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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a freeform fabrication technique

in which parts are fabricated by adding material layer by layer as opposed to
material removal process. Additive Manufacturing fabricates physical models,
prototypes or functional components directly from three-dimensional
Computer Aided Design (CAD) data (Chua et al 1999).

AM has been described under various names, such as Rapid

Prototyping (RP), Rapid Manufacturing (RM), Solid Freeform Fabrication
(SFF), Direct Digital Manufacturing (DDM), Desktop Rapid Prototyping
(DRP), Automated Fabrication (AutoFAB) and Additive Manufacturing
(Dutta et al 2001)

As per the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM

Standard F2792 - 2012a), AM is defined “as the process of joining materials
to make objects from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to
subtractive manufacturing methodologies, such as traditional machining”.

The basic principle of AM technology is that a model, initially

generated using a three-dimensional Computer Aided Design system, can be
fabricated directly without the need for process planning. On the other hand,
traditional manufacturing requires a careful and detailed analysis of the part
geometry to decide the order in which different features can be fabricated, the
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type of tools required, the process to be used and the number of additional
fixtures needed to complete the part (Gibson et al 2010).

ASTM (committee F42) has classified AM systems broadly by the

material addition principle, i.e. the principle based on which discrete
powder/liquid/solid material is joined together to form the 3D prototype or
part. In this manner, AM systems are categorized into seven types.

(i) Binder jetting - An AM process in which a liquid bonding

agent is selectively deposited to join powder materials.

(ii) Material jetting - An AM process in which droplets of build

material are selectively deposited.

(iii) Powder bed fusion - An AM process in which thermal energy

selectively fuses regions of a powder bed.

(iv) Directed energy deposition - An AM process in which focused

thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as they are
being deposited

(v) Sheet lamination - An AM process in which sheets of material

are bonded to form an object.

(vi) Vat photo polymerization - An AM process in which liquid

photopolymer in a vat is selectively cured by light-activated
polymerization.

(vii) Material extrusion - An AM process in which material is

selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice.
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1 .2 WORKING PRINCIPLE

The commercial AM systems employ the following eight steps.

(Gibson et al 2010)

The steps are:

1. Creation of a CAD model.

2. Conversion of the CAD model into the stl (stereolithography)

format

3. Verification of stl format

4. Slicing the object imported in the stl format into thin cross-
sectional layers

5. Machine setup

6. Layer by layer construction

7. Part removal and cleaning

8. Application

1.2.1 Creation of CAD Model

First, the object to be built is modeled, using a CAD software. Solid

modelers, such as Pro-E, Computer Aided Three – dimensional Interactive
Application (CATIA) and SolidWorks tend to represent 3D objects more
accurately than wire-frame modelers, such as AutoCAD, and will therefore
yield better results. A pre-existing CAD file or a newly created CAD file for
prototyping purposes can also be used. This process is identical for all the AM
building techniques.
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1.2.2 Conversion of CAD Model into stl Format

Different CAD software saves the modeled files in different

formats. To establish consistency, a standard format has been adopted, which
is known as the stl format for the AM industry. The second step, therefore, is
to convert the CAD file into the stl format. This format represents a three-
dimensional surface as an assembly of planar triangles. Increasing the number
of triangles improves the approximation and result, but the file size gets
bigger. As large and complicated files take more time for construction, the
designer should consider both accuracy and manageability while creating the
stl file. Since the stl format is universal, this process is identical for all the
AM build techniques.

1.2.3 Verification of stl format

In the third step, a pre-processing program is used to verify the stl

file for construction. For this purpose several programs are available and the
size, location and orientation of the model can also be adjusted by the user.
The pre-processing software normally has a visualization tool that allows the
user to view and manipulate the part. It is possible to reposition the part or
even change the orientation to allow it to be built at a specific location within
the machine.

1.2.4 Slicing the Object Imported in stl format into Thin cross-
Sectional Layers

Build orientation is important for several reasons. As the layers are

formed in the x-y plane, the properties of the prototyped model are often
weaker and less accurate along the z-direction. So, in some of the techniques,
part orientation is used to make the orientation of the model such that the
minimum dimension lies along the z-direction, which reduces the time due to
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a decrease in the number of layers. The stl model is sliced using the pre-
processor software into a number of layers vary from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm
thickness depending upon the AM technique and the end applications of the
prototype . The nominal layer thickness of 0.1 mm is quite common.

1.2.5 Machine setup

AM machines will have at least some setup parameters that are

specific to that machine or process. Some machines are only designed to run
perhaps one or two different materials only and with no variation in layer
thickness or other build parameters. These types of machine will have very
few setup changes to make from build to build. Other machines are designed
to run with a variety of materials and may also have some parameters that
require optimization to suit the type of part that is to be built, or permit parts
to be built quicker but with poorer layer resolution. Such machines can have
numerous setup options available.

1.2.6 Layer by Layer Construction

In this step, the actual construction of the part is done. The 3D

object is given to the machine layer by layer; after slicing the part, the
machine takes the layers of the object as an input, and constructs the final 3D
object. AM machines build one layer at a time from polymers, paper, or
powdered metal. Most machines are fairly autonomous, requiring very little
human intervention.

1.2.7 Cleaning and Finishing

In this step, the prototyped model is taken out of the machine, and
the supports are detached. Prototypes may also require minor cleaning and
surface treatment.
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1.2.8 Application

In this step, parts may now be ready to be used. However, they may
also require additional treatment before they are acceptable for use. For
example, they may require priming and painting to give an acceptable surface
texture and finish. Treatments may be laborious and lengthy if the finishing
requirements are very demanding. They may also be required to be assembled
together with other mechanical or electronic components to form a final
model or product.

1.3 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES

The commercially available AM techniques include

Stereolithograpgy Apparatus (SLA), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Fused
Deposition Modelling(FDM) and 3D Ink-Jet Printing (3DP) (Pal and Ravi,
2007) and their working principle are described in the following sections.

1.3.1 Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) Technique

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of Stereolithography Apparatus

Technique (Chua et al (2010))

Stereolithography process creates 3D plastic objects directly from

CAD data. The process begins with the vat filled with the photo-curable
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liquid resin and the elevator table set just below the surface of the liquid resin
as shown in Figure 1.1. The operator loads a 3D CAD solid model file into
the system. Supports are designed to stabilize the part during building. The
translator converts the CAD data into an STL file. The computer-controlled
optical scanning system then directs and focuses the laser beam so that it
solidifies a 2D cross section .The elevator table then drops enough to cover
the solid polymer with another layer of the liquid resin. A vacuum blade
moves across the surfaces to recoat the next layer of resin on the surface. The
laser then draws the next layer. This process continues building the part from
bottom up, until the system completes the part. The part is then raised out of
the vat and cleaned of excess polymer (Hull 1990).

1.3.2 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Technique

In this technique a thermoplastic material is heated and extruded

from a tip. The tip moves in the x-y plane and very thin beads are deposited
on the platform to build the first layer. Low temperature is maintained at the
platform so that the thermoplastic will get hard quickly. Then the platform is
lowered and the second layer is formed over the first one. In this way the
model is prototyped ( Scott 1991). The working principle of the Fused
Deposition Modeling method is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of Fused Deposition Modeling

Technique (Sung-Hoon Ahn et al (2002))
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1.3.3 3D Ink-Jet Printing (3DP) Technique

3D Ink-jet printing developed at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology. This technology is based on the printing of a binder through a
print head nozzle onto a powder bed. The schematic diagram of 3D Ink-jet
printing technique is shown in Figure 1.3. The part is built sequentially in
layers. The binder is delivered to the powder bed producing the first layer ,
the bed is then lowered to a fixed distance, powder is deposited and spread
evenly across the bed, and a second layer is built. This is repeated until entire
part is fabricated. The excess powder is blown off once the entire build is
complete (Bredt et al 1998).

Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram of 3D Ink-Jet Printing Technique

(Melchelsa et al (2012))

1.3.4 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Technique

The SLS setup is shown in Figure 1.4. A laser beam is traced over
the surface of a tightly compacted powder made of thermoplastic material
(A). The powder is spread by a roller (B) over the surface of a build cylinder
(C). A piston (D) moves down one object layer thickness to accommodate the
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layer of the powder. The powder supply system (E) is similar in function to
the build cylinder. It also comprises a cylinder and piston. In this case, the
piston moves upward incrementally to supply powder for the process.

Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram of SLS Technique

(Hopkinson et al (2005))

Heat from the laser melts the powder where it strikes under the
guidance of the scanner system (F). The CO2 laser used provides a
concentrated infrared heating beam. The entire fabrication chamber is sealed
and maintained at a temperature just below the melting point of the plastic
powder.(Liew et al (2002), Cheah et al (2004), Simpson et al (2008), Chua et
al (2004) , Wiria et al (2007)) Thus, heat from the laser needs to elevate the
temperature only slightly to cause sintering. A nitrogen atmosphere is also
maintained in the fabrication chamber which prevents the possibility of
explosion in the handling of large quantities of powder.

After the object is fully formed, the piston is raised to elevate the
object. Excess powder is simply brushed away, and a final manual finishing
may be carried out. It may take a considerable time before the part cools
down enough to be removed from the machine. Large parts with thin sections
may require as much as two days of cooling time. No supports are required
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with this method since overhangs and undercuts are supported by the solid
powder bed.

1.4 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING IN MEDICAL

APPLICATIONS

Earlier Additive Manufacturing techniques were used for “Rapid

Prototyping” in the domain of product design and development for concept
modelling, pattern building, assembly verification and functional testing
(Pham & Dimov (2001), Tang et al (2005)). In the recent times, Additive
Manufacturing techniques are being used for the production of actual end-use
products for various sectors. One of the interesting sector with significant
potential impact is the medical field (Caloud et al (2002), Junior et al (2008),
Lohfeld et al 2007) where implants, scaffolds and prosthesis are being
manufactured using Additive Manufacturing Technique (Goodridge et al
2012).

AM-based fabrication contributes significantly to one or more of

the following different categories of medical applications (Gibson et al 2010)

1. Surgical and diagnostic aids

2. Prosthetics development

3. Manufacturing of medically related products

4. Tissue Engineering

1.5 TISSUE ENGINEERING (TE)

Tissue engineering is an interdisciplinary field that applies the

principles of engineering and life sciences towards the development of
biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function or a
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whole organ (Shalak & Fox 1998). This technology has attracted increasing
attention as an alternative strategy to treat damaged organs and tissues that
cannot be self-regenerated, such as full-thickness skin burn, over critical-sized
bone defects, and chronic cartilage disease (Patrick et al (1998), Langer
(2000), Greenwald et al (2001) and Laurencin et al (2003) ).

The medical procedures utilize bone grafts to repair damaged bone

tissue. Bone injuries can be repaired using autogenic or allogenic grafts
(Completo et al 2008, Vanloon et al 1999, Mow and wiedel 1996, Stockley et
al 1992). Autogenic grafts, or transplantations of bone tissue from the injured
person’s own body, are the preferred method for repairing damage. However,
the use of autologous bone has been hampered by its short supply and the pain
and long term discomfort (Stevens et al 2005). Allogenic grafts, or
transplantations of bone tissue from another person’s body, may result in the
rejection of the implanted bone by the patient’s body (Boyce et al 1999,
Alexandre Terrier et al 2009). Tissue engineering aims to eliminate the
disadvantages of the conventional clinical treatments associated with donor-
site morbidity and scarcity in autografting and allografting (Burg et al 2000)

There are three approaches in tissue engineering. (1) Use of isolated

cells or cell substitutes to replace those cells that supply the needed function,
(2) the delivery of tissue inducing substances, such as growth and
differentiation factors, to a targeted location, (3) growing cells in three
dimensional scaffolds. The use of isolated cells or tissue inducing substances
is considered, when the defects are small and well contained. To engineer
tissue of practical size scale and predetermined shapes, these two approaches
are seriously limited. Therefore, the third approach, i.e. growing cells in three
–dimensional scaffolds, has become increasingly attractive. In this approach,
scaffolds play a pivotal role. They guide cells to grow, synthesize
extracellular matrix and other biological molecules, and facilitate the
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formation of functional tissues and organs (Langer & Vacanti 1993). Figure
1.5 represents the tissue engineering process.

Figure 1.5 Tissue Engineering (Langer & Vacanti (1993))

1.6 SCAFFOLD

One of the principle methods behind tissue engineering involves

growing the relevant cell(s) in vitro into the required three-dimensional organ
or tissue. But, cells lack the ability to grow in favoured three-dimensional
orientations and thus define the anatomical shape of the tissue. Instead, they
randomly migrate to form a two-dimensional layer of cells. However, 3D
tissues are required and this is achieved by seeding the cells onto porous
matrices, known as scaffolds, to which the cells attach and colonise (Langer
& Vacanti 1993, Griffith et al 2002, Sachlos et al 2003).

The scaffold is defined as a “prefabricated porous structure, which

is seeded with cells and provides support and shape to the tissue during its
growth” (Antonio Armillotta & Ralph Pelzer 2008). The Function of a
scaffold is to direct the growth of cells migrating from the surrounding tissue
or the growth of cells seeded within porous structures. They must additionally
provide a suitable substrate for cell attachment, proliferation, differentiation
and cell migration (Tan et al 2003, Hollister et al 2008). The three-
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dimensionally interconnected pores in scaffolds can facilitate sufficient

supply of blood, oxygen and nutrients for the ingrowth of bone cells, tissue
regeneration and vascularisation (Hutmacher 2001, Kuboki et al 1998, Tsang
& Bhatia 2004).

1.7 THESIS ORGANIZATION

The entire thesis is divided into five chapters.

Chapter 1 presents a brief introduction about the Additive

Manufacturing technique, its working principle and three approaches in tissue
engineering.

Chapter 2 presents the literature review of the Additive

Manufacturing in the field of medical application. It also reviews the some of
the literatures on scaffold fabrication through AM techniques, design of
scaffolds, Computational Fluid Dynamic analysis of scaffolds, Finite Element
Analysis of scaffolds and tissue engineering

Chapter 3 describes the modeling methodology to develop the

customised bone scaffold directly from a patient’s CT scan data through
image processing and CAD modeling packages. Also, the steps involved in
the fabrication of scaffold through the SLS technique are discussed.

Chapter 4 discusses additive fabrication and experimental set up

for the uniaxial compression testing of ASTM standard specimens,
methodology to perform FEA analysis of ASTM standard specimens and
customised bone scaffolds.

Chapter 5 presents the methodology to perform Computational

Fluid Dynamic (CFD) analysis and the procedure for the biological
investigation of osteoblast cells on the fabricated scaffold.
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Chapter 6 discusses the effect of theoretical and experimental

porosity on the scaffolds’ design parameters. The compressive properties of
ASTM standard specimens are discussed in detail. The comparison of the
experimental results of ASTM standard specimens, with respect to the results
obtained from the finite element model, is also discussed. The level of fluid
shear stress to which the cells are exposed as a result of perfusion flow, is
discussed using the CFD analysis. The cytotoxicity and cell viability study of
polyamide material is discussed, to validate the numerical analysis.

Chapter 7 presents the conclusions drawn and future directions for

further research in this area.

1.8 SUMMARY

In this chapter, a brief introduction to various AM techniques, its

working principle and the approaches in tissue engineering has been given.