an average of the existing
planned plot density.

Drainage Affairs
100
Flow (l/s)
10
1
1 10 100 1000 10000
Discharge Units
Figure 1.3.2 – Conversion of Discharge Units to Flow Rates

Drainage Affairs
1.3.2 Industrial 1.3.3 Commercial

Estimation of daily discharges from Industrial areas Most significant developments include a degree of
will be dependent on the type of industry occupying commercial activity and this should be included in
the area. The majority of industries in Qatar are “dry” the assessment of discharges to the foul system.
industries such as warehousing and workshops. This activity can range from a single small office or
These will have lower consumption rates than “wet” shop, up to major shopping, hotel or office
industries such as concrete or paper manufacture. If complexes. Each development type needs to be
possible, metered water consumption rates should assessed.
be used in design but where these are not available
or are impractical to use, the values in Table 1.3.3 Commercial activities include all those listed above
can be applied. and each may have its own characteristic discharge
profile, which will inevitably be different from the
standard domestic profile.
Table 1.3.3 – Design Allowance for Industrial
Wastewater Generation Table 1.3.4 gives an indication of the likely
Category Volume (l/s/ha) discharges from various types of commercial
activity.
Conventional Water - Saving
Table 1.3.4 – Typical flows from commercial
Lightx 2 .5
premises
Mediumx 4 1.5
Development type Discharge Per
Heavy 8 2 l/day
Category Volume
Commercial 50 Customer
Slaughterhousexi 6600 l Per tonne of Centresxiii per 12 hour
produce day
Drink 8400 l Per cubic metre Airportxiv 11 - 19 Passenger
Productionxi of produce
Hotelsxv 150-300 Bed
Laundryxiv 1500 – 2100 l/d Per machine
Restaurantsxvi 30-40 Customer
Tanneryxii 30 – 35 m3 Per tonne of
produce Social Clubsxvii 10 – 20 Customer
Tanneryxi 7600 l Per tonne of Cinemaxviii 10 Seat

produce Officesxix 750 100m2
Shopping Centresxx 400 100m2
In the above table, light industry may be taken as Department Storexxi 2000 Per toilet
“dry industries which generally handle materials and
goods which do not include washdown facilities. Recreationalxxii 80 Customer
Heavy industries will include factories with Centres per 6 hour
washdown facilities and using water in the unit day
processes. These figures are to be used only in Commercial 300 100m2
initial land usage planning, and developers must premisesxxiii
obtain confirmation from end users before final
design.
Where possible, the above discharge rates should
be checked using installed water supply meters for
existing developments. Proposed developments

Drainage Affairs
should be assessed using the figurers given in the profiles by reading water meters at say, hourly
table above. intervals throughout the day. The resulting profile is
then applied to the daily consumption.
Diurnal profiles should be derived for each type of
commercial development and applied to the daily
discharge rate from the table. 1.3.5 Infiltration
Infiltration describes flows in the foul system, which
1.3.4 Institutions such as are not legitimate discharges. Infiltration comprises
two components:
Schools, Health Centres,
Hospitals and Mosques • inflows from faulty manhole covers, cross-
connections from storm and groundwater
Table 1.3.5 contains typical values of discharges
control systems, and tidal sources. Inflows can
from various types of institutional premises.
also come from the illegitimate practice of lifting
manhole covers to drain surface water during
Table 1.3.5 – Typical Institutional Discharges and after storms;
Development Discharge Per
type l/day • infiltration of groundwater through displaced
and open pipe joints, cracks, fractures and
Educational 70 Pupil per 8 hour breaks in the fabric of the main sewers and
Centresxiii day lateral connections, manholes and chambers.
Day schoolsxxiii 50 - 100 Pupil per 8 hour
Infiltration causes reduced capacity for legitimate
day
sewage flows, increased requirements for pumping
Residential 150-200 Pupil and sewage treatment, and possible structural
schoolsxxiv damage.
Mosquexiii 100 Worshiper per Infiltration into foul sewerage systems can be
12 hour day problematic. It generally derives from groundwater
entering the pipe network through: poor joints in the
Sports Centrexxiii 10 – 30 visitor
pipes; cracks or fractures; defects in manholes; or
Retirement 250 Bed through private drainage connections. Infiltration
Homexxiii generally occurs in areas with a high water table. In
coastal areas, infiltration can be saline which can
Nursing Homesxxiii 300 - 400 Bed
have a detrimental effect on sewage treatment
Assembly Hall 11 - 19 Guest processes and can cause corrosion of metalwork in
manholes and pumping stations.
Prison 300 - 570 Inmate
Hospitalsxxiii 500-750 Bed It is normal to allow a figure of 10% of DWF for
infiltration. Infiltration should be excluded from the
calculation of flows using peaking factors. Thus for a
peaking factor, Pf, peak design flow would be given
Each category of premises will have a different
by the equation:
diurnal discharge profile, with day schools only
contributing during the school day, and hospitals Q = Pf (PG + E) + I
likely to contribute flows for much of the waking day.
Equation 1.3.2
As with other types of development, metered water
Where:
supply records should be consulted wherever
Q = Peak Design Flow (l/d)
possible to provide an indication of actual
consumption figures. A suitable return to sewer Pf = Peaking Factor
factor should then be applied to the results.
Sometimes, it may be possible to determine diurnal P = Population

Drainage Affairs
G = Daily per capita flow (l) followed, where infiltration is to be reduced. This is
an iterative approach to successively focus on
E = Daily Industrial Flow (l) sources of excessive infiltration, and to ensure that
I = Daily infiltration flow (l) reduction measures are cost-effective.
A sample calculation sheet for sewers using the It is very evident that removal, or more realistically,
above formula is included in Volume 1 Appendix 1 significant reduction of infiltration, is a time-
consuming and expensive process. It is far more
Where local conditions indicate that the figure of
cost-effective to avoid its occurrence in the first
10% DWF for infiltration is too low, then a higher
place. This can be done by strictly controlling the
figure may be adopted. However, this must be
quality of new and renovated sewerage installations,
justified by supporting information, such as the
and by ensuring that best quality materials and
analysis of flow survey results. At the time of
construction techniques are used, to provide a long-
drafting this manual, DA suggest that for G in the
lasting leak-free system. Such standards should be
above formula, an overall figure of 270l/hd/day be
applied to both private and public sewerage.
used for all domestic flows. This will be revised
Property connections should also be correctly made,
when flow survey results become available .
and abandoned sewers and septic tanks properly
Conversely, where the water table is known to be sealed.
well below the level of the sewerage system, the
allowance for infiltration will be less significant
locally.
1.4 Peaking Factors
As described in section 1.3, the rate of discharge of
Infiltration is often associated with exfiltration, which
sewage from a given property to the sewerage
is the leakage of foul flows due to faults and
system will vary during the day. The sewerage
openings in the pipework, manholes and chambers.
system must be able to cope with the highest flows
Exfiltration of foul flows results in contamination of
likely to occur in the day. Different contributors to the
the surrounding soils and possible pollution of
system will have different discharge profiles. For
groundwater.
example, shopping areas will generally only
Since both infiltration and exfiltration involve flows contribute flows during the periods when the shops
passing through physical defects in the sewerage are open, and then the flows will be in proportion to
system fabric, they often occur together in how busy the shops are through the day.
conjunction with fluctuating groundwater levels. This
Domestic properties generally show marked
continuing flow mechanism can result in erosion of
morning and evening peaks, which coincide with
the surrounds and foundations to pipes and
peak domestic activity. This suggests that foul
manholes. In serious cases, failure of the asset or
sewers should be designed to cope with higher than
ground subsidence has resulted.
the average, or dry weather flow (DWF), and a
The Sewer Rehabilitation Manual provides a common way of designing systems is to cope with a
detailed explanation of the factors involved in flow of up to six times DWFviii. While this approach
infiltration. may be satisfactory for the smaller sewers at the
head of the system, it will tend to over design the
Two CIRIA reportsxxv,xxvi describe various methods larger sewers and ignores the attenuation effects as
for estimating base-flow infiltration. Inflow of the flows move downstream.
stormwater runoff is estimated from the area of
development contributing to the flow monitor. At the head of a sewerage system, discharges tend
Estimation of both components relies on detailed to be pulsed, with individual pulses of flow being the
flow and rainfall monitoring, combined with hydraulic discharge from individual appliances. As the pulses
modelling to understand the relative contributions of flow along the pipe system, the peaks tend to
the components in wet and dry weather. become attenuated and as the flows progress down
the system, these pulses combine to form a more
The Infiltration Reduction Procedure contained in consistent flow. The peaking factor will depend on
the Sewerage Rehabilitation Manual should be the upstream population and the distance the

Drainage Affairs
sewage has travelled. A number of different ways of

determining the peak factor have been proposed
which take account of the attenuation downstream
with increasing population. There are several
formulae for calculation of peaking factorix, for which
the Babbit formula is most representative in Qatar
The Babbit Formual (1952) is;
5
PF = 5
,
P
Where PF represents the peaking factor, and P is
the population in thousands.
However, the formula is not representative at low

populations.
Therefore, the upper limit for peaking factors shall

be taken as six for populations up to and including
500.. For populations over 500 the Babbit formula
shall be used. The minimum value of peaking factor
shall be 3.
It is considered that values in excess of six, and

below three, are unrealistic for conditions in Doha,
but these figures may be revised after a detailed
flow survey is carried out (see section 1.3 above).
The variation of peaking factors with population is

shown graphically in Figure 1.4.1, which follows

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Peaking Factors
Babbit BSEN 752
7.00
6.00
Maximum value 6
F a c to r
5.00
4.00
3.00
Minimum value 3
2.00
1.00
0.00
Population 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000
Figure 1.4.1 Plot of Peaking Factors v Population

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1.5 Hydraulic Design downstream in order to maintain minimum

gradients (see section 1.5.1 below). Trunk
The hydraulic design of sewerage systems involves sewer sections serving larger catchments are
achieving a balance between pipe size, pipe likely to become very deep (but see also
gradient and pipe depth, such that self-cleansing section 1.11);
velocities are achieved without surcharge, but with
the most economical combination of size and depth. • Backdrop manholes should be used where
Wherever possible, pipe depths should be used that there is a difference >600mm in level between
avoid the need for concrete bed and surround. a branch/rider sewer and the main sewer.
Backdrops (see also section 1.12.2 below)
General Principles should not be used to reduce gradients on
main sewer lines.
The general principles of foul sewer design are as
follows: Design Tools
• Pipe size should not generally decrease Hydraulic computer models are invaluable tools for
downstream; understanding the performance of sewerage
systems. Hydraulic models are of particular value
• Sewers should be designed to convey peak
for:
flows without surcharge;
• Understanding the performance of the
• Sewers should achieve self-cleansing velocity
complete system, in particular attenuation of
at least once per day. Note that half-pipe
flows;
velocity is numerically the same as full-pipe
velocity. • Understanding the flow regime of complex and
interdependent systems, such as those with
• To allow for ventilation of the system, maximum
bifurcations and loops;
design depth of flow should not exceed 0.75 x
pipe diameter or d/D ≤ 0.75. • Understanding the flow characteristics of
multiple pumping systems, as found in Doha;
• Where there is a chance of heavy construction
plant tracking over new sewers laid during • Readily understanding the effects of changes in
construction of a site, the minimum depth of development on existing systems;
cover should be measured from the formation
level of the site above the sewers; • Simulating modifications to the construction
and/or operation of the system.
• Self-cleansing velocities increase with pipe size
(see sections 1.5.1 and 1.5.2 below); Hydraulic computer models should use InfoWorks
CS software, and be verified against flow and depth
• At manholes, all pipes should be laid such that measurements carried out on the actual system.
their soffits are at the same level. Pipes in
manholes should not be laid with the inverts
level, as this can promote the deposit of solids 1.5.1 Formulae
in minor branches leading to odour problems
and blockages; 1.5.1.1 The Colebrook-White
• Junctions should not enter a sewer at right
Equation
angles but should enter at an angle of 45° to The Colebrook-White equation allows calculation of
the direction of flow of the main sewer; velocity of flow in a gravity drain flowing full for any
given gradient, diameter, and roughness coefficient,
• Sewers should commence at minimum depth as follows;
upstream and follow ground profiles if possible
to minimise excavation. However, it is
recognised that in Qatar, due to flat
topography, depths will gradually increase

Drainage Affairs
Table 1.5.1 - Pipe Roughness ks Values

Material ks Value (mm)
Normal Poor
Concrete (Precast + O Rings) 3.0 6.0
 k 2.51υ 
v = −2 (2 gDS ) log  s +  Concrete (Steel Forms) 3.0 6.0
 3.7 D D (2 gDS )  DI (PE Lined) 0.6 1.5
GRP 0.6 1.5
VCP 1.5 3.0
Equation 1.5.1
Further values can be obtained by direct reference

Where g = acceleration due to gravity, m2/s to Appendix 1 of the Wallingford design tables.
D = diameter, m Caution should be exercised in the use of the
S = slope or headloss per unit length Wallingford tables. It should be noted that the quality
of pipes can vary considerably from one
k s = roughness coefficient, mm manufacturer to the next, and that condition of pipes
can vary with time. Designers should avoid using the
υ = kinematic viscosity of water optimistic values quoted by some plastic pipe
(m2/s). manufacturers, as these invariably refer to new
pipes under laboratory conditions. The figure to be
Thus, for a 400 mm diameter pipe with k s = 1.5 , used for design purposes shall be 1.5 in all cases
and slope 1 in 157, flow temperature 15oC, the
velocity will be 1.33 m/s
Using the relationship: Table 1.5.2 - Kinematic Viscosity υ Values
Q=AV Temperature, 0C Viscosity, m2/s x 10-6
Equation 1.5.2 15 1.141
Where: 25 0.897
35 0.727
Q = flow in the pipe (m3/s)
A = Cross-sectional area of flow For detailed sewage modelling applications, the

viscosity should be varied for a range of
V = velocity of flow temperatures, but for routine applications, a
conservative approach will be to use the lower
This allows the pipe full discharge to be calculated
temperature of 150C.
where:
A graph for proportional velocity and discharge in
A=πD2/4
part-full circular sections is reproduced in Figure
1.5.1. This illustrates the relationship between depth
Equation1.5.3 of flow, and velocity. It can be used for estimating
Thus, for the above pipe at full flow, the capacity will the velocity of flow in partially full pipes, and should
be 167 l/s be used to check velocities for self cleansing
A sample calculation sheet for sewers using the velocities at low flow (see table 1.5.4)
above formulae is included in Volume 1 Appendix 1
Tables are available from hydraulic research giving
values for a wide range of pipe sizes at a range of
gradients for various values of ks.
Tables 1.5.1 and 1.5.2 below give recommended
values of ks and υ . Both are taken for the Slimed
sewers category from Wallingford design tablesxxvii.

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Figure 1.5.1 - Proportional Velocity and Discharge in Part-Full Circular Sections

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0.75m/sec can be assumed to be self-cleansing in

1.5.1.2 Manning’s Equation pipes of 150mm diameter.
Manning’s equation is an empirical formula for
As sewer sizes increase, so too do self-cleansing
uniform flow in open channels. Manning’s equation
velocities, with the result that very large foul sewers
is:
require velocities to exceed 1.5m/sec to be self-
v=(1/n)R2/3S0½ cleansing. Such velocities in large diameter pipes
pose a safety hazard and facilities must be provided
to prevent operatives being washed downstream in
Equation 1.5.4
these sewers.
Where:
n is Manning’s roughness coefficient
S0 is bed slope 1.5.3 Minimum and Maximum
R is the hydraulic radius of the flow
Velocities
The equation may be useful in pumping station
CIRIAxxvi recommends that sewers should be
approach hannels and elements of sewage works.
designed to:
However, all pipe calculations must use Colebrook
White 1. transport a minimum concentration of fine
particles in suspension.
Typical values of Manning’s n are given below.
2. transport coarser granular material as bed load.
Table 1.5.3 - Typical values of Manning’s n
Channel Material n range 3. erode cohesive particles from a deposited bed.
In order to minimise the maintenance requirements

Cement 0.010-0.015
of any given length of sewer, it is normal to design
Concrete 0.010-0.020 the sewer to be “self-cleansing”. This means that the
sewer is designed to achieve a velocity at least once
Brickwork 0.011-0.018 per day that will carry all solid deposited material
along the pipe and not leave any materials
deposited in the invert of the sewer.
Manning’s equation is only valid for rough turbulent
flow conditions. Table 1.5.4 is based on the simplified CIRIA method
of assessing self-cleansing velocities in foul sewers.
Surface water sewers require generally higher self-
1.5.2 Minimum Pipe Sizes and cleansing velocities because of the higher particle
Gradients densities.
CIRIA Report R141xxviii defines self-cleansing

Table 1.5.4 – Approximate Self-Cleansing
sewers as follows:
Velocities for Foul Sewers
“An efficient self-cleansing sewer is one having a Pipe size Approximate self- cleansing
sediment-transporting capacity that is sufficient to (mm) velocity (m/sec)
maintain a balance between the amounts of
deposition and erosion, with a time-averaged depth 200–300 0.75
of sediment deposit that minimises the combined
400 0.77
costs of construction, operation and maintenance”.
500 0.82
Foul sewers should be at least 200mm diameter and
laid to a gradient of 1 in 60 or 1.67%. This gradient 600 0.86
can be relaxed to 1 in 150 (0.67%) where several
dwellings are connected to the head of the sewer, 700* 0.87
and the standard of workmanship during
construction is high. Peak flow velocities of

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Pipe size Approximate self- cleansing 1.6 Septicity in Sewage,

(mm) velocity (m/sec)
Odour Control and
800 0.88 Ventilation
900* 0.88 In rising mains and shallow gravity sewers,
respiration of bacteria in wastewater and slimes
1000 0.92
present on submerged sewer walls rapidly depletes
1200 1.03 any dissolved oxygen or nitrates causing
anaerobicity (septicity)xxix. One of the main impacts
*700 and 900 are non preferred sizes of septicity is the formation of sulphide by the
bacterial reduction of inorganic sulphate present in
Where large diameter sewers (over 1.0m diameter) the wastewater. Some of the sulphide will combine
are laid to steep gradients, very high flow velocities with metals in the sewage. The remainder will be
occur. For example,; a 1000mm pipe laid to 1:100 present in ionised and unionised form, as below.
gradient with a depth of flow of 750mm will have a
discharge velocity approaching 3.4m/sec, which is S2- ⇔ HS- ⇔ H2S
unacceptable in foul sewers. The designer should
Only the un-ionised form is released to the
implement energy dissipation measures in such
atmosphere. The proportion of sulphide present in
cases. It should be emphasised that scour in pipes
the un-ionised form is dependent upon the pH value
at these velocities is not a significant problem with
of the sewage and is about 50% at a pH value of 7.
modern materials, but if velocities become very high,
For example, a liquid concentration of 2mg/l of
odour emissions can be increased and noise can
sulphide at pH 7.0 would be in equilibrium with a
become a problem.
gaseous H2S concentration of 300ppm (ml/m3). At a
As a general rule, it is preferable to aim to achieve pH value of 8.0 this would decrease to about
self-cleansing velocity at least once per day. The 60ppm.
designer should aim to achieve a velocity at the
Septicity can have an impact on health and safety,
design flow (i.e. peak flow) of between self-
corrosion, subsequent treatment processes and
cleansing and 2.0m/s, with 2.5m/s as an upper limit.
odours. Hydrogen sulphide is a toxic gas. WHO
In small sewers, less than 600mm diameter, it is not guidelines for dose-effect relationships for H2S are
necessary to include measures to limit flow velocity. given in Table 1.6.1xxx.
The use of backdrop manholes for this purpose is
discouraged. However, backdrop manholes may be Table 1.6.1 - Health Impacts of Hydrogen
justified where there is a significant difference in Sulphide
level between a branch sewer and trunk sewer. In H2S Level Health Impact
this case, the economics may justify the construction (ppm)
of a backdrop to minimise excavation for the branch
sewer trench. The discharge from a backdrop into a 1000-2000 Immediate collapse with paralysis
manhole requires careful design to prevent flows of respiration
from washing over the benching. 530-1000 Strong central nervous system
stimulation, followed by respiratory
Backdrops for large diameter sewers are complex
arrest
structures that may involve the creation of vortices
to dissipate energy, for which specialist design is 320-530 Risk of death
required. These are often purpose-made in stainless
150-250 Loss of olfactory sense
steel. A typical example is included in the standard
drawings, Volume 8. 50-100 Serious eye damage
10-20 Threshold for eye irritation

Drainage Affairs
UK Occupational exposure limit (OEL) Spontaneous combustion of sulphur around the

xxxi
concentrations of hydrogen sulphide and other edge of lifted manhole covers has been reported in
gases associated with septic conditions are given in Doha. In this instance, the reaction of hydrogen
Table 1.6.2. sulphide with iron oxide at the manhole cover has
led to its catalytic oxidation to sulphur, which is
Table 1.6.2 - Exposure Limits for H2S and Other spontaneously combustible. Operational procedures
Gases may be required to reduce this risk. Although these
Gas Long term Short term are beyond the scope of normal design functions, it
OEL (8-hour) OEL (15 is important that the designer is aware of such
(parts per minute) (parts issues and to include mention of them in the design
million) per million) HARA’s.
Hydrogen sulphide 5 10
Methyl Mercaptan 0.5 - 1.6.2 Corrosion
(methanethiol)
Hydrogen sulphide is associated with the corrosion
Ethylmercaptan 0.5 2 of concrete and mortar as the result of its bacterial
(ethanethiol) conversion to sulphuric acid. High levels of
Ammonia 25 35 hydrogen sulphide may develop below covers, with
consequent impact on the structure of the tank or
Methylamine 10 -
manhole as has been found at a number of sites.
Ethylamine 10 - Metal work and electrical equipment is also
Dimethylamine 10 - vulnerable to H2S corrosion.
Selection of construction materials for tanks,

1.6.1 Explosion and manholes, covers, and fittings should take into
account the potential for corrosion.
Combustion Risk
The WRC report ‘Enclosed Wastewater Treatment
Plants’xxxii considers the potential risk of the
1.6.3 Impact on Subsequent
development of flammable concentrations of gases Treatment Processes
arising in a STW. The possible gases considered The discharge of septic sewage can increase the
are given below in Table 1.6.3. rate of development of sulphide in the primary
sedimentation stage sewage and sludges.
The lower explosive limit for hydrogen sulphide is
40000ppm. This concentration is unlikely to be High levels of septicity have been associated with
achieved under normal operation, and risk is poor settleability of activated sludges.
therefore minimal.
High levels of septicity or sulphates have been
Table 1.6.3 - Flammable Gases in Sewers associated with poor gas yields from mesophilic
Gas Lower explosive Upper anaerobic digestion processes.
limit % v/v in air explosive limit
% v/v in air
1.6.4 Odours
Carbon 12.5 -
Monoxide The discharge of septic sewage can be a significant
source of odours at the discharge point, whether to
Hydrogen 4.0 (40000 ppm) 46 an intermediate pumping station or to the inlet of a
sulphide STW. Threshold levels for various odours are listed
Petroleum 100 ppm in Table 1.6.4.
Methane 5.3 15 The odour threshold level of hydrogen sulphide

measured in a laboratory is about 0.5 parts per
billion (ppb). The level above which odour problems

Drainage Affairs
can occur is typically ten times this value.

Background H2S levels are often in the range 2- 1.6.5 General Design
5ppb. Guidelines for Odour
Control in Sewerage
Table 1.6.4 – Odour Threshold Levels
Gas Odour threshold (parts per
Systems
billion) The design of sewerage systems to reduce the
Hydrogen sulphide 0.5 development of septicity is the subject of a number
of guidesxxxiii. Guidelines include:
Methyl Mercaptan 0.0014-18
(methanethiol) Rising mains
Ethylmercaptan 0.02
• Minimise lengths of pumping mains, and use lift
(ethanethiol)
pumps rather than long rising mains to
Ammonia 130-15300 minimise retention under anaerobic conditions(
Methylamine 0.9-53 there is no satisfactory minimum length of
rising main which can be quoted for design
Ethylamine 2400 purposes. Even a retention time of 30 minutes
Dimethylamine 23-80 is sufficient to develop anaerobic conditions. );
• Minimise turbulence at the discharge point;
• Discharge into the gravity sewerage system at

low level to avoid turbulence and consequent
release of odours;
• Location of discharge point should NOT be

immediately prior to hydraulic drops or sharp
bends;
• Manhole covers at discharge points may need

to be sealed.
Pumping stations
• Minimise turbulence at inlet to sump. Use
submerged, rather than overflow weirs;
• Use level detectors to minimise the volume of

sump used under normal flow conditions;
• Use frequent pumping regimes to minimise

retention time in sump, and also spread odour
load more thinly over the day;
• Maximise benching to give self-cleansing

conditions and ensure no accumulation of grit.
Guidelines are given in BS 8301xxxiv;
• Ensure any screenings or grit can be removed,

or are washed back into main flow of sewage;
• Active/passive odour control unit may be

required depending on the sensitivity of the
site, size of installation, and other factors such

Drainage Affairs
as degree of septicity of sewage under normal and slimes causes localised septicity at points
flow conditions. where turbulence is insufficient to remove such
debris.
Gravity sewers
An indicator of the likelihood of septicity in a gravity
• Maintain self-cleansing velocities;
sewer is the ‘Z formula’ with the effect of different
• Avoid turbulent flow (including sharp bends and values of Z as indicated in Table 1.6.5.
drops);
• Minimise length of siphons (which will act as

rising mains);
• Ensure there is ventilation of the sewer (by

provision of vents);
• Design to ensure no accumulation of grit or

debris.
Storage Tanks and Shafts

• Minimise turbulence of discharges to tanks and
shafts (discharge at low level);
• In sensitive areas (i.e. next to houses) odour

control may be needed to treat displaced
odours when levels rise.
Refer also to section 2.23 of this volume, and

section 1.5 of volume 5
The formation of sulphide in rising mains and gravity

sewers has been the subject of extensive studies
xxxv, xxxiii.
The concentration can be estimated from the

following equationxxxvi:
Cs=K tCOD[(1+0.004D)/D]1.07(T-20)
Equation 1.6.1
Where:
Cs = concentration of sulphide (mg S/l)

Kc = constant, usually taken to be 0.00152
t = anaerobic retention time (mins)
D = diameter of rising main (cm)
T = temperature of sewage (°C)
COD = COD of sewage (mg/l)
In gravity sewers, there is a balance between
sulphide formation when flow is stagnant, and
sulphide release and oxidation during turbulent flow.
In practice, little sulphide should be formed in a well-
ventilated, self-cleansing, partially-filled gravity
sewer used for domestic sewage. Where problems
do occur, they are typically associated with sewers
of shallow gradients where accumulation of grit, silt

Drainage Affairs
Where a sewerage system is already in use, site

sampling can be carried out at the pumping station
Z as calculated below is a dimensionless parameter and at the discharge point. Measurements that
that indicates the potential for sulphide generation. should be made are:
Z= 3(EBOD) x P • COD;
S0.5Q0.33 b • BOD;
Equation 1.6.2 • Temperature;
Where: • Flow rate of wastewater;
• pH value;
EBOD = 5 day BOD (mg/l) multiplied by a • Respiration rate of sewage;
temperature factor 1.07 (T-20) • Sulphide (liquid and gas phase);
T = sewage temperature (co) • Redox potential;
S = slope of sewer (m/100m) • Dissolved oxygen concentration;
Q = wastewater flow (l/s) • Chloride concentration (or conductivity).
P = wetted pipe wall perimeter (m)
b = surface width of the stream (m) In addition, modelling would require information on:
• Length, material and diameter of rising mains;

Table 1.6.5 - Values of Z, Indicating Sulphide
• Length, material, diameter and slope of gravity
Generation Potential
sewer;
Value of Likely condition
• Pumping regime/flow profile;
Z
• Details of receiving sewer;
<5000 Sulphide rarely present • Location and odour control arrangements for
7500 Low concentrations of sulphide may be manholes and chambers;
produced • Ventilation of house connections;
10000 Sulphide may develop sufficiently to • Design horizon.
cause odour and corrosion problems
Septicity Control Using Chemicals
15000 Frequent problems with odours and
significant corrosion problems DA policy is to introduce septicity control facilities at
all new pumping stations as required.
More detailed equations have been developed by It should be stressed that septicity control using
Pomeroy, Jensen and others for gravity sewers, chemicals is only acceptable in Qatar if no other
methods are suitable.
linking re-aeration rates with sulphide formation
release and oxidation. These are incorporated in a Addition of chemicals is used to prevent odour
computer model (SPACA) developed by Hyder problems in the sewerage system, at the STW inlet
Consulting. Modelling can enable the areas where works and in sludge systems. The annual cost of
septicity develops to be identified allowing effective chemicals can be significant, and optimisation of
dose rate should be carried out, e.g. dosing may not
targeted remedial measures to be taken.
be necessary during cooler weather. In addition to
The model divides the sewerage network into a the cost, the chemical should be selected with
series of nodes (for example junctions or manholes) consideration given to the subsequent treatment of
and pipes (gravity or pumped). Details of the sewers the sewage, e.g. disinfection by UV irradiation may
are required (length, slope and diameter) and the be affected by residual iron in the effluent. Iron salts
are also reported to increase combustibility of dried
wastewater (including flow rate, COD and pH value).
sludge.
The model calculates the amount of sulphide
produced or lost along each section and carries out Many of the chemicals used, such as iron salts, high
a mass balance across the system. The model also
purity oxygen, alkali and oxidising agents such as
calculates the amount of chemicals required to
permanganates and hydrogen peroxide are
prevent septicity.
potentially hazardous. Appropriate precautions are
Sewerage Septicity Investigations required in their handling and storage, such as
bunded tanks, eyewashes or safety showers.

Drainage Affairs
Measures are also required to ensure that chemicals 500 18.2 164.2
do not deteriorate during storage, e.g. due to
1000 52.2 471.9
exposure to sunlight, moisture, or heat.
The chemicals most commonly used for septicity

control in the sewerage system or receiving Iron nitrate acts in the same way as calcium nitrate
wastewater treatment works are: when dosed at the start of a rising main. The iron
Calcium Nitrate is used widely to prevent septicity component also combines with sulphides as they
in sewerage systems. Micro-organisms present in form, and hence dosage rates in practice may be
the sewage and in the slimes on the sewer wall will approximately half that calculated for calcium
use nitrate as an alternative oxygen source under nitrate.
anoxic conditions. Sodium nitrate can also be used. Iron nitrate is, as with other iron salts, an acidic
High doses of nitrate can be added at the start of chemical requiring appropriate storage and
the sewerage system, and there will be no loss handling.
along the sewerage system. Excess nitrate may Iron salts (sulphate, chloride and nitrate) have
lead to rising sludge due to denitrification in the been used very effectively to control odours. Iron
primary sludge. salts combine with sulphide in the sewage to form a
Some oxidation of sulphide in sewage and sludges number of insoluble iron sulphides (FeS, Fe2S3,
may also be achieved by nitrate addition. A Fe3S4 and FeS2). Ferric salts are more effective
required ratio of between 10:1 to 30:1 of nitrate to than ferrous salts. However a mixture of ferric and
sulphide has been reported. Addition of nitrate with ferrous salts in the presence of dissolved oxygen
anthroquinone has recently been proposed to may be the most effectivexxxv:
oxidise sulphide in sludges. Fe2_ + 2Fe3+ + 4HS- → Fe3S4 + 4H+
Nitrate salts are supplied and stored as a liquid and The required dose rate decreases with increasing
dosed as a liquid to the pump sump at the start of a pH value and increases at acidic pH values, with
rising main. Average daily dose rates are calculated little effect expected at pH values much below 6. At
from the aerobic respiration of the sewage, but pH 7.0, the dose rate is 2.4mgFe / mgS.
assume that the rate of nitrate uptake is 40% of that
under fully aerobic conditions. The amount of Iron salts are added as a liquid at the discharge
nitrate required for rising mains of different point of a rising main or to a septic flow, such as
diameters is given in Table 1.6.6. These values are sludge liquor prior to return to the sewage flow.
derived assuming that the demand for nitrate Dosage rates for rising mains containing sewage at
nitrogen is 40% of that derived previously; that 2.85 pH 7.0, temperature 30oC, with a COD of 600mg/l
grams of oxygen are available for every gram of are given in Table 1.6.7.
nitrate nitrogen, and that calcium nitrate is supplied
at a concentration of 110.6g/l N. Table 1.6.7 – Dosing Rates for Iron Salts
Diameter Iron required per 1000m length,
The uptake of nitrate results in a slight reduction in
(mm) assuming 2.4mg/l as Fe
BOD. If sufficient nitrate is provided, the sewage
will remain fresh. (kg/d as Fe)
350 19.4
Table 1.6.6 - Nitrate Dosing Requirements for 500 29.2
Different Pipe Diameters 1000 68.2
Diameter Nitrate required per 1000 m length
(mm)
(kg/d as N) l/d assuming
110.6gN/l
350 11.0 99.9 Iron salts are acidic and corrosive and require care
with storage and handling. Iron salts attack metals,

Drainage Affairs
and appropriate materials are required for bunded to sulphuric acid occurs in the slimes on exposed
tanks, dosing pumps and pipework, together with sewer walls or sumps, corrosion of the sewer fabric
appropriate safety equipment such as safety can occur.
showers and eyewashes.
The uptake of oxygen results in a corresponding
Although effective at precipitating sulphide, iron reduction in BOD. If sufficient oxygen is provided,
salts have no impact on the concentration of other the sewage will remain fresh.
odorous chemicals such as volatile fatty acids or on
Dose rate is calculated to match the respiration rate
the degree of septicity of the sewage. They
of micro-organisms in sewage (typically 12mg/l.h)
therefore may be less effective than septicity and wall slimes (assumed to be 1.9g/m2.h at 30oC).
prevention systems for reducing odour. This can be calculated for a length of rising main of
radius r metres and length, L metres:
Addition of iron salts to sewage may:
gO2/h = ((2prLx 1.9)+ (pr2Lx12))1.07(T-30)
• Increase the mass, volume and thickness of
primary sludge;
Equation 1.6.3
• Reduce concentration of phosphate below the
required concentration for secondary Overall respiration rate (mg/l) of sewage and slimes
treatment; in rising mains of different diameters is given in
Table 1.6.8.
• High doses may adversely affect the
settleability of the primary sludge;
• Give some solids deposition within the sewer;
• Affect subsequent ultraviolet disinfection

processes;
Table 1.6.8 - Respiration Rates of Sewage and
• Increase the combustibility in subsequent Slimes
thermal drying processes. Respiration rates (mg/l.h Total DO
Pipe
at 30oC) demand rate
Oxygen supplied and stored as a liquid and then diameter
mgO2/l.h
(mm) Slimes Wastewater
dosed into a side stream of sewage as a high purity
gas has been used in rising mains and sewers 350 22.1 12 34.1
elsewhere in the Middle East to prevent septicity. 500 15.5 12 37.5
However, the amount that can be dosed is limited
1000 13.7 12 15.7
by the saturation concentration of dissolved
oxygen, being about 34mg/l at 30oC. The injection
of excess oxygen or air into rising main sewers can The amount of oxygen required per 1000m for
give rise to gas pockets, which may adversely mains of different diameters using the above
affect pump regimes. Excess oxygen also respiration rates is given in Table 1.6.9.
exacerbates microbiologically induced corrosion.
Table 1.6.9 - Oxygen requirements
Under aerobic conditions, sulphide will be oxidised Diameter Oxygen required per 1000m length
(predominantly by microbial action) to thiosulphate (mm) (kg/d)
and sulphuric acid, with some chemical oxidation to
sulphur. The rate of oxidation in the sewage stream 350 78.7
depends on the numbers of oxidising bacteria
500 129.4
present in the sewage and can be in the range of 1
(fresh sewage) to 15mgS/l.h. Some reduction of 1000 371.9
BOD and COD is seen. Oxidation can occur within
the sewage stream, where it will reduce the risk of
subsequent odour problems. Where the oxidation

Drainage Affairs
The concentration of oxygen at the injection point is

determined by dividing the daily oxygen
1.7 Pipeline Materials and
requirement by the daily flow rate of sewage. The Jointing
maximum amount of oxygen that can be injected is
limited by its saturation concentration (about 34mg/l The preferred material for use in gravity foul sewers
at 30oC and atmospheric pressure). (in Qatar) is vitrified clay pipe (VC), up to 1000mm
diameter.
Alkali addition, such as lime or caustic soda, can
be used to increase the pH value of sewage or VC pipes are manufactured to 1200 dia in the
sludge. At raised pH values, the release of H2S, Middle East. However, Glass Reinforced Plastic
other acidic sulphurous compounds and volatile
(GRP) is preferred for diameters in excess of
fatty acids will be suppressed. Addition is generally
to pH 8.0 or 8.5, as higher values can lead to a 1000mm.
significant release of ammonia. Use of alkali will
become less effective if dosed sewage is diluted uPVC is not acceptable on DA projects.
with neutral sewage downstream.
HDPE is not preferred, but may be used as a
Chlorine/hypochlorite acts as an oxidant and also sliplining where trenchless methods (see section 5)
as a bactericide, reducing oxygen demand, and are necessary for installation, using concrete jacking
slime growth, but is not widely used because of the pipes. Such instances may occur because the high
high chlorine demand of the sewage, and the strength concrete pipes necessary for withstanding
reluctance to add chlorine to the sewage flow. jacking forces do not have adequate chemical
Hypochlorite is used as an oxidant in wet-scrubbing resistance to withstand the aggressive nature of the
of odorous air: sewage. The concrete pipe thus provides the
required strength, and the lining is chemically
HS- + 4Cl2 + 4H20 → SO42- + 9H+ + 8Cl- resistant.
HS- + Cl2 → S + H+ + 2Cl- All materials and jointing should be specified in
accordance with QNBS. See also Volume 1 section
4.3.
Hydrogen peroxide oxidises previously formed
sulphide to sulphur and water, and provides
dissolved oxygen. 1.8 Pipe Bedding
Peroxide dosed at the inlet to the rising main Calculations for
provides dissolved oxygen to satisfy the oxygen
demand of the sewage and slimes. Dosage rates Narrow and Wide
can be calculated as for oxygen, with available
oxygen calculated as 0.48gO2 per gH2O2.
Trench Conditions
Pipes can be categorised as rigid, flexible and
Peroxide can be dosed at the top of the rising main
intermediate:
to oxidise sulphide present in the sewage. Dose rate
is assumed to be 1 gram of H2O2 per gram of S (a) Rigid pipes support loads in the ground by
oxidised at a pH value of less than 8.5.
virtue of resistance of the pipe wall as a ring in
Chlorine dioxide has been used as an oxidising bending;
agent, mainly with sludges and sludge liquors.
(b) Flexible pipes rely on the horizontal thrust from
Potassium permanganate has been used the surrounding soil to enable them to resist vertical
successfully as an oxidising agent to reduce loads without excessive deformation;
sulphide levels in sludge liquors and sludges.
(c) Intermediate or semi-rigid pipes are those
Enzyme based chemicals have been promoted for pipes that exhibit behaviour between those in (a)
septicity control. These appear to act by reducing fat and (b).
levels or by inhibiting the activity of sulphate
reducing bacteria. Their effectiveness is very site Vitrified clay pipes are examples of rigid pipes while
specific, and long-term effectiveness is not known. steel, ductile iron, UPVC, MDPE and HDPE pipes
may be classified as flexible or intermediate pipes,

Drainage Affairs
depending on their wall thickness and stiffness of 1.8.1 Bedding Design for Rigid
pipe material.
Pipes
The load on rigid pipes is concentrated at the top The design procedures for rigid pipes are outlined
and bottom of the pipe, thus creating bending as:
moments. Flexible pipes may change shape by
deflection and transfer part of the vertical load into (a) Determine the total design load due to:
horizontal or radial thrusts, which are resisted by
passive pressure of the surrounding soil. The load • the fill load, which is influenced by the
on flexible pipes is mainly compressive force, which conditions under which the pipe is installed,
is resisted by arch action rather than ring bending. i.e. narrow or wide trench conditions;
The loads on buried gravity pipelines are as follows: • the superimposed load which can be uniformly
distributed or concentrated traffic loads; and
(a) The first type comprises loading due to the fill
in which the pipeline is buried, static and moving • the water load in the pipe.
traffic loads superimposed on the surface of the fill, (b) Choose the type of bedding (whether granular,
and water load in the pipeline; plain or reinforced concrete) on which the pipe will
(b) The second type of load includes those loads rest. Apply the appropriate bedding factor and
due to relative movements of pipes and soil caused determine the minimum ultimate strength of the pipe
by seasonal groundwater variations, ground to take the total design load;
subsidence, temperature change and differential (c) Select a pipe of appropriate grade or strength.
settlement along the pipeline.
Details of design calculations, tables, etc, are
Loads of the first type should be considered in the contained in Appendix 1, Volume 1 - General.
design of both the longitudinal section and cross
section of the pipeline. Provided the longitudinal
support is continuous, has uniform quality, and the 1.8.1.1 Narrow Trench Conditions
pipes are properly laid and jointed, it is sufficient to When a pipe is laid in a relatively narrow trench in
design for the cross section of the pipeline. undisturbed ground and the backfill is properly
compacted, the backfill will settle relative to the
In general, loads of the second type are not readily
undisturbed ground and the weight of fill is jointly
calculable and they only affect the longitudinal
supported by the pipe and the shearing friction
integrity of the pipeline. Differential settlement is of
forces acting upwards along the trench walls. The
primary concern especially for pipelines to be laid in
load on the pipe would be less than the weight of the
newly reclaimed areas. The effect of differential
backfill on it and will be determined as in ‘narrow
settlement can be catered for by using either flexible
trench’ conditions.
joints or piled foundations. If the pipeline is partly or
wholly submerged, there is also a need to check the
effect of flotation of the empty pipeline. 1.8.1.2 Wide Trench Conditions
The design criteria for the structural design of rigid When the pipe is laid on a firm surface and then
pipes is the maximum load at which failure occurs covered with fill, the fill directly above the pipe yields
while those for flexible pipes are the maximum less than the fill on the sides. Shearing friction
acceptable deformation and/or the buckling load. forces acting downwards are set up, resulting in the
The approach for rigid pipes is not applicable to vertical load transmitted to the pipe being in excess
flexible pipes. For all DA projects, the designer must of that due to the weight of the fill directly above the
refer in the first instance to the manufacturer’s pipe. The load on the pipe will then be determined
literature, to ensure that the design is in compliance as in ‘wide trench’ condition.
with recommendations.
Please refer to Volume 1 Appendix1

Drainage Affairs
1.8.2 Bedding Factors

1.8.3 Design Strength
The strength of a precast concrete or vitrified clay
pipe is given by the standard crushing test. When For design, it is required that the total external load
the pipe is installed under fill and supported on on the pipe will not exceed the ultimate strength of
bedding, the distribution of loads is different from the pipe multiplied by an appropriate bedding factor
that of the standard crushing test. The load required and divided by a factor of safety.
to produce failure of a pipe in the ground is higher
The design formula is as follows:
than the load required to produce failure in the
standard crushing test. The ratio of the maximum Wt Fm
effective uniformly distributed load to the test load is We ≤
known as the '‘bedding factor'’ which varies with the Fs
types of bedding materials under the pipe and
depends to a considerable extent on the efficiency where We = total external load on pipe,
of their construction, and on the degree of
Wt = ultimate strength of pipe,
compaction of the side fill. Typical bedding factors
are given in Table 1.8.1 below Fm = bedding factor,
Table 1.8.1 – Bedding Factors Fs = design safety factor of 1.25 for ultimate
Condition BF strength of pipe
Class D (Pipe laid on trench bottom) 1.1
Class F (Pipe laid on Granular Bedding) 1.5
Class B (1800 Granular Bedding) 1.9
Class S (3600 Granular Bedding) 2.2
Class A (Pipe on Concrete Cradle) 2.6

Drainage Affairs
serves more than five properties), including all

1.9 Manhole Positioning rider sewers;
The sewerage system should be designed to • Manholes should not be constructed in

facilitate flows by gravity in a branched arrangement locations on bends in the highway, which may
of small local sewers connected to larger district cause vehicles to skid;
sewers, connected to the major trunk sewers.
• Manholes should be accessible at all times;
All public sewers should be located in Government
Manholes and chambers will form the main points
owned lands, to permit access for construction and
for access to the sewerage system for operation and
maintenance and to facilitate connection from
maintenance. They should therefore be located with
private premises.
adequate access for maintenance vehicles.
Manholes and sewers should be sited with due
Where new manholes are to be constructed in
regard to public utility services. Sewers in roads and
existing highways, close liaison is required with the
highways should be located in accordance with the
Roads Department. Although the Standard Services
Standard Services Reservations Drawings as
Reservation Drawings should be followed where
published by the Road Affairs. These are included
possible, care must be taken to ensure that the
as drawings SR1 and SR2 in Volume 8 of this
locations of all existing utilities in the vicinity are
Manual.
known, and that the proposed manhole location will
The location of manholes in the sewerage system is not interfere with such utilities. Manholes should not
dictated by a number of factors: be located such that they would prevent access to
utility equipment or in an emergency situation.
For non man-entry sewers maximum spacing
between manholes is governed by jetting Building over or near to a sewer, and associated
lengths. Jetting hoses are 100m and manholes and chambers will not be permitted.
allowance has to be made for the vertical drop Building over sewers, or directly adjacent to them,
to invert level. In sewers over 600mm dia. causes major problems with access for maintenance
jetting can be carried out from each end. and renewal of sewerage assets. In extreme cases,
Greater spacing may only be provided in demolition of premises could be required.
special cases, where due consideration is
The land along the line of the sewer for construction
given to maintenance, and subject to DA
and access for maintenance and replacement is
approval. Required spacing is summarised in
called the easement. No other developments should
table 1.9.1 below.
be permitted within the confines of the easement.
Table 1.9.1 – Maximum Manhole Spacings Where access to a sewer is restricted on both sides,
Diameter Distance (m) the easement width required is a minimum of 6m,
(mm) being normally 3m either side of the centre line of
To 600 80 the pipeline. This distance is considered to be the
minimum practical working width to allow access of
Above 600 120 construction plant, and storage of excavated
material and pipe sections during maintenance
• Manholes should, where possible, not be operations. Where the depth from finished ground
constructed close to kerb lines; level to invert exceeds 3m, or the sewer diameter
exceeds 600mm, the easement widths required are
• Manholes should be constructed at the head the greater of two times the depth to the invert of the
of each system, and at every change of sewer, plus the pipe diameter, or ten times the
diameter, direction and/or gradient; diameter of the sewer. Thus the easement for a 1m
pipe at 5m depth will be 11m. For this reason, it is
• A manhole should be constructed at every
essential that excavation depths be kept to a
significant sewer junction (a significant sewer
minimum.
junction is one where the connecting sewer

Drainage Affairs
complex, multi-storey apartment block, hotel,

etc, the minimum diameter shall be 200mm;
Foundations and basements of buildings adjacent to
easements shall be designed to ensure that no • They should laid at minimum gradients,
building load is transferred to the sewer. Trenches sufficient to avoid deposition under all flow
or pipelines shall not be constructed within a regimes. It is desirable that a gradient of 1:60
notional 45-degree line of influence spreading below for 150mm diameter pipework be used for
the footing, or 1.5m from the face of the building, design purposes, although this may not always
whichever is greater. be possible in flat areas. In such cases, the
gradient may be reduced to 1:180;
These requirements refer to permanent easements
required in connection with pipe-laying and • They should be constructed to watertight
subsequent maintenance. They exclude temporary standards in accordance with the standard
storage areas, and the like, used during drawings and specifications.
construction.
The private sewerage system between the premises
and the terminal manhole shall be designed and
1.10 House Connections constructed in accordance with the general
requirements of the Manual. The private sewerage
A house connection is defined as the connection system shall be designed and constructed as a
from a premise (domestic, commercial, industrial, separate system, capable of accepting foul flows
institutional, etc.) to transfer foul flows to the public only. Illegal connections allowing the entry of storm
sewerage system. water runoff shall not be made to the foul sewerage
system.
For every house connection, a terminal manhole
(Manhole number 1), in accordance with the House connection to existing pipelines should be
Standard Drawings, should be provided and should made either to the nearest manhole or to a Y-
be positioned within the boundary of the premises at junction incorporated into the pipeline. It should be
a distance not exceeding 2.0m from the boundary noted that Y–branches will not generally be
line. The required depth of MH1 is 1.2m The accepted by the DA and should only be used as a
terminal manhole is intended to form a demarcation last resort, where access for manhole construction is
of maintenance responsibility, and to protect the impractical. Y-branches and saddles are not to be
public sewerage system from damage or blockage added to existing pipelines to avoid the permanent
due to indiscriminate discharge of sewage by the damage resulting from such modifications to the
occupants of the connected premises. The terminal sewer.
manhole also acts as a seal to prevent the emission
of gases from the public sewer, potentially causing Where several premises are being connected or the
nuisance to the occupants of the premises. sewer is deep, then consideration should be given to
the provision of a rider sewer. The rider sewer would
Before a connection is made, the capacity of the be constructed parallel to the public sewer, at
existing sewerage system should be checked to shallower depth and discharge into a manhole.
confirm that it has sufficient capacity to
accommodate the flow from the premises. Typical details of house connections, rider sewers,
etc are shown on the Standard Drawings, Volume 8.
All house connections should comply with the
following general principles:
• They should be designed and constructed to

1.11 Construction Depths
enable foul flows to pass to the public sewer The topography of Qatar is virtually flat, thus
without flooding or surcharge; affording little or no opportunity to use natural land
slopes to promote gravity movement of sewage. All
• They should be of 150mm minimum internal gradients in pipelines must therefore be provided by
diameter for a typical 6-person villa the slope of the pipeline within the trench. The
development. For a large palace, office geology is also predominantly rock, requiring

Drainage Affairs
excavation by rock breaker, which is slow, noisy and terminal pumping station. Both gravity sewers and
expensive. pumping stations will have operational costs, and
should be subjected to the NPV process alike in
Faced with these natural constraints, designers order to provide a true cost comparison.
have no choice other than to employ pumping
stations to lift the sewage into the downstream Other aspects such as noise from pumping stations,
gravity system, once the trench depth begins to and the consequences of flooding due to station
approach around 5m. Open cut excavations in failure also need to be considered.
excess of 5 m should generally be avoided where
possible, on safety grounds. However, It is The minimum cover depth from Finished Ground
recognised that this is generally costly to achieve, Level (FGL) to top of pipe or surround should be as
and so the policy in Qatar is to allow open cut up to per Table 1.11.1. However, designers should note
7.5m depth, but not more. that these values will often need to be exceeded in
upstream sewers to allow adequate falls for house
Whilst this is a general rule, the economics and connections from larger developments, and to avoid
practicalities should also be considered when other utilities in congested areas.
determining excavation depths. The use of
shallower trenches will result in the need for more
pumping stations. The cost of providing shallow
trenches and more pumping stations versus the cost
of deeper trenches and less pumping stations
should be subject to a lifetime cost (NPV)
comparison at feasibility stage before embarking
upon final design.
Trenchless options should be considered for deep

sewers
The economics of deep excavations are governed

by the following factors:
• Depth of trench for safety, although rock

geology encourages stability of trench sides;
• Depth of trench for reach of machines for

breaking out and removing excavated
materials;
• Availability of suitable trench supports;
• Width of trenches allowing for battering back

for stability;
• Strength of pipelines to withstand imposed

loads from backfill.
The costs and timescales for excavation then need

to be balanced against the construction and O&M
costs for pumping stations. Comparison should be
carried out for all options on a NPV basis within a
15-year timeframe. Options may include several
combinations of sewer depth and numbers of
pumping stations, with perhaps deep tunnelled
interceptor sewers, which may or may not require a

Drainage Affairs
Table 1.11.1 - Minimum Sewer Cover Depths

Location Minimum Cover
Urban areas (paved) 1200mm to FGL Backdrop Manholes

Rural Areas (unpaved) 900mm to FGL
Backdrop manholes will be required where there is a
Other Pipeline Services 500mm clearance sudden drop in sewer level. In most cases this will
preferred arise when a shallow branch or rider sewer enters a
300mm for twin rising deeper trunk sewer. Although the general
mains in common trench philosophy of sewer design dictates that pipes
200mm absolute should enter manholes with level soffits where
minimum clearance possible, this will not be economical where shallow
sewers meet deeper sewers (the branch sewers
should be constructed at minimum depth to avoid
1.12 Manholes, Chambers, excessive cost of excavation).
Access Covers, and Standard drawings of backdrop manholes are
Ladders included in Volume 8. For smaller backdrops of less
than 1m fall, an inclined backdrop may be used, but
These installations are required to access sewers vertical drops are required for greater falls, to avoid
for testing, inspection, maintenance, repair and excessive excavation.
removal of debris. Every sewer length on the public
system should be accessible without the need to Designers should refer also to the discussion in
enter premises or cross property boundaries. sections 1.5 general principles, and 1.11 regarding
sewer depths.
Manholes and chambers generally fall into two
categories, being:
1.12.3 Elements of Design
• Inspection Chambers; and
Manholes and chambers shall generally be
• Sewer System Manholes. constructed in accordance with the standard
drawings contained in Volume 8.
1.12.1 Inspection Chambers Minimum cover size should provide sufficient access
These structures are of shallow depth (generally to admit persons with normal hand tools and
1.2m) and are intended for use on sewerage cleaning equipment, and to admit persons wearing
systems within property boundaries, and for the breathing apparatus in emergencies. Maximum
terminal manhole (MH 1) of the house connection. cover size should be limited by the weight which
Please refer to standard details Volume 8 persons can safely lift.
These chambers are generally used for inspection of Access shafts should be sufficiently large for
sewer pipelines and clearance of blockages. persons to go down to the sewer in comfort (with
breathing apparatus in emergencies) and yet be
small enough for the nearness of the walls to give a
1.12.2 Sewer System Manholes sense of security.
These structures are of a depth to suit the levels of Where the invert of the manhole or chamber is more
the sewer pipelines, and are the means of access than 6 m from the cover level, intermediate
into the public sewerage system. platforms shall be provided at regular intervals.
Headroom between platforms should not be less
The arrangement and dimensions of manholes than 2.1m and not greater than 6m. The platform
depend on the diameter of the connecting sewers should be fitted with handrailing and safety chains
and their depth to invert below finished ground level. around the access opening to protect persons from

Drainage Affairs
falling. The location of openings in successive arrangements for further checks, such as flow
platform shall be offset to prevent dangers of free measurement and effluent sampling. In many cases,
falling. (In certain circumstances, separate access some form of pre-treatment will be needed at the
may be required to allow equipment and materials to premises to ensure that discharges comply with the
be lowered directly to the pipe invert). license standards. Large industrial premises may
require their own complete flow balancing and
Inverts and benching should be neatly formed. The treatment facilities to meet license requirements for
ends of pipes should finish flush with internal faces discharge flows and effluent quality.
of the manholes. The channel inverts should be
curved to that of the connecting pipes and carried up The waste discharge license should include the
the full diameter of the pipes in flat vertical surfaces, following stipulations:
matching the cross-sections, levels, and gradients of
their respective sewers. • Average and peak flow rates;
The benching should be formed from plane • Maximum concentrations for a specified range
surfaces, sloping gently towards the sewers. of pollutants;
Benching slopes should not be too steep to cause
• Flow measurement and sampling facilities;
persons to slip into the sewer, nor too flat to
accumulate sediment. A suitable gradient for • Reporting requirements.
benching is 1 in 12.
The licensing process should ensure that all
significant industrial and commercial discharges are
1.13 Industrial Wastes defined and understood, in terms of their location,
volume and polluting effects.
Foul flows from industrial and commercial premises
have the potential to contribute major flows and Please refer to Volume 1 Appendix 5 for example of
polluting loads to the main sewerage system. Such industrial waste discharge permit application
flows need to be managed as part of the overall
sewerage and treatment management process. This
is best done by initial licensing of the industrial and 1.14 Septic and Sewage
commercial premises, followed by ongoing Holding Tanks
monitoring of their effluents to ensure that they are
complying with their licenses. Septic and sewage holding tanks are used to store
and treat foul flows from premises, prior to
The license application should include the following connection to the main sewerage system (ie if the
information: premises are complete before the sewerage
system), or where no sewage system is available.
• Name, address, type of business and number
They comprise an underground tank for anaerobic
of employees;
treatment followed by a soakaway tank or pipe
• Main business process, water usage process system to encourage effluent flows to disseminate to
and pollution process; the surrounding ground.
• Water usage (daily and peak flows) effluent Since they only provide partial treatment, these
flows (daily and peak flows), discharge pattern tanks are a major source of groundwater pollution
(regular, intermittent, weekend to weekday and therefore should not be constructed where main
patterns); sewerage is available. For existing developments,
house connections from manhole number 1 to the
• Pollutants in effluent (BOD, COD, SS, main sewerage system should be made at the
chemicals, temperature, etc) and concentration earliest opportunity, and usage of the septic and
of each pollutant. sewage holding tank stopped.
Each application should be checked by a site visit to

confirm the supplied information and make

Drainage Affairs
Septic tanks should preferably be designed for a to enable less frequent emptying and associated
minimum hydraulic retention time of one month to tanker traffic.
allow anaerobic treatment of the organic content.
Further information regarding sewage holding tanks
is contained in Volume 6 - Developers Guide.
1.14.1 Design of Septic Tanks
and Soakaways
1.15 Oil and Grease
The following information will be required for
designing the septic tank to serve the development:
Interceptors
Oil and grease interceptors are usually located
• Maximum and minimum population to be underground and are used to reduce, or remove
served; light liquids such as oil, petrol, grease, and other
• Water consumption and discharge rates; floating solid pollutants. Regular and planned
maintenance, by removal of floating matter, is
• Any special conditions affecting the required if they are to function efficiently.
composition of the sewage, such as grease, oil
and detergents, which would adversely affect Oil and grease interceptors are required to treat all
the treatment process; foul and surface water flows from such
establishments as:
• The need for additional oil and grease traps;
• Hotels, Restaurants and catering premises;
• Ground soil condition and depth of water table,
as these will affect the percolation of effluent • Petrol stations and fuel storage facilities;
through the soakaway. • Garages and workshops;
For larger developments, multiple tanks and • Paint and chemical manufacture and storage.
soakaways may be necessary.
Further information on the design of oil and grease
Further information on the design of septic tanks interceptors is contained in Volume 6 - Developers
and soakaways is contained in Volume 6 - Guide.
Developers Guide.
In addition to underground interceptors, all above-
ground storage of polluting liquids should have
1.14.2 Sewage Holding Tanks retention bunds installed around all storage tanks.
Where the groundwater level is high, soakaways will The retention volume of the bund should exceed
not be permitted, as they will be considered as that of the tanks by 10%. The bund should be of
ineffective in percolating the effluent into the durable construction, for example reinforced
surrounding ground. At such sites, it will be concrete, suitably protected against natural
necessary to provide sewage holding tanks. The elements and the retained liquid. The bund should
tank shall be watertight to prevent the ingress of be fitted with valved drainage for removal of
water, and shall be suitably constructed and rainwater. No drainage connection is to be made to
protected against corrosion. The tank shall be main sewerage or drainage systems.
designed against the effects of uplift from
groundwater pressures.
1.16 Flow Attenuation
The tank shall have a minimum of two days storage Methods
of sewage discharged from the development, based
on the population and per capita flow. The role of flow attenuation is to reduce peak flows
by the temporary storage of wastewater within the
However, it is preferable to have up to 30 days if system. Flow attenuation is often used to reduce
possible, depending upon the size of the catchment, flooding and overload of pumping stations, and to
reduce discharge and pollution from overflows.

Drainage Affairs
Flow attenuation is most usually achieved by Cd is the coefficient of discharge, commonly around
providing additional storage, the most common 0.7
being the on-line or off-line tank. Storage tanks are
normally sited underground. A is the orifice area
On-line storage systems attenuate flows by utilising H is the hydrostatic headloss across the orifice
existing capacity within the system or by plate, or difference between upstream and
constructing oversize sewers. The off-line storage downstream water levels.
systems involve storage tanks adjacent to the sewer
For short lengths of pipe, the friction losses can be
with connections to and from the sewer.
neglected and the above formula used.
Excessive use of storage can lead to problems in Penstocks
the downstream sewerage system and at the STW,
due to deterioration of the sewage during storage. Penstock settings can be sized as for orifices, but
Prolonged in-sewer storage can potentially lead to should be used with caution, as the setting may be
higher STW effluent loads (particularly total altered after installation. Use of orifices is therefore
suspended solids and ammonia) and/or poor preferred. Penstocks also have the disadvantage of
biomass performance. Pumped storage systems requiring periodic maintenance, which involves
may increase the risk of septic conditions, with confined space entry.
resulting odour, corrosion and health hazard
problems. Combined with high ambient Other Devices
temperatures, such conditions exist in Qatar, and
Head discharge relationships for the various market
therefore considerable care will be needed to avoid
products (such as Hydrobrakes) should be obtained
prolonged storage of sewage.
from the manufacturers. It is preferable for the rating
curve to have a steep gradient in order for the pass-
1.16.1 Flow Controls forward flow to remain near constant from onset of
spillage through to maximum weir flow.
Flow controls are used to limit the flow passing
forward to the downstream system, by backing up Operational Issues
flows into the upstream storage tank. The most
A common problem with all controls is the tendency
common controls are described below.
to block from time to time. Access for rodding or
Orifice Plates and Pipes other means of clearance must be provided at the
design stage. It should be remembered that the
These are the simplest controls, being usually chamber may become flooded and therefore the
circular or square apertures sized to produce a clearance facility must be operable from outside the
restriction in flow. Orifice plates may be fixed in chamber. Measures such as flap gates, vent tubes
location or mounted in guides for easy removal. and fixed pressure hose connections have been
Because of the solids content of the flow, it is widely used with some success. Some of the proprietary
accepted that they are not suitable where the flow controls are also fitted with bypass pipes, to
minimum dimension is less than 200mm. Smaller allow draining down of the chamber in the event of a
sizes are prone to blockage. Their use is therefore blockage.
limited to higher flow ranges.
The formula used for sizing a circular or square 1.16.2 Attenuation Storage
submerged orifice is:
Tanks and Sewers
Qs = Cd A√(2gH) Attenuation facilities usually comprise underground
storage tanks, equipped with flow control devices on
Equation 1.16.1 their outlet to limit peak flows from the tank.
Where:
Layouts

Drainage Affairs
Tank arrangements fall into two main categories,

namely on-line and off-line, of which there are many
further sub-classes. Figure 1.16.1 shows several
alternative layouts
On-line tanks are storages constructed along the

route of the pipe in question, and share the same
hydraulic gradient. On-line tanks (with perhaps the
exception of emergency storage) always drain flows
to the downstream sewer by gravity. On-line tanks
would normally be preferred to off-line from an
operational point of view, but require certain
hydraulic conditions to be satisfied in order to
present a viable option.
Off-line tanks are constructed along a route

separated from the main sewer, and may return
flows to the main sewer by gravity or pumping, again
depending upon the hydraulic conditions.

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Figure 1.13.1 Alternative Tank Layouts
1. On-line Storage Storage Tank
2. On-line Storage + Flow Control Storage Tank

Flow Control
3. Off-line Storage + Gravity Return

Storage Tank
Flow Control
4. Off-line Storage
+ Screened Overflow Overflow
& Screen
+ Gravity Return Storage Tank Non-return
Valve
Outfall
5. Off-line Storage
Flow Control
+ Screened overflow
Overflow
+ Gravity Return & Screen Storage Tank
Outfall
Flume
6. Off-line Storage
+ Gravity Return Flow Control
+ variable flow control Overflow
& Screen Storage Tank
Outfall
Flume
7. Off-line Storage Overflow

& Screen
+ Pumped Return
+ screened overflow Storage Tank
Pump
Outfall
Figure 1.16.1 – Alternative Storage Tank Layouts

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Materials and Construction a minimum of 1:4. Care should be taken with

benching in on-line and off-line tanks - this should
Materials for tank construction may be concrete, be steel trowel finished with granolithic topping to
GRP, plastic or coated steel. In-situ reinforced prevent accumulation of solids.
concrete is the most obvious choice for construction
of specific designs, but certain applications will lend Off-line Storage
themselves to the use of proprietary products, e.g.
large diameter pipes, precast concrete box culverts Off-line storage with gravity return is shown in
and modular, thin-walled plastic or GRP tanks with Cases 3 to 6 in Figure 1.16.1. This would typically
mass concrete surrounds. Designs using plastics be preferred where construction could proceed
should ensure adequate resistance to jetting without the need for over-pumping, or if insufficient
pressures. All underground structures should have length is available for on-line storage. The storage
adequate resistance against uplift due to may be provided in a single tank, an over-sized
groundwater pressures. pipe/box-culvert or groups of pipes. Care should be
given to flow distribution at the upstream end, and
On-line Storage the order of preference in filling. As the tank may not
be 100% filled on a regular basis, selection of a
On-line storage is shown in cases 1 and 2 in Figure preferential flow channel will reduce the need for
1.16.1. This is the simplest type of arrangement, and desilting operations.
should be used wherever possible. Hydraulic
conditions will determine the viability. The tank will Where screens are installed, as in Cases 4 to 6, it is
need to operate within the hydraulic regime of the preferable to retain the screenings in the main flow
existing system. On-line tanks of any size will not be where possible, to prevent accumulation in the tank.
practical in very flat sewers, due to the large surface However, flow control measures should be devised
area requirement. Thus although they are the to prevent screenings entering the tank from the
preferred arrangement, their use is limited in Qatar downstream end. A further refinement of this is
due to the flat topography. It is unlikely that they shown in Case 6, where a variable flow control is
would be situated in upstream areas, but they could provided, linked to a gauge of the downstream
be of use adjacent to pumping stations where a sewer reserve capacity.
significant headloss is available between the sewer
invert and the Pump Station Top Water Level (TWL). Operational Issues
On-line tanks become more practical with increased Operation and maintenance of such underground
gradient, but at greater depths, due consideration structures present particular health and safety
will need to be given to the greater pressures issues for access and maintenance. These aspects
developed at the downstream ends, e.g. at pipe include:
joints. In such cases, consideration may be given to
• Blockage of flow control devices - access
the use of backdrops and cascades of tanks. needs to be provided to safely enter the
An on-line tank will operate by surcharging as the structure and for clearance tools and removal
flow approaches the predetermined pass-forward of debris. Where a blockage has resulted in
flow. This flow may be the capacity of the sewage being retained for some time, clearing
downstream sewer, whereby a flow control is the blockage suddenly may have an
required to limit the pass-forward flow. In both of the unacceptable impact on downstream facilities,
above cases, care should be taken to ensure a self- such as pumping stations and STW. Designs
cleansing velocity to prevent sediment build up. In therefore need to consider facilities for gradual
large diameter tanks with low base flows, this may emptying or removal of effluents;
be difficult. In such cases, a dry weather flow • Removal of sediment - access needs to be
channel should be provided. It is recommended in
provided to safely enter the structure, and for
Sewerage Detention Tanks – A Design Guide,
clearance tools and removal of debris;
WRC, 1997xxxvii that the longitudinal slope of the
tank is kept to a minimum of 1:100 in on-line tanks • Design to optimise removal of sediment to:
and that sidewall slopes into the centre channel are minimise time and effort needed inside

Drainage Affairs
underground structures; modifications to the

structure of the tank to allow sediment to be
removed from ground level; use of low friction
coatings to discourage accumulation of
sediment; modification of inlet design to
increase scour; steepening of benching
gradients and installation of dry weather flow
channels to encourage self-cleansing; use of
mechanical plant and flushing mechanisms to
periodically remove sediments A useful design
check is provided in Table 1.16.1.

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Table 1.16.1 - Storage Tank Design Checklist

Consider maintenance & cleaning operations
Consider the erection/removal of falsework in confined spaces during construction (use
false soffits or pre-cast slabs for roof sections)
Design benching to be self-cleansing
Consider type of covers (think about manual handling, and security of access)
Incorporate a sufficient number of davit sockets
What telemetry is required?
On-line or Off-line tank?
Are welfare facilities required?
Is a gravity discharge achievable? Otherwise pumps will be required.
Is a power supply needed?
Is a water supply needed for washing down?
Planning permission is required for all control kiosks and permanent accesses to the
Is a standby generator required?
DA and RD Discharge consents for emergency overflow
What is required in the way of control kiosks/buildings
Ensure that access for a tanker is possible
Place screens on inlet to tanks on off-line tanks
Ensure sufficient access of adequate size are incorporated (NB can plant be removed
Consider the type of screen required
Design out any possible maintenance hazards
Ensure adequate ventilation is achieved
Is odour control required?
Consider retention times of the tank
How long does it take to empty the tank? Consider follow on storm events
Provide a facility for overpumping of the tank
Are overflows required?
Provide penstocks on the tank inlets/outlets to enable flows to be diverted or isolated
Provide a penstock protected bypass pipe
Is a flow control required on the tank outlet/bypass pipe?
Reinstatement of area, consider future access requirements
Does the site need to be purchased?
HARAS complete?
EIA complete ?

Drainage Affairs
2 Pumping Stations
1.17 Abandonment of
Sewers
Disused sewers and drains have the great potential 2.1 Standards
to allow unwanted flows, such as groundwater to The standards and sources of information to be
enter the system through deteriorating faults in the used are listed in sections 1.1 and 1.2.
system fabric. They therefore need to be removed
from the system to prevent structural deterioration,
unauthorised use, and ingress of groundwater and 2.2 Hydraulic Design
infestation by rodents.
The overall design philosophy of the pumping
Disused sewers shall be removed or, where this is system needs to be a balanced design with due
impracticable, they shall be filled in accordance with consideration of functional, environmental and
the materials and details contained on the Standard economic aspects. For pumping systems in the
Drawings in Volume 8. vicinity of sensitive receivers, reliability of the system
is of key concern. Bypass or overflow of raw
sewage, even in emergency situations, should be
avoided where possible.
Particular attention should be paid to the following

issues:
• Design flow;
• Standby power supply or temporary storage;
• Standby pumps;
• Overflows and emergency bypass;
• Twin rising mains;
• Availability of QGWEC power supply;
• Land area available and proximity to housing or

public areas;
• Access to the proposed site.
Since the pumping station will probably be serving

an area of new development, it is likely that the
initial flows to the station will be much smaller than
those expected for the full design. Flows will
increase in the following years to reach the design
capacity of the station. If the inflows are greatly
below the pump output, the result will be excessive
periods of inactivity of the station, with the potential
for premature failure of equipment. Such infrequent
operation of pumps will also result in retention of
sewage in the rising main, raising problems with
septicity, corrosion and effects on the receiving
STW.

Drainage Affairs
Consideration should therefore be given to the Indicative values of k are given in Table 2.2.1below.
sizing and numbers of pumps to match the likely
build-up of incoming flows. Where possible, similar
pumps should be installed, on duty and assist basis,
with similar standby pump(s). The use of similar
pumps will avoid any changes in pumping regime
due to the rotation of duty pumps for operational
reasons.
Consideration should also be given to installing twin

rising mains. One main would be used in the early
years of the scheme to achieve satisfactory
maximum flow velocities and hence minimise
siltation. When flows increase, then the second main
would be brought into use.
Although not strictly required for the early years of a

scheme, it would not be economic to construct one
rising main and then construct the second within a
short period, say five years. The additional costs
and disruption of digging a second trench, together
with operational and safety requirements of working
adjacent to a “live” rising main, would be avoided.
2.2.1 Hydraulic Principles

A pumping system may consist of inlet piping,
pumps, valves, outlet piping, fittings, open channels
and/or rising mains. When a particular system is
being analysed for the purpose of selecting a pump
or pumps, the head losses through these various
components must be calculated. The station loss
(i.e. the loss on the suction and delivery pipework
from the sump to the common header) should also
be considered. The frictional and minor head losses
of these components are approximately proportional
to the square of the velocity of flow through the
system and are called the variable head.
Friction losses should be determined using the

Colebrook–White Formula.
Losses in fittings at the station, and outside of it

should be determined using the formula:
δH = kv2/2g
Equation 2.2.1
Where δH denotes the fitting headloss (m), k is the

loss coefficient, v the velocity (m/s) and g is the
gravitational constant, 9.81m/s2.

Drainage Affairs
3. Calculate the variable system head losses for

Table 2.2.1 – Indicative Minor Loss Coefficients,
several flow rates;
k, for Various Fittings
Fitting Coefficient k 4. Combine the fixed head and variable heads for
several flow rates to obtain a curve of total
Standard 900 bend 0.75
system head versus flow rate.
Long Radius 900 bend 0.4
The flow delivered by a centrifugal pump varies with
Standard 450 bend 0.3
system head. Pump manufacturers provide
Tee - line to branch 1.2 information on the performance of their pumps in the
form of characteristic curves of head versus
Tee – flow in line 0.35
capacity, commonly known as pump curves. By
Taper up 0.5 superimposing the characteristic curve of a
Sharp Entry 0.5 centrifugal pump on a system-head curve, the duty
point of a pump can be determined.
Bellmouth Entry 0.1
The curves will intersect at the flow rate of the
Sudden Exit 1.0
pump, as this is the point at which the pump head is
Non-return valve* 1.0 equal to the required system head for the same flow.
Gate Valve, fully open* 0.12
The recommended values for coefficient of
*Note that for valves it is advisable to obtain Colebrook–White Roughness Factor (Section 1.5.1
manufacturers data on headlosses. System head above) ks for use in rising mains are contained in
calculations would normally be carried out using valve Table 2.2.2 below. Note also the values indicated in
open figures. Table 1.5.1, which refer to gravity sewers.
It is also necessary to determine the static head

Table 2.2.2 – Recommended Values of
required to raise the liquid from suction level to a
Colebrook-White Roughness Factors
higher discharge level. The pressure at the
(ks) for use in Rising Mains
discharge liquid surface may be higher than that at
the suction liquid surface, a condition that requires Mean Velocity in m/s ks (mm)
more pumping head. These two heads are fixed Up to 1.1m/s 0.3mm
system heads, as they do not vary with rate of flow.
Fixed system heads can be negative, if the Between 1.1m/s and 1.8m/s 0.15mm
discharge level or the pressure above that level is
lower than suction level or pressure. Fixed system
heads are called static heads. The discharge capacity for multiple pumps will not
be simply the sum of the discharge capacity of
The Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for a system is the individual pumps because the system-head curve
sum of the major and minor friction losses plus the for multiple pumps will be different from that of a
static head. The duty point for a pump selection will single pump.
be the required flow at the TDH.
A system head curve is a plot of total system head, 2.2.2 Pump Arrangements
variable plus fixed, for various flow rates. It may
The number of pumps to be installed depends on
express the system head in metres and the flow rate
the station capacity and the range of flows. The
in cubic metres per second. Procedures to plot a
maximum discharge rate from a pumping station,
system-head curve are:
when all duty pumps and rising mains are in use
1. Define the pumping system and its length; should be slightly greater than or equal to the
maximum incoming flow to the station. Pumps
2. Calculate the fixed system head; should be selected with head-capacity
characteristics that correspond as closely as
possible to the overall station requirements.

Drainage Affairs
Standby capacity is required so that should any of the feasibility of temporary diversion or tankering
the pumps in the station be inoperable due to away.
routine maintenance or mechanical failure, the
operation of the station can still be maintained. For A cost benefit analysis should include all tangible
instance, in a station where a single duty pump factors (such as cost of pipework, land cost, energy
provides the duty output, a second pump of equal cost, etc) and intangible factors (such as nuisance,
capacity is mounted. Where three duty pumps of closure of beaches, etc).
equal capacity are required to meet the maximum
Twin rising mains should be considered in the
design flow conditions, a fourth pump of similar
following circumstances:
capacity is provided as standby.
• To accommodate a wide range of flow
It is not desirable to have pumps of different sizes
conditions, such that the velocity in the mains
for operation and maintenance reasons, unless the
can be kept within acceptable limits. For
flow ranges vary widely throughout the day. To instance, a pumping system serving a new
cater for slow build-up of flow in the early years of
development may have very low initial flows
operation, phased installation of pumps, or the use
with a slow build up of flow;
of a smaller diameter impeller should be considered.
• To provide continued operation for a major
pumping system when one of the mains is
2.3 Rising Main Design damaged and where the failure of the system
would have serious consequence;
2.3.1 Rising Main Diameters • To minimise adverse environmental impacts to
The minimum diameter of pumping mains is sensitive areas;
controlled by the need to avoid blockage, and • To facilitate future inspection and maintenance
therefore should not be less than 100mm. Where of major pumping systems, while the normal
sewage is screened or macerated before pumping sewage flow can be maintained.
the minimum diameter should not be less than
80mm. When twin mains are found to be preferred, it is
advisable to use both mains as duty rather than one
The maximum and minimum diameters are sized to as duty and the other as standby, from an
maintain flow velocities for all stages of pumping economical and operational point of view. Should
within the ranges specified in Section 2.4. one of the duty mains be taken out of operation, the
remaining one would still be able to deliver a higher
quantity of flow at a higher velocity. The occurrence
2.3.2 Twin Rising Mains
of overflow or bypass can be minimised or even
The use of twin rising mains should be considered eliminated. Septicity in the standby mains would
on a case by case basis. The main factors for also pose an operational and maintenance problem.
consideration include the design elements, risk
assessment and cost benefit analysis.
2.3.3 Economic Analysis
Considerations for the design elements comprise
the rate of build up of flow, the range of flow As the size of the rising main increases, the velocity
conditions, the range of velocity in the mains, the and the system head will decrease, with savings in
availability of land for the twin mains and associated the cost of pumping. The increase in the capital
valve chambers as well as the complications in cost of rising mains will be offset by the power cost
pump operation. of pumping. However, it is also important that the
velocity in the mains should be within a suitable
A thorough risk assessment should be carried out range to minimise the deposition of solids.
which should include the likelihood of mains Excessive hydraulic head losses are to be avoided.
bursting, the consequence of failure, area affected,
sensitive receivers affected (such as beaches), and

Drainage Affairs
The selection of a suitable size for the rising mains 2.6 Thrust Blocks
should be based on economic analysis of capital
cost and recurrent cost of the pumping system Thrust blocks are concrete blocks designed to
including the power cost. A trial and error approach prevent pipes from being moved by forces exerted
should be adopted in order to arrive at an optimal within the pipe by the flow of water hitting bends,
solution while maintaining the velocity within tapers, and closed, or partially closed valves. In the
acceptable limits. design of pressurised pipelines, thrust blocks are
essential on flexibly jointed pipelines where any pipe
Therefore, combinations of different sizes of rising movement would open up the joints in the line and
mains and the system head should be evaluated, cause water leakage. Restraint straps may also be
taking into account both the capital cost and the required for above-ground pipework.
energy cost of pumping.
Thrust blocks are also necessary near valves where
a flexible joint is located to facilitate removal of the
2.3.4 Rising Main Alignment valve for maintenance purposes. The size of block
is dependent upon the angular deflection, flow, size
The alignment of the rising main should discourage of pipe and the pressure of water inside the pipe.
surge in its flow conditions. Where possible the The designer should also refer to the pipe
rising main should be laid with continuous uphill manufacturers’ literature.
gradient of not less than 1:500, and with gentle
curves in both horizontal and vertical planes. Long The following design assumptions are to be
flat lengths of rising main should be avoided adopted:
therefore pipes should be laid with rise and falls of • Thrusts developed due to changes in direction
1:500, rather than flat. Air release valves should be of pipeline, dead end or change in diameter
provided at high points and as the profile of the main should be considered. Force due to change in
dictates. Washouts should be installed at low points. velocity head can normally be assumed as
The arrangement and locations of valves should be negligible unless there is a drastic change in
planned together with the alignment of the rising pipe diameter;
mains.
• Thrust blocks should be designed for the
condition of no support being available from the
2.4 Maximum and backfill, i.e. to be cast against undisturbed
Minimum Velocities ground;
The maximum velocity in rising mains should not

exceed 2.0 m/s, The desirable range of velocity
• For most cases, thrust blocks will be designed
should be 1m/s to 2m/s with due consideration given
to transfer forces directly onto undisturbed
to the various combinations of number of duty
ground using direct bearing, the acceptable
pumps in operation. (This is because lower
bearing pressure being confirmed by
velocities cause siltation, and higher velocities
geotechnical investigation. If the adjacent
increase surge problems and power usage).
ground has insufficient bearing capacity, the
block may need to be designed using ground
friction or piling to transfer thrusts to a more
2.5 Pipe Materials competent soil layer. Consideration should also
Pipe materials for use in pumping stations should be given to the presence of adjacent services
always be Ductile Iron (DI). and the possibility of future disturbance during
maintenance operations. Complex thrust blocks
Rising mains outside pumping stations may be may be required to avoid transfer of forces and
ductile iron or Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) with consequential damage to adjacent services;
concrete protection, however DI is preferred.

Drainage Affairs
• For pipes with flexible joints such as DI pipes 2.7 Air Valves and
with socket and spigot joints, all the thrust is
assumed to be taken up by the blocks. Washout Facilities
These facilities are required to minimise the adverse
Static thrusts may be calculated using the formulae
effects of surge and to facilitate the operation and
as follows:
maintenance of the rising main.
For blank ends:
Fs = 100 A P 2.7.1 Air Valves

Air-relief valves are installed at locations of minimum
Equation 2.6.1 pressure. Air is sucked into the air-relief valve when
Where: pipeline internal pressure is below atmospheric.
Fs = the static thrust (KN) Upon subsequent pressure rise, the admitted air is
then expelled. Air valves should be installed at all
A = the cross sectional area (m2) high points., Additional air valves should also be
placed at 800m spacings on long sections of straight
P = the Pressure (bar) grade.
For Bends: Each air valve will operate independently and
therefore several valves may be required along the
Fs = 100 A P(2 sin θ/2)
pipeline if there are numerous rises and falls in the
vertical profile of the rising main.
Equation 2.6.2
Where θ is the angle of deviation at the bend.
Dynamic thrusts for water or sewage may be

2.7.2 Vented Non-return Valves
calculated using following: An air valve combined with a vented non-return
valve allows air enter the pipeline freely on
Fd = 2A V 2 sin θ/2 separation of the water column, but controls the
expulsion of air as the column rejoins. This has the
Equation 2.6.3 effect of creating an air buffer between the column
Where interfaces, thus reducing the impact velocity of the
rejoining column and the surge potential of the
Fd = the dynamic thrust (KN)
system.
V = the velocity (m/s)
As stated above, this force is negligible in normal 2.7.3 Wash – Outs

cases, but if significant, then the total thrust should
The purpose of the washout system is to drain the
be taken as the sum of static and dynamic thrusts.
rising main for maintenance works. The washout
The above procedures will be satisfactory for most should be installed at low points of the pipeline
routine applications. For further guidance, please profile, and needs to be located carefully, taking into
see CIRIA Report R128xxxviii. It is recommended that account that sewage will be discharged. For long
this reference is used for more complex rising mains with few low points, wash-outs should
applications, such as where thrust forces are in be strategically located at suitable intervals,
excess of 1000KN or loose material is encountered. generally 800m, to reduce the time required for
emptying the main in an emergency. Location
should be adjacent to a suitably sized gravity sewer
for draindown where possible If a direct connection
to a suitably sized sewer is not available, the
washout chamber should be provided with a sump

Drainage Affairs
so that the drained contents of the rising main may conductor that is dependent on the relative velocity
be tankered away. between the conductor and the field. Faraday
foresaw the practical application of the principle to
flow measurement, because many liquids are
2.7.4 Isolating Valves adequate electrical conductors. So these meters
For long rising mains, isolating valves should be measure the velocity of an electrically conductive
included to allow sections of the rising main to be liquid as it cuts the magnetic field produced across
isolated and emptied within a reasonable time. In- the metering tube. The principal advantages include
line sluice or gate valves are often used as isolating no moving components, no pressure loss, and no
valves. The isolating valve installation may wear and tear in components.
incorporate washout facilities. Magnetic flowmeters offer the designer the best
solution for pumped sewage flow. With nothing
protruding into the flow of sewage, the chances of a
2.8 Flow Meters blockage, if installed correctly, are non-existent.
Magnetic flowmeters should always be installed with
2.8.1 Application and Selection full-pipe conditions.
The variety of choices facing the designer Care should be taken during design to provide
confronted with a flow measurement application is sufficient straight lengths of pipeline up-stream and
vast. For example, types of flow meter using the down-stream of the flowmeter, in accordance with
positive displacement principle include rotary piston, the manufacturers installation instructions. As a
oval gear, sliding vane, and reciprocating piston. general guideline, 12 pipe diameters of straight pipe
Each type has advantages and limitations and no on the inlet, and 6 pipe diameters on the outlet will
single type combines all the features and all the ensure that the flowmeter is able to achieve the
advantages. specified accuracy. If the amount of space available
is restricted then the minimum length usually
Differential pressure meters have the advantage that accepted by manufactures is inlet run of 5 pipe
they are the most familiar of any meter type. They diameters and outlet run of 3 pipe diameters.
are suitable for gas and liquid, viscous and corrosive
fluids. However their usable flow range is limited and The following International and British Standards are
they require a separate transmitter in addition to the a good source of information on flow meter selection
sensor. and installation, and can be quoted in specifications:
Some of the most important parameters for • BS EN ISO 6817xxxix, 1997: Measurement of
flowmeters are accuracy, flow range, and whether Conductive Liquid Flow in Closed Conduits;
the medium is sewage or water. Meter selection
should be made in two steps. First by identifying the • BS 7405xl, 1991: Guide to Selection and
meters that are technically capable of performing the Application of Flowmeters for the Measurement
required measurement and are available in of Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits.
acceptable materials of construction; and second, by Flow meters should be pressure tested and
selecting the best choice from those available to calibrated by the manufacturer, and certified to a
cover special measurement features such as traceable international standard. As a minimum, the
reverse flow, pulsating flow, response time and so overall accuracy should be better than ±0.5% of the
on. flow range. The repeatability of the result should be
within ±0.2%.
2.8.2 Magnetic Flowmeters In addition to the calibration certificate, the flow
Magnetic-type flowmeters use Faraday’s law of meter manufacturers should provide the following:
electromagnetic induction for measurement. When a
i. Isolated 4-20mA dc and pulse outputs;
conductor moves through a magnetic field of given
field strength, a voltage level is produced in the

Drainage Affairs
ii. Programmable in-built alarm relays for 2.9 Surge Protection

empty pipe, low and reverse flows;
Measures
iii. In-built digital display for flow rate, totals
Surge (or water hammer) is an oscillating pressure
and alarms;
wave generated in a pipeline during changes in the
iv. Transmitter enclosure shall be protected flow conditions.
to IP67;
There are four common causes of surge in a
v. Calibration and programming kit. pipeline:
The earthing rings should be included according to • pump starting;

the individual manufacturer’s instructions. The
• pump stopping/power failure;
sensor lining should be neoprene or an equivalent
material of similar or improved properties, suitable • valve action;
for the application of pumped sewage flow. In below-
ground flow meter chamber installations, the • improper operation of surge control devices.
installed equipment should be submersible to the
maximum chamber depth. The most likely one of these is the sudden stopping
of pumps caused by a power failure.
A surge analysis should usually be carried out

2.8.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters
unless the system is simple. This is best carried out
Ultrasonic meters are available in two forms: using approved software such as “Flowmaster”.
Doppler and transit-time. With Doppler meters, an
ultrasonic pulse is beamed into the pipe and
reflected by inclusions, such as air or dirt. The
Doppler meter is frequently used as a “clamp on”
device which can be fitted to existing pipelines. It
detects the velocity only in a small region of the pipe
cross section and as such its accuracy is not good.
The single or multi-beam transit-time flow meters
project an ultrasonic beam right across the pipe at
an acute angle, first with the flow, and then opposite
to the flow direction. The difference in transit time is
proportional to flow rate. This type of ultrasonic
meter is considerably more expensive but offers
better accuracy. Unlike the Doppler meter, it
requires a relatively clean fluid.
The main use of this type of flow meter in pumped

sewage flows is in retrospective installation where
the pumping main cannot be broken into for
operational reasons. A clamp-on ultrasonic flow
meter can be used to give reasonably accurate flow
measurement.
For new installations, the lower cost of in-pipe

ultrasonic flow meters could make them a viable
alternative to magnetic flow meters for large
diameter pipe installations.

Drainage Affairs
An approximate calculation for a simple pipeline is: • Surge tower.
∆ P = a x ∆V Air valves should not be depended upon as a sole

g method of surge control, but their operation under
surge conditions should be carefully considered.
Equation 2.9.1 Flywheels
Where:
∆P = Pressure change (m) Flywheels absorb energy on start-up, slowing the
rate of velocity change in the pipeline. In reverse,
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s) when the pump is stopping, the flywheel releases
energy again, slowing the rate of velocity change.
∆V = flow velocity change in 1 cycle (m/s)
Together these two actions reduce the peak surge
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2) pressure.
The above equation can be used for calculation of As the flywheel must be located on the drive shaft it
both negative and positive pressures is not suitable for submersible pumps or close-
coupled pumps. However, they are simple devices
The simple cycle time can be calculated with the for wet well/dry well pumps and are preferred where
formula: possible.
Cycle time = 2 x pipeline length If submersible pumps have been chosen, a larger
Wave velocity pump running at a slower speed may have the effect
of a flywheel.
Equation 2.9.2 Because the flow continues through the pump after
Table 2.9.1 – Indicative Surge Wave Velocity the stop signal, the effect on the stop and start
Values for Selected Pipe Materials levels should be carefully considered.
Pipe Material Velocity (m/s)
Pressure Vessels
Ductile Iron 1000–1400
Pressure vessels for surge suppression are tanks
Reinforced Concrete 1000–1200 partially filled with a gas (air or nitrogen). Usually the
Plastic 300–500 liquid is contained in a bladder with gas on the
outside to prevent the liquid absorbing the gas or
coming into contact with the inside of the pressure
If the surge pressure approaches zero or the
vessel, and this is the preferred type. The bladder
pipeline maximum pressure, a full surge analysis
material should be carefully selected for use in the
should be carried out. When surge analysis is
conditions experienced in Qatar.
complete, suitable surge suppression devices
should be selected by consultation with the Refilling is usually from a high-pressure cylinder and
manufacturer. care should be taken to avoid over pressurisation of
the bladder. Bladders should not lose pressure in
Surge Suppression Methods
normal operation, but they can fail, leading to
Surge suppression could be achieved using one of absorption of the gas into the liquid, and a drop in
the following devices. The most appropriate device pressure.
will depend on the individual circumstances of the
Vessels without a bladder are charged with air
installation:
pressure from an air compressor, either manually or
• Flywheel; automatically. There is therefore additional
machinery and an additional maintenance
• Pressure vessel with bladder; requirement. This type of surge vessel is not
recommended.
• Dip-tube surge vessel;

Drainage Affairs
On pump start-up, liquid enters the vessel, If air is allowed into the rising main on pump stop/trip
compressing the gas until it equals the liquid through an air valve, the pump control system
pressure. When the pump stops, the gas pressure should be designed to prevent a restart until the
forces liquid back out into the pipe system, both transient pressures have stabilised.
actions slow the rate of pressure change, which
reduces the peak surge pressure. Control of the pumps is usually by start/stop level
signals, but where surge on start-up may have a
To dampen oscillations, a non-return valve may be significant effect, the use of ‘soft’ starters should be
fitted to the surge vessel outlet pipe, to allow considered.
unrestricted flow into the pipeline, and a bypass
around the NRV fitted with an orifice plate to restrict
the flow back into the vessel. 2.10 Screens
Dip Tube Surge Vessels Screen Selection
A dip tube surge vessel is pressure vessel, the top Screens should generally be provided for pump
portion forming a compression chamber limited by a protection, unless they are small (<20l/s)
dipping tube with a shut off float valve. submersible stations with small inlet sewers.
Screens should incorporate the following features:
This type of vessel is particularly appropriate for use
on rising mains with flat profiles. • Screen chambers should be separate from the
wet wells;
Surge Towers
• Coarse screens should be fitted in the screen
A surge tower is a vertical tank or pipe fitted into the chambers at the inlet to pumping stations to
pipeline, open to atmosphere and the energy protect the pumping equipment. They should
storage is by the static head of the liquid in the remove coarse screenings, but allow
tower. screenings less than 75mm to pass forward to
the STW;
Surge towers are only practical for systems with
relatively low heads and surge pressures, but can • L-shaped or coarse basket screens should be
pose an odour risk. provided;
Due to the design of a surge tower, there is no • The screens should be set in guides with lifting
routine maintenance required to ensure the surge facilities at ground level so they can be
tower keeps operating correctly. manually removed and cleaned;
It is unlikely that surge towers would be appropriate • Minimum of one duty and one standby screen
for use in Qatar. should be provided;
Air Valves • Mechanically raked screens should be

considered for large pumping stations, typically
Air valves are required on the pumping mains to
>1000l/s;
release air, but they should not be used as a surge
protection measure. • Fine screening is not required at the pumping
station, but is required at the treatment works
However, air valves, particularly if fitted with a
to remove debris that may affect the sewage
vented non-return valve or in-flow check valve, may
treatment process.
assist in surge control, and their operation must be
carefully considered. Screen Installation
Air valves require regular maintenance because if The manual duty and standby screen should be
the air valve does not function correctly, large or installed in the incoming channel, so that the
negative surge pressures could result, with standby screen can be lowered into position to
consequent damage to equipment or personnel.

Drainage Affairs
protect the pumps while the duty screen is removed • Space available for pumping station
and cleaned. (submersible stations usually require less
space);
Mechanically raked screens should be installed in a
channel or similar flow-line, which can be completely • Proximity of housing or public areas (opening
isolated from the rest of the system and drained for submersible pump wells may create odour
maintenance. A manually raked bypass screen nuisance).
shall be provided.
An alternative to wet well submersible pumps and
Mechanical screens shall be housed in ventilated dry well pumps is the dry well submersible. These
and odour controlled enclosures. should normally be considered only where an
existing dry well installation is being uprated and
Screens should be provided with actuated there is insufficient space to install a conventional
penstocks (or valves) before and after each screen dry well pump and motor.
for operational and maintenance isolation.
Particular attention should be paid to motor cooling
All mechanically raked screens should have an and cabling if dry well submersibles are to be
automatic cleaning mechanism, which will clean the considered.
screen of accumulated debris and screenings,
depositing them in a collection trough or channel The designer should present three alternative pump
above the highest possible water level. suppliers for tender purposes.
Screenings Handling Submersible pumping stations
Manually removed screenings should be placed in a Submersible pumping stations should incorporate
covered container until removed from site to avoid the following features:
odour problems.
• Minimum of one duty and one standby pump;
Mechanically removed screenings should be
washed, compacted and deposited into a covered • Non-return valve and gate valves for isolation
container to avoid odour problems. of each pump;
• Valves to be in a separate, easily accessible

chamber adjacent to the pump sump;
2.11 Pumping Station
Selection • Air reaction operation level controls as follows:
Sewage pumping station type selection should be - High level alarm (also float);
carefully considered for each scheme. In general,
- Pump start;
submersible pumping stations are generally selected
for flows up to 100l/s, and wet well/dry well stations - Pump stop;
for larger flows. However, each station should be
treated on its own merits and the following - Low level pump protection (also
considerations assessed: float).
• Initial and final design flow; • Ultrasonic level controls should not be used for
sewage;
• Total head on the pumps;
• Air reaction level equipment should include
• Rising main profile and the requirements for stainless steel dip pipe and duty/standby
surge protection (dry well pumps usually have compressors.
a greater moment of inertia than submersibles);
Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties
• Requirement for Variable Speed Drive (VSD): for the full range of flows, the use of variable speed
(submersible motors are not always adequately drives should be considered. However, due to the
rated for use with VSD);

Drainage Affairs
additional heat generated in the motor, the approval • At the designed stop level there should still be
of the pump manufacturer should be obtained before sufficient water surface area without
variable speed drives are used. obstructions to provide a good echo return.
Submersible Pump Sump Design Submersible Pump Installation
The CIRIA guide ‘The hydraulic design of pump When submersible pumps are installed, the
sumps and intakes’ by M. J. Prosserxli should be following should be considered:
referred to when designing pump sumps. Some
pump manufacturers also provide guidance on the • There should be sufficient space between them
design of sumps for their pumps. Sump design to prevent interaction between the pump
should be in accordance with the following criteria: suctions. This will depend upon the type of
pump being used and the manufacturer should
• Sumps should be designed so that the be consulted on configurations at draft design
dimensions satisfy the requirements for the stage; A rule of thumb is to use an initial
minimum sump volume to ensure the maximum spacing between pump centres of twice the
rated pump starts per hour for the motor and pump diameter. Further guidance is given in
switchgear are not exceeded; table 2.11.1 below.
• Sumps should be designed to provide a

Table 2.11.1 Approximate Minimum
uniform steady flow of water into any pump
PumpSpacingsxlii
without creating swirl or entraining air.
Flow (l/s) Spacing (mm)
Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl 100 700
can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency. It can also result in local vortices that 200 1000
introduce air into the pump, also leading to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and 300 1200
premature failure;
400 1350
• Sumps should be designed to prevent the
500 1500
accumulation of sediment, scum and surface
flotsam; 600 1700
• Sump corners should be benched to 45°.
700 1800
Minimising the sump floor area and residual
volume will increase the velocity into the pumps 800 1900
and improve scouring;
900 2050
• The use of flushing devices to improve scour in
pump sumps should be considered; 1000 2175
• The velocity in the pump riser pipe at the

design duty should be as high as practicable to
reduce the risk of solids deposition. However, • There should also be sufficient space for
the velocity should not normally exceed 2.5m/s someone to stand beside each pump, should
to avoid significant headloss and risk of pipe work be required in the sump;
erosion; • Pump mounting stools and duckfoot bends
• The water surface in the sump should be as should be securely bolted to the structural
free from waves and turbulence as possible to concrete of the sump and not the benching;
provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic • Discharge non-return and isolating valves
level controls;
should be located outside the sump in a valve
chamber;

Drainage Affairs
• Pump guide rails should rise close to the Wet Well Design
underside of the sump covers above the
pumps; The CIRIA guide ‘The hydraulic design of pump
sumps and intakes’ by M. J. Prosser should be
• The covers should have a clear opening large referred to when designing wet wells, which should
enough to allow the removal of the pump while incorporate the following features:
on the guide rails;
• Wet wells should be designed to provide a
• Support points for the pump power cables and uniform steady flow of water into any pump
lifting chain should be provided under the pump without creating swirl or entraining air.
covers, which should be easily accessible from Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
the surface. vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl
can affect the flow capacity, power and
Wet/Dry Well Pumping Stations efficiency, it can also result in local vortices that
Wet well/dry well pumping stations should introduce air into the pump also leading to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
incorporate the following features:
premature failure;
• Normally, two sumps with 2 duty and 1 standby
pump for each sump, for the ultimate flow; • Wet wells should be designed to prevent the
accumulation of sediment, scum and surface
• Non-return and two gate valves for each pump flotsam;
isolation;
• Wet well corners should be benched to 45°.
• Where possible, the discharge manifold should Minimising the sump floor area and residual
be below ground level to minimise additional volume will increase the velocity into the pumps
pipework and friction losses; and improve scouring;
• Where wet well/dry well pumping stations are • The use of flushing devices to improve scour in
being uprated, dry well submersible pumps wet wells should be considered;
could be considered;
• The water surface in the wet well should be as
• Operation level controls (air reaction) as free from waves and turbulence as possible to
follows: provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic
level controls;
- High level alarm (plus float);
• At the designed stop level there should still be
- Pump start; sufficient water surface area without
obstructions to provide a good echo return;
- Pump stop;
• Wet wells should be designed so that the
- Low level pump protection (plus
dimensions satisfy the requirements for the
float).
minimum sump volume to avoid excessive
• Air reaction level equipment should include pump starts;
stainless steel dip pipe and duty/standby
• The pump suction pipes should be installed
compressors.
through the wet/dry well dividing wall with a
Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties downward bend and bellmouth to position the
for the full range of flows the use of variable speed pump suction as close to the sump floor as
drives should be considered. However due to the possible to assist in sediment removal;
additional heat generated in the motor, the approval
• There should be sufficient space between the
of the pump manufacturer should be obtained before
bellmouths to prevent interaction between the
variable speed drives are used.
pump suctions.

Drainage Affairs
Dry Well Design For the most compact arrangement, a close-coupled

pump can be mounted horizontally with the
Dry well design should incorporate the following discharge upward, however this results in the motor
features: being low in the dry well and at risk from flooding.
The most common arrangement is for a vertical
• The pumps should be installed along the
pump shaft with the motor above. This will require a
wet/dry well dividing wall with sufficient space
between them to allow access for maintenance bend between the suction valve and the pump
suction. The bend should be fitted with a handhole
and repair;
and valve to enable the pump to be drained prior to
• The pump distance from the dividing wall will maintenance. Further bends may be required to
be set by the length of the protruding stub pipe, direct the pump or manifold discharge upwards.
suction valve and pump inlet pipe; Where space allows, installation of the discharge
manifold at the pump level, with the discharge
• Drive shafts should be supported from concrete directly through the side wall should be considered.
beams spanning the dry well;
Pipes should be sized to achieve sensible velocities,
• Consideration should also be given to access and the risk of cavitation through insufficient NPSH
around the pumps and valves. Platforms and should be considered when designing suction
walkways should be installed to provide access pipework. Pumps must be selected to ensure
to all equipment at a suitable level for safe satisfactory operation when only one pump is
operation, maintenance and repair; operation in a new rising main.
• The general floor level should be higher than
the sump level to reduce the size of pump
plinths and the need for access platforms;
2.12 Pumps and Motors
Centrifugal Pumps
• Careful thought should also be given to the
shipping route for removing equipment; These are the most common type pumps for foul
sewage and are available in a variety of forms. The
• Access to the dry well and machinery should pump operates by passing the liquid through a
be by staircase so that tools and equipment spinning impeller where energy is added to increase
can be carried in and out safely; the pressure and velocity of the liquid. Submersible
• Lifting arrangements for the pumps and valves pumps are centrifugal pumps.
shall be provided (see also section 2.21 and Sewage pumps should have an open type impeller
2.22); with a minimum passage of 100mm. Impellers with
• The dry well floor should slope gently towards smaller passages are likely to suffer from frequent
the dividing wall and then to one side where a blockage due to the nature of sewage debris.
sump pump should be installed to keep the Dry well centrifugal pumps should normally have a
floor as dry as possible; maximum running speed of 980rpm. Submersible
• The sump pump should be installed in a small pumps may run at 1450rpm (4 pole motor), but
well, large enough to accommodate the pump pumps operating at 2900rpm (2 pole motor) will
and should discharge back through the wall suffer excessive wear and premature failure, and
into the wet well. Consideration should be should not be used.
given to the sump pump discharge to avoid Pump Motors
backflow from the wet well to the dry well;
Motors on submersible pumps should be certified for
• A high level alarm should be installed in the dry use in Zone 1 explosive atmospheres unless
well to give a warning of flooding before operating continuously submerged. Pumps
damage to machinery occurs. operating in dry conditions should have a casing
Pump Installation designed to provide adequate cooling in the
operating conditions.

Drainage Affairs
Pump motors should normally be fed from 415 volts, performance of drainage, pumping and treatment
50 hertz, 3-phase power supply. For larger motors systems by constructing models of the intended
690V or 3.3KV motors can be used. installations. These models need to be verified
before use to provide confidence that they
Because additional heat is generated in the motor adequately represent the actual performance of the
when used with a variable speed drive, the approval system.
of the pump manufacturer should be obtained before
VSDs are used. The verified model is then used to test system
performance under its proposed use. The model
For dry well and screw pumps where the motors are must be capable of modification to test various
installed vertically or at a steep angle, they should physical configurations and operating regimes for
be specifically designed for that purpose, with the installation, to produce the optimum solution for
adequately rated end thrust bearings. actual construction.
Where flywheels are installed, the motor rating shall Traditionally, physical models were favoured,
be suitably uprated. especially for coastal/estuary/river systems and
complex pumping installations. In recent years
mathematical models have superseded physical
2.13 Sump Design models. Mathematical models are exploiting
The CIRIA guide ‘The hydraulic design of pump increased computer hardware and software
sumps and intakes’ by M.J. Prosserxli should be capability, and are more efficient than physical
referred to when designing sumps or wet wells. models in time and effort.
Sumps should be designed to provide a uniform Physical Models

steady flow of water into any pump without creating
Physical modelling consists of constructing a
swirl or entraining air. Unsteady flow can lead to
reduced scale, geometrically similar model of a
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and premature
proposed system, and operating the model to
failure. Swirl can affect the flow capacity, power and
simulate full-scale flow conditions. Model tests can
efficiency. It can also result in local vortices that
provide the designer with the assurance that the
introduce air into the pump also leading to
proposed scheme operates satisfactorily, or allows
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and premature
him to improve the flow conditions and achieve a
failure.
better design.
Sumps should also be designed to prevent the
Changes in the model can be made by trial and
accumulation of sediment and surface scum.
error, and are usually based on the experience and
Most sumps and wet wells at standard pumping intuitive understanding of the engineer conducting
stations will probably be uniform in section and can the tests. The amount of modification which can be
be designed to avoid turbulent flows. undertaken on a physical model is limited, and
therefore the initial model should be as accurate as
Modelling possible.
For non-standard pumping stations, which may have Factors to be considered in deciding on the need for
high flows, multiple pumps or complex shapes, or physical models include:
where turbulent flows, vortices, swirl or air
entrainment are more likely to occur, modelling • The similarity of the proposed scheme to
should be considered. existing satisfactory designs. As well as the
designer’s own experience, much information is
For pumping stations, a physical model built to scale available from manufacturers’ published reports
can be very effective in identifying flow problems and design guides. However, it should be
and in some cases modelling by computational fluid recognised that most large scale and/or
dynamics (CFD) methodology may have benefits. complex designs will be unique, and hence
Modelling is the process of replicating the hydraulic modelling will be needed;

Drainage Affairs
• The size and cost of the proposed scheme. To calculate the minimum sump volume for a
Bearing in mind that physical modelling can specific pump the formula contained in the above
take many months with corresponding high CIRIA guide is:
costs, then designers of small schemes should
seek to adopt standard and well-proven T = 4V/Qp
designs for small schemes. Large schemes,
such as terminal pumping stations with multiple Equation 2.13.1
pumps and complex inlet arrangements would Where:
merit modelling;
T is the cycle time for the pump, e.g. if the
• The time available for modelling. In some recommended maximum starts per hour for
cases the scheme can be well under way to a pump is 10, then the cycle time will be 6
completion before the possible need for minutes (60/10 = 6)
modelling is realised. Even at such late stages,
V is the volume of sump between the start and
modelling can save much time and cost in
stop levels in m3
modifying construction works.
Qp is the pumping rate in m3/minute
For pumping stations, all of the intake should be
modelled, including the approach works, the inlets Therefore if Qp is 1.2m3/min (20l/s) and the
and the sump itself. Upstream pipelines may need to maximum number of starts is 10/hour, the volume
be included. required will be:
All hydraulically significant details such as screens, V (m3) = 6(min) x 1.2(m3/min) / 4
penstocks, support channels and benching, should
be included in the model. No components above V = 1.8m3
maximum water level need be modelled.
For 10 starts per hour this could also be expressed
Model construction should be in durable and as:
waterproof materials, with clear perspex being the
V = 1.5 x Qp
best for viewing purposes. Model size should be as
large as costs allow. Scales can vary from perhaps The sump volume when multiple pumps are installed
1:4 for very small sumps, up to 1:50 for large intakes is calculated as for a single pump, where the
to reservoirs or tanks. For sump models, 1:25 would minimum sump volume is the capacity between the
be the smallest desirable scale. start and stop level for each pump. However,
additional capacity is required to allow a vertical
Physical testing could typically take between one
distance of 150mm between the start or stop levels
and six months for construction, testing and
reporting. of consecutive pumps.
Sump Volume With sewage there is a possibility of septicity,

therefore there are restraints on the maximum
Pump sumps should have a minimum sump volume volume of the sump related to the retention time of
calculated to ensure that in the worst flow conditions the liquid in that sump.
any pump installed does not exceed the maximum
allowable starts per hour. The CIRIA guide ‘The
Maximum and minimum start / stop
hydraulic design of pump sumps and intakes’ by
levels
M.J. Prosserxli should be referred to when designing The minimum stop level should be the level at which
sumps or wet wells. the pump can be stopped and restarted without
The minimum sump volume is the volume between losing suction or as specified by the pump
manufacturer.
the start and stop levels of the duty pump and for a
single pump the worst case occurs when the inflow To avoid turbulence and odour release at foul
is exactly half of the pumping rate. sewage pumping stations, the lowest pump stop

Drainage Affairs
level is usually set at the invert of the incoming Pumps should also operate within their performance
sewer, the last section of which is laid to a steep fall curve at both top and bottom water levels under
to avoid the sewer being used as the sump. single or multiple pump operation.
The minimum start level should be the required

distance above the stop level to provide the 2.14 Suction/Delivery
minimum sump volume.
Pipework, and Valves
Allowable pump starts per hour
Pipework
The maximum allowable starts per hour should be
Only superior materials are acceptable for use in
as specified by the pump or motor manufacturer. In
pumping station pipework. The pipework installation
the absence of any specified figure the following are
should incorporate the following features:
suitable guidance figures:
• Sufficient bends and flange adapters to allow
Less than 100kW - 15 starts/hour
easy dismantling and removal of pumps, non-
100kW < 200kw - 10 starts/hour return valves or other major items of
equipment;
>200kW - 8 starts/hour
• Each dry well pump should be installed with
Stop / start levels for single and suction and discharge isolation valves to permit
multiple pump operation isolation of the pump from the wet sump and
discharge pipework for maintenance;
The start and stop levels for single pump operation
should be set within the maximum and minimum • Each submersible pump should be installed
start / stop levels defined in the previous section, with a discharge isolation valve to permit
provided that the minimum sump volume is isolation of the pump from the discharge
attainable. pipework for maintenance;
The start level for each additional pump should be • Each pump should also be fitted with a non-
set a suitable height above the previous pump to return valve to prevent reverse flow back
prevent accidental pump starts caused by surface through the pump when stopped;
waves or level sensor errors.
• Valves should be positioned to permit the
The stop level for each additional pump should be removal of each pump and non return valve
set at the required distance below the start level to without draining either the wet well or discharge
provide the minimum sump volume for that particular manifold, and allow the other pumps to
pump. The stop level will normally be just above the continue operating normally;
previous duty pump stop level.
• Suction isolating valves for dry well pumps
The effect of flywheels should be considered in should be bolted directly to a flanged pipe
determining stop/start levels because the flywheel securely fixed through the sump wall;
increases the pump start-up and stop times.
• Discharge isolation valves should be bolted
Pump duty level directly to a flange on the discharge pipe or
manifold;
The pump duty level for a single pump should be the
midpoint between the pump start and stop levels. • Discharge non-return valves should be bolted
For multiple pump installations it should be the directly to the discharge isolation valve. They
midpoint between the top water level (last duty should be installed in horizontal pipework with
pump start level) and the bottom water level (first a short length of pipe and a flange adapter on
duty pump stop level). the pump side to allow dismantling;

Drainage Affairs
• Where the pump delivery pipework joins the • The non-return valves should have proximity
pumping station discharge manifold, the entry switches to prevent dry running and allow a
should be horizontal; change of duty (standby on high level will then
start);
• At the opposite end of the pumping station
discharge manifold, a valved connection back • All reflux valves should be installed in the
to the sump should be provided for draining the horizontal plane;
discharge pipework, or flushing the sump;
• Butterfly valves should not be used with
• Consideration should be given to providing an sewage.
isolating valve on the pumping main before it
leaves the pumping station/chamber and
before any over pumping connection, to allow 2.15 Pumping System
the pumping station to be fully isolated and the Characteristics
fixed pipework drained for repair;
NPSH, Vibration, Cavitation and Noise
• All flexible couplings should be restrained on
both sides by securely fixed equipment, thrust Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is used to check
blocks or tie straps across the coupling to the pumping installation for the risk of cavitation.
prevent displacement of the coupling under
Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour
pressure.
bubbles in a liquid. Vapour bubbles are formed
Valves when the static pressure at a point within a liquid
falls below the pressure at which the liquid will
Valves should incorporate the following features: vaporise. When the bubbles are subjected to a
higher pressure they collapse causing local shock
• Isolation valves for sewage should be of the
waves, if this happens near a surface, erosion can
double-flanged wedge-gate type with a bolt-on
occur.
bonnet. When fully open, the gate should be
withdrawn completely from the flow. The valve Cavitation will typically occur in the impeller of a
should have an outside screw rising stem and centrifugal pump, where it can cause noise and
the handwheel direction of operation should be vibration as well as affecting the pump efficiency. If
clockwise to close. Station valves should have allowed to persist it can lead to damage to the pump
metal seats; or even breaking away of foundations.
• Valves greater than 350mm diameter should be NPSH is the minimum total pressure head required
fitted with actuators. Where installed in in a pump at a particular flow/head duty. It is
chambers they could be fitted with non-rising normally shown as a curve on the pump
stems to limit the headroom required; performance sheet.
• Reflux valves for sewage should be of the NPSH = Pa – Vp + Hs – Fs
double flanged, quick action single door type,
designed to minimise slam on closure by Equation 2.15.1
means of heavy doors, weighted as necessary. Where:
The door hinge pin/shaft should extend through
the side of the body and be fitted with an Pa = atmospheric pressure at liquid free surface
external lever to permit back flushing;
Vp = vapour pressure of liquid
• Reflux valves should be provided with covers
for cleaning and maintenance without the need Hs = height of supply liquid free surface, above eye
to remove the valve from the pipeline. The of pump impeller
covers should be large enough so that the flap
Fs = suction entry and friction losses
can be removed and the valve can be cleaned;

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In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSH available

should be at least 1m greater than the NPSH
required by the selected pump at all operating
conditions.
When calculating NPSH, absolute values for

atmospheric and liquid vapour pressures are used.
Pump Duty Point
Each pump has a performance curve where the flow

is plotted against head.
Each pipework system has a friction curve where

the friction head is plotted against flow.
The system curve is obtained by adding the static

head to the friction losses and plotting the total head
against the flow.
The pump duty point is where the pump

performance curve and the system curve cross. It
shows the flow that a particular pump will deliver
through the pipework system at a particular total
head at the pump duty level.
In multiple pump installations, it is essential that the

operating conditions of a single pump running are
carefully checked to ensure that the pump will
operate at maximum and minimum static heads
satisfactorily, and without risk of cavitation.
The duty point should be used when considering the

suitability of alternative pumps for a particular duty
by comparing the efficiency and power requirements
for each pump at the duty point.

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Characteristic curve for

new pipe
Figure 2.15.1 – Characteristic Curve for Multiple Pumps

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The sump pumps should be sized for the possible

leakage of glands and seals. A guide should be
0.5l/s for each leakage point, with a minimum of 5l/s.
2.16 Sump Pumps and An assessment should also be made of any possible
Over-Pumping inflow from outside the dry well (i.e. rain and
flooding).
Facilities
Sump pumps should be provided for all dry wells
and wet wells at pumping stations. For dry wells
2.17 Power Calculations
they should be used to remove any water that may including Standby
collect at low level. For wet wells, they should be
used to empty the wet well prior to man entry.
Generation
Over-pumping facilities should be provided where
2.17.1 Introduction
there is a single sump and access may be required
for repair of pumps/screens/etc. A suction chamber A standby power generator set is essential in
should be provided before the pumping station, with applications where the loss of the power supply can
a penstock to isolate all flows into the pump sump. A not be accepted due to critical loads. The generator
connection into the pumping main should be set configuration and sizing will vary from one
provided for the over-pumping discharge. application to another dependent on the load type,
Consideration should be given to providing an operation characteristics, site condition, and
isolating valve on the pumping main before the over- application requirements.
pumping connection to allow the pumping station to
be fully isolated and the fixed pipework drained for The sizing and selection of the generator set should
repair. take into consideration the aspects raised in the
following sub-sections.
Sump Pump Installations
Sump pumps should incorporate the following 2.17.2 Load Type
feature:
In some applications, the total connected load in the
• Sump pumps should discharge to the wet well pumping station will need to be powered from the
above the water level to prevent gas release; generator set in case of power failure, while in other
locations only the essential load will need to be kept
• Discharge pipes should be fitted with a non- running (partial loads). The designer should
return valve and isolating valve, in an easily consider the requirements according to the site
accessible position; characteristics and the proposed application, to size
the required generator set. The following points are
• The sump pump should be fitted with a
to be investigated at the initial stage to select the
discharge connection and guide rail to allow
type of generator that is required:
the pump to be easily removed from the sump
for cleaning or unblocking; • Voltage level according to load voltage level
(415v, 3.3kv, 6.6kv, 11kv);
• Where a temporary sump pump is to be used,
a power supply point and discharge connection • Total generator connected load;
should be provided. Both should be located at
a high level in the dry well, and be easily • Individual load characteristics such as kilowatt
accessible from the access walkways. rating, maximum allowable voltage dip by the
motor manufacturer, starting method, sequence
Sump pumps should be installed in a sump of of operation;
sufficient dimensions for the proposed pump and
allow a suitable level controller to operate within the • Load type - inductive or capacative;
sump, the minimum depth should be 300mm.
• Load profile.

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2.17.3 Site condition • Soundproof enclosure: The unit is installed

inside a soundproof enclosure, mounted on a
The site condition should also be examined and the trailer suitable for transportation and operation
following data collected and submitted to the in residential areas;
generator set manufacturer to be considered in the
sizing process: • Skid mounted unit: For temporary site work
(e.g. construction site).
• ambient temperature;
• elevation above sea level;

2.17.6 Type of Control Panel
• humidity; The control panel can be unit mounted (on the
generator set unit) or remotely mounted (inside the
• wind direction and dust contamination in air;
control room).
• nearby residential areas for sound level
The control panel is used to operate and monitor the
consideration.
unit in case of power failure. Panels have many
options depending on the type of operation required,
2.17.4 Generator set operation and the mode of operation (one unit, two units,
automatic start, manual start, etc).
and control
The generator set operation and control varies from
application to application depending on the following 2.17.7 Ventilation system
points: Unit ventilation and the cooling system are critical
parts of the overall system performance and
• Number of units to be controlled;
capability. The ventilation system is required to keep
• Manual or automatic synchronisation; the surrounding atmosphere temperature as per the
specified ambient temperature, to avoid any
• Manual or automatic start-up; temperature rise due to heat generation from the
engine. The ventilation system should be by the
• Manual or automatic changeover switch
means of forcing air out of the room using a fan
between main local authority incomer and main
installed at a level above the highest point in the
generator set incomer (control panel outgoing
generator (e.g. roof mounted or wall mounted). The
feeder).
air will be delivered through air louvers mounted at
the lowest permissible level to avoid sand ingress
2.17.5 Type of installation from the surrounded area and at the same time to
guarantee airflow across the generator set body.
Standby generator sets can be installed by different
means according to the site requirement and unit In addition to the room ventilation, the generator
size. The type of installation can be categorised in should have an engine driven fan. This will draw air
the following ways: through sand trap louvers in the wall, and over the
alternator and engine, discharging the air through a
• Building installation: The unit will be installed set mounted radiator and wall mounted outlet
inside a building suitable to accommodate all louvers.
the units and their ancillaries. This type of
installation is recommended in large or major
pumping stations, or treatment plants; 2.17.8 Fuel system
• Weatherproof enclosure: The unit is mounted The fuel system usually consists of a main storage
inside a weatherproof enclosure on a trailer tank, daily fuel tank, fuel transfer system, and fuel
suitable for transportation between different line between tanks and the generator set:
sites;

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• Main storage tank. This will be required in c) Electrically operated air compressor unit
applications where the fuel consumption at site (capable of refilling the tank within 15
is very high due to a large number of units minutes);
installed, or due to the difficulty in providing
daily supply of fuel to the site. In that case, the d) Diesel operated air compressor with the
storage facility of the main storage tank should same capacity working as backup for
be sufficient for three days consumption. The the electrical air compressor;
bulk tanks should normally be mounted partially
e) Air piping between air vessel and starter
below ground level within bunds to enable the
unit.
day tank to empty under gravity back to the
bulk tank in the event of a fire; • Electrical starting method. This type of starter is
suitable for small loads, transportable and
• Daily fuel tank. The daily fuel tank should be
enclosed units, which work at high speeds
suitable for eight hours full load operation, and (1500RPM). The starting method consists of an
normally mounted on a stand beside the
electrically operated starter, battery, and
generator set to enable gravity feed to the
charging alternator. A battery charger is
engine; required to keep the battery fully charged and
• The fuel transfer system. A fuel transfer system ready for operation in cases where the unit is
is required between the main tank and daily rarely operated. The battery type should be
tank to keep the daily tank full and ready for maintenance free for high reliability starting;
operation. The tank level should never fall
• Starting aid. Some applications require
below a minimum level. The system consists of
immediate starting and load handling without
transfer pumps, level sensor, control panel, any delay due to critical load type. To get the
valves (solenoid valves, actuated valves, hand
generator set ready for such an application the
operated valves) and flow meter to monitor the
unit should be equipped with a jacket water
units consumption, as well as the delivery heater to keep the engine warm and ready for
supply to the main tanks.
load immediately after starting without any
• A thermal ‘cut-off’ link must be mounted above delay for warming the engine before applying
the engine, arranged to close both a valve on the load.
the fuel line between the day tank and the
engine, and also a dump valve to drain the day
tank back to the bulk tank in the event of a fire.
2.17.10 Service facility
The generator set building should be equipped with
an overhead crane capable of lifting the heaviest
2.17.9 Starting method part likely to be encountered during maintenance of
The generator starter method is usually one of the the generator set. The main inlet and outlet louvers
following methods: and building shall be designed such that the
complete generator set can be installed and
• Air starting method. This type of starting is removed through the louver openings. For container
suitable for large generator sets requiring a or enclosure units, a lifting facility should be
high starting torque, especially medium and low provided for offloading and transporting the unit. The
speed engines (750RPM, 600RPM). This enclosure should be capable of having the side and
usually consists of: roof dismantled and removed for ease of
maintenance and parts replacement.
a) Air operated starter unit (sized by the
generator set manufacturer);
2.17.11 Generator set sizing
b) Air tank vessel (suitable for six starts
before refill); The following procedure can be used to size the
generator set according to the available data from
pump motors and other loads (e.g. lighting/other

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non-motor load) as well as the sequence of

operation, and starting of the motor:
1) Starting KVA (SKVA) calculation
- Calculate lock rotor current (LRA) = for DOL x

Full load current
- Calculate the SKVA = (LRA V * 1.732)/1000
2) Effective SKVA
Use Table 2.17.1 as a guideline for calculating the

effective SKVA.
Suppose that we have three motors, which will start

and run in sequence (motor-1, motor-2 and motor-
3).
Using the highest effective SKVA calculated and the

required voltage DIP (10%, 20%, and 30%) as
specified by the motor manufacturer, the generator
set can be selected from the data sheet provided by
the generator set manufacturer.

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Table 2.17.1 – Guide to Generator Set Sizing – Effective SKVA

Step Motor 1 Motor 2 Motor 3 Comments
1 Motor load (KW) A B C KW motor/ motor
efficiency
2 Starting KVA (SKVA) X Y Z LRA*V*
1.732 /1000
3 Total motor load connected 0 A A+B

before the required motor start
in sequence
4 Total motor load connected A A+B A+B+C
after motors have been
started in sequence
5 (Step3/Step4)*100 0 (A/(A+B))*100 ((A+B)/(A+B+C))*100

6 Using step-5 result, obtain D E F From Fig. 2.17.1
compensation for motor
already started from fig.2.17.1
7 Multiply X*D Y*E Z*F
(step-2xstep-6)
8 Obtain the reduce voltage Q R S From Table 2.17.2
factor from fig.2.17.2
9 Effective SKVA
( Step-7 x Step-8)
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
0.9
multiplier
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 2.17.1 - Reduced voltage starting factor
Table 2.17.2 - Reduce voltage starting factor

Type Multiply SKVA BY
Star/Delta 0.33
Auto transformer 0.68, 0.46 , 0.29
80% , 65%, 50%
DOL 1.0
Solid state Estimate 300% of full load KVA

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Worked example:
The following motors required a standby generator
i. 90 kw 3-phase motor, soft starter , voltage dip 30%
ii. 70 kw 3-phase motor, star/delta ,voltage dip 30%
iii. 45 kw 3-phase motor , direct online (DOL), voltage dip 30%
1- Calculated Locked rotor current
90 kw motor = 6 x 90,000 = 939 amp

√3 x 415x0.8
75 kw motor = 6 x 75,000 = 730 amp

√3 x 415x0.8
45 kw motor = 6 x 45,000 = 469amp

√3 x 415x0.8
2- Calculated SKVA
90 kw motor = 939 x 415 X 1.732 = 674.9

1000
75 kw motor = 730 x 415 X 1.732 = 524.7

1000
90 kw motor = 469 x 415 X 1.732 = 337.1

1000
Table 2.17.3 – Generator Set Sizing – Worked Example

Ste Motor1 Motor 2 Motor 3 Comments
p
1 Motor load KW 90 70 45 KW motor/ motor efficiency

2 Starting KVA (SKVA) 674.9 524.7 337.1
LRA*V*1.732/1000
3 Total motor load connected before the 0 90 160

required motors start in sequence
4 Total motor load connected after motors 90 160 205

have been started in sequence
(Step-3/step-4)*100 0 56.3 78
5
6 Using step-5 result obtain 1 1.15 1.25 from Fig. 2.17.1
compensation for already start motor
7 Multiply 674.9 603.4 421.4
(step-2xstep-6)
8 Obtain the reduce voltage factor 3 0.33 1 from Table 2.17.2
9 Effective SKVA ( Step-7 xstep-8) 337.5 199.1 421.4 NB Motor 1 is a solid state starter
The selected generator will be sized for the highest effective SKVA @30% Voltage dip = 421.4KVA.

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• Clearance and creepage distance;

2.18 Switch Gear and • Mechanical operation test;
Control Panels
• IP degree of protection.
Low voltage switchgear and control panels form the
link between the electrical load, such as; motors, The partially type-tested assemblies (PTTA) are
lighting, actuator valves, air conditioning equipment assemblies that contain both type-tested and non
and the power generation source (main authority type-tested arrangements (derived by calculation
supply, generator set). from the type-tested arrangements compliant with
tests required for TTA).
The design of the switchboard should take into
consideration the points discussed in the following
sub-sections. 2.18.2 Total connected load
The control panel sizing and design to cover the
2.18.1 Type–tested and partially demand of the total load connected, including the
standby load.
type tested assemblies
(TTA and PTTA)
According to BS EN60439-1xliii the low voltage
2.18.3 Short circuit level
switchgear (assembly) and its component parts shall The short circuit level calculation carried out
be made in a way that it can be safely assembled according to the total connected load and power
and connected. Assure that this configuration of source from the local authority electricity network.
assembly and its components are safely operated The short circuit level is one of the most important
without any risk to the operator or equipment. Some criteria in switchboard design. Its importance arises
of the risks that can affect the operation to be from the need to protect the equipment with the
considered include: correct protection device, suitable for the specific
level of short circuit, so that no damage or harm can
1. Direct and indirect contact with live parts; affect the equipment or human safety. Care must be
2. Temperature rise; taken in the design stage to control the fault level. If
the total connected load is too high, the total
3. Electrical Arc; connected load to the switchgear can be split into
two or more assemblies to reduce the fault level.
4. Overload;
The short circuit level can be calculated according to
5. Insulation failure; the following steps.
6. Mechanical failure. Step-1 Determine the transformer full load amperes:
To achieve a type-tested assembly (TTA) the
I(fl) = KVAx100
following performance requirements should be
0E (l-l) x
verified: 1.732 Equation
2.18.1
• Temperature – rise limits;
Where:
• Dielectric properties;
I(fl) = transformer full load
• Short circuit withstand strength (main circuit);
KVA = transformer capacity volt ampere
• Effectiveness of protective circuit;
E (l-l) = line to line voltage
• Short circuit withstand strength of the protective
circuit; Step-2 Find the transformer multiplier

I s.c = I (fl) x Multiplier

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Multiplier = 100 Type – 2: co-ordination (personal/components

%Z (T) safety).
The designer, where possible, should select type-2

co-ordination to assure full protection of personal
Equation 2.18.2 safety as
Where: well as the electrical components. In the event of a

short circuit, this type of co-ordination will ensure
Z (T) = transformer impedance that the components are reusable after fault
clearance. Type-1 co-ordination only guarantees
Step-3 Determine the transformer let through short
personal and electrical installation safety, and the
circuit current
equipment may not be able to resume operation
I s.c = I (fl) x Multiplier without repair or replacement of the affected part.
Equation 2.18.3 2.18.5 Form of internal

Where:
separation
I s.c = transformer let through short circuit current
The form of separation should be according to BS
Table 2.18.1 shows some examples of expected EN60439-1xliii or suitable equivalent. The designer
and standard fault level. should consider Form-4 (see Figure 2.18.1) in all
designs for high personal safety and equipment
protection.
Table 2.18.1 – Example of Expected and
Standard Fault Level In the case of multiple incomers and/or feeders,
Short circuit level Type of application Form-4 should be considered for ease of
16KA/1sec Distribution board maintenance without the need for interruption to
(≤250 Amp) other equipment as would be the case with Form-2
35KA/1sec Motor Control Centre In case of multi-incomer and outgoing

(≤400 Amp) starters/feeders, Form-4 should be considered for
50KA/1sec OR 50 Motor Control Centre ease of carrying out maintenance without
KA/3sec (≤2000 Amp) interruption to other equipment, in case of isolation
of certain feeders.
80KA/1sec OR Motor Control Centre
80KA/3sec (≤3000 Amp) The Type to be used can vary between Type-3 and
120KA/1sec OR Motor Control Centre Type-7 as shown in Figure 2.18.1, diagram (1& 2).
120KA/3sec (≤5000 Amp)
According to the project requirements or budget
limitations, Form-2, Type-2 (diagram-3, Figure
2.18.4 Type of co-ordination 2.18.1) should be considered in some applications,
such as unit mounted control panels (e.g. scrubber
Electrical component co-ordination according to IEC
units, sludge drying beds) where the shutdown of
97-4-1xliv, provides two types of protection.
the unit is mandatory to carry out maintenance on
Manufacturers test components such as contactors
the unit.
and circuit breakers in unison to confirm what will
happen under short circuit conditions.
According to IEC 947-4-1, the co-ordination between

the electrical components can be categorised into
the following two types:
Type – 1: co-ordination (personal safety only);

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Figure 2.18.1 – Form and Type of Internal

Separation
Form-4 type-3: Diagram-1
Bus bar
2.18.7 Type of starter

Function
Enclosure unit
The designer should consider the following points
when choosing the starter type to be used.
Internal
Separation
Motor size
Terminal for
external
conductor The motor size (kW) will determine if a standard
Cable gland
starter can be used (direct on line DOL or start delta
starter Y/D), or if a more advanced type of starter
such as a soft starter is required. The main issue to
consider is the starting current. The greater the (kW)
Form-4-Type-7: Diagram-2 rating, the greater the starting current required. A
high starting current has an overall effect on the
Bus bar system stability and other equipment installed. The
following ratings can be considered as general
Enclosure Function
unit
guidelines only. The designer should apply
knowledge and experience to justify the starter
Internal
method to be used.
Separation
Terminal for
external
conductor
Table 2.18.2 – Guideline Starter Methods for
Motor Ratings (kW)
Motor rating KW Starting method
Form –2 – Type-2: Diagram-3 ≤ 5kw Direct online (DOL)
5 ≥ kW ≤25 Star delta (Y/D)
Bus bar
>25kw Soft starter ( solid
state drive) (S/S)
Enclosure Function
unit
Internal
Separation
Terminal for
Motor duty and application
external
conductor
Cable gland
The motor duty will vary according to its application.
The following table gives examples of such duties.
Table 2.18.3 – Example Motor Duties and

Applications
Duty type Application example
2.18.6 Bus Bar rating
Continuous run at Potable water
The bus bar rating should be suitable to carry the constant load and
total connected load. As mentioned previously, speed
consider any future loads by increasing the size of
Short run at Sewage pumping station
the bus bars and also consider the suitability of constant load and
extension at both ends.

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speed comparing it to the cost of the motor, the starter

could cost more than the motor however.
Continuous run at Irrigation network
variable load and Star delta starters can for most applications be
speed
considered more economically viable than a soft
Intermittent Injection system starter, therefore balance the motor cost against soft
periodic duty starter cost.
Motor Application 2.18.8 Protection device

The type of motor starter can also be selected The designer should categorise all loads connected
according to the motor application as mentioned in to the switchgear according to critical status in the
Table 2.18.3, as a high number of starts per hour process and effect on operator safety. Table 2.18.5
will cause even a small motor to overheat. An provides examples.
example of a suitable starter for each application is
presented in Table 2.18.4.
Table 2.18.4 - Example Starter Methods for Duty

Types Table 2.18.5 – Examples of Protection Required
Duty type Starter for Load Types
Continuous run at DOL, Y/D, S/S Type of
Load type Protective device
constant load and protection
speed Main
Short run at DOL, Y/D incomer Overload, short
constant load and feeder circuit, - main MCCB or
speed
S/S if sufficient cooling restricted earth ACB
time between operations (local fault, phase
authority/ losses, phase
Continuous run at VSD generator reveres.
variable load and set)
speed
Overload, short 1- conventional
Intermittent D.C starter, DOL circuit, earth protection device
periodic duty leakage, phase (OLR), MCCB
Notes: DOL: direct online, Y/D: star/delta , s/S: Pump, losses, phase
2- Electronic
soft starter, VSD: variable speed drive grinder reveres, under
protection devices
voltage, motor
Voltage level stall, winding 3- motor manager
temperature. protection unit
Starter type can be varied according to the voltage
level. In the medium voltage range (e.g. 3.3kv) the Overload, short Conventional
Valve protection device
starting current will be very low when compared with circuit, earth
actuator
a lower voltage (e.g. 415v). In this case, the use of a leakage. (OLR), ELCB
direct contact starter would be acceptable.
Instrument Overload, short Conventional
circuit, earth protection device
Cost considerations (level/ flow/
pressure) leakage (OLR), ELCB
The cost of the starter should also be considered
when compared to the motor size and application. Building Overload, short
circuit, earth Conventional
As an example, a soft starter could be used to services
leakage, phase protection device
reduce the starting current for a 10kW motor. Taking (lighting/ losses , phase MCB, ELCB, Fuses
into account the cost of the soft starter and sockets) reverses.

Drainage Affairs
Note: ELCB = Earth leakage circuit breaker This type of protection is required to protect the
OLR = Over load relay equipment against phase loss from the main
MCCB = Moulded case circuit breaker supply, or phase reversal which can happen in
ACB = Air circuit breaker the event of main supply reconnection or
reconnection of the motor after maintenance.
Type of protection Operation with phase loss will raise the motor
1. Short circuit protection: winding temperature due to an unbalanced
current in the motor winding. In the case of
This type of protection is required to protect the phase reversal, the motor direction will be
equipment against short circuit (with three reversed, which will result in equipment
phase, two phase or single phase), which can damage or faulty operation (pump vibration,
occur due to: insulation failure or damage, or by high sound levels etc). This type of protection
an incorrect switching operation. Short circuits can be applied at the main incomers of the
are associated with electrical arcs and can switchgear or motor feeder by a special relay to
therefore pose a fire risk. sense the phase status (direction/availability)
and trip the main incomers/feeder when a fault
2. Overload protection: occurs.
This type of protection is required to protect the 5. Earth leakage protection:
equipment against overload current which is
due to operational over current present for an This type of protection is required to: protect
excessive period of time. This over current will the equipment and personnel in the event of
raise the motor winding or cable temperature indirect contact; give additional protection in the
above the permissible level and shorten the event of single phase direct contact; earth fault
service life of the insulation. The task of protection; and protection against fires resulting
overload protection is to allow normal from earth fault leakage current.
operational overload current to flow, but to
interrupt these currents before the permissible This type of protection can be applied at the
switchgear outgoing feeders (motor /
loading period is exceeded.
distribution board) by a special relay which
3. Under/over voltage protection: senses the earth leakage current through a
summation current transformer, the unbalanced
This type of protection is required to protect the current from the transformer will release a
equipment against over/under voltage which is mechanism that will trip the breaker when a
present due to main power supply instability fault occurs.
(e.g. transformer tap changing/load fluctuating)
or unstable supply from a standby generator 6. Motor protection relay (electronic relay):
(due to large load connected, faulty governor or
voltage regulator). Operation with an under- This type of protection is used to protect the
motor against many faults that can affect the
voltage condition will draw more current from
motor operation and safety. The actual
the supply, this over current will raise the motor
winding or cable temperatures above the protection type can be varied according to the
motor application (critical/normal) and size
permissible level and shorten the service life of
(cost). The following types of protection can be
the insulation. The same will be the case with
over-voltage which will effect the insulation of achieved by a motor protection relay:
the motor or cable leading to insulation failure. • Over / under current;
This type of protection can be applied at the
main incomers of the switchgear by a special • Phase loss/ unbalance/reversal;
relay to sense the voltage supply and trip the
main incomers if the set limits are exceeded. • Ground fault;
4. Phase losses/phase reversal protection: • Locked rotor;

Drainage Affairs
• Motor stall. • Bottom entry (suitable for MCC fixed at the top
of cable/MCC trench);
This type of protection can be applied at the
motor terminals. The fault signal from the relay • Top entry (suitable for MCC with cables such
will release a mechanism that will trip the as feeders and incomers installed at ground
breaker when a fault occurs. Fault indication level or above the MCC top level). Top entry
will usually be displayed on a LCD screen or by panels are not preferred and should only be
indication LED’s. used in special circumstances.
Cables should be sized and installed in accordance

2.18.9 Interlocking facility with the IEE (Electrical Wiring) Regulations and
QGEWC Regulations, and de-rated in accordance
An interlocking facility is required where more than with the Electrical Research Association Report No.
one incomer is used in the switchgear required. 69-30xlv.
Some examples are as follows:
Instrument, alarm, and control cables should be
• Supply from two transformers/local authority segregated from power cables.
supply;
The designer should consider the following when
• Supply from two incomers - one from selecting cable routes:
transformer/local authority supply, and one
from standby generator(s) panel; • Number, size and function of cables;
• Supply from three incomers - two from • Access for installation and maintenance;
transformers/local authority supply, and one
from standby generator(s) panel. • Interface with other equipment, e.g. cable
routes should not prevent other equipment
The interlock facility should guarantee the safety of being removed for maintenance;
operation by not allowing under any condition the
connection of two different incomers to the same • Risk of mechanical damage ;
bus bar section (transformer/transformer) or
• Means of support;
(transformer /generator) or main bus bars with the
bus coupler closed. • Effect of installation method on de-rating
factors;
2.18.10 Accessibility • Hazardous area classification.

The panel access for cable termination and
maintenance can be arranged in the following
format:
2.19 PLC’s
SCADA/Telemetry
• Front access (suitable for installation area with
limited space at the back of the MCC);
2.19.1 PLC
• Back access (suitable for installation area with
available space at the back of the MCC, PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. The
minimum one metre); PLC is a microprocessor-based device which is
programmed to perform certain controlling tasks.
• Front/back access. The PLC is the brain of the overall process. It can
receive analogue and digital signals from the
process devices, analyse them and send digital and
2.18.11 Cable entry analogue signals to control these devices or activate
Cable entry to the MCC can be arranged in the certain alarms.
following format:

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PLCs were originally used for controlling purposes. reset. The larger the time constant, the more
Almost all PLCs are now equipped with signal effect Rate will have;
transmitters (i.e. include some RTU features) that
are capable of transmitting data to the network • Modulated Simplex I/O system: is the preferred
operation centre. solution for safe process since the duplex
(redundant) I/O system is usually expensive,
A redundant PLC system with hot standby and the modulated simplex I/O configuration
configuration is highly recommended for critical guarantees that any failure of a single I/O card
applications where uninterrupted control is required. will not cause the relevant I/O rack to fail. For
The power supply for the PLC system is usually instance, if a rack contains three I/O cards,
24Vdc or 110Vac. In case of power failure, the which controls three pumps (two duty, one
equipment should be backed up by a UPS system, standby), the failure of one card will cause the
which can supply the PLC with up to eight hours of whole pumping process to fail. In Modulated
power depending on the importance of the process. Simplex I/O systems however, it will cause the
failure of one pump, which will be classed as
The modular type CPU (Central Processing Unit) in the standby pump, and the other two pumps
the PLC is capable of: solving application logic; will continue run normally.
storing the application program; storing numerical
values related to the application processes and
logic; and interfacing to the I/O systems. 2.19.2 RTU
The PLC carries out PID control, which is a RTU stands for Remote Telemetry Unit. This unit
significant task. PID (Proportional-Integral- delivers remote information back to network
Derivative) control action allows the process control operation centres. Operations staff can access
to accurately maintain a setpoint by adjusting the remote sites that have RTUs, via a web browser,
control outputs. For example, pump flowrate setpoint SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
is maintained by the following: Manager, and XML (Extensible Markup Language).
If an ethernet connection is not available, then the
• Proportioning Band: is the area around the RTU's may be accessed via PSTN (Public Switched
setpoint where the controller is actually Telephone Network), normal dialup and even SMS
controlling the process. The output is at some (Short Message Service) messaging.
level other than 100% or 0%. The band is
generally centred around the setpoint (on single Earlier generation RTUs were hardwired and
output controls), causing the output to be at supported limited functionality’s such as data
50% when the setpoint and the flow rate are transfer and alarming. The new generation RTUs
equal; are equipped with powerful processors that allow the
RTU to control certain instruments and devices, and
• Automatic Reset (Integral): corrects for any to receive/transmit analogue and digital I/O
offset (between setpoint and process variable) (input/output) signals.
automatically over time by shifting the
proportioning band. Reset redefines the output The microprocessor based RTU have a proven track
requirements at the setpoint until the process record within the water and wastewater industry, a
variable (flowrate) and the setpoint are equal; robust modular construction, and are constructed for
ease of maintenance and repair. These are
• Rate (Derivative): shifts the proportioning band intelligent devices, capable of handling data
on a slope change of the process variable. collection, logging, report by exception, data
Rate, in effect applies the ‘brakes’ in an attempt retrieval and pump sequence control programs.
to prevent overshoot (or undershoot) on
process upsets or start-up. Unlike Reset, Rate RTU’s equipped with RS232/485 links are
operates anywhere within the range of the recommended for interconnection to standalone
instrument. Rate usually has an adjustable time control systems, standard equipment packages and
constant and should be set much shorter than PLCs (Programmable Logic Controller). A dedicated

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serial port should be provided for connecting a called a PLC - programmable logic controller). This
hand-held programming unit or PC. is usually at a fast rate. The central host will scan
the RTU's (usually at a slower rate). The data is
The RTU software enables the RTU to process local processed to detect alarm conditions, and if an
input equipment information, before transmitting it to alarm is present, it will be displayed on special alarm
the master station to reduce transmission lists.
overheads. A report by exception operation is
necessary for cost effective communication. The Data can be of three main types:
report is triggered by change of state of digital
values, analogues reaching threshold values or • Analogue data (i.e. real numbers) will be
varying by specified amounts. The RTU also reports trended (i.e. placed in graphs);
when polled, and when the memory buffer is full.
• Digital data (on/off) may have alarms attached
to one state or the other;
2.19.3 SCADA and Telemetry • Pulse data (e.g. counting revolutions of a
Systems meter) is normally accumulated or counted.
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) The trending function can be a powerful diagnostic
is an industrial measurement and control system tool for use by the operators or maintenance
consisting of a central host or master (usually called personnel. The data stored and archived can be
a master station, master terminal unit or MTU); one viewed over any period of historic time, which allows
or more field data gathering and control units or fault patterns, which would otherwise go unnoticed
remotes (RTU’s); and a collection of standard and/or to be detected. For stormwater stations the data can
custom software used to monitor and control be analysed to determine how the station coped with
remotely located field data elements. Contemporary storms. Based on this data, modifications can be
SCADA systems exhibit predominantly open-loop made to the operation of the station to improve its
control characteristics and utilise predominantly long response during such incidents.
distance communications, although some elements
of closed-loop control and/or short distance The primary interface to the operator is a graphical
communications may also be present. display (mimic) which shows a representation of the
plant or equipment in graphical form. Live data is
Systems similar to SCADA systems are routinely shown as graphical shapes (foreground) over a
seen in factories and treatment plants. These are static background. As the data changes in the field,
often referred to as Distributed Control Systems the foreground is updated, e.g. a valve may be
(DCS). They have similar functions to SCADA shown as open or closed. Analogue data can be
systems, but the field data gathering or control units shown either as a number, or graphically. The
are usually located within a more confined area. system may have many such displays, and the
Communications may be via a local area network operator can select from the relevant ones at any
(LAN), and will normally be reliable and high speed. time.
A DCS system usually employs significant amounts
of closed loop control. A further function of the SCADA system is the
production of maintenance data and management
SCADA systems on the other hand generally cover reports. For example, SCADA systems can be easily
larger geographic areas, and rely on a variety of configured to produce maintenance requests for
communication systems that are normally less equipment that has run a set number of hours, or if
reliable than a LAN. Closed loop control in this its’ performance has been declining over time. If a
situation is less desirable. standalone maintenance system is already in place,
SCADA systems can feed information directly to the
The main use of SCADA is to monitor and control
maintenance software.
plant or equipment. The control may be automatic,
or initiated by operator commands. The data For managers, SCADA systems can produce
acquisition is accomplished by the RTU's scanning detailed reports on subjects such as power or
the field inputs connected to the RTU (it may be also chemical usage. Combined with the trending facility

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that is also inherent within SCADA, and by inputting c. Water storage tank lighting;
cost data, it can produce cost forecasts for a wide
range of process consumables. d. External installed machinery (settlement
tanks, inlet works aeration tanks);
e. Pump wet wells and screen chambers.

2.20 Lighting
The designer should follow the guidelines and 2.20.1.2 Environmental Conditions
information given below to design a proper lighting
system. The British standards specified within and In many industrial applications the environmental
the CIBSE lighting guidexlvi should be considered condition is hostile or hazardous as explained
during the design. below.
1) Hostile conditions - damage to light fittings can

2.20.1 Light Fitting Selection occur due to:
Criteria a. High ambient temperatures;

Light fittings are selected according to the following b. Windy and vibrating environments;
criteria and application.
c. Corrosive atmosphere (hydrogen sulphide
2.20.1.1 Installation Location gases, high humidity);
The location of the light fittings to be designed has a d. Wet atmosphere (water ingress);
large affect on the type of luminaire to be specified.
e. Dusty atmosphere.
Generally, the following categories can be
considered: 2) Hazardous conditions - The operation of light
fittings in certain environments can cause fire
1. Internal Lighting
or explosion due to gas generation or fumes
Internal lighting fittings are required in places such (methane, etc).
as:
A risk assessment on the source of ignition and type
a. Motor control centre rooms (MCC); of explosive atmospheres should be carried out
using the methodology suggested in BS EN 1127-
b. Control and SCADA monitoring rooms; 1xlvii for all potentially hazardous areas such as
screen chambers and wet wells.
c. Substation (11kv & transformer);
d. Pump rooms; 2.20.1.3 Luminance Level Required

e. Off-loading bay & walk ways;
(Lux)
The luminance level required varies from one area
f. Kitchen and toilets;
or application to another. The luminance level
g. Administration offices; should generally be in accordance with the CIBSE
lighting guidexlvi. The relevant levels are replicated
h. Machinery rooms (compressor, generator, below for convenience in Table 2.20.1.
chemical storage, and chemical dosing
system room).
2. External lighting
a. Building (external wall mounted fittings);
b. Internal road lighting (inside station

boundary);

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used in most locations with some changes in the

Table 2.20.1 – Luminescence Levels for Various
body material, IP rating and lamp wattages.
Service Areas
Service area Luminance 2. Flood lights
level (lux)
Flood lights are used mainly for external building
Internal area (inside building)
area lighting such as tank areas, and machinery
Motor control centre room 300
areas (grit removal, settling tank, aeration tanks etc).
The lighting installation can be wall mounted on
Control / SCADA room 500 external buildings or post mounted in working
machinery areas, or ground level mounted and
11kv switchgear room 300 directed to the tank walls in case of tank area
lighting. The fittings should be a minimum of IP65;
Transformer bay 150-200
and the body should be suitable for the environment
Kitchen 150 of the application (corrosion resistant, UV
protected).
Toilets 150
3. High bay lights
Store 200
High bay lighting should be used in pump rooms
Offloading bay / walkway 100-150 when the bay heights are above six meters. The
high bay lamps can provide lighting for maintenance
Pump house 150-200 purposes, in the case of regular inspections and
access to the pump house. Side mounted (4-meter
Cable gallery 150-200
height) fluorescent fittings can be used due to the
Administration offices 300 extended start-up time of high bay lamps.
Machinery room 150-200 4. Emergency lights
External area (Inside station boundary)

Emergency lights are used in case normal lighting
fails or the power supply fails. They give light in
Internal Road lighting 50- 100 emergency situations such as a fire, to provide
escape-route sign lighting and emergency-exit sign
Tank area 50 lighting as per BS 5266xlviii. The type and installation
of emergency lighting should consider the following
Building (external wall and door 70
points:
entrance)
• Escape route signs shall be mounted above
External installed machinery 100
building exit doors at 2 - 2.5m above floor level;
• Escape route lighting such as Corridors,

gangway and stairs shall have a horizontal
2.20.1.4 Type of Light Fitting luminance on the floor (centreline of escape
route) of not less than 0.2lux;
Light fitting types that can be used in different
locations can be categorised as follows. • Emergency lighting in large open areas such as
open plan offices should have an average
1. Fluorescent fitting
horizontal luminance for escape purposes of
The fluorescent fitting is a combination of lamps and not less than 1.0lux;
luminaries. The fittings are available with different
• Emergency lighting in Motor control centre
lamp sizes (18w, 36w, 58w), arrangements (3x18w,
rooms and operator control rooms (SCADA)
4x18w, 2x36w, 2x58w) and installation type (surface
should have an average horizontal luminance
mounted, recessed mounted). This type of fitting is
not less than 2.0lux.
ideally suited to internal installation use. It can be

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Emergency light system conditions. Usually, three types of lamp are

commonly used. These are; high-pressure sodium,
There are two types of emergency light system: metal halide, and high-pressure mercury. The
a. Self-contained; installation of the fitting on the column can be on the
post top, bracket or side entry.
b. Centrally powered.
6. Bulk head
Luminaire mode of operation
Bulk head light fittings are used at the entrance of
There are two modes of operation as follows: the pumping station building (located on top of the
door or at the side) as well as in substation entrance
• Maintained: lamp used as normal when doors and gates. The fitting can be suitable for
the building is occupied. The power supply
indoor or outdoor installation and should be IP65
is from the normal source directly or
indirectly; with either a high pressure sodium or incandescent
lamp type).
• Non-maintained: lamp off as long as the
normal power supply is available. The
lamp will energise from the emergency
power supply automatically in the event of 7. Lighting design calculation:
normal power failure.
The following formula is used to check the level of
Types of emergency lighting
lux provided and adjust the number of fittings to be
The following types of emergency lighting used. Professional software can be used for
luminaire are commonly used: increased accuracy and speed of design. The
following guide is given as an aid for the
• Self-contained separate luminaire experienced lighting engineer and not as a learning
(maintained/non-maintained);
guide for the novice engineer. The information
• Normal luminaires modified to contain a required to populate the formulae can be found in
battery pack and conversion unit manufacturer’s literature.
(maintained);
Internal Lighting (Lumen Method) Formula
• Normal luminaires fed from a central
battery system with conversion unit
(maintained);
Es = F x n x N x UF x MF
• Normal luminaires with a separate lamp
for use with a battery pack, inverters, A
rechargeable unit (non-maintained);
• Normal luminaires with a separate lamp Equation 2.20.1
for emergency use, fed from a central Es = Average illuminance (lux) of the plane
battery system (non-
maintained)/(sustained luminaire); F = Initial bare lamp lumens flux (lumens)
• Normal luminaires fed from a central n = Number of lamps per luminaire

power source (maintained/ non-
maintained). N = Number of luminairies
5. Roadway lighting UF = Utilisation factor
The design of roadway lighting should be according MF = Maintenance factor
to BS 5489-3xlix. For lighting required for pumping
station roads, the selection of the suitable light A = Area (m2)
fittings, post heights and post spacing will be
according to the level of lux required. The light Calculation procedure
fitting body and canopy material should be suitable Calculate the room index (K), floor cavity index (CIf)
for the installation location and environmental and ceiling cavity index (CFc).

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(K) = (LxW)/(L+W)hm • Calculate the luminance that will be achieved

by the final layout.
Equation 2.20.2
External and Roadway Lighting Calculation
The calculation for roadways can be carried
(CIf) OR (CFc) = L x W/(L+W)h according to BS 5489-3xlix. Caution must be taken in
lamp post foundation design to ensure that the wind
Equation 2.20.3 effect on the post is fully considered.
Where:
The flood light calculation can be carried out using
L = room length the same formula applied for internal lighting
calculation with slight modification.
W = room width
E = N x L x BF x WLFxMF
Hm = height of the luminaire plane above the A
horizontal reference plane
Equation 2.20.4
H = depth of the cavity Where:
Calculate the effective reflectance (REx) of the E = Illuminance required (lux)

ceiling, wall and floor cavity (from tables using
above calculated (CIx). L = Lamp output per lumens (lm)
Determine the utilisation factor value (UF) using BF = Beam factor number of lamps per
luminaire manufacturer data sheets; room index and luminaire
effective reflectance (apply any correction factors).
N = Number of luminaries
Determine the maintenance factor (MF)
WLF = waste light factor (usually considered
MF = LLMF x LSF x LMF x RSMF as
Equation 2.20.4 0.9)

Where: MF = maintenance factor
LLMF = lamp lumen maintenance factor
A = area to be lighted (m2)
LSF = lamp survival factor
LMF = luminaire maintenance factor Light control: The control of the lighting system can
be provided by the following means to control the
RSMF = room surface maintenance factor operation of different lighting systems within the
pumping station:
Thus, the lighting design is determined as follows:
• One-way light switches can be used for
• Using the lumen method formula, calculate the controlling a lighting system in an area with a
number of luminairies required (N); single access, for example at the main access
door to the station;
• Determine the suitable layout;
• Two-way light switches can be used for
• Check if the (spacing / height) ratio of the controlling a lighting system in an area with
layout is within the range according to UF; multiple access and egress points;
• Check that if the proposed layout is does not • The automatic control of external lighting
exceeding the maximum ratio limit; systems can be achieved by two main
methods:

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a) Photocell controller for automatic dusk till When the lifting gear has taken the weight of
dawn control; equipment and the equipment is released from its
position, the clearance in the shipping route should
b) Time clock operation for full control of be large enough for the equipment to pass through
when external lights are in operation. without rearrangement.
2.22 Gantry Cranes and

2.21 Maintenance Access Lifting Facilities
Safe access should be provided to all equipment Permanent or temporary lifting facilities should be
and local control panels at all times. provided for equipment that can not be easily lifted.
Consideration should be given to the weight, shape
Access walkways, platforms and stairs should be and position of the item to be lifted. As a guide lifting
designed so that no dismantling is required for facilities should be provided for anything over 25kg.
normal routine maintenance. Vertical access should
be by staircase so that tools and equipment can be For long or heavy lifts, gantry cranes should be
carried in and out safely. Ladder access should be powered in all motions. Trolley cranes should
restricted to infrequent visual inspection points. generally be power lift with manual motion, but small
units should be manual on all motions.
Access around equipment for operation should be
installed at a level where all the controls can be Access must be provided to permanent lifting
reached and operated easily without excessive equipment, particularly gantry cranes, for
stretching or bending and where all indicators can maintenance as generally described in section 2.21.
be seen.
The following types of lifting equipment are
Access around equipment for maintenance and available:
repair should be installed at a level where all the
maintenance points can be reached, dismantled and • Lifting Eye and Chain Block. Suitable for
removed without excessive stretching or bending. single straight lifts only inside a building or dry
Particular attention should be paid to lifting gear well. Not suitable for side forces, but may be
access and operation where heavy equipment is used in conjunction with other suitable lifting
involved. eyes to swing a load sideways;
Access below ground to dry wells should be by • Davit, Socket and Chain Block. Suitable for
staircase so that tools and equipment can be carried most small single lifts i.e. submersible pumps
in and out safely. up to 250kg. Above this, the davit becomes too
heavy to be manhandled;
Permanent access to wet wells and screen
chambers should be provided, using stainless steel • Runway Beam, Trolley and Chain Block.
or GRP to just above TWL to allow for cleaning. The Suitable when there are a number of loads in a
access arrangements should be designed such that straight line, or where a single load must
an operator could be rescued from the sump with a moved sideways. For heavy loads or long lifts,
safety harness and man-winch. the chain block and trolley should be electrically
powered;
When designing access to equipment, careful
thought should be given to shipping routes for • Overhead Gantry Crane. Suitable for
removing equipment to a suitable position for further installations where there are dispersed or
work, or for removing from the pumping station heavy loads that must be moved in all
completely. Exit routes for equipment should not be directions;
the same as for personnel access unless there is an
• Mobile Crane. Suitable for single heavy loads
alternative escape route.
outdoors which must be moved in all directions
i.e. large submersible pumps.

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Submersible pumps should be fitted with stainless 2.23 Ventilation, Odour

steel chains, with change-over rings every 1.0m,
and the lifting equipment should be fitted with a Control and Air
change-over sling. Conditioning
Location of lifting equipment
2.23.1 Ventilation
• Lifting equipment should be provided adjacent
to all heavy items that require lifting; Ventilation of pumping stations is required to prevent
the accumulation of high levels of potentially
• Lifting equipment should be positioned to hazardous chemicals, and ensure that working
provide a straight lift of the load and also be conditions meet health and safety requirements. UK
able to lower the load directly to a suitable occupational exposure limit (OEL) concentrationsl
setting down position; for hydrogen sulphide and other gases associated
with septic conditions are given in section 1.6 of this
• Where lifting through openings in floors, the
manual.
lifting gear should be positioned to allow a
direct single lift up through all floors without Typical ventilation rates for odour containment in
moving the lifting point or rearranging the load. pumping stations used in current operational
practice in Doha are given in Table 2.23.1.
Controls for Lifting Equipment
• Overhead electric cranes and chain blocks Table 2.23.1 – Typical Ventilation Rates for
should be provided with a low voltage pendant Odour Control in Pumping
control suspended from a glide track, Stations
independent of the lifting block. The pendant Air changes per hour
control should extend to within 500mm of the
operating floor, but not touch the floor; Pumping station One for local covers
(no man access)
• Electric chain blocks should be provided with a 12 for pumping
low voltage pendant control suspended from stations extracted
the block. The pendant control should extend to from close to the
within 500mm of the operating floor but not sump and process
touch the floor; units
• Hand operating chains should extend to within Pumping station 20 during man
500mm of the operating floor but not touch the working area access (initiated by
floor; (current light switch)
practice)
• Long travel drive chains should be located to
avoid snagging, and allow the operator safe Dry wells 12
passage; (current
practice)
• With the load hook in its highest position, if a
load chain touches the operating floor or any Separate screen Passive ventilation
item of plant, a chain collection box should be chamber through carbon filter
fitted. (where there is no
other route for odour
escape)
Ventilation systems should be designed so that in

the event of a fire being detected in any area, all the
air conditioning equipment and ventilation systems
are shut down. All supply and exhaust ventilation
louvers should shut automatically to

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compartmentalise the buildings and below ground the size of the wet areas. Each fan should have a
chambers. This restricts the spread of the fire and two-speed motor.
smoke, and ensures effective use of automatic fire
extinguishing systems. During man entry, the additional air supply should
be provided by the fans running at high speed.
Other points to consider include:
The fans should be sized so that with all fans
The air conditioning systems, ventilation fans and running at high speed, the required air changes per
odour control equipment should be run hour for man entry are achieved.
simultaneously and ventilation fan louvers should
Ventilation rates should be designed to ensure a
shut, when the fan stops;
maximum of 3ppm of H2S in the wet areas. The
Louvers should be sized to keep the air velocity system should be designed to achieve this with only
one fan operating.
through them below 0.5m/s;
Wet areas should typically have 12 air changes an
Air ducts should be designed to ensure the velocity hour for normal operation, increasing to 20 air
through them does exceed 10m/s in occupied areas; changes an hour during man entry.
Materials should be selected to limit the corrosion

effects of hydrogen sulphide (H2S). 2.23.2 Odour Control
Ventilation of Pump Rooms and Dry Air vented from pumping stations will in most cases
Wells require odour treatment. In most cases, a two bed
(duty/standby) system using carbon regenerated
Air supply should be provided by either two or three using alkali (caustic soda or potash) is preferred. At
duty fans and one standby fan, depending on the larger pumping stations consideration may be given
size of the pump room. to pre-treatment of strong sources using catalytic iron
filters.
Exhaust air should be removed by either two or
three duty fans and one standby fan, depending on Further details of requirements are given in Volume 5
the size of the pump room. Section 1.5. Reference should also be made to
Section 1.6 of this Volume
The exhaust fans should have approximately 5%
less flow capacity than the air supply fans to keep Typical conditions to be considered in the design of
the building at a slight positive air pressure. This is the odour control unit are given in the table below.
to avoid drawing unfiltered dust laden air into the
pump room which can drastically shorten the Table 2.23.2 – Conditions to be Considered in
equipment life. Odour Control Unit Design
Pump rooms and dry wells should typically have 12 Sewage temperature 25 – 35oC
air changes an hour for normal operation, increasing
Ambient temperature 0–50oC
to 16 air changes an hour during man entry. The
cable basement should be ventilated as part of the Relative humidity Up to 100%
pump room ventilation system.
Temperature of air Up to 30oC
Ventilation of Wet Areas - Pump Sumps & vented from the
Screen Chambers sewerage system to an
Odour Control Unit
Wet areas should normally be ventilated by air
extraction only, with a natural air supply to keep the Radiating surfaces 85oC maximum
wet area under slightly negative pressure and avoid temperature
releasing odours to the atmosphere.
Hydrogen sulphide from 250ppm
Exhaust air should be removed by duty/standby below covers
fans, the number and configuration depending on

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Hydrogen sulphide with 10ppm • In the event of a fire being detected the air
workplace air conditioning should be switched off to allow the
fire suppression equipment to operate
effectively.
Two split AC units working independently

2.23.3 Air Conditioning (mechanically and electrically) of each other should
The required air conditioning systems and be used to air condition the room, with air diffusers
ventilation capacities are shown in the tables below. discharging horizontally towards the panels. Return
air should be sucked back by the split unit, via
Table 2.23.3 - Air Conditioning (AC) Systems receiving air diffusers located at evenly placed
points between the supply air diffusers, and fixed to
Location Air Condition system
the ceiling.
Electric Switch Gear Dual Split AC unit system
Each split AC units should be rated at 50% above
Control Room Split AC unit system the required capacity (i.e. 150% total), so that
should one unit fail, the other unit will provide 75%
of the required air conditioning capacity.
The required thermal load should be calculated on

the basis of peak conditions.
The required quantity of exhaust air should be

removed from electrical switchgear rooms to
Table 2.23.4 - Ventilation Capacities atmosphere by a fan with an actuated louver.
Location Ventilation Ventilation Approximate Air inlet should be by natural supply through a
(l/s) (l/s) per air changes
per person sq.m. per hour. * filtered and actuated louver.
Electric - 0.8 1 In the event of a fire, the electrically actuated

Switchgear louvers should be closed to seal electrical
Room switchgear rooms during the use of any fire
Control 10 1.3 2 extinguishing system.
Room
Kitchen - 10 8
and Toilet Air Conditioning of Control Rooms, Kitchens
and Toilets
Note: Figures extracted from BS 5720, Table 1.
*Depending on the dimensions of the rooms. A single split AC unit should be provided for air
The designer shall assess the potential for corrosion conditioning the control room. No air conditioning
should be provided for the kitchen or toilet.
of A/C units, particularly from H2S, and ensure that
they are appropriately designed and located. The kitchen and toilet areas should be air
Air Conditioning of Electrical Switch Gear conditioned by exhausting part of the control room
air through them.
Rooms
Electrical switchgear rooms should be completely Exhaust air in the kitchen and toilet areas should be
isolated from the remainder of the building for the discharged outside the building. The fans should be
run continuously for the following reasons:
following reasons:
• The thermal loads are higher than elsewhere in • To provide the required air changes for the
the building; control room and kitchen;
• To keep the toilet and kitchen area ventilated.

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Air louvers should be fitted in the bottom of kitchen

0.67φ bar
and toilet doors. ρ bar =
2S max
2.24 Structural Design Equation 2.24.2
General Design Requirements Were:

ωmax = allowable crack width (0.2mm maximum)
Unless local design standards dictate otherwise, in Smax = likely crack spacing (mm)
general, he design of concrete structures shall be in R = restraint factor (0<R<0.5; to be taken as
accordance with BS 8110-1 “Structural Use of
0.5 for most structures)
Concrete”li and BS8007 “Design of Concrete
Structures for Retaining Aqueous Liquids”lii. α = co-efficient of thermal expansion (varies
Likewise, the design of steel structures shall be in between 10x10-6/oC – 12x10-6/oC)
accordance with BS5950-1 “Structural Use of T1 = fall in temperature between the
Steelwork in Buildings”. Local standards shall hydration peak and the ambient (oC)
govern if any conflict arises. All structures shall be T2 = ambient placing temperature (oC)
designed based on a ‘limit-states’ philosophy. ρbar = reinforcement ratio (ρmin = 0.0035)
Unless required otherwise, all structures shall be φbar = reinforcement diameter (mm)
designed for a minimum service life of 60 years.
Where the section thickness exceeds 500m, only
The designer shall prepare calculations for each the outermost 250m of each face shall be used in
design package, including as a minimum the calculating reinforcement areas; however, the
following information: design temperature T1 shall still be based on the
entire element thickness.
• Description of the structure and design
methodology adopted; h/2
h<500mm
• All assumptions made for design (i.e.
geotechnical parameters, loadings, etc);
• Standards, guidelines and specifications used For h < 500mm assume each reinforcement face
for design; controls h/2 depth of concrete
• Input and output from software where
250mm
appropriate. h ≥ 500mm
250mm
2.24.1 Substructures
For h ≥ 500mm assume each reinforcement face
2.24.1.1 Thermal Crack Control controls the outer 250mm depth of concrete. Ignore
Requirements any central core beyond these surface zones.
Calculation of the reinforcement requirements for Given that thermal crack control requirements
control of early-age thermal cracking shall be in determine the minimum limit of reinforcement,
accordance with BS 8007lii. particular care should be given to the adopted
values of T1 and T2. Factors including local site
For the calculation of the likely maximum crack conditions, concrete mix design, formwork type,
spacing and the reinforcement ratio the following seasonal variations in ambient temperature,
formula shall be used: distance from plant to site, etc shall all be taken into
account.
ϖ max
S max = Considering the relatively high ambient
Rα (T1 + T2 ) temperatures that may be encountered in the Qatar
region, consideration shall be given to limiting the
Equation 2.24.1 concrete placing temperature T2 to a value ranging
between 15oC and 30oC. Designers are referred to

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CIRIA Report No’s 91liii and 135liv for further 2.24.1.2 Structural Analysis
information on this subject.
Loading
Ground Investigation & Flotation
All liquid retaining structures are to be designed for
The designer shall have, at a minimum, an both the full and empty conditions, with the load
understanding of the basic ground conditions likely combinations arranged to give the most severe
to be encountered on site, either from historical data combination likely to happen.
or a desk-top study. Preferably, the designer shall
obtain a Ground Investigative Report (GIR) from Both serviceability (SLS) and ultimate (ULS) load
suitably competent geotechnical engineers giving conditions shall be considered. The following load
more precise values and ground conditions. Data to factors shall be adopted (unless local design codes
be considered includes ground level (GL), ground specify more onerous load factors) as per Table
water level (GWL), soil types, classification and 2.24.1.
properties, allowable bearing capacities and a soil
chemical analysis. Table 2.24.1 – Serviceability (SL) and Ultimate
(ULS) Load Factors
Depending on the GWL and GL conditions, Load SLS Factor ULS
buoyancy (or flotation) of the structure may govern Self Weight 1.0 1.4
the section thickness. Flotation of all structures shall Dead Loading 1.0 1.4
be checked in accordance with BS 8007lii against
Retained Liquids 1.0 1.4
the anticipated GWL. In considering the flotation
Retained Soils 1.0 1.4
calculations, the following methodology is
Live Loads (incl. 1.0 1.6
recommended:
surcharges)
• Calculate the volume of water displaced based
on external dimensions of the structure and the
GWL; In general the walls and base shall be checked
against the following load combination (where
• Calculate the mass of the structure taking into appropriate):
account construction assumptions (e.g. does
the site need to be de-watered until after the • Internal hydrostatic pressure only (water-
roof has been placed? does the site need to be tightness test before backfilling);
de-watered until any mass concrete benching
• External soil pressure only (backfilled soil but
has been placed?);
no water);
• Calculate the factor of safety to obtain 1.10 as
• Hydrostatic uplift on base;
a minimum;
• Base ‘soft-spot’ capacity;
• Re-size any element thicknesses as required
(ensuring that structural requirements are still • Hydrostatic + soil pressure + uplift (normal
maintained). working conditions);
A factor of safety of 1.10 shall be achieved for both • Roof loading.
temporary and permanent conditions. For the
flotation calculations the following concrete unit Where required, the structure shall be designed for
weights are recommended: an appropriate wheel/vehicle live load. Vehicle live
loads shall be in accordance with local standards
Minimum Maximum and engineering judgement (where local standards
In-situ RC 22.5kN/m3 23.5kN/m3 do not cater to vehicle loads then loading shall be in
Unreinforced 21.6kN/m3 22.5kN/m3 accordance with BS 5400-2lv and BS6399-1lvi). A
minimum live load of 5kN/m2 shall be adopted
regardless of code requirements.

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Elements shall be analysed in accordance with BS

8007lii, BS 8110-1li and established engineering
υ=
V
bv d
(
≤ 5 N/mm 2 , 0.8 f cu )
principles. Depending on the slab arrangement (i.e.
degree of restraint, span ratio’s, etc), bases and
walls may be considered as either one-way or two- Equation 2.24.6
way spanning. where:
υ = design ultimate shear stress (N/mm2)
Where appropriate seismic loading shall be V = design ultimate shear force (kN)
considered in accordance with local design codes. bv = width of section (mm - typically taken as
1m)
Base Slabs d = effective depth (mm)
fcu = concrete strength (N/mm2)
Base slabs designed as one-way spanning shall be
designed for flexure in accordance with engineering
principles and the following formulae: Table 2.24.2 – Shear Stress and Rebar to be
provided
M ULS
K= ≤ 0.156 Form of shear Area of shear
bd 2 f cu Shear Stress υ rebar to be rebar to be
provided provided
Equation 2.24.3 υ<0.5υc None Required -
  K   0.5υc < υ<(υc + Minimum links in
Asv ≥ 0.4bsv/0.95fsyv
z = d 0.5 +  0.25 −   ≤ 0.95d 0.4) areas where υ<υc
  0.9  
(υc + 0.4) < υ<5 Links in any Asv ≥ bsv(υ-
or 0.8√fcu combination υc)/0.95fsyv
Equation 2.24.4
and
Shear reinforcement shall be provided based on the
M ULS following:
Ast =
0.95 f sy z • The critical shear stress uc shall be determined
in accordance with BS 8110-1li;
Equation 2.24.5
• Base slabs designed as two-way spanning
where:
shall be designed for flexure in accordance with
MULS = design ultimate moment (kNm)
engineering principles and the following
b = width of section (mm - typically taken as 1
formula:
m)
d = effective depth (mm)
msx = β sx nl x & msy = β sy nl x
2 2
fcu = concrete strength (N/mm2)
z = lever arm (mm)
Ast = area of required tension reinforcement Equation 2.24.7
(mm2) Values of βsx and βsy shall be obtained from
fsy = reinforcement strength (N/mm2) Table 2.24.3.
• Base slabs designed as two-way spanning

With K ≤ 0.156, compression reinforcement is not shall be designed for shear in accordance with
required. Designers are referred to BS8110-1li for engineering principles and the following
cases where compression reinforcement is required. formulae:
Base slabs designed as one-way spanning shall be υ vx = β vx nl x & υ vy = β vy nl x

designed for shear in accordance with engineering
principles and the following formula:
Equation 2.24.7

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Values of βvx and βvy shall be obtained from

Table 2.24.4.
A nominal ‘soft spot’ diameter shall be

assumed in the subgrade (unless local
conditions preclude this from occurring) and
the base checked accordingly.

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Table 2.24.3 – Base Slab Flexure Coefficients

βsx)
Short Span Co-efficient (β
Long Span Co-
Edge Condition Values of Ly/Lx βsy) for
efficient (β
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 ≥2.0 all values of Ly/Lx
1. Four edges continuous 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.035 0.037 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024
2. 1 short edge discontinuous 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.038 0.041 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.028
3. 1 long edge discontinuous 0.028 0.035 0.041 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.061 0.066 0.028
4. 2 short edges
0.034 0.038 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.047 0.050 0.053 0.034
discontinuous
5. 2 long edges discontinuous 0.034 0.046 0.056 0.065 0.072 0.078 0.091 0.100 0.034
6. 2 adjacent edges
0.035 0.041 0.046 0.051 0.055 0.058 0.065 0.070 0.035
discontinuous
7. 3 edges discontinuous
0.043 0.049 0.053 0.057 0.061 0.064 0.069 0.074 0.043
(1 long edge continuous)
0.043 0.054 0.064 0.072 0.078 0.084 0.096 0.105 0.043
(1 short edge continuous)
9. 4 edges discontinuous 0.056 0.066 0.074 0.081 0.087 0.093 0.103 0.111 0.056
Table 2.24.4 – Base Slab Shear Coefficients

βvx)
Short Span Co-efficient (β Long Span Co-
Edge Condition Values of Ly/Lx βvy) for
efficient (β
all values of Ly/Lx
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 ≥2.0
1. Four edges continuous 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33
2. 1 short edge discontinuous 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.36
3. 1 long edge discontinuous 0.36 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.51 0.55 0.59 0.36
4. 2 short edges
0.40 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.52 0.54 0.26
discontinuous
5. 2 long edges discontinuous 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.40
6. 2 adjacent edges
0.40 0.44 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.60 0.40
discontinuous
0.45 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.60 0.63 0.29
(1 long edge continuous)
0.29 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.45
(1 short edge continuous)
9. 4 edges discontinuous 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33

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Walls Roof slabs shall generally be designed in a similar

fashion to base slabs, however, they should be
Walls may adopt vertical, horizontal or two-way considered as simply supported with limited fixity
spanning action. Walls may be analysed by first (and hence moment transfer) at the supports.
principles, design charts or software. Earth
pressures shall be calculated using Rankine’s Particular care shall be given to roofs subject to
theory. At-rest earth pressures shall be used for vehicle loading.
structural design. The value of ko will vary according
to site conditions but a minimum value of ko = 0.5 Design Software
shall be adopted. Surface surcharging shall be
Slab and wall elements may also be designed using
allowed for (typical values range between 5- appropriate commercial software (e.g. ROBOT
10kN/m2), as shall construction and permanent live
Millennium, STRAND 7, STAADPro, Microstran V8,
loads.
etc), either as 2D, or preferably 3D, models.
1 − sin φ Appropriate spring elements shall be used to
Active k a = represent the soil stiffness. Designers should refer
1 + sin φ
to the program user manuals for assistance with
design software.
Equation 2.24.9
1 + sin φ Foundations and Settlement
Passive k p =
1 − sin φ
Where an interface between a structure (be it above
ground, partially buried or completely buried) and
Equation 2.24.10 the underlying ground exists, there is said to be soil-
At − rest k o = 1 − sin φ ( = 0.5 for design) structure interaction. The actual behaviour of
structures and soil-structure interaction is complex
and leads to some simplification of assumptions in
Equation 2.24.11 order to obtain a design.
A fundamental design concept is the selection of

either a rigid structure or a flexible structure. A
flexible structure will be able to tolerate a degree of
differential settlement by the basic arrangement of
the structure, the nature of its materials and by the
Compaction
Hydrostatic
Surcharge
inclusions of movement joints. Conversely, a rigid

Soil
structure is designed to neglect any differential

settlement by having sufficient strength to span
across any loss of ground support. Factors to
kqsurch kqcomp γwHw kγsH consider include the relative settlements likely to
s
occur (i.e. immediate and long-term), any history of
¦------------------ where required -----------------¦ previous soil loading (i.e. over- consolidation) and
the non-homogenous content of most soils.
Where the structural arrangement calls for internal
The support given by the subgrade is often modelled
walls, these walls shall be checked for a full
as springs of varying stiffness (with the stiffness
hydrostatic head against one side only (representing
based on geotechnical parameters), and base slabs
a full chamber on one side, an empty chamber on
may occasionally be designed as beams on elastic
the other).
foundations. This is a time-consuming and
Where designed as vertical cantilevers, walls shall complicated procedure, and many design software
be checked for deflection in accordance with programs are ideally suited to this task (although it
BS8110-1li span-depth criteria. should be remembered that any software output is
only as good as its input).
Roof Slabs

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As stated, the analysis and consideration of any soil- • Determine required size of footing based on
structure interaction is a complex affair, and in part allowable bearing capacity (SLS) and adopt a
depends on a degree of experience. Designers are suitable thickness;
strongly recommended to consult geotechnical • Design for flexure (ULS) taking a critical section
engineers and to refer to specialist literature such as at the face of the column, designed as a
“Soil-structure interaction – The real behaviour of cantilever;
structures”lvii for further information on this subject. • Design for shear (ULS) taking a critical face
located distance ‘d’ from the column face;
Ground movement leading to differential settlement • Design for punching shear (ULS), adopting a
can cause severe cracking and leakage from liquid shear perimeter of 4(column width + 3d);
retaining structures, and as a general rule they • Adjust footing thickness as required.
should be designed as rigid structures. Where
appropriate the design bearing pressure shall be For eccentric column loading and other foundation
calculated and checked against the allowable types designers are referred to appropriate
bearing capacity. If required, measures shall be literature.
taken to provide suitable foundations such as piling
or other ground improvement techniques - Structures shall be founded on a layer of suitably
consultation with suitably competent geotechnical compacted subgrade material, a 50–100mm blinding
engineers is strongly recommended. A maximum layer, and a suitable slip membrane.
differential settlement value of 20–25mm should be
adopted. Concrete Slab
Where piled foundations are required, the design

Blinding Layer & Slip Membrane
ultimate resistance of a single end-bearing pile shall
be determined from the following formula:
Subgrade
_
* *
P* = f s As + f b Ab
Movement Joints
Equation 2.24.12
where: Where effective means of avoiding differential
settlement or excessive cracking can not be
P* = design ultimate resistance (kN) avoided, then consideration shall be given to the
f*s = average ultimate skin resistance of provision of movement joints at suitable locations.
pile shaft
(kN/m2) The location of construction joints shall be specified
As = surface area of pile shaft (m2) by the designer and marked on drawings. Full
f*b = net ultimate bearing resistance (kN/m2) structural continuity is assumed at construction
Ab = bearing area of base (m2) joints, with reinforcement fully continuous across the
joint. Conventional construction techniques should
be followed for all construction joints (i.e. scabble
For elevated structures more traditional foundations concrete surface to an acceptable depth, remove all
may be required. Examples include: loose debris, etc).
• Pad (isolated) footings; Movement joints may consist of the following:

• Combined footings;
• Strip footings. • Expansion Joint - No restraint to movement,
can freely accommodate either contraction or
expansion;
Simple, concentrically loaded pad (isolated) footings • Complete Contraction Joint - No restraint to
shall be designed in accordance with engineering movement, freely accommodates contraction;
principles and the following methodology: • Partial Contraction Joint - Partial restraint of
movement, partial contraction allowance;

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• Sliding Joint - Allows two structural members to

slide against each other with minimal restraint.
The use of water-stops and sealing compounds is
essential for movement joints. Due care and
consideration shall be given to the most appropriate
product utilised.

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Table 2.24.5 -Typical Allowable Bearing Pressures

Bearing Pressure Bearing Pressure
Type of Ground 2 2
Type of Ground 2 2
kN/m tons/ft kN/m tons/ft
Clay – Soft < 75 < 0.75 Chalk - Hard Sound 600 6
- Firm 75-150 0.75-1.5 Limestone – Soft 600 6
- Stiff 150-300 1.5 – 3 Shale & Mudstone
- Very Stiff 300-600 3–6 - Soft 600-1000 6 - 10
Sand – Loose < 100 <1 - Hard 2000 20
- Medium Dense 100-300 1–3 Sandstone – Soft 2000 20
- Compact 300+ 3+ Schist, Slate 3000 30
Gravel & Sandy Gravel Sandstone, Limestone
- Loose < 200 <2 - Hard 4000 40
- Medium Dense 200-600 2–6 Igneous Rock - Sound 10000 100
- Compact 600+ 6+
Construction Material 28-day Cube Strength Max. Bearing Pressure under uniform loading
2 2 2 2
Plain Concrete N/mm lb/in MN/m Lb/in
Max. Bearing Pressure under Eccentric Load
- 1:4:8 8.6 1250 1.7 250
= 1.25 x Uniform Pressure
- 1:3:6 11.5 1650 2.4 350
- 1:2:4 21.0 3000 5.3 760
Max. Bearing Pressure , Concentrated Load
- 1:1.5:3 25.5 3750 6.5 950
= 1.50 x Uniform Pressure
- 1:1:2 30.0 4500 7.6 1140
Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

Page 89
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Retaining Walls • Contaminated aggregates;

• Brackish water;
Where required, retaining walls shall be designed in • Rapid drying of concrete.
a similar fashion to the walls of liquid retaining
structures. Earth pressures shall be calculated using
Rankine’s theory. At-rest earth pressures shall be In these situations the designer shall follow the
used for structural design. The value of ko will vary recommendations made in BS 8500-1lviii and BRE
according to site conditions but a minimum value of Special Digest 1lix.
ko = 0.5 shall be adopted. Surface surcharging shall
be allowed for (typical values range between 5- Reinforcement
10kN/m2), as shall construction and permanent live Reinforcement shall comply with BS 4449 or local
loads. standards. The provisions of section 7 of BS 8110-1
Global stability of the retaining walls shall also be shall apply. High-yield reinforcement of between
considered (i.e. sliding failure, overturning failure, 400–500N/mm2 characteristic strength shall be
bearing capacity failure, etc). adopted throughout.
Concrete Cover to Reinforcement
Concrete mix design shall be in accordance with BS The nominal cover of concrete for all steel shall be a
8500lviii or local standards, with an appropriate minimum of 40mm in accordance with BS 8007lii.
exposure class selected to meet the chemical This may need to be increased depending on local
environment conditions of the ground. Concrete soil conditions.
shall have as a minimum a 28-day characteristic
cube strength of 35N/mm2. A minimum cement
2.24.2 Superstructures
content of 325kg/m3 and a maximum, water-cement
ratio of 0.55 shall also be maintained. Portal Frame Structures
Given that control of cracking from thermal effects Portal frame type structures are used extensively for
often governs the reinforcement requirements for framing of single-story buildings. They offer cost
water retaining structures, consideration should be advantages over other framing systems for short to
given to the availability and use of blended cement medium span structures in addition to a low
mixes. The inclusion of pulverised fuel ash (PFA) or structural depth, clean appearance and relatively
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) can easy maintenance of structural elements. A further
significantly reduce the effects of hydration benefit is the relative ease with which overhead
temperature rise and hence reinforcement gantry and monorail cranes can be fitted.
requirements. Designers are referred to CIRIA
Report No 91liii (particularly Tables 5 and 6) for the Portal frames are readily designed and constructed
use of blended concrete mixes. from either steel or concrete. External cladding
ranges from masonry to steel sheeting to
It should be noted that natural conditions in the transparent plastics, and can be either structural or
Middle East, both above and below ground, are non-structural.
often of an aggressive nature. The climate can
significantly affect above and below ground concrete Regardless of the material adopted for construction,
due to the high ambient temperatures accelerating the same basic design methodology shall be
chemical attack and physical degradation. The adopted.
existence of soluble salts (mainly sulphate or Load Combinations
chlorites) can be very detrimental to concrete, and
the designer shall take all appropriate measures Both serviceability (deflection and vibration) and
should these chemicals be detected in the soil. ultimate (strength, stability and fatigue) limit state
Factors to be considered shall include: load conditions shall be considered, with the various
load combinations arranged to give the most severe
combination likely to happen.
• Aggressive ground water;

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Where appropriate, seismic loading shall be

considered in accordance with local design codes.
The load factors shown in Table 2.24.6 shall be

adopted (unless local design codes specify more
onerous load factors).

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Wind Loads • The loads are moving;

• Lateral loading is usually involved;
The calculation of wind loads will predominantly • The magnitude of loading depends on the type
depend on local site conditions and a localised of crane (i.e. either electric or hand operated);
design standard. The majority of design codes used • Localised stresses occur in the web at the top
world-wide will include a simplified procedure for flange junction;
determining the wind forces on relatively small • Lateral buckling (twisting) needs to be
buildings, with limitations placed on the height, roof considered
area and slope, and terrain factor. These simplified • Fatigue assessment may be required.
methods will give a quick, if somewhat conservative
pressure; hence most codes also make provisions
for a more detailed analysis. These detailed As the crane operation is not a steady-state
procedures are often tedious to perform, and lend operation, there are also significant dynamic effects
themselves readily to spreadsheets or other to be considered. This is usually done by applying
software. dynamic load multipliers to the calculated static
loads.
As the wind forces and pressures depend on local
conditions the designer shall adopt any and all Designers are recommended to follow the rules set
recommendations made in local design standards out in BS 2573-1lxi and to consult local design
and codes. The strict use of BS 6399-2lx is not guides and specialist literature for the design of
recommended, as it is tailored to British crane beams.
requirements, however, the design procedure as
described in BS 6399-2 could be used provided Structural Design
local wind speeds and conditions were adopted. Structural design of simple framed buildings shall
Dead Loads generally follow the methodology below:
Dead loads comprise the self-weight of the structure • Calculate all the various loads and arrange into
and any permanently fixed loads from non-structural required combinations (paying particular
elements. Some common unit weights of materials attention to the wind loading combinations);
are given in Table 2.24.7. • Design the rafter elements;
• Design the column elements;
Imposed (Live) Loads • Design the connections (including column base
connections);
Imposed (or live) loads will be determined from the • Design the cladding;
intended function of the building. For the type of • Design the longitudinal bracing as required.
buildings that could reasonably be expected to be
found at water or sewerage treatment plants, the live
loads will most likely be either human occupation In general, structures should be considered as
(e.g. office facilities), various plant loadings (e.g. having pinned feet (i.e. column base plates
pump, control units, etc) or overhead gantry or incapable of transferring moments).
monorail cranes for lifting facilities. Designers are
referred to local standards or specific manufacturer Generic Design Formulae
data for plant loading. BS 6399-1lvi provides some
Simple portal frame structures also lend themselves
recommendations for imposed loads, as listed in
readily to be designed using generic formula, which
Table 2.24.8. depend on the relative structural stiffness of the
Crane Loads column and rafter elements. Some generic formulas
are shown in Figure 2.24.1, based on pinned feet.
The design of steel crane gantry beams for For further generic formula (including fixed feet
overhead cranes presents some specific problems design) designers are referred to Reynolds
that need to be carefully considered. The design of “Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook 10th
crane beams differs from the design of floor beams Ed.”lxii
in the following ways:

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Table 2.24.6 – Load Factors for Load Combinations

Load Combination Ultimate Limit State (ULS) Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
Dead Live Wind Dead Live Wind
Load Combination 1 1.4 1.6 - 1.0 1.0 -
Load Combination 2 1.4 - 1.4 1.0 - 1.0
Load Combination 3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8
Dead Live Crane Dead Live Crane

Vert. Horiz Vert. Horiz
Crane Combination 1 1.2 1.4 1.4 - 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
Crane Combination 2 1.2 1.4 - 1.4 1.0 1.0 - 1.0
Crane Combination 3 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Table 2.24.7 – Common Unit Weights of Materials

Material Unit Weight Material Unit Weight
kN/m2 kN/m3 kN/m2 kN/m3

Concrete Gypsum plasterboard 0.115
- Unreinforced 22.0 (12mm thick)
- Reinforced 24.0 Plaster render
Concrete Masonry 24.0 - Lime, 20mm tk 0.380
Bricks – Structural 22.6 - Cement, 20mm tk 0.450
- Clay 18.9 - Gypsum, 12mm tk 0.220
- Hollow clay 11.5 Polyester corrugated 0.020
Metal Cladding Sheets
- Aluminium 0.038 Thermal insulation 0.010
- Galv. Steel 0.050 (fibreglass bats)
Table 2.24.8 – Recommendations for Imposed (Live) Loads

Type of Activity Examples of Specific use UDL (kN/m2) Concentrated Load (kN)
Office and Work areas Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
Factories, workshops and similar 5.0 4.5
Catwalks - 1.0 at 1m ctrs
Balconies 4.0 1.5/m run
Warehousing and Storage areas General areas for static equipment 2.0 1.8
Plant rooms, boiler rooms, etc 7.5 4.5
(including weight of equipment)
Parking for cars, vans, etc (<2500 kg gross) 2.5 9.0

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b f I 2h L
b1 = f1 = k1 = k2 =
L h I1 s h
2
k3 = f 1 + 3 f1 + k1 + 3
wL2 (1 + 0.65 f1 )
H A = −H E =
4hk3
VA = VE = 0.5wL MB = MD = -HAh
H A = −H E =
(
wb 2 6 + 3 f1 − 4b1 − 2 f 1b1
2
)
8hk 3
wb 2
VA = MB = MD = -HAh
2L
Pb(6 − 6b1 + 4 f1b1 − 3 f1 )

H A = −H E =
4k 3
Pb
VA = MB = MD = -HAh
L
wh(5k1 + 6 f1 + 12 )
HA = HE = HA - wh
6k3
wh 2 wh 2
VA = −VE = M D = HEh −
2L 2
MB = HAh
HA =
(
wf 3 + k1 + 2.5 f1 + 0.625 f1
2
)
2k 3
wf (2h + f )
VA = −VE =
2L
MB = -HAh MD = HEh HE = HA - wf
Figure 2.24.1 – Generic Formula for Portal Frames based on Pinned Feet

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B C
F = Total Load
I BC h
h IAB = ICD K= k1=K+2
I AB L
A D k2=6K+1 k3=2K+3 k4=3K+1

L
F
FL F
H A = HD = RA = RD =
4hk3 2
FL
MA = MD = 0 M B = M C = H Ah =
4 k3
3FL F
H A = HD = RA = RD =
8hk3 2
3FL
M A = M D = 0 M B = M C = H Ah =
8k 3
F  6 k3 − K 
HA =   HD = F − H A
8  k3 
F
Fh F  3Fhk 1
RD = − RA = M B = h − H D  =
2L 2  8k3
Fh  2k3 + K 
MA = MD = 0 M C = H Dh =  
8  k3 
F F Fh
H A = HD = RD = − RA =
2 L
Fh
MA = MD = 0 M B = MC =
2
Figure 2.24.1 – Generic Formula for Portal Frames based on Pinned Feet

Drainage Affairs
Foundations and Floor Slabs For a lightly loaded industrial building that might
reasonably be expected to be used for sewerage
The designer shall have, at a minimum, an and water treatment plants Table 2.24.9 is a good
understanding of the basic ground conditions likely guide to the nominal slab thickness required.
to be encountered on site, either from historical data
or a desk-top study. Preferably, the designer shall
Table 2.24.9 – Nominal Slab Thickness Required
obtain a Ground Investigative Report (GIR) from
for Lightly Loaded Industrial
suitably competent geotechnical engineers giving
Buildings
more precise values and ground conditions. Data to
Classification Floor Slab
be considered includes ground level (GL), ground Typical Application
of Subgrade (mm)
water level (GWL), soil types, classification and
properties, allowable bearing capacities and a soil Light industrial Poor 150
chemical analysis. premises with live
loading up to 5kN/m2 Medium / Good 125
The analysis and consideration of any soil-structure Medium industrial Poor 200
interaction (i.e. any interface between a structure premises with live
(be it above ground, partially buried or completely loading between 5 and Medium / Good 175
buried) and the underlying ground) is a complex 20kN/m2
affair, and in part depends on a degree of
experience. Factors to consider include the relative
settlements likely to occur (i.e. immediate and long- Where dynamic loading (i.e. from forklifts, trucks,
term), any history of previous soil loading (i.e. over- etc) is applicable, thicknesses will be determined
consolidation) and the non-homogenous content of from calculating flexural tensile stresses in the slab.
most soils. Designers are referred to specialist literature for the
design of floor slabs with dynamic loads.
Designers are strongly recommended to consult
geotechnical engineers and to refer to specialist Reinforcement in industrial floor slabs is located
literature such as “Soil-structure interaction – The near the top surface to control crack width
real behaviour of structures”lvii for further information development. It does not increase the flexural
on this subject. strength of the slab. For a jointed reinforced
industrial floor, reinforcement ratios of between
By their inherent nature steel portal frames with 0.1% to 0.3% of the cross-sectional area shall
profiled sheet cladding may be classified as normally be sufficient. This reinforcement most often
somewhat flexible structures, able to tolerate takes the form of steel mesh.
relatively large differential settlements between
adjacent frames. Joints are required to control cracking that occurs
within a slab. Three main types of joints are used for
Concrete frames though, with masonry panels, are industrial floor slabs:
not so flexible and ground movement leading to
differential settlement could cause severe cracking • Contraction Joints - Allow horizontal movement
in the façade. There is also the strong possibility of the slab. They are provided transversely to
that shrinkage will occur between the frames and the direction of placing, and should be spaced
masonry panels, although joints at these positions at maximum centres of 15m. Contraction joints
can alleviate this problem. may be either plain (unreinforced) or reinforced
with steel dowels or shear keys, dowels being
The design bearing pressure shall be calculated and the more common method;
checked against the allowable bearing capacity, and • Construction Joints - Transverse construction
if required measures shall be taken to provide joints generally occur at unplanned locations
suitable foundations such as piling or other ground (such as may be caused by adverse weather or
improvement techniques - consultation with suitably equipment failure), or planned locations (such
competent geotechnical engineers is strongly as the last concrete pour at the end of the day’s
recommended. A maximum differential settlement work). Longitudinal construction joints are used
value of 20–25mm should be adopted. to form the edges of each pour;

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• Isolation Joints - Isolation joints permit • Stand-by generator plinth (or room for major
horizontal and vertical movement between installations), water tank and hydrants for
adjacent elements (e.g. between the floor slab washdown of vehicles and equipment, surge
and column pad foundations, etc). suppression installation, guardhouse, car ports;
• For remote locations, canteen, living

2.25 Site Boundary accommodation and facilities for worship
Wall/Fence should be considered.
The demarcation of site boundaries is generally only Site layouts should provide adequate space for
required for the compound for above ground access by operation and maintenance vehicles; with
installations, such as pumping stations, storage suitable paved turning areas to allow vehicles to turn
tanks and treatment plants. and to pass each other within the compound.
The boundary structure must provide adequate Access roads and paved areas are to be provided
security to prevent, or at least discourage for tankers, cranes, lorries and mobile generators.
unauthorised access to the site. For this reason a Space shall be provided for doors to buildings to
boundary wall is preferable to a fence, which should open fully, and for vehicles to enter buildings for
only be used to provide temporary security, for handling of equipment.
example during construction or maintenance. The
wall should be of solid block or concrete Road design and construction should be in
construction, without decorative openings. accordance with the Qatar Highway Design Manual,
with all access roads and hardstandings paved and
Sewerage and drainage installations can be subject drained. Open areas should have gravel finish to
to public concern, and it is therefore important that discourage weed growth.
they are compatible with their surroundings as far as
possible. The site layout shall accommodate the access
requirements for all utilities, including the electricity
Since the boundary wall is the most visible part of supplier.
the installation, its general appearance needs to
blend in “naturally” with the neighbourhood. The wall Any potential source of odour nuisance is to be
height, architectural features, colour and finishes located a distance of at least 15m for any habitable
should therefore match those of the surroundings, building.
consistent with the need to provide security to the
The site drainage system shall discharge to the
site.
public system where possible, or to a SW pumping
The boundary wall and gate details will be subject to station on the site.
planning approval, along with the buildings and
Typical details for site facilities are contained in
structures within the compound. The access gates
Volume 8 - Standard Drawings.
shall be located and sized to avoid obstruction from
the public.
Typical boundary wall, fence and gate details are

contained in the Standard Drawings in Volume 8.
2.26 Site Facilities

The extent and layout of site facilities are to a great
extent controlled by the available land, and the
purpose and location of the site. Site facilities should
be agreed before design is undertaken, but typical
requirements for urban sites would be:

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3 Documentation
3.1 Reference Standards
A full list of standards used in all of the manuals for
design purposes is included in Volume 1 - Foreword.
References used in this Volume are included at the
end of the text.
3.2 House Connection

Survey
When designing new sewerage systems to serve
existing developments, it is necessary to establish
the location of connection points from the existing
buildings.
The first stage is to establish the number and
locations of properties to be served by the sewerage
system. This can be done by reference to mapping
and aerial photographs where these are available.
Using this information, the numbers of properties
can be established, including those within
compounds.
An external survey of the buildings within the
property boundary must then be undertaken to
establish the location of the discharge points from
each building. Where large and complex buildings
are involved, it may be necessary to undertake an
internal survey to determine the facilities within the
building that contribute to the sewerage system.
Individual buildings should be drained, either in
parallel or in sequence, to a terminal manhole that is
then connected to the main sewer. Please also
refer to Vol 1 Section 3.3.1. An example house
survey proforma is appended in Vol 1, Appendix 1.
3.3 Building Permit

Please refer to Volume 1, Section 4.6 for a
description of the procedures to be followed in this
respect.

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4 Health and Safety • Adequate lighting to be provided wherever

access is required;
Please refer to Volume 1 sections 4.9 and 4.10 for • Welfare facilities should be provided to allow
more detailed coverage relating to this subject. operatives to clean up after maintenance work;
Health and Safety (H&S) design considerations for
foul sewerage are not exclusive or prescriptive. In • Manholes must be equipped with covers which
keeping with the DA policy, H&S is paramount in all are secure yet can be easily removed for
aspects of infrastructure design and operation. The maintenance purposes;
designer must be aware of the implications of design
• Covers should be a minimum size to allow
decisions on not only the finished product, but also
operatives wearing breathing apparatus. A
on its buildability, construction stage safety,
minimum of 675mm square should be
operating life and decommissioning at the end of its
appropriate in most cases, but will depend
working life.
upon the apparatus used by the O&M section
For this reason, it is essential that the procedures for of the DA;
production of a Hazard and Risk analysis are carried
• Flow isolation facilities shall be provided;
out, and incorporated into the pre-tender H&S plan.
No design projects will be accepted as completed by • Access to long tunnels to allow desilting
DA without such steps having been taken, and equipment as necessary;
provision of paperwork to demonstrate this.
Considerations in design to mitigate risks will include • Zoning classification should be established for
but not be limited to: all work carried out on existing and proposed
installations.
• The designer must design out the need for
entry into all confined spaces wherever
possible;
• Safe access should be provided to all plant

requiring maintenance;
• All above ground installations must be fenced

off and made inaccessible to the general
public. Security arrangements must be
designed in consultation with the Operation &
Maintenance (O&M) section of the DA;
• Craneage or mobile lifting facilities must be

provided for all heavy equipment;
• Stairways should be equipped with handrailing

and toe plates in accordance with the relevant
BS;
• Tripping hazards should be avoided, likewise

overhead obstructions;
• Barriers should be provided to prevent falling

from height;
• All hazards should be signposted;
• Gas monitoring equipment and alarms to be

designed as hard wired for all confined spaces
requiring access;

Drainage Affairs
5 Trenchless is important to keep the string of pipes moving

forward and to maintain lubrication, to ensure that
Technologies the pipes stay buoyant during jacking.
A drive shaft is required, the dimensions of which

The following is an overview of trenchless
vary according to the specific requirements of each
excavation techniques generally suitable for ground
situation. A thrust wall is constructed to provide a
conditions in Doha. A brief summary of the typical
reaction to the jacking forces. The initial alignment
purpose and diameter range appropriate for each
of the pipe jack is obtained by positioning guide rails
technique is presented at the beginning of each
within the thrust pit on which the pipes are laid. To
overview. The techniques reviewed all relate to
maintain alignment accuracy a steerable shield is
installation of new pipes. There is also extensive
used which must be frequently checked for line and
information available relating to sewer rehabilitation
level from a fixed reference. Upon completion of the
and renovation, but this relates more to the
drive length, the shield is recovered at the reception
maintenance of older sewerage infrastructure. As
shaft, leaving a complete installed product pipeline.
the majority of work in Qatar relates to new build,
the following section contains new build information For long lengths of pipeline, intermediate jacking
only. Reference documents relating to this subject stations may be necessary to allow sequential
include the WRC Sewer Rehabilitation Manuallxiii thrusting of sections of the pipeline. Drives of
and the Trenchless Techniques Reviewlxiv. This area several hundred metres are attainable using this
of the market is under continual review and new technique.
techniques are regularly introduced.
Spoil from the excavated face may be removed by a
Trenchless methods considered cover pipes ranging variety of means including auger flight, slurry
up to 1000mm in diameter. pumping and on larger man-entry constructions, by
skips, trucks and conveyers.
The most suitable methods (microtunnelling and
pipejacking) for ground conditions in Doha are Normally the size of tunnel is of man-entry and
presented in greater detail. above, i.e. greater than 1000mm. If the internal
diameter is less than 1000mm and is conducted and
A general guide to designing structural elements is
steered by remote control, the process is generally
also given in the latter part of this section.
classified as Microtunnelling.
All tables and figures are presented in the end of the
Guidance on land requirements for shaft
section.
construction for this technique is given in Table
5.1.1.
5.1 Alternative Techniques This technique, when operating in the closed mode
is generally suitable for ground conditions in Doha.
5.1.1 Pipe jacking (Open/Close Advantages:
Face)
• Minimal surface disruption;
Purpose: New Installation, Tunnelling
Diameter Range: 900mm and above • Noise level and traffic disruption are minimised
compared to conventional trenching;
Pipe jacking involves the jacking of a tunnelling
shield and/or a complete length of tunnel lining into • Compact size operation.
the ground from a drive shaft. High pressure
Limitations:
hydraulic jacks are used to push the pipes through
the ground behind a shield, while excavation takes • Thorough site investigations are essential;
place within the shield. Further lengths of pipe are
added at the drive shaft and the process continues • The impact of varying soil properties can be
by pushing or jacking the complete string forward. It significant;

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• Difficult to deal with boulders occupying a

significant percentage of the face area;
• Operators must be experienced and familiar

with the machine and its expected performance
in the expected ground conditions.

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Both systems provide face support by maintaining a

5.1.2 Microtunnelling (Closed positive pressure on the face through the cutting
Face) head and the soil in the collection system using an
adjustable control at the head. It is imperative to
Purpose: New Installation, Tunnelling know the type of ground conditions present as this
Diameter Range: 300–2400mm will determine the type of machine to be used, the
cutting head, the soil removal system and the
Microtunnelling is a method of installing pipes of up
jacking forces required.
to 2400mm diameter. This is done using a
steerable, remote controlled tunnelling machine, A range of cutting heads is available according to
which is pushed horizontally into the ground from the type of soil conditions present. The boring
the drive shaft by a set of hydraulic jacks, in a heads may be fitted with blades for soft soil, picks
jacking frame. When the tunnelling machine has for hard soil, and soft rock and disc cutters for hard
entered the ground, a pipe is placed in the jacking rock.
frame behind the tunnelling machine and this is
jacked forward, pushing the tunnelling machine Microtunnelling machines are operated from a
ahead of it. This process continues until the control cabin at the surface. Machines can drive
tunnelling machine arrives at the reception shaft, 100m or more in soft ground for sizes of 100mm
leaving behind a length of installed pipe. diameter upwards, from drive shafts of less than 3m
diameter. These shafts can be located so that they
Microtunnelling systems fall into two main categories become manholes in the finished scheme. The use
corresponding to the spoil transport method. One of laser guidance control systems ensures a high
system uses a flight of augers running through the degree of accuracy. Automatic computer monitoring
newly installed pipeline to transport spoil from the is available on some systems.
cutting head to the drive shaft. The spoil is then
collected in a skip. Guidance on land requirements for shaft
construction for this technique is given in Table
Alternatively, water or bentonite may be used to 5.1.1.
convert the soil into slurry at the cutting face. The
slurry, which is water based, is then pumped to the Microtunnelling using slurry is generally more
surface along pipes within the product pipeline being suitable for ground conditions in Doha than auger
jacked, where it enters a slurry processing plant. transported spoil.
The spoil is removed and the slurry is recycled back
Advantages:
to the cutting face. The slurry system can be used
to control external groundwater by balancing the • Can be less expensive than conventional
slurry pressure so that it offsets the groundwater trenching, especially for deep installations;
pressure. The slurry system is generally more
expensive than the auger system, and utilises more • Settlement is minimised, especially with the
space on site. use of slurry machines;
The choice of system depends upon the soil type • Noise level and traffic disruption are minimised
that is being excavated, and the distance to be compared to conventional trenching;
tunnelled. The auger system is preferred for short
• Print out of line and level available, with high
drives since the removal rate is considerably faster.
control and monitoring during driving.
No slurry pumps or slurry processing plant are
needed. For longer distances, especially in granular Limitations:
soil, weathered rocks, and where there is
groundwater, the slurry system is usually more • Boulders and obstructions such as timber can
suitable. halt installation;
The launch and retrieval pits will be sized according • The capital cost of equipment is high;
to such factors as drive diameter, access restrictions
and the presence of other services. • Requires skilled and experienced operators.

Drainage Affairs
Tables 5.1.1 - Guidance on Land Requirements, for Microtunnelling and Pipe Jacking Techniques
Nominal Pipe Minimum Diameter Minimum Diameter Minimum Site Area Required
Diameter of Drive Shaft (m) of Reception Shaft
(m) Open ground (m x m) Minimum width of site
(mm) in roads (m)
250 to 500 3 3 15 x 10 5
600 to 700 3 3 20 x 10 5
800 to 1000 5 4 30 x 10 6.5
1100 to 1500 6 5.5 40 x 10 7.5

Drainage Affairs
5.1.3 Directional drilling This technique is also employed when a

boulder or small obstacle is encountered.
Purpose: New Installation, Drilling
Diameter Range: 300–1500mm The directional drilling process is a surface-
launched method, therefore, it usually does not
Directional drilling was originally developed to require access pits or exit pits. The rig working
install pipelines under obstacles such as roads area should be reasonably level, firm, and
and river crossings, whereby the pipeline follows suitable for movement of the rig. For maxi- and
a shallow arc to avoid the obstacle. In general, midi-HDD, an area of 100m by 60m is
the system involves large diameter steel or considered adequate. The equipment used in
polyethylene pipelines being installed over long mini-HDD is portable, self-contained, and
distances. designed to work in congested areas.
A rotating and steerable hollow drill of around 80 Ground investigation is essential to ensure that
to 140mm diameter is launched from the surface the ground conditions are favourable.
at an angle of between 8o and 15° and is used to Directional drilling is unsuitable for use in
drill a pilot bore under the obstacle. Either a fluid granular soils and gravels due to the increased
jet cutter or a mud driven motor head is used, possibility of sidewall collapse.
depending on ground conditions. The mud
driven motor is principally used in sands, clays or Advantages:
soft rock with the slurry discharging from the bit
lubricating the hole and removing soil cuttings. • Installation is rapid;
The fluid jet cutter is principally used in silts, silty • Long distances with relatively large
clay or sands, and operates by forcing the slurry diameter pipelines can be achieved;
through small holes with the motive energy of the
fluid jet cutting the soil. • Printout of line and level available.
A washover pipe of around 140mm diameter is Limitations:

drilled over the pilot string and follows behind the
drill head. Alternate drilling then continues on the • A large area is required for the drilling rig,
pilot string and the washover pipe until the exit ancillary equipment and assembled
point on the far side of the obstacle is reached. product pipeline;
The pilot string is retracted and a rotating barrel • Not suitable for gravity pipelines, with the
reamer, attached to and pulled back by the exception of outfalls;
washover pipe, enlarges the bore. Subsequent
reaming continues until the required diameter is • The equipment has difficulty operating in
achieved. The product pipe is pre-assembled in granular soils;
the area of the drill exit point and usually the full • Accuracy of line and level cannot be
pipeline length is jointed and pressure tested maintained.
prior to installation. The product pipe is then
attached to the reaming head via a swivel joint
and pulled through the newly formed bore using 5.2 Planning and
the pullback capacity of the drilling rig. This can
be carried out at the same time as the final back
Selection of
reaming operation. Techniques
A high level of accuracy is not usually required The selection procedures presented in this
for this type of operation. A survey package fitted manual are a general methodology that can be
behind the drill head ensures that an accurate used to identify suitable trenchless techniques
path is maintained. If necessary, the drill string for new pipelines. However, they do not cover
can be drawn back as it approaches the target the cost or availability of each technique, which
area and the bore re-drilled to improve accuracy. are controlled by local considerations that will
change from time to time.

Drainage Affairs
It must be stressed that the planning, feasibility • Checking the feasibility of method by
and outline design stages are very closely consulting specialist contractor;
related, and iterative in nature. Feasibility is
covered under section 5.4.1, but is very much an • Environmental constraints.
extension of the planning process. A choice
The procedure for establishing various aspects
between open cut and trenchless methods will
of the planning and investigation for Trenchless
depend on environmental (vibration, noise, Techniques is set out in the flow diagrams in
settlements, traffic disruption etc.), buildability
Figure 5.2.1.
(complexity of temporary works, settlement
monitoring programme, advanced works etc.),
commercial factors (cost vs benefit analysis), and
health and safety requirements.
5.2.1 Initial Planning

Planning for the installation of pipes requires:
• Establishing system/network performance

requirements;
• Establishing system design criteria;
• Topographical survey data;
• Route optimisation;
• Determination of the location of existing

utilities;
• Site investigation, establishing site specific

geology;
• Consideration of construction methods.
Early consideration needs to be given to the

information required to procure and construct the
work. This includes the following:
• Contract terms;
• Risk assessment;
• Ground Investigation;
• Statutory requirements;
• Settlement restrictions (ground, affected

services and buildings);
• Noise restrictions;
• Access requirements;
• Traffic management requirements;
• Land use restriction;

Drainage Affairs
Figure 5.2.1 – Flow Diagram for Planning and Selecting Installation Techniques for New Pipe Installation
1) SEWER DESIGN (Hydraulic) 2) OPTIONS ASSESSMENT

• Establish required system performance and design • Feasibility Study
criteria
• Collate existing geotechnical data
• Determine type, size, depth and length of pipes to
be installed • Availability of equipment
• Initial inquiries to statutory authorities • Requirement for site working areas
• Collect details of restrictions and requirements which • Availability of resources (power / water / drainage)
will apply throughout the project • Design and procure initial Ground Investigation
• Risk Assessment
For Planning Issues Refer to Volume 1, Section • Prepare cost estimates
2
3) TRENCHLESS DESIGN
• Identify advantages of trenchless techniques over
open cut methods (depth of service, crossing
highway or other structures, site restrictions such as
utility services, working hours, traffic restrictions etc.)
• Consider and select suitable trenchless techniques

based on Site Investigation results (refer to Tables
5.1.1,and 5.2.1 for suitability of various trenchless
4) CONSTRUCTION techniques in recent ground conditions in Doha)
• Decide on form of contract • Consider drive lengths available for selected pipe
• Prepare contract documents to tender material to select suitable trenchless technique
(refer Figure 5.2.2), and suitability of slurry TBM and
• Firm up cost estimates EPB for ground condition (refer Figure 5.2.3)
• Design and procure site-specific survey, including

ground Investigation to suit chosen trenchless
Refer Volume 1, Appendix 4 - Tender Procedure technique as in Volume 1, Section 3
Flow Charts
• Identify existing structures and utility services along
the route of the pipe and carry out preliminary
assessment of ground settlements as a result of
trenchless techniques and their effects on the
identified structures
• Prepare site monitoring plan (settlement monitoring

points, other instrumentation such as piezometer,
extensometer)
Design Process as per Volume 1, Section 4

Drainage Affairs
Table 5.2.1 - Suitability of Trenchless Techniques for Various Ground Conditions in Doha
Ground Condition Microtunnelling and Pipe Directional Drilling Rock TBM

Jacking
Soft to very soft clays, silts and organic deposits GS DMO NS
Medium to very stiff clays and silts

GS GS NS
Hard clays and highly weathered shales

GS GS NS
Very loose to loose sands above and below the

water table GS DMO NS
(Local geology: Reclaimed land)
Medium to dense sands above the water table

(Doha geology: Reclaimed land) GS DMO NS
Medium to dense sands below the water table

Gravel and cobbles <50–100mm dia

Soils with significant cobbles and boulders. 100–

150mm dia DMO DMO NS
Weathered rocks and firmly cemented soils

(Doha geology: Soft weathered limestone / caprock) GS DMO DMO
Slightly weathered to unweathered rocks

(Doha geology: Slightly weathered to Unweathered DMO NS GS
limestone)
NOTE:
GS: Generally Suitable Caution is needed in the presence of identifiable groups / nests of
boulders. If they represent a significant percentage of the face area
it may preclude small diameter bores
DMO: Difficulty May Occur Modifications to the machine and very detailed ground investigation
needed to establish ground conditions and machine performance
NS: Not Suitable Unsuitable in given ground conditions

Drainage Affairs
Figure 5.2.2 - Drive Lengths for Different Trenchless Techniques and Suitable Pipe Material
DIRECTIONAL HPPE, MDPE, STEEL

DRILLING 1500 m
PIPE JACKING DI, GRP, PC, PSC, RC

300 m
MICROTUNNELLING DI, GRP, PC, PSC, RC, VC
180 m
Product Pipe Material Key:

Abbreviation Definition
CM Cement mortar
COMP Polyester resin conforming to WIS 4-34-04
DI Ductile Iron
ER Epoxy resin
GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic
HPPE High Performance Polyethylene
MDPE Medium Density Polyethylene
PC Plain concrete
PP Polypropylene
PRC Plastic Reinforced Concrete
PSC Pre-stressed Concrete
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
RC Reinforced concrete
STEEL Steel
VC Vitrified Clay

Drainage Affairs
Figure 5.2.3 - Suitability of Slurry TBM and EPB, based on Various Grain Size Distribution Curve in Various
Loose Ground
Note: COPYRIGHT BY HERRENKNECHT AG. PRINTED WITH PERMISSION FROM HERRENKNECHT, 2003

Drainage Affairs
• Installation in congested urban areas where

5.2.2 Selection Criteria damage to utility services and disruption to
traffic would make open-cut methods
Planners should consider a number of factors when unacceptable;
deciding the most appropriate method for installation
of pipes. The factors include: • Crossing of busy highways and other
infrastructures;
• Diameter of pipeline;
• Minimising the length of the pipeline route.
• Length;
• Depth;
5.3 Geotechnical
• Location; Investigations
• Topography;
• Ground and site conditions;

5.3.1 Geological Strata
Overview
• Cost;
The geology of the Doha region is described in
• Presence of other services; Volume 1, Section 4.2. Generally, trenchless
techniques in Doha are likely to encounter the
• Physical obstacles (e.g. buildings); following ground conditions:
• Traffic disruption; • Superficial deposits of silty fine to coarse
carbonate sand and fine to coarse crystalline
• Disruption to third parties;
limestone gravel, with occasional cobbles;
• Installation techniques;
• Weathered bedrock, fractured to varying
• Experience of techniques; degrees comprising crystalline limestone,
carbonate siltstone and carbonate mudstone;
• Safety and Risk assessment;
• Reclaimed land (mainly the West Bay area) – A
• Availability of services (power, water, mixture of sand, silt and gravel overlying
drainage); coastal silts and sands. Some areas using
various natural and man-made rubble.
• Reinstatement requirements;
• Environmental considerations;
5.3.2 Groundwater Regime
• Settlement predictions and ground monitoring,
Hydrogeology and groundwater levels in Doha are
including action plan preparation.
described in Section 4.2 of Volume 1.
The rising ground water levels in Doha should be

5.2.3 Factors Affecting Choice considered at the design stage of the project. This
Of Method can have long term effects on installed pipelines
such as loading due to water pressure, joint sealing
Trenchless techniques should be considered instead
between pipe sections, flotation, and long-term
of traditional open-cut techniques in the following
durability.
circumstances:
Groundwater should also be tested for salinity in
• Installation of pipelines greater than 7m depth;
order to determine durability requirements of the
• Installation of pipeline in poor ground pipe material. Generally, chemical analyses of the
conditions and high water table; soil and water samples in Doha indicate high
sulphate and water-soluble chloride contents. It is

Drainage Affairs
important that dense fully compacted concrete, is

used to manufacture pipes. Also, pipes should have
corrosion resistant finishes. These finishes are cast
into the pipes during manufacture and form an
integral part of the pipe. BRE digest 250lxv
recommends protection measures necessary for
concrete against sulphate attack.
All pipes delivered on site should come with up-to-

date Quality Certification.
Evaluation of groundwater presence and pressures

during site investigation is of utmost importance in
the design of, and construction of, pipes using
trenchless techniques. Unforeseen groundwater can
cause major problems during construction, resulting
in significant delays and increased costs.
5.3.3 Soil/Rock properties

When designing and planning installations to be
carried out by trenchless techniques, the planners
should consult geotechnical engineers on the
characteristic of the soils and/or rock likely to be
encountered, together with details of the water table,
ground permeability, and seasonal changes.
Site investigations, field tests, laboratory tests,

reports and interpretation are described in Volume
1, Section 3. In addition to these, the following
information is required for planning trenchless
techniques:
• Abrasivity of rock samples;
• Historical information of reclaimed land where

applicable (material used, compaction method,
completion date).
A list of soil parameters required for design and

construction of trenchless techniques is given in
Table 5.3.1.

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Table 5.3.1 - Geotechnical Parameters Required for Design

Geotechnical Parameter Symbol Application for planning
Soil and / or rock description Define types of ground
Grade of rock Q, RMR Extent of ground support
Percentage core recovery and core condition TCR , SCR, RQD State of weak rock or hard ground
Unit total and effective weights ‫ע ע‬, ’ Overburden pressure
Relative Density of coarse grained soils Dr State of natural compaction of cohesionless
soft ground
Moisture content W Profiling of property changes with depth
Specific Gravity Gs Type of Ground
Plasticity and Liquidity Indices LL, LP, PI, LI Type and strength of cohesive soft ground
Particle size distribution ν Composition of soft ground
Unconfined Compressive Strength qu Intact strength of hard ground
Point Load Index Strength of lump lp Intact strength of hard ground lump
Axial and Diametrical Point Load Index Strengths la , ld Axial and diametral intact strengths
Undrained Shear Strength CU , SU Shear strength of soft ground
Effective Stress Shear Strength C’ Long term cohesion of soft ground
Angle of Shearing Resistance Long term shear strength of cohesive soft
Φ, Φ’ ground, short and long term Shear Strength
of cohesionless soft ground
Drained Deformation Modulus E’ Long term stiffness
Poisson’s Ratio Influences stiffness values
Coefficient of Effective Earth Pressure Ko, Ka, Kp Ratio between horizontal and vertical
Effective stresses at rest, Active and
Passive
In situ Stresses in Rock σ Magnitude of principal stresses in rock in
three directions
Permeability K Characteristic ground permeability’s and
variations.
PH, Sulphate and Chloride contents Ph, SO3 , CI Concrete and steel durability
Chemical contamination Extent of ground contamination
Abrasion Rate of cutter tool wear

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5.3.4 Indicative Scope of • Site investigation to determine the location of

existing services and potential buried
Interpretative Reporting
obstructions;
The Geotechnical Factual Report (GFR) should
contain all the findings of the field and laboratory • Contamination.
work. BS 5930:1999 sets out, in general terms, the
contents of a GFR. Based on the GFR, a
Geotechnical Interpretative Report (GIR) is
5.4.2 Pipe Design
prepared. In this section guidelines for structural design of
pipes and shafts are provided with regards to
The GIR provides an overview of the ground
construction and permanent loadings.
conditions and the likely construction methods,
together with the suitability of various techniques Frictional Resistance
and risk assessment. Typically, the GIR would
contain the following sections: During installation of pipes using trenchless
techniques, frictional forces build up around the
• Outline of the proposed scheme; pipeline as the line of pipes is advanced behind the
shield. The frictional forces arise from soil cover
• Definition of route corridor;
and surcharge loads and are affected by the quality
• Desk study and site reconnaissance findings; of lubrication. The frictional forces depend on the
• Identification of route and alignment options; type of soil, depth of overburden, length and
diameter of the pipe(s) being jacked, the speed of
• Summary of the ground investigation work; excavation and most importantly, the lubrication
• Description of ground and groundwater agent injected between pipes, the quality of
condition; workmanship, and the ground properties during
jacking. Empirical values for friction coefficients
• Interpretation of ground conditions in relation to may vary between 0.5 and 2.5 tonnes per square
the design and construction of the proposed meter of external circumferential area, depending on
scheme; site conditions and the type of excavation.
• Recommendations for design of temporary and Alternatively, frictional force can be estimated from
permanent works, and further ground the procedure outlined in Milligan et. allxvi.
investigation if necessary;
Using lubricating agents such as bentonite under
• Risk assessment for various pressure generally reduces frictional forces on the
schemes/trenchless techniques. pipeline. If high frictional forces are expected due to
factors such as ground roughness, together with
high fracturing/permeability conditions, and there is
5.4 Design a high likelihood of pressure loss. It is recommended
that intermediate jacking stations be placed at
5.4.1 Feasibility Study regular intervals in the pipeline and/or pre-treating,
undertaken in the areas of potential pressure loss.
The information useful when planning and designing
new installations includes: Jacking Loads
• Land ownership; Jacks push the pipes forwards against the ground
frictional resistance (depending on the effect of
• Historical maps of the area that may reveal lubrication), the face support pressure detailed in
obstacles (e.g. wells, mine shafts etc.); Milligan et. allxvi, and the force on the cutting edge of
the leading pipe. A factor of safety is also used to
• Geological map of the area;
allow for unforeseen obstacles, varying ground
• Aerial photography; conditions and poor workmanship. The jacking force
required is as follows:
• Topographical survey;

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Jacking Force = Frictional resistance + Weight of An important factor in the design of jacking and
Pipe + Face Pressure (Closed mode) receiving pits is groundwater control. Dewatering
systems using deep wells or well points are
Equation 5.4.1 frequently employed. However, in urban areas this
Pipe Design could lead to consolidation settlements resulting in
damage to structures and utility services in the zone
The pipes are designed to withstand axial forces of influence. Groundwater cut-off arrangements can
applied to the pipe during the jacking operation. As be used if relatively impermeable soils are present
well as jacking forces, the pipes must be designed below water bearing soils. Sheet piles could be
for external forces due to soil and groundwater driven into the impervious soils to cut off
pressures and live loads such as traffic. groundwater inflows or water seals could be used
between caisson shaft units.
Pipe Joint
Grouting or similar methods of groundwater control
Jacking force causes the maximum loading on a
are normally required when launching the pipe and
pipeline. The joints are designed to ensure jacking
advancing out of the jacking pit, or advancing into
forces are transmitted over the maximum area of the
the receiving pit.
pipe. The design information required is: maximum
allowable concrete strength; the stiffness of packing Wet caisson sinking methods are frequently used to
material; and maximum allowed misalignment angle. construct shafts where dewatering or grouting
methods would be difficult or uneconomical. This
Where the jacking force is well distributed over the
approach involves constructing the shaft by stacking
pipe end area, it would be appropriate to use a
up circular precast concrete sections while
concrete strength of 0.4fcu, where fcu is the
excavating inside the caisson below the
characteristic cube strength of concrete. For the
groundwater level with a cutting edge. The units are
highly localised stresses at the joints in the extreme
bolted together vertically, complete with seals to
conditions, a joint face stress of 0.8fcu can be used.
stop water entering the shaft. After the caisson is
Milligan et. allxvi, contains example calculations for
sunk to the design elevation, a concrete slab is
determining permissible jacking force based on
poured to form the base of the shaft.
linear stress theories.
Structural Design of Shaft
Pipe Lining
The base of the shaft is designed to transfer uplift
Pipe lining can be designed using simple
and hydrostatic forces to the shaft walls. The weight
compression theory. Hoop reinforcement will
of the slab and the shaft walls counteract the up-
generally be needed in larger diameter pipes to
thrust forces. To some extent, the shaft also resists
resist bending due to ground pressures and stresses
uplift through ground adhesion, depending on the
near the pipe ends due to jacking loads, or as
effectiveness of the bonds at shaft external
nominal reinforcement for crack control. Structural
face/grout/ground. This adhesion or bond has to be
design of the lining can be carried out using
assessed carefully with suitable factors of safety
appropriate codes for the materials in question.
allowing for the quality and long-term durability of
void grouting.
5.4.3 Shaft Design Shaft Base
Construction Method
The base can be constructed using mass, or
Jacking and receiving shafts are generally vertical reinforced concrete.
excavations with shoring and bracing systems.
Mass concrete is used for small circular shafts and
Several shoring systems are commonly used, such
acts in compression by arching. The design is
as sheet-pile systems with internal bracing, or
based on the principle of dome action to radial
precast concrete shafts.
loading (refer to Reynolds et. allxii.

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Reinforced base slabs are used in large diameter

shafts. Slab design is two-directional, simply
supported along the edges and of sufficient
thickness to ensure that shear reinforcement is not
required (refer to Reynolds et. al).
Shaft Lining
Circular caisson units are designed to withstand

ground and water pressures. The circular caisson
lining can be designed based on the method
described for pipe lining.
5.4.4 Ground Movements

Tunnelling-induced soil settlement is estimated
based on the methods proposed by Peck (1969)
(refer to Pecklxvii) and Mair et al. (1993) (refer to
Taylor et.al.lxviii). According to their methods, the
shape of settlement profiles at the ground surface
and subsurface can be characterised as a Gaussian
distribution.
Existing Structure Responses
The assessment of risk to buildings and utilities

should be carried out during planning stage.
Potential building damage and categorisation

commonly used for new installations using
trenchless techniques in urban areas is shown in
Table 5.4.1. It should be noted that the assessment
of soil structure interaction is a highly complex and
variable issue, which cannot be covered in the
scope of this manual.

Drainage Affairs
Table 5.4.1 - Damage to Buildings and Suggested Actions

Risk Maximum Maximum Description of risk Action required
Category slope settlement
1 Less than Less than Negligible: superficial damage No action except for particularly
1/500 10mm unlikely sensitive buildings where
individual assessment should be
made
2 1/500 to 10 mm to Slight: possible non-structural Crack survey and schedule of
1/200 50mm superficial damage defects. Assess particularly
vulnerable buildings and pipelines
individually
3 1/200 to 1/50 50mm to Moderate: possible structural Crack survey, schedule of defects
75mm damage to buildings and rigid and structural assessment.
pipelines Predict extent of possible damage
4 >1/50 > 75mm High: expected structural damage to buildings and decide whether
to buildings, rigid pipelines and to repair damage, control
possible damage to flexible movements or demolish.
pipelines
Identify vulnerable services,
decide whether to repair, divert or
replace with more tolerant
services.

Drainage Affairs
Instrumentation and Monitoring 5.5 Environmental

When tunnelling in urban areas and taking into Assessment
account the complexity and environmental factors,
The use of trenchless technologies requires that
carefully planned and executed instrumentation and
several specific environmental impact issues be
monitoring is essential.
evaluated in detail, along with appropriate
It is imperative that lines of communication are open consultation with SCENR.
in order to feed back the data obtained to the
machine operatives. This will allow them to adjust
and improve machine performance, as well as to 5.5.1 Vibration
compare the data with the predicted levels of Vibration from trenchless techniques very rarely give
settlement and strains obtained before the tunnelling rise to building damage, disturbance to people
works commence. through perceptible vibration, or by the generation of
ground-borne noise.
Typical instrumentation normally used is as follows:
The nature, duration, and number of events that
• Surface markers (settlements and lateral
occur in a specified period, and the location in which
displacements);
the vibration is received, all influence the public’s
• Extensometers (vertical displacement profile); tolerance. The vibration dose value (VDV),
described in BS 6472: 1992lxix is used to combine
• Inclinometers (horizontal displacement profile); the effects of all perceptible vibration events that
occur to establish probability that complaints will
• Piezometers (pore water pressure profile);
arise.
• Measuring relative rotation and angular strain
Most activities related to trenchless techniques do
of buildings using electro-levels, biaxial tilt-
not give rise to vibration levels of a magnitude that
meters, and precise levelling studs;
would be damaging. BS 7385: Part 2: 1993 gives
• Automated Total Stations can be set up and guidance on vibration levels that can cause
programmed to monitor targets fixed at key damagelxx.
points, at regular intervals, and the data down
When required, monitoring devices can be installed
loaded remotely through the use of radio relay
to determine levels of vibration.
transmission;
As a guide, key typical guidance criteria for vibration
• Monitoring existing defects (cracks) using tell-
are 5mm/s peak particle velocity for construction
tale indicators.
works, and 3mm/s near schools and hospitals.
The Instrumentation & Monitoring Plan must be site
specific and should include the following as a
minimum:
5.5.2 Noise
Noise levels from trenchless construction depend on
• Location and type of instrumentation; the technique adopted. The level should be
• Alarm, Alert and Action levels; assessed in order to determine whether noise
exposure is likely to reach the action levels stated
• Lines of responsibility and communication; below.
• Rapid response and emergency plan, including BS 5228-1 gives guidance on how noise arising
contact names and telephone numbers with from worksites affects site personnel and others
relevant authorities. living and working in the neighbourhood. BS 5228-2
gives guidance on legislation covering the control of
noise and vibrationlxxi.
Action Levels

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Where noise levels are likely to be at or above levels occupational health level). Further guidance detail
defined below, then action is required to reduce is provided in BS 1747lxxii.
noise or provide noise protection.
In Qatar, SCENR has issued guidance on ambient
Action levels 1 and 2 are values of “daily personal air quality particulate matter. Over a 24-hour
exposure to noise”, defined as LEP, d. These depend averaging period 99.7% of data levels should meet
on the noise level in the working areas, and how the standard of 150mg/m3.
long people spend in them during the day.
Action level 1: is a LEP, d of 85dB (A). At this level 5.6 Approvals –

the employer has a general duty to provide ear
protection. Procedures and
Formats
Action level 2: is a LEP, d 90dB (A). At this level in
addition to the action required above, the employer Trenchless design will be by specialist contractor
has a duty to ensure all personnel wear ear according to techniques, machinery and materials
protectors at all times and mark ear protection zones being considered.
with notices.
Design will require approval by the consultant in line
Action level 3: This is a peak action level, with the following guidance.
corresponding to of 140dB. The peak action level is
most likely to be important for loud impulsive
sources, such as blasting. At this level, the 5.6.1 Guidance for Design
employer must again ensure all personnel wear ear Check
protectors at all times and mark ear protection zones
The consultant who is approving design and
with notices.
construction methods proposed by the specialist
In Qatar, SCENR has published guidance on noise contractor shall ensure design and construction
‘15 minute weighted average dB (A) at property line’ processes, safety and environmental requirements
standards as follows: are in line with relevant sections of Volume 1. In
addition, the consultant shall check the following:
Residential and Institutional – 55dB (A) (day) and
45dB (A) (night); • Adequate working area, and the size of drive
and reception shafts are proposed as per Table
Commercial – 65dB (A) (day) and 55dB (A) (night); 5.1.1;
Industrial – 75dB (A) (day) and 75dB (A) (night). • Shaft and pipes are designed in-line with
section 5.4;
5.5.3 Dust • The shaft lining is watertight;

Generally, trenchless techniques for installation of • Settlement analysis and effects on utility
pipes produce far less dust than traditional open services, highway and other structures in the
excavation. Also, dust is limited to the working site zone of influence are assessed;
and during removal of excavated materials.
Sprinkling water on excavated material and covering • Monitoring regime and settlement limits are
spoil in the removal trucks can control dust on site. established for above structures.
Also, the spoil haul route within and outside the site
should be maintained in a clean condition, if
necessary by spraying water. 5.7 Risk Assessment
Deposited dust limits are generally regarded to be Risks associated with trenchless technologies
an increase of 200mg/m2 over the baseline level. should be assessed before work starts so that the
General airborne dust above 10mg/m3 is an necessary preventative measures can be identified
approximate trigger level (although not an and action taken. The process of risk assessment

Drainage Affairs
starts at the design stage of a project and continues

during the construction phase.
Risks can be categorised as contractual,

construction, operational, financial, environmental,
health and safety. Contractual risks can arise from
inadequate contract preparation and management.
Generally, the risk increases with decreasing clarity
of contract and can be dealt with through improving
contract clarity and management practices.
Construction risks are associated with site
conditions and construction methods. These risks
can be minimised by careful planning but are
seldom eliminated.
The risk associated with trenchless techniques can

be summarised as follows:
• Mechanical failure of machinery;
• Material failure – pipes or linings;
• Ground loss leading to high settlement or

ground collapse;
• Risk of damage to utilities, road and

surrounding structures;
• Unforeseen ground conditions;
• Loss of directional control.
These risks can be mitigated by the following

measures:
• Choosing suitable techniques/equipment and

construction material;
• Appropriate level of site investigation and

interpretation of results;
• Trained operatives and choosing experienced

Designers and Contractors;
• Monitoring ground, services and buildings in

the settlement influence zone;
• Adequate level of supervision;
• Preparation of emergency procedures.
A typical Risk Assessment Matrix is presented in

Table 5.7.1 and Risk Classification is indicated in
Table 5.7.2.

Drainage Affairs
Table 5.7.1 - RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX – A typical risk assessment for trenchless techniques
Project Title: Prepared by: Date
L=Likelihood, S=Severity, RR=Risk Checked by: Page
Ref Activity / Hazard Risk Rating Design and/or Construction Residual Risk Rating
input to eliminate / reduce
L x S= RR hazard L x S= RR Risk level
Damage to utilities, roads, 3 3 9 Establish location of utilities 2 3 6 Medium

surrounding structures / before construction/ obtain
Substantial cost for Utilities Drawings/carry out Trial
trenches/ Geophysical survey/
Damage, Delay Monitoring
Failure of materials (e.g. pipes or 2 3 6 Experience designers/ 1 3 3 Low

lining) / Substantial cost for Comprehensive quality control/
Damage, delay reputable supplier
Failure of machinery 2 3 6 Select most suitable technique/ 1 3 3 Low

experience contractor/reputable
manufacturer of machinery
Mix ground conditions / Ground 2 3 6 Select most suitable technique 1 3 3 Low

failure, Delay, Cost including trenching / experience
contractor / reputable
manufacturer of machinery
Buried structures, e.g. 2 3 6 Comprehensive Desk Study to 1 3 3 Low

basements, piles, Historical identify historical structures
Mining –voids, ‘cavities’ /
Impedes pipe drive, delay, cost Testing equipment
Encounter major inflow of water / 3 3 9 Ground treatment / Dewatering / 2 3 6 Low

Ground failure, slow progress Close mode technique
Noise, dust, pollution, vibrations / 4 3 12 Establish necessary restrictions 2 2 4 Low

Adverse Public relations beforehand
Restricted working hours Reduce by choosing

appropriate method
Compensation claims
Health and Safety Claims
Contaminated 2 3 6 Comprehensive Desk Study & 2 1 2 Low

Ground/Groundwater / Adverse Intrusive Ground Investigation
working conditions for Workforce, to identify problem areas
Specialist requirements for waste PPE / testing equipment

and Groundwater disposal
Guidance on HARAs is given in CIRIA Report 166 (CDM Regulations – Work Sector Guidance For Designers)lxxiii

Drainage Affairs
Table 5.7.2 - Risk Classification to enable each risk to be assessed in terms of probability and severity
SEVERITY / CONSEQUENCE (Hazard)
LIKELIHOOD Minor Slight Moderate High Very High
1 2 3 4 5
Extremely
Unlikely 1 2 3 4 5
1
Unlikely
2 2 4 6 8 10
Likely
3 3 6 9 12 15
Very Likely
4 4 8 12 16 20
Certain
5 5 10 15 20 25
PRIORITY OF ACTION
Score 1-5 6-10 Above 10
Rating Low Risk Medium Risk High Risk
Action PPE, Best Working Practice, Isolate, control Eliminate, Reduce by

Signs substitution

Drainage Affairs
5.8 Trenchless • Building Research Establishment, Digest 250:

Concrete in sulphate-bearing soils and ground
Construction water. UK, BRE.
References • Reynolds, C.E. and Steedman, J.C, 1988,
The following documents are helpful in design and Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook. 10th
use of Trenchless Technologies. ed. London, Spon Press.
• British Tunnelling Society and Association of

• British Standards Institution, 1990, BS 5930: British Insurers, 2003, Joint Code of Practice
1981- Code of practice for site investigation, for the Risk Management of Tunnelling Projects
London, BSI. in the UK, UK.
• British Standards Institution, 1990, BS1377:

1990 - Methods of test for soils for civil
engineering purposes. London, BSI. SETTLEMENT AND DAMAGE TO BUILDINGS
• British Standards Institution, 2001, BS 6164: • Burland J.B., and Wroth C.P, 1975, Settlement
2001 - Code of practice for safety in tunnelling of Buildings and Associated Damage, Building
in the construction industry, London, BSI. Research Establishment Current Paper,
Watford, Building Research Establishment.
• British Standards Institution, 1981, BS 5911-
1:1981 Precast concrete pipes and fittings for • Burland J.B., 1997, Assessment of risk of
drainage and sewerage. Specification for pipes damage to buildings due to tunnelling and
and fittings with flexible joints and manholes excavation, Earthquake Geotechnical
(No longer current but cited in the Building Engineering, Ishihara (ed.), Balkema,
Regulations), London, BSI. Rotterdam, pp. 1189-1201.
• British Standards Institution, 1997, BS 5228- • Boone S.J., 1996, Ground Movement Related
2:1997 - Noise and vibration control on Building Damage, Journal of Geotechnical
construction and open sites — Part 2: Guide to Engineering, ASCE, 122(11), pp. 886-896.
noise and vibration control legislation for
• E.J. Cording, T.D. O’Rourke, and
construction and demolition including road
M.D.Boscardin, 1978, Ground Movements and
construction and maintenance. London, BSI.
Damage to Structures, Proc., Int. Conf. On
• British Standards Institution, 1990, BS 7385 - Evaluation and Prediction of Subsidence,
1:1990, Evaluation and measurement for Florida, pp 516-537.
vibration in buildings. Guide for measurement
of vibrations and evaluation of their effects on • Peck, R. B., 1969, Deep excavations and
buildings, London, BSI. tunnelling in soft ground. Proc. of 7th Int. Conf.
Soil Mech., Mexico, State of the Art 3, pp. 225-
• British Standards Institution, 1990, BS 7385 - 290.
1:1990, Evaluation and measurement for
vibration in buildings. Guide for measurement • Taylor, R. N., and Bracegirdle, A., 1993,
of vibrations and evaluation of their effects on Subsurface settlement profiles above tunnels in
buildings, London, BSI. clay, Geotechnique, 43(2), pp.315-320.
• 8 British Standards Institution, 1992, BS DESIGN

6472:1992: Evaluation of human exposure to • Milligan G., Norris, P. Pipe jacking: Research
vibration in buildings (1Hz to 80Hz), London, results and recommendations, Pipe Jacking
BSI. Association.

Drainage Affairs
• B Maidl, M. Herrenknecht, L. Anheuser, pipe. In suitable ground conditions water alone may
Mechanised Shield Tunnelling, Ernst & Sohn be used.
Publications.
DRIVE/ENTRY SHAFT OR PIT
TRENCHLESS TECHNOLOGIES
• Pipe Jacking Association, 1987, A guide to pipe Excavation from which trenchless technology
jacking and Microtunnelling design, Pipe equipment is launched for the installation or
Jacking Association. renovation of a pipeline, conduit or cable. May
incorporate a thrust wall to spread reaction loads to
• International Society for Trenchless the ground.
Technology, 1992, Introduction to trenchless
technology, 2nd edition, ISTT. EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE (EPB) MACHINE
Type of Microtunnelling or tunnelling machine in

5.9 Trenchless which mechanical pressure is applied to the material
at the face and controlled to provide the correct
Construction Glossary counter-balance to earth pressures in order to
The following terms used in Section 5 - Trenchless prevent heave or subsidence.
Technology, are defined below.
ENTRY/EXIT ANGLE
AUGUR BORING
In a horizontal directional drilling/guided boring
A technique for forming a bore from a drive shaft to system, the angle to the ground surface at which
a reception shaft, by means of a rotating cutting the drill string enters and exits in forming the pilot
head. Spoil is removed back to the drive shaft by bore.
helically wound auger flights rotating in a steel
FLUID-ASSISTED BORING/DRILLING
casing. The equipment may have limited steering
capability. A type of guided boring technique using a
combination of mechanical drilling and pressurised
AUGUR TBM
fluid jets to provide the soil cutting action.
A type of tunnel boring machine in which the
GROUTING
excavated soil is removed to the drive shaft by
auger flights passing through the product pipeline Filling of the annular space between the carrier
pushed in behind the TBM. pipe and the new product pipe. Grouting is also
used to fill the space around laterals and between
CUTTER HEAD
the new pipe and manholes. Other uses of
Any tool or system of tools on a common support grouting are for localised repairs of defective pipes,
which excavates at the face of a bore. Usually ground improvements prior to excavation during
applies to mechanical methods of excavation. new installations and the filling of voids around
existing carrier pipe.
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
INTERJACK PIPES
A steerable system for the installation of pipes and
cables in a shallow arc using a surface launched Pipes specially designed for use with an
drilling rig. intermediate jacking station.
DRILLING FLUID / MUD INTERMEDIATE JACKING STATION (IJS)
A mixture of water and bentonite or polymer A fabricated steel shield incorporating hydraulic
continuously pumped to the cutting head to facilitate jacks designed to operate between interjack pipes to
the removal of cuttings, stabilise the borehole, cool provide incremental thrust on long drives.
the head and lubricate the installation of the product

Drainage Affairs
JACKING PIPES permissible is generally defined by national health

and safety legislation (e.g. larger than 1000mm
Pipes designed to be installed using pipe jacking diameter in the UK).
techniques.
NEW INSTALLATION
JACKING SHIELD
Methods by which a new pipeline is constructed.
A fabricated steel cylinder from within which the
excavation is carried out either by hand or machine. PIPE JACKING
Incorporated within the shield are facilities to allow it
to be adjusted to control line and level. A technique by which the pipes are pushed through
the ground behind a tunnelling shield using hydraulic
JET CUTTING jacks reacting against a thrust wall in a
jacking/launch pit.
A type of guided boring technique using pressurised
fluid jets to provide the soil cutting action. RECEPTION/EXIT/TARGET SHAFT OR PIT
LAUNCH PIT Excavation into which trenchless technology

equipment is driven and recovered following the
As for drive shaft but more usually associated with installation or renovation of the product pipe, conduit
“launching” an impact moling tool. or cable.
LEAD PIPE SLEEVE PIPE
The leading pipe manufactured to fit the rear of the A pipe installed as external protection to a product
jacking shield and over which the trailing end of the pipe.
shield is fitted.
SLURRY TBM
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING (MWD)
A type of Microtunnelling machine in which soil is
Borehole survey instrumentation that provides turned to slurry and is used to counterbalance
continuous information simultaneously with drilling ground water pressure to stabilise the face, before
operations, usually transmitting to a display at or being pumped to the surface.
near the drilling rig.
SURVEY TOOLS
MICROTUNNELLING
Downhole equipment and instruments used to
Steerable remote control pipe jacking to install pipes determine the position of a bore in directional drilling
of internal diameter less than that permissible for or site investigation.
man-entry (i.e. <1000mm).
TUNNEL BORING MACHINE
MIDI-RIG
A full-face circular mechanical shield machine,
Steerable surface-launched drilling equipment for usually of man-entry diameter, steerable, and with a
the installation of pipes, conduits and cables. rotary cutting head. For pipe installation, it leads a
Applied to intermediate sized drilling rigs used as string of jacked pipes. It may be controlled from
either a small directional drilling machine, or a large within the shield or remotely.
guided boring machine. Tracking of the drill string
may be achieved by either a downhole survey tool
or a locator.
MAN-ENTRY
Description of any tunnelling technology process,

which requires an operative to enter a pipe, duct or
bore. The minimum size for which this is

Drainage Affairs
6 References
xiii
Figures from Original DD Developers
Guide, provided by Sheik Abdul Azeez of
i DA
British Standards Institution, various years of
publication, BS EN 752 - Drain and sewer systems xiv
Metcalf and Eddy, Wastewater
outside buildings, BSI UK. Treatment , Reuse and Disposal, 4
th
Edition
BS 8005 – superseded by BS EN 752 - Drain and
ii
sewer systems outside buildings. xvDavid Butler and John W Davies, 2000, Urban
Drainage, ISBN 0-419-22340-1, Suffolk, UK, E&FN
British Standards Institution, 1997, BS 8301: Code
iii
Spon, Table 10.2.
of practice for building drainage, London, BSI. ISBN
0-89116-067-1. xviDavidButler and John W Davies, 2000, Urban
ivBritish Standards Institution, 1995, BS EN 598: Spon, Table 10.2.
1995 – Ductile iron pipes, fittings, accessories and
their joints for sewerage applications – xviiDavid
Butler and John W Davies, 2000, Urban
Requirements and test methods. London, BSI. Drainage, ISBN 0-419-22340-1, Suffolk, UK, E&FN
Spon, Table 10.2.
v British Standards Institution, 1998, BS EN 1610:
1998 – Construction and testing of drains and xviiiDavid
sewers, London, BSI.
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Volume 2

1.1 Standards ..................................................................................................................... 2

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page i

2 Pumping Stations ....................................................................................................39

2.1 Standards ................................................................................................................... 39

Page ii Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

2.18.2 Total connected load ................................................................................................... 65

3.1 Reference Standards .................................................................................................. 98

5 Trenchless Technologies ..................................................................................... 100

5.1 Alternative Techniques ............................................................................................. 100

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page iii

5.3.1 Geological Strata Overview ...................................................................................... 110

Page iv Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

manholes, directing flows to numerous pumping

The Doha South Catchment can be broadly

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page 1

sewage flows. However there are the following 1.1 Standards

Page 2 Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

• Building Research Establishment, 1991, • Construction Industry Research and

• HR Wallingford DC Watkins, 1991, Report • Water Research Council, 1994, Velocity

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page 3

I = Infiltration (l/day) 7. The flows that are likely to occur in the

2. Determine the numbers and types of dwellings

3. Identify any existing and proposed industrial

Page 4 Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

Table 1.3.1 below gives the discharge rates that

Table 1.3.1 – Typical Daily Discharges in the ME

0.50 Domestic low 250 Litres/head/day

Infiltration range 0- 250 Litres/head/day

Where sewerage systems are very long and the

1.3.1 Domestic Where the area to be served is low density palaces

Butler and Daviesix suggest that between 75% and

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page 5

Table 1.3.2 – Indicative Occupancy Levels (from

For plots less than 1225m2 6 people 14

For plots equal to and

The dry weather flow is then obtained from Figure

Page 6 Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

Figure 1.3.2 – Conversion of Discharge Units to Flow Rates

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page 7

1.3.2 Industrial 1.3.3 Commercial

Tanneryxi 7600 l Per tonne of Cinemaxviii 10 Seat

Page 8 Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page 9

Page 10 Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

sewage has travelled. A number of different ways of

The Babbit Formual (1952) is;

However, the formula is not representative at low

Therefore, the upper limit for peaking factors shall

It is considered that values in excess of six, and

The variation of peaking factors with population is

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page 11

Babbit BSEN 752

Figure 1.4.1 Plot of Peaking Factors v Population

Page 12 Volume 2 Foul Sewerage

1.5 Hydraulic Design downstream in order to maintain minimum

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page 13

Table 1.5.1 - Pipe Roughness ks Values

Further values can be obtained by direct reference