Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Books
Books
Books
Second or Foreign
I THIRD
Language EDITION
Teaching English
as a Second or
Foreign Language
THIRD ED ITIO N
MARIANNE CELCE-MURCIA
EDITOR
U N IT I. Teaching M ethodology I
Language Teaching Approaches: An Overview
M arian n e C elce-M urcia 3
Communicative Language Teaching for the Twenty-First Century
S a n d ra J. Savignon 13
Guidelines for Language Classroom Instruction
G rah am C rookes a n d C raig C h a u d ro n 29
English for Specific Purposes (ESP):Tailoring Courses to Students Needs—
and to the Outside W orld
A nn M. Johns a n d D o n n a P rice-M achado 43
Syllabus Design
D avid N 'unan 55
Contents v
E. Grammar and Vocabulary 249
Teaching Grammar
D iane L arsen -F reem an 25 I
Cognitive Approaches to Grammar Instruction
S an d ra Fotos 267
Vocabulary Learning and Teaching
Jea n e tte S. D eC arrico 285
U N IT V . S k ills fo r T e a c h e rs 401
Planning Lessons
L in d a Je n s e n 403
Textbooks: Evaluation for Selection and Analysis for Implementation
Patricia Bvrd 4 I5
W hen the Teacher Is a Non-Native Speaker
P e te r M edgves 429
Building Awareness and Practical Skills to Facilitate Cross-Cultural Communication
Eli H inkel 443
The Use of Media in Language Teaching
D o n n a M. B rin to n 459
Computers in Language Teaching
M aggie Sokolik 477
Action Research,Teacher Research, and Classroom Research in Language Teaching
K athleen M. Bailer 489
Reflective Teaching in ELT
J o h n M. M u rphy 499
Second Language Assessment
A ndrew D. C o h en 5 15
Keeping Up to Date as an ESL or EFL Professional
Jo A n n (Jodi) C ran d all 535
References 553
Index 575
Foreword
T h e p u rp o se o f this th ird chapters for the first time in this edition (the
edition o f Teaching English as a u th o r’s nam e is in parentheses):
a Second or Foreign Language, ■ Communicative Language Teaching for the
also know n as “T he Apple Twenty-First Century (Savignon)
B ook,” rem ains the sam e as ■ Syllabus design (N unan)
the first (1979) an d second ■ D ev eloping C h ild re n ’s L iste n in g a n d
(1991) editions: to pro d u ce Speaking Skills (Peck)
a com prehensive in tro d u c ■ C ognitive A p p ro a c h es to G ra m m a r
tio n to th e p ro fe ssio n of Instruction (Fotos)
teach in g English to speakers o f o th e r languages. ■ Bilingual Approaches to Language Learning
T h e goal has b e e n to m a in ta in a b alan ce (McGroartv)
betw een theory a n d p rac tic e — betw een provid ■ W hen the Teacher Is a Non-Native Speaker
ing necessary back g ro u n d inform ation a n d rele (Medgyes)
vant research, on th e one h a n d , a n d offering ■ Facilitating Cross-Cultural Com m unication
m any classroom suggestions an d resources for (Hinkel) "
teachers, on the other. This ed ition covers the ■ Action Research, Teacher Research, and
areas 1 believe to be critical to successful lan Classroom Research (Bailer )
guage instruction: know ledge of past an d p res ■ Reflective Teaching (Murphv)
e n t teaching approaches, b ack g ro u n d on and
techniques for teaching the language skills, vari I am m ost grateful to all forty co n trib u to rs to
ous options fo r in teg ratin g the skills, awareness this th ird edition for th eir splendid work.
o f im p o rta n t le a rn e r factors, an d info rm atio n Many o f the new topics in this edition were
th a t is useful for the classroom teacher's everv- originally suggested bv colleagues who anony-
day p e rfo rm a n c e an d professional growth. I mouslv reviewed the second edition for H einle &
have tried to p ro d u ce an in tro d u c tio n to the H einle. I am very grateful for their input, which I
field that would be o f sufficient d e p th and har e used along with mv own ju d g m en t to create
bread th to be suitable for students with som e p re this volume. T he reviewers also helped to com ince
vious teaching experience, vet straightforw ard me that a rerised and updated third edition was
enough n o t to needlessly bewilder the novice. necessary, and they encouraged m e to once again
This third edition covers m ore topics and has undertake the daunting task o f preparing a com
m ore contributing authors than the precious ones: prehensive textbook for use in m ethods courses
designed to prepare ESL/EFL teachers.
■ First edition (1979): 31 chapters, 27 con
As in both previous editions, each chapter
tributors
concludes with discussion questions, suggested
■ Second edition: 32 chapters, 36 contributors
activities, a n d a n u m b er of suggestions for fu rth e r
■ T hird edition: 36 chapters, 40 contributors
reading. These supplem entary m aterials show
N ineteen of the thirty-six authors who contributed how the authors feel their ch ap ter can be used in
to the second edition have also contributed to this m ethodology courses to stim ulate critical think
volume (often— but not always— on the same ing, fu rth er reading on a topic, and application
topic). Sixteen of the chapters appearing in this o f knowledge. T he new feature in this edition is
edition are rerised a n d u p d a te d versions o f ch ap the listing o f useful websites at the en d o f m ost
ters in the second edition and, in m ost cases, the chapters to m ake teachers in training atvare of
revisions have b een substantial. Ten chapters the vast arrav of resources av ailable to them via the
have been com pletelv rew ritten; the rem ain in g World W ide Web if they have access to a com puter,
ten chapters rep re sen t topics th at appear as even if they are working in rem ote areas.
Acknowledgments
Many colleagues, students, and friends have been help and support from Sherrise Roehr, Sarah
o f invaluable assistance in the preparation of this Barnicle, and Eunice Yeates-Fogle of H einle 8c
volume. My greatest debt is to all the colleagues H einle in the com pletion of the m anuscript and
who graciously accepted my invitation to write once again had the pleasure o f working with
chapters for this edition. T he breadth and d epth of Tuncle A. Dewev of Dewev Publishing in the final
their expertise make this collection tmlv unique. phase of production. Mv warm and sincere thanks
I am especiallv indebted to Brent Green, my to evervone m en tio n ed in this paragraph.
research assistant, who helped to prepare the cum u Finallv. I w ould like to note that I have in co r
lative list o f references and the index. I could not p o rate d into this edition m anv suggestions for
have finished this book without his and Jo Flilder’s im proving the second edition th at readers, stu
assistance and offer them mv heartfelt thanks. dents. and colleagues have graciously shared
Many people at H einle 8c Heinle have helped with me oxer the tears. I offer special thanks to
in the shaping and production of this large volume. the anonvm ous reviewers who co m pleted H einle
I had my initial discussions with Erik G undersen, & H einle s q u estio n n aire, designed to elicit
th en h a d fu rth e r discussions an d signed the con suggestions for revision a n d im provem ent. T he
tract with Eric B redenberg, who th en tu rn e d the responsibilitv for the choices m ade a n d for am
pro ject over to Sherrise Roehr. I received m uch critical om issions is m ine alone.
I : T eaching M ethodology
UNIT I
UNIT
Teaching Methodology
In this first section, Celce-Murcias chapter gives the reader a historical
perspective and outlines the principal approaches to second and foreign
language teaching that -лere used during the twentieth century. Then
Savignon's chapter goes into detail in describing the com ponents of
communicative language teaching, the currently dominant approach. In
their chapter Crookes and Chaudron discuss classroom research and its
implications for developing a principled approach to language teaching.
The following chapter by Johns and Price-Machado introduces the
reader to the English for S p e o fc Purposes movement, which has had a
profound influence on ail English language teaching. Finally, N unan’s
chapter gives the reader an overview o f the syllabus design process,
bringing us full circle, since tne syllabus ideally goes hand-in-hand with the
materials and approaches used in the language classroom.
Language Teaching Approaches:
An Overview1
MARIANNE CELCE-MURCIA
In “ Language Teaching Approaches; An O verview ," Celce-Murcia gives some historical background,
then outlines the principal approaches to second and foreign language teaching that w ere used during
the twentieth century. She previews the book as a w hole and projects some trends for language
instruction in the new millennium.
In "Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) for the Twenty-First Century" Savignon identifies five
components of a communicative curriculum. She sees the identification of learner communicative
needs and goals as the first step in the development of a teaching program that involves learners as
active participants in the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning.
You may not loiter downtown in ire cream in ap p ro p riate in yet another. Times change, fash
stores. You may not ride in a carriage or ions change. W hat may once ap p ear new and
automobile with any man unless he is your prom ising can subsequently seem strange and
father or brother. You may not dress in outdated.
bright colors. You must wear at least two W ithin the last q u a rte r century, com m u
petticoats. You must start the fire at 7 Л.М. nicative language teaching (CLT) has b een p u t
so the school room will be warm by 8 л.М. forth aro u n d the world as the “new,” or “innova
tive," way to teach English as a second o r foreign
Rules for teachers,
language. T eaching m aterials, course descrip
G oodland, Kansas (1915)1
tions, a n d curriculum guidelines proclaim a goal
W hat d o you th in k of the above 1915 Rules for o f communicative competence. For exam ple, The
Teachers? Do they seem som ew hat strange o r o u t Course of Study for Senior High School, guidelines
dated? Do they m ake you smile? If vou had been p u b lish e d by th e J a p a n e s e M inistry o f
a tale n te d new teach er in G oodland, Kansas, in E ducation, Science, a n d C ulture (M om busho)
1915, you m ost likely w ould have fo u n d these state the objectives o f ELT: “To develop stu d e n ts’
rules to be the m ark o f a school system with high ability to u n d e rsta n d a n d to express them selves
standards. No d o u b t the standards set for stu in a foreign language; to foster stu d e n ts’ positive
dents were as high as those set for teachers. attitu d e towards com m unicating in a foreign
Teachers in G oodland could co u n t on students language, and to heighten their interest in lan
to be respectful a n d diligent. In tu rn , teachers guage an d culture, thus d e ep en in g international
w ere expected to set a good exam ple. u n d e rsta n d in g ” (Wada 1994, p. 1). M inoru Wada,
Teachers have alwavs been expected to set a a university professor a n d a senior advisor to
good exam ple for learners, to provide a m odel of M om busho in prom oting ELT reform in Japan,
behavior. But as the 1915 rules for teachers so explains the significance o f these guidelines:
d early rem in d us, the m odel can an d does
change. W hat seems a good exam ple in one tim e T h e M om busho G uidelines, or course
or place, a given context of situation, may seem o f study, is o n e o f the m ost im p o rta n t
quite strange or in ap p ro p riate in a n o th e r tim e or legal precepts in the Ja p an e se educa
place. A nd so it is with language teaching. As this tional system. It establishes national
v o lu m e ’s in tro d u c to ry c h a p te r by M arian n e standards for elem entary an d second
Celce-M urcia shows, teachers have fo u n d m any ary schools. It also regulates co n ten t,
ways o r m ethods for teaching languages. All have the stan d ard n u m b e r of a n n u al teach
b een ad m ired m odels in som e tim e or place, ing hours at lower level secondary
often to be ridiculed, perhaps, or dism issed as [junior high] schools, subject areas,
subjects, an d the stan d ard n u m b e r of teachers, school authorities, an d the
req u ired credits at u p p e r level second governm ent. Each is essential to the
ary [senior high] schools. T he course success of the o th ers' efforts.
o f study for the teach in g o f English as
a foreign language a n n o u n c e d bv the This c h a p te r looks at the p h e n o m e n o n of
M inistry o f E ducation, Science, and com m unicative language teaching (GET). W hat
C ulture in 1989 stands as a landm ark is GLT? How and whv did it develop? W hat are
in the history of English ed u cation in the theoretical u n d e rp in n in g s o f this ap p ro ach
Japan. For the first tim e it in tro d u c ed to language teaching? How has GET b een in te r
in to English ed u catio n at b o th sec p re te d an d im p lem en ted in various contexts?
ondary school levels the concept of K eeping in m ind the needs a n d goals of learners
communicative competence. In 1989. the a n d the traditions o f classroom teaching, w hat
M inistry o f E ducation, Science, and are som e wavs for teachers to shape a m ore com
C ulture revised the course o f study for m unicative ap proach to ELT in the context o f
prim ary as well as secondary schools th eir own situation?
on the basis o f proposals m ade in a
1987 re p o rt by the C ouncil on the
School C urriculum , an advisory g roup
W H A T IS CLT?
to the M inister of E ducation, Science, Xot long ago, w hen A m erican structural linguis
an d C ulture. T he basic goal o f the tics and behaviorist psychology’ were the prevail
revision was to p rep a re students to ing influences in language teaching m ethods
co p e with th e rapidly o c c u rrin g and m aterials, second 'foreign language teachers
changes toward a m ore global society. talked about com m unication in term s of four
T h e re p o rt u rg e d Jap an ese teachers to language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and
place m uch m ore em phasis on the w riting. T h ese skill categories w ere widelv
developm ent o f com m unicative com accepted and provided a readv-m ade fram ew ork
p eten ce in English. for m ethods m anuals, learn er course m aterials,
and teacher education program s. Speaking and
Parallel efforts are underw ay in nearbv Taiwan
writing were collectively described as active skills,
for sim ilar reasons. Based on in-depth interviews
reading and listening as passive skills.
o f e x p e rt tea c h e r educators, W ang (in press)
Todav. listeners and readers no lo n g er are
rep o rts on the progress (see also W ang 2000):
reg ard ed as passive. Thev are seen as active
M uch has b een d o n e to m eet the particip an ts in the n eg o tiatio n o f m eaning.
d em an d for co m p eten t English users Schemata, expectancies, a n d top-down/bottom-up
a n d effective te a c h in g in Taiwan. processing are am ong the term s now used to cap
C u rren t im provem ents, according to ture the necessarily com plex, interactive n a tu re
th e te a c h e r experts, in clu d e the of this negotiation. Yet full and w idespread
change in en tran ce exam inations, the u n d e rsta n d in g o f com m unication as negotiation
new curriculum with a goal of teaching has been h in d e re d bv the term s th at cam e to
for com m unicative com petence, and replace the earlier active/passive dichotom y.
th e island-w ide im p le m e n ta tio n in T he skills n e e d e d to engage in speaking a n d
2001 o f English education in the ele w riting activities were described subsequently as
m entary schools. However, m ore has to productive, w hereas listening an d reading skills
be d o n e to ensure quality teaching and were said to be receptive.
learn in g in the classrooms. Based on While certainly an im provem ent over the
the teach er ex p erts’ accounts, fu rth e r earlier active ’'passive representation, the term s
im provem ents can be stratified into “productive" and “receptive’’ fall short of captur
th re e in te rre la te d levels rela te d to ing the interactive nature o f com m unication. Lost
in this p ro d u ctiv e,/recep tiv e, m essage send- tradition in cluding social as well as linguistic
in g /m e ssa g e receiving re p re se n ta tio n is tlte context in description of language behavior led
collaborative natu re o f m aking m eaning. M eaning the C ouncil o f E urope to develop a svllabus for
appears fixed, to be sent an d received, not learners based on notional-functional concepts
unlike a football in the bands of a team q u a rte r o f language use. Derived from neo-F irthian sys
back. T he interest of a football gam e lies of temic o r functional linguistics that views language
course n o t in the football, but in the m ores and as meaning potential and m aintains the centrality
strategies o f the plavers as tliev punt, pass, and of context o f situation in u n d e rsta n d in g lan
fake th eir wav along the field. T he interest of guage systems an d how thev work, a T h resh o ld
com m unication lies similarlv in the m ores and Level o f language abilitv was described for each
strategies of the participants. T he term s that best of the m ajor languages o f E urope in term s of
represent the collaborative natu re of what goes what learners should be able to do with the lan
on are interpretation, expression, and negotiation guage (ban Ek 1975). Functions were based on
o f m eaning. T he com m unicative com petence assessm ent o f lea rn er needs a n d specified the
n e e d ed for participation includes not onlv gram e n d result, the goal of an instructional program .
m atical com petence, but pragm atic com petence. T he term communicative attach ed itself to p ro
T he inadequacv o f a four-skills m odel of gram s that used a functional-notional syllabus
language use is now recognized. And the short based on needs assessm ent, and the language
com ings of audiolingual m ethodologv are wiclelv fo r specific p u rp o se s (LSP) m o v em en t was
acknow ledged. T here is g e n e ra l a ccep tan ce launched.
o f the com plexity and in terrelatedness of skills O th e r E uropean developm ents focused on
in b o th w ritten and oral com m unication and the process of com m unicative classroom language
o f the n e e d for learners to h are the experience learning. In Germanv, for exam ple, against a
o f com m unication, to participate in the negotia backdrop of social dem ocratic concerns for indi
tion of m eaning. Newer, m ore com prehensive vidual em pow erm ent, articulated in the writings
theories o f language an d language behavior o f th e c o n te m p o ra rv p h ilo s o p h e r Ju rg en
have replaced those that looked to A m erican H aberm as (1970). language teaching m eth o d o l
structuralism and behaviorist psvchologv for ogists took the lead in the developm ent o f class
support. T he ex p an d ed , interactive view of lan room m aterials that e n co u rag ed le a rn e r choice
guage behavior they offer presents a n u m b e r of (C andlin 1978). T h e ir svstematic collection of
ch allen g es for teachers. A m ong th em , how exercise tvpes for com m unicatively o rie n te d
should form and function be in teg rated in an English language teaching were used in teach er
instructional sequence? W hat is an ap p ro p riate
in-service courses a n d workshops to guide cu r
norm for learners? Hots is it determ ined? W hat
riculum change. Exercises were designed to
is an error? A nd what, if anvthing. should be
exploit the varietv of social m eanings co n tain ed
do n e w hen one occurs? Hots is language lea rn
within p articular gram m atical structures. A sys
ing success to be m easured? A cceptance o f com
tem of "chains" en couraged teachers a n d learn
m unicative criteria entails a c o m m itm en t to
ers to define their own learning path th ro u g h
address these adm ittedlv com plex issues.
p rin c ip le d selection o f relevant exercises
(P iep h o 1974: P iep h o an d B redella 1976).
H O W A N D W H Y D ID C L T Similar exploratorv projects were also initiated bv
C an d lin at his th e n academ ic h o m e, the
D EV ELO P? L'niversitv of Lancaster in England, and bv H olec
T h e origins of con tem p o rarv CLT can be traced (1979) an d his colleagues at the University
to c o n c u rre n t developm ents in b o th E urope a n d o f N aurs in France. S upplem entary tea c h e r
N orth Am erica. In E urope, the language needs resource m aterials p rom oting classroom CLT
of a rapidlv increasing g ro u p of im m igrants and becam e increasinglv p o p u lar d u rin g the 1970s
guest workers, as well as a rich British linguistic (e.g.. Males and Duff 1978).
M eanw hile, in the U n ited States. Hemes three co m ponent fram ew ork for com m unicative
(1971) h a d reacted to Chom sky's (1965) ch ar com petence. (The original Canale and Swain
acterization o f the linguistic com p eten ce of the fram ew ork with su b seq u en t m odifications is
“ideal native speaker” a n d p ro p o sed the term discussed below.) Test results at the end o f the
communicative competence to rep resen t the use of instructional p eriod showed conclusively that
language in social context, or the observance of learners who had practiced com m unication in
sociolinguistic norm s o f ap p ro p riat e. His concern lieu o f lab o ra to ry p a tte rn drills p e rfo rm e d
with speech com m unities and the integration of with no less accuracy on discrete-point tests of
language, com m unication, and culture was not gram m atical structure. O n the o th er h and, their
unlike th at of Halliday in the British linguistic tra communicative competence as m easured in term s of
dition (see Hallidav 1978). Hvmes's com m unica fluency com prehensibility, effort, an d am o u n t of
tive com petence mav be seen as the equivalent of com m unication in u n reh earsed oral com m u
Hallidav’s m eaning potential. Similarly, his focus nicative tasks significantly surpassed th at of
was n o t language learning, but language as social learners who had h ad no such practice. L earner
behavior. In subsequent interpretations of the sig reactions to the test form ats lent fu rth e r su p p o rt
nificance o f Hvmes's views for learners, m eth o d to the view that even beginners resp o n d well to
ologists working in the U nited States ten d ed to activities that let them focus on m eaning as
focus on native speaker cultural norm s and the opposed to form al features.
difficulty, if n o t impossibility, of authentically A collection of role plavs, games, an d o th er
representing them in a classroom of nonnative com m unicative classroom activities were subse
speakers. In light of this difficulty, the ap propri quently developed for inclusion in adaptating
ateness o f com m unicative com petence as an the French CREDIF- m aterials, Yoix el Visages de
instructional goal was questioned (e.g., Paulston la France. T he accom panying guide (Savignon
1974). 1974) described their purpose as that o f involving
At the same tim e, in a research project at the learners in the experience of com m unication.
University7 o f Illinois, Savignon (1972) used the Teachers were encouraged to provide learners
term “com m unicative com petence” to charac with the French equivalent of expressions that
terize the ability of classroom language learners would help them to participate in the negotiation
to interact with o th er speakers, to m ake m eaning, of m eaning such as ‘'W hat's the word for . . . ?”
as distinct from their ability to recite dialogs or “Please repeat," “I d o n 't u n d e rsta n d .” Not unlike
perform on discrete-point tests of gram m atical the efforts of C andlin and his colleagues w orking
knowledge. At a tim e when p attern practice and in a E uropean EFT context, the focus here was
erro r avoidance were the rule in language teach on classroom process and lea rn er autonom y.
ing, this study of adult classroom acquisition of T he use o f games, role play pair work, and o th er
F rench looked at the effect o f practice on the use small-group activ ities has gained acceptance and
of coping strategies as part of an instructional pro is now widely reco m m en d ed for inclusion in
gram . By encouraging learners to ask for inform a language teaching program s.
tion, to seek clarification, to use circum locution CLT thus can be seen to derive from a m ul
an d w'hatever o th er linguistic and nonlinguistic tidisciplinary perspective that includes, at a m in
resources thev could m uster to negotiate m eaning im u m , linguistics, psychology, philosophy,
and stick to the com m unicative task at hand, sociology, and ed ucational research. Its focus
teachers were invariably leading learners to take has b een the elab o ratio n a n d im p lem en tatio n
risks and speak in o th er than m em orized patterns. o f program s and m ethodologies th at p ro m o te
T he coping strategies identified in this study the developm ent of functional language ability
becam e the basis for subsequent identification bv th ro u g h lea rn er participation in com m unicative
Canale and Swain (1980) of strategic competence events. C entral to CLT is the u n d e rsta n d in g of
w hich— along with gram m atical com petence and language learn in g as both an ed ucational a n d a
sociolinguistic com petence— appeared in their political isstte. L anguage teaching is inextricably
tied to language police. Viewed from a m ulticul not include the abilitv to state rules o f usage. O ne
tural /н/m national as well as /м/m iatio n al p er dem onstrates gram m atical com petence n o t by
spective, diverse sociopolitical contexts m andate staling a rule b u t by using a rule in the in te rp re
n o t only a diverse set of language learn in g goals, tation, expression, or negotiation of m eaning.
b u t a diverse set of teaching strategies. Program
design a n d im p lem en tatio n d e p e n d on negoti
a tio n b etw een police m akers, linguists, re
search ers, a n d teach ers. A nd evaluation of
p rogram success requires a sim ilar collaborative
effort. T he selection of m ethods an d m aterials
a p p ro p riate to both the goals and context of
tea c h in g begins with an analvsis of sociallv
defined lea rn er needs and stvles o f learning.
H O W H A S C L T BEEN
IN TE R P R E TE D ?
T he classroom m odel shows the hvpothetical
integration o f four com ponents that hat e been
advanced as com prising com m unicative com pe
ten ce (Savignon 1972. 1983.1987. in press:
Canale and Swain 1980: Canale 1983a: Bvram
1997). A dapted from the fam iliar "inverted pvra-
m id ” classroom m odel p roposed bv Savignon
(1983), it shows how. th ro u g h practice and expe
rience in an increasinglv wide range o f com m u
nicative contexts and events, learners graduallv
Figure 1. Components of Communicative Competence
ex pand th eir com m unicative com petence, con
sisting of grammatical competence, discourse compe Discourse competence is con cern ed n o t with
tence, sociocult and competence, a n d strategic isolated words or phrases b u t with the in terco n
competence. A lthough the relative im portance of nectedness of a series o f utterances, w ritten
the various com ponents depends on the overall words, and or phrases to form a text, a m eaning
level of com m unicative com petence, each one is ful whole. The text m ight be a poem , an e-mail
essential. Me ireover. all com ponents are in te rre message, a sportscast. a telephone conversation,
lated. They cannot be developed o r m easured in or a novel. Identification o f isolated sounds or
isolation an d one cannot go from one com po words contribute to interp retatio n o f the overall
n e n t to the o th er as one strings beads to m ake a m eaning of the text. This is known as bottom-up
necklace. Rather, an increase in one co m p o n en t protessing. On the o th er hand, u n d erstan d in g of
interacts with o th er com ponents to pro d u ce a cor the them e or purpose of the text helps in the
resp o n d in g increase in overall com m unicative in terp retatio n o f isolated sounds o r words. This is
com petence. known as top-down processing. Both are im portant
Grammatical competence refers to sentence- in com m unicative com petence.
level gram m atical forms, the abilitv to recognize Two o th e r fam iliar co n cep ts in talking
the lexical, m orphological, svntactic, and p h o n o about discourse com petence are text coheimce
logical feature o f a language and to m ake use of and cohesion. Text coherence is the relation of
these features to in te rp re t and form words a n d all sentences or utterances in a text to a single
sen ten ces. G ram m atical c o m p e te n c e is n o t global proposition. T he establishm ent of a global
linked to anv single theorv o f gram m ar an d does meaning, or topic, for a text is an integral p art of
both expression and in terp retatio n and makes T he "ideal native speaker." som eone yvho
possible the in terp retatio n of the individual sen knows a language perfectly and uses it ap p ro p ri
tences th at m ake up the text. Local connections ately in till social interactions, exists in theory
or structural links betw een individual sentences onh. N one of us knows all there is to know
provide cohesion. Hallidav and H asan (1976) of English in its many- m anifestations, both
are well-known for their identification of various aro u n d the world and in o u r tnvn backyards.
cohesive devices used in English. and their work C om m unicative com petence is alwavs relative.
has influenced teacher education m aterials for T he coping strategies that we use in unfam iliar
ESL/EFL. (for illustration, see Celce-M urcia and contexts, with co n strain ts d u e to im p e rfe c t
L arsen-Freem an 1999). knoyvledge of rules or lim iting factors in then-
Sociocultural competence extends well bevond application such as fatigue or distraction, are
linguistic form s and is an interdisciplinary field rep resen ted as strategic competence. W ith practice
o f inquiry having to do with the social rules and experience, we gain in gram m atical, dis
o f language use. S ociocultural c o m p e ten c e course. and sociocultural com petence. T he rela
requires an un d erstan d in g o f the social context tive im portance of strategic com petence thus
in which language is used: the roles of the partic decreases. Hoyvever. the effective use of coping
ipants, the inform ation thev share, and the func strategies is im p o rtan t for com m unicative com
tion o f the interaction. .Although we have vet to petence in all contexts and distinguishes highly
p ro tid e a satisfactory description of gram m ar, we co m petent com m unicators from those yvho are
are even fu rth er from an adequate description of less so.
sociocultural rules o f appropriateness. And vet we Bv definition. CLT puts the focus on the
use them to com m unicate successfully in mam- learner. L earn er com m unicative needs provide
different contexts of situation. a fram ew ork for elaborating program goals in
It is of course not feasible for learners to term s of functional com petence. This im plies
anticipate the sociocultural aspects for even global, qualitative evaluation o f le a rn e r achieve
context. M oreover, English often se n e s as a lan m en t as opposed to quantitative assessm ent of
guage o f com m unication between speakers o f discrete linguistic features. C ontroversy over
different prim arv languages. Participants in m ul a p p ro p riate language testing m easures persists,
ticultural com m unication are sensitive not onlv an d m anv a curricu lar innovation has b e e n
to the cultural m eanings attached to the lan u n d o n e by failu re to m ake corresponding-
guage itself, but also to social conventions con changes in evaluation. C u rren t efforts at ed u ca
c e rn in g lan g u ag e use, such as tu rn-taking, tional reform favor essay writing, in-class p rese n
appropriacy of content, nonverbal language, and tations, a n d o th e r m ore holistic assessm ents
tone o f voice. These conventions influence how o f lea rn er com petence. Some program s have
m essages are in te rp re te d . C ultural awareness initiated portfolio assessment, the collection and
ra th e r than cultural know ledge thus becom es evaluation o f lea rn er poem s, reports, stories,
increasingly im portant. Just knoyving som ething videotapes, and similar projects in an effort
ab o u t the culture of an English-speaking country to b e tte r re p re s e n t a n d e n c o u ra g e le a rn e r
will n ot suffice. W hat m ust be learned is a general achievem ent.
em pathy and openness towards o th er culture'. A lthough it now has a new nam e and is
Sociocultural com petence therefore in clu d e ' a enjoving w idespread recognition and research
willingness to engage in the active negotiation <>f attention, CLT is not a neyv idea. T h ro u g h o u t the
m eaning along with a willingness to 'in p e n d long history of language teaching, there always
ju d g e m e n t and take into consideration the oo>- have been advocates of a focus on m eaning, as
sibilitv o f cultural differences in con v en tio n ' or opposed to form , and o f developing learn er abil
use. T ogether these features m ight be 'u b 'u m e d ity7 to actually use the language for com m unica
u n d e r the term cultural flexibility < i Co on/ tion. T he m ore im m ediate the com m unicative
awareness. needs, the m ore readily com m unicative m ethods
seem to be ad o p ted . In h e r book Breaking English, Spanish. French, etc. Teacher rejection of
Tradition, M usum eci (1997) provides a fascinat research findings, renervecl insistence on tests of
ing account o f language teaching reform efforts discrete gram m atical structures, an d even exclu
dating back to the M iddle Ages w hen Latin, not sive reliance in the classroom on the learners’
English, was the lingua franca. Breaking Tradition nativ e or first language, w here possible, to be sure
is a favorite read in g of mv students. Then find it thev "get the gram m ar.” have been in some cases
a refreshing an d reassuring rem in d er that dis reactions to the fru stration o f teach in g for
cussions of m ethods and goals to r language com m unication.
teach in g pred ate the tw entieth cen trin ' bv far.
D e p en d in g u p o n th eir own p rep aratio n
a n d experience, teachers them selves differ in S H A P IN G A C O M M U N IC A TIV E
th eir reactions to CLT. Som e feel u n d e rsta n d
able frustration at the seem ing am biguity in dis
C U R R IC U LU M
cussions o f com m unicative ability N egotiation In rec e n t vears. m am innovations in curriculum
o f m ean in g mav be a lofts goal, but this view of p lan n in g have been p ro p o sed th at offer both
language behavior lacks precision an d does not novice an d veteran teachers a dizzying array
provide a universal scale for assessm ent of indi of alternatives. G am es, voga, juggling, a n d
vidual learners. Ability is sie v e d as satiable and jazz have been p ro p o sed as aids to language
highly d e p e n d e n t u p o n context an d purpose as learning. Rapidiv increasing o p p o rtu n ities for
well as on the roles and attitudes o f all involved. c o m p u te r-m e d ia te d c o m m u n ic a tio n , b o th
O th e r teachers who welcom e the o p p o rtu n ity to synchronous— online chat room s — an d asyn
select a n d /o r develop th eir osvn m aterials, p ro c h ro n o u s— the full spectrum of inform ation
sid in g learners with a range o f com m unicative an d interactions available on the In te rn e t as well
tasks, are com fortable reiving on m ore global, as specialized bulletin boards an d e-m ail— hold
integrative judgm ents of le a rn e r progress. prom ise for fu rth e r integration o f com m unica
An additional source of frustration for some tive opp o rtu n ities for learners worldwide.
teach ers are seco n d lan g u ag e acquisition In attem p tin g to convev the m ean in g of
research findings that show the route, if not the CLT to both pre-service a n d in-service teachers
rate, o f language acquisition to be largely unaf o f English as a second o r foreign language in a
fected bv classroom instruction. First language wide range of contexts. I have fo u n d it helpful to
cross-linguistic studies o f developm ental univer- think of a com m unicative curriculum as p o te n
sals initiated in the 1970s were soon followed bv tially m ade up of five com ponents. These com
sim ilar second language studies. Acquisition, p o nents mav be reg ard ed as them atic clusters of
assessed on the basis of expression in u n re activities or experiences related to language use
hearsed, oral com m unicative contexts, appeared a n d usage, providing a useful wav o f categoriz
to follow a describable m orphosvntactic sequence ing teaching strategies that pro m o te com m u
regardless of learn er age or context of learning. nicative language use. Use o f the term component
A lthough thev served to bear out teachers’ infor to categorize these activities seem s particularly
m al observations, namelv that textbook presenta a p p ro p riate in that it avoids am suggestion of
tion and drill do not ensure lea rn er use of taught sequence or level. E x p erim en tatio n with com
structures in learners' spontaneous expression, m unicative teaching m ethods has shown th at all
th e findings were nonetheless disconcerting. five co m p o n en ts can be profitably b len d e d at all
Thev contradicted both gram m ar-translation and stages of instruction. O rganization o f learn in g
aucliolingual precepts that placed the b u rd en of activities into the following com p o n en ts serve
le a rn e r acquisition on teacher explanation of n o t to sequence an ELT program , b u t ra th e r to
gram m ar and controlled practice with insistence highlight the range of options available in cu rricu
on learn er accuracy. They were fu rth e r at odds lum p lan n in g and to suggest wavs in which th eir
with textbooks that prom ise •‘m astery” o f "basic” very interrelated n ess benefit the learner.
■ L anguage Arts In an ESL classroom w here English is the
■ L anguage for a P urpose language o f instruction, th ere is an im m ediate
■ My Language Is Me: Personal English Language an d natu ral n e e d for learners to use English.
Use W here this h appens, L anguage for a P urpose is
■ You Be, Г 11 Be; T h e a te r Arts a built-in feature o f the learn in g environm ent.
■ Beyond the Classroom In an EFL setting w here the teach er may have a
language o th e r th an English in com m on with
Language Arts, o r language analysis, is the
learners, special a tte n tio n needs to be given to
first c o m p o n e n t on th e list. L anguage Arts
providing o p p o rtu n ities for English language
includes those things th at language teachers
experience. Exclusive use of English in the class
often do best. In fact, it may be all they have been
room is an option. In so-called content-based
tau g h t to do. This c o m p o n e n t includes m any
instruction, the focus is o th e r th an the English
o f the exercises used in m o th e r tongue program s
language. T he content, fo r exam ple history,
to focus atten tio n on form al accuracy. In ELT.
m usic, or literature, is tau g h t th ro u g h the иле of
L anguage Arts focuses on form s o f English,
English. Immersion program s at the elem entary,
including syntax, m orphology, and phonology.
secondare, o r even university level w here the
Spelling tests, for exam ple, are im p o rtan t if
en tire curriculum is tau g h t in English offer a
w riting is a goal. Fam iliar activities such as trans
m axim um am o u n t of Language for a P urpose
lation, dictation, an d rote m em orization can be
(see Snow's c h a p te r in this v o lu m e). In addition,
helpful in bringing atten tio n to form . Vocabulary
task-based c u rricu la are d esig n ed to provide
expansion can be e n h a n c e d th ro u g h definition,
lea rn ers with m axim um o p p o rtu n ity to use
synonyms, a n d antonym s as well as attention to
L anguage for a Purpose (see chapters by N unan;
cognates a n d false cognates w hen applicable.
Jo h n s a n d Price-M achado; an d C h a u d ro n an d
P ro n u n ciatio n exercises an d p a tte rn e d repeti
C rookes in this volum e).
tion o f verb paradigm s and o th e r structural fea
L earners who are accustom ed to being
tures can be useful in focusing on form , along
taught exclusively in th eir m o th e r tongue may at
with the explanation o f regular syntactic features,
first be un co m fo rtab le if the teach er speaks to
rules o f gram m ar. T here are also m any Language
them in English, expecting them n o t only to
Arts games th at learners o f all ages enjoy for the
u n d e rsta n d but, perhaps, to respond. V ire n this
variety an d group interaction they provide. So
h appens, teachers n e e d to take special care to
long as they are n o t overused and are n o t pro
help learners realize th at they are n o t expected
m o ted as the solution to all m an n e r of language
to u n d e rsta n d ev en word, any m ore th an they
learn in g problem s, these gam es can be a wel
are expected to express them selves in nativelike
com e addition to a te a c h e r’s repertoire.
English. M aking an effort to get the gist an d
Language for a Purpose, or language experi
using strategies to in te rp re t, express, an d neg o
ence, is the second com ponent. In contrast with
tiate m ean in g are im p o rtan t to the d evelopm ent
language analysis, language experience is the use
o f com m unicative co m p eten ce. F or learn ers
o f English for real a n d im m ediate com m unica
who are accustom ed to gram m ar translation
tive goals. N ot all learners are learning English
courses tau g h t in th eir m o th e r tongue with an
for the same reasons. A ttention to the specific
em phasis on gram m ar an d accuracy, th e tra n
com m unicative needs of the learners is im p o r
sition will n o t be easy. Kivoko Kusano H ubbell (in
tant in the selection a n d sequencing o f m aterials.
press), a Japanese teacher o f English in Tokyo,
Regardless of how distant or unspecific the com
recounts some struggles in h e r determ in ed effort
m unicative needs o f the learners may be. even-
to teach communicatively:
program with a goal o f com m unicative com pe
tence should give atten tio n to o pportunities for Мапл Jap an ese students have b een
m eaningful English use, opportunities to focus tau g h t th a t they have to really know
on m eaning ra th e r than on form . evert word in a sentence o r a phrase
in o rd er to u n d e rsta n d a foreign lan In p la n n in g for CLT. tea c h e rs sh o u ld
guage. They are n o t taught to use the rem e m b e r th at n o t evervone is com fortable in
strategies th at they already use in their the sam e role. W ithin classroom com m unities, as
native Japanese, th at is, to guess the within society at large, th ere are leaders and
m eaning from the context. W hen the th ere are those who p refer to be followers. Both
blackboard is full o f writing a n d I am are essential to the success of g roup activities. In
busy in class, I ask a student, “Please group discussions, there are always some who
erase the blackboard!”, h an d in g him seem to do the m ost talking. Those who often
an eraser a n d p o inting to the dirtv rem ain silent in larger groups typically partici
blackboard. If he does n o t move, it is pate m ore easily in pair work. O r they may prefer
n o t because he is offended. H e ju st did to work on an individual project. T he w ider the
n o t recognize the w ord “erase,” and to variety of com m unicative, or m eaning-based,
him that m eans he did not u n d erstan d activities, the greater the chance for involving
m e. If he is willing to accept the am bi all learners.
guity', he gets up and cleans the board. Mv L anguage Is Me implies, above all,
respect for learners as thev use English for self-
W ith en c o u ra g e m e n t an d h elp from their expression. .Although Language Arts activities
tea c h e r in developing the strategic com petence provide an app ro p riate context for atten tio n to
they n e e d to in te rp re t, express, an d negotiate form al accuracy Personal English Language LTse
m eaning, learners express satisfaction and even does not. Most teachers know this and intuitively
surprise. Kusano H ubbell goes on to rep o rt the focus on m eaning rath er than on form as learners
positive reactions she receives at the en d of the express their personal feelings o r experiences.
term . (All com m ents have b een translated from However, repeated em phasis on structural accu-
Ja p an e se by the author.) racv in textbooks or on tests mav cause teachers
“C om pletelv different from anv class to feel uncom fortable about their in atten tio n
I ’ve ever h a d !” to non-nativelike features that do n o t im pede
m eaning. .An un d erstan d in g of the im portance of
“I have never expressed my own ideas
opportunities for the in terpretation, expression,
in English before. W ork was alwavs to
and negotiation o f m eaning in CLT an d o f the
translate this section, to fill in the
distin ctio n betw een L anguage Arts a n d My
blanks o r read. It was all passive.”
Language Is Me can help to reassure teachers that
“In my career o f English education the com m unicative practice thev are providing is
from Jr. H igh to C ram School th ere im portant for their learners.
was no tea c h e r who spoke English Respect for learners as thev use English for
o th e r th an to read the textbooks.” self-expression re q u ire s m o re th a n sim ply
My Language Is Me: Personal English Language restrain t in a tten tio n to form al “e rro rs” th at
Use, the third co m p o n en t in a com m unicative do n o t in te rfe re with m eaning. It includes recog
curriculum , relates to the le a rn e r’s em erging nition that so-called “nativelike” p erfo rm an ce
identity' in English. L earner attitude is w ithout a mav not, in fact, even be a goal for learners.
d o u b t the single m ost im portant factor in learn er L anguage teaching has com e a long way from
success. W hether a le a rn e r’s m otivations are inte aucliolingual davs w hen “native” p ro n u n cia tio n
grative o r instrum ental, the developm ent o f com a n d use was held up as an ideal. R eference to the
m unicative c o m p e te n c e involves th e w hole term s "native” or "nativelike" in the evaluation
learner. T h e m ost successful teaching program s o f com m unicative co m p eten ce is in ap p ro p ria te
are those th at take into account the affective in todav's postcolonial, m ulticultural world. As
as well as the cognitive aspects o f language observed earlier, we notv recognize that native
learning. They seek to involve learn ers psycho speakers are never “ideal'' and, in fact, varv widely
logically as well as intellectually. in range and style of comm unicative abilities.
M oreover, as the English language is increasingly I just d o n 't know what to do right
used as a language of global com m unication, so now. I m ight have b e e n wrong since I
called “non-native" users of its m am varieties began to learn English: I always tried
overw helm ingly o u tn u m b e r so-called "native to be b e tte r and w anted to be a good
speakers.” T he decision of what is or is not one's speaker. It was wrong, absolutely wrong!
“native” language is arbitrary and irrelevant for W hen I got to California. I started im i
ELT a n d is perhaps best left to the individual tating A m ericans and picked up the
concerned. C hennv Lai. a graduate MATESI. words that I heard. So mv English
candidate studying in the U nited States, expresses becam e just like -Americans. I c o u ld n 't
his views: help it. I m ust have b een funnv to
As to the definition of "native" or "first" them , because I am a Japanese and
language we discussed in today's class. I hat e mv own culture an d background.
cam e up with the idea that we have no I think I alm ost lost the most im portant
say about w hether a person's native lan thing I should not have. I got California
guage is this one or that one. It is the English, including intonation, p ro n u n
speaker whet has the right to FEEL ciation. the wav thev act, which are not
which language is his native one. The m ine. I har e to have my own English, be
native language should be the one in mvself w hen I speak English (Preston
which the speaker feels most com fort 1981. p. 113).
able or natural w hen m aking dailv
com m unication, or m ore abstractly, On the o th e r hand, learners mav discover a
the one in which the speaker does all new freed o m o f self-expression in th eir new lan
his thinking. T here are two m ajor lan guage. W hen asked what it is like to write in
guages spoken in Taiwan: M andarin E nglish, a lan g u ag e th at is n o t h e r native
an d Taiwanese. I d o n ’t have any slight tongue, the K orean w riter Mia Ann, a u th o r of
est problem using eith er of them since House of the Winds (1998), replied th at it was “like
I use both even' clav in equal p ro p o r pu ttin g on a new dress." W riting in English
tion. But w hen I do mv thinking, con m ade h e r feel fresh, see h erself in a new way,
sidering things, or even kind o f talking o ffe red h e r fre e d o m to e x p e rim e n t. W hen
to mvself', mv “m ental" language is expressing them selves in a new language, writers
M andarin. Because of this. I would are not the onlv ones to experience the feeling
say th a t mv native language is of "putting on a new dress." My L anguage Is
M andarin. . . . we probable can sav that Me calls for recognition a n d respect for the indi
a person's native language can actually vidual personality o f the learner. (We will re tu rn
“switch” from one to a n o th e r d u ring to the m atte r of the "native 'non-native” dis
stages o f his life. tinction with respect to users of English later
Since a personality inevitable takes on a when discussing sociolinguistic issues.)
new dim ension th ro u g h expression in a n o th e r You Be. I'll Be: Theater Arts is the fourth com
language, th at dim ension needs to be discovered p o n e n t of a com m unicative curriculum . “.All the
on its own term s. L earners should not only be w o rld ’s a stage." in the fam iliar w ords of
given the o p p o rtu n ity to say w hat thev want to Shakespeare (As You Like It, II, viii; 139). A nd on
say in English, thev also should be en co u rag ed this stage we plav manv roles, roles for which we
to develop an English language personality with improvise scripts from the m odels we observe
which they are com fortable. They mav feel m ore aro u n d us. Child, parent, sister, brother, em
com fortable m aintaining a degree o f form ality ployer, em ployee, doctor, or tea c h e r— all are
not fo u n d in the in terp erso n al transactions of roles that include certain expected ways o f behav
native speakers. T he diary entrv of a Jap an ese ing and using language. Sociocultural rules of
le a rn e r o f English offers im p o rtan t insight on appropriateness have to do with these expected
the m atte r of identity: wavs. Familiar roles may be plated with little
conscious attention to style. O n the o th er hand, w orld beyond. This is the wrorld u p o n which
new and unfam iliar roles req u ire practice, with learners will d e p e n d for the m ain ten an ce and
an awareness of how the m eanings we in te n d are developm ent o f th eir com m unicative co m p e
being in te rp re te d bv others. Som etim es there tence once classes are over. T he classroom is b u t
are no m odels. In the last h a lf o f the tw entieth a rehearsal. D evelopm ent o f the Beyond the
century, w om en who suddenly found them selves Classroom c o m p o n e n t in a com m unicative cur
in w hat had b e e n a "m an's world," w h eth er as riculum begins with discovery o f lea rn er interests
firefighters, professors, o r CEOs, had to adapt and needs an d of opportunities to n o t only
existing m odels to ones with which they could respond to but, m ore im portantly, to develop those
be com fortable. And the transition is far from interests and needs th rough English language use
com plete. W ith the exception o f G reat Britain, bevond the classroom itself.
no m ajor w orld pow er to date has h ad a wom an In an EST setting, opportunities to use
h e a d o f state. Bv the e n d o f the twentv-first cen English outside the classroom abound. Systematic
tury th ere no d o u b t will be n u m ero u s m odels "field experiences" may successfully becom e the
from which to choose. core of the course, which then could becom e a
If the world can be thought o f as a stage, w orkshop in which learners can com pare notes,
with actors and actresses who plav their parts as seek clarification, an d e x p an d the range o f
best they can, th eater mav be seen as an o p p o rtu dom ains in which thev learn to function in
nity to experim ent with roles, to trv things out. English. Classroom visits to a courtroom trial,
Fantasy and playacting are a natural and im por a public auction, or a church bazaar provide
tan t p art of childhood. Make-believe and the "von introductions to aspects o f the local culture that
be, I’ll b e ” improvisations fam iliar to children the learners m ight n o t experience on their own.
w’orld over are im portant to self-discoverv and C onversation p a rtn e rs, a p p re n tic e sh ip s, an d
growth. They allow voting learners to experim ent activities with host families can be arranged.
a n d to try things out, such as hats and wigs, Residents of nearbv retirem ent com m unities can
m oods and postures, gestures and words. As occa be recruited as valuable resources for a range of
sions for language use, role-plaving an d the m anv research projects. Senior citizens often welcome
related activities that constitute T heater Arts are the opportunity to interact with international vis
likewise a natural c o m p o n e n t o f language learn itors or new arrivals and offer a wealth of knowl
ing. They allow learners to ex p erim en t with the edge and experience. Thev could be interview7ed
roles thev play o r mav be called upon to plav in about notew orthy historical events, child rearing
real life. T h e a te r Arts can provide learners with in earlier decades, or their view’s on politics,
th e tools thev n e e d to act, that is. to in terp ret, health care, or grandparenting.
express, a n d negotiate m ean in g in a new lan In an EFT setting, on the o th er h and, the
guage. Activities can include both scripted and ch allen g e fo r in c o rp o ra tin g a B eyond the
u n scrip ted role plav, sim ulations, an d even p a n Classroom c o m p o n e n t may be greater, b u t cer
tom im e. E nsem ble-building activities fam iliar in tainly n o t insurm ountable, a n d is essential for
th e a te r training have been used very successfully both teacher a n d learners. As a child, I looked
in EET to create a clim ate o f trust so necessary forw ard to receiving letters from my pen pals.
for the in co rp o ratio n of T h e a te r Arts activities Thev would arrive bearing colorful stam ps from
(see Savignon 1997). T he role of th e tea c h e r in France. Wales, Jap an , Taiwan, and Australia. I
T h e a te r Arts is th at o f a coach, providing sup had vet to learn a second language, so o u r corre
port, strategies, an d en c o u ra g e m e n t for learners spondence was all in English. However, this reg
as they explore new ways of being. u lar ex c h an g e o f letters p u t a sm all town
Beyond the Classroom is the fifth an d final m idw estern .American girl in touch with o th er
c o m p o n e n t of a com m unicative curriculum . places aro u n d the globe a n d with o th e r users of
Regardless o f the variety of com m unicative activ English. Technology has since b ro u g h t the whole
ities in the E SL /EFL classroom , th eir purpose w orld m uch closer. English language radio an d
rem ains to p rep a re learners to use English in the television program s, videos, an d feature length
films are readilv available in m am F F f settings, Arts, and Be\ ond the Classroom? These questions
along with new spapers and m agazines. English must be answ ered bv individual language teach
speaking residents o r ■visitors m at be available to ers in the context in yvhich they teach. Cultural
visit the classroom . T he In te rn et now provides expectations, goals, and styles o fle a rn in g are but
o p p o rtu n ities to in teract with English speaking some o f the ways in yvhich learners mav differ
peers on a varietv of topics, to develop gram from each other. To the complexity o f the learn er
m atical, discourse, sociocultural, and strategic m ust be added the com plexities of teachers and
com petence. These o p p o rtu n ities for com puter- of the settings in which they teach. Established
m ediated com m unication (CMC) will increase routines, or institutional belief about what is
dram aticallv in the years ahead. T he following im portant, weigh heavily in a te a c h e r’s decisions
except from an e-mail exchange betw een classes as to yvhat and horv to teach and often m akes
of secondary school students in G erm any and the innovation difficult (see Sato in press; W ang in
Lhrited States on the topic of the death penalty press). Finally, the need for varietv m ust be taken
reveals th e p o ten tia l for dev elo p in g socio into account. Learners yvlm are b ored with rule
cultural and strategic skills in addition to gram recitation or sentence translation mav ju st as
matical and discourse com petence (R oithm eier easily lose interest in games o r role play, if these
and Savignon in press): are allowed to becom e routine. Difficult as it
is. the teacher's task is to u n d e rsta n d the many
GER 1: Death Penalty— an inhuman punishm ent factors involved and respond to them creatively.
GER 3: . . . Finally. I th ink nobodv has the Teachers cannot do this alone, of course.
right to kill o th e r people but to kill a They n e e d the su p p o rt of adm in istrato rs,
person because of m erev is inhuman the comm unity, and the learners themselves.
an d should never be a law in certain M ethodologists and re a d ie r education program s
dem ocratic states or countries. . . . have a responsibility as yvell. They should provide
LbSA 2: . . . I can see b o th sides o f the death classroom teachers with the perspective and expe
penalty. I believe w hen discussing this riences they need to respond to the realities
inhuman tre a tm e n t vou m ust think of their world, a changing yvorlcl in yvhich the
ab o u t the victims o f these people. old way s of ELT mav not be the best wavs. T he
USA 4: . . . Basically, I think the d eath penalty optim um com bination of the analytical and the
is w rong and inhumane. experiential in ESL EFF for a given context is a
USA 6: T he d eath penalty is inhumane . . . focus o f ongoing research. However, a noyv yvell-
established research tradition in second/foreign
Exam ples such as the above provide strong language learning teaching has clearly shoyvn the
su p p o rt for the claim that m em bers of a discus im portance o f attention to language use, o r expe
sion g roup are strongly influenced bv p rio r post rience, in addition to language usage, or analysis.
ings an d that the language thee use is influenced But the ovenvhelm ing emphasis in most school
bv what the\ read from participants. In addition program s is on the Fitter, often to the com plete
to p rea rra n g e d exchanges, learners can check exclusion of the former.
W orld W ide Web sites for a range o f inform ation,
schedules, rates, locations, descriptions, and
the like.
W H A T A B O U T GRAMMAR?
Discussions of GET not infrequently lead to
questions of gram m atical or form al accuracy.
P U T T IN G IT A L L T O G E T H E R T he perceived displacem ent of attention to mor-
How do we put it all together? Is there an opti phosvntactic features in lea rn er expression in
m um com bination of Language Arts. Personal favor of a focus on m eaning has led in some cases
Language Use, Language for a Purpose. T heater to the im pression that gram m ar is not im portant,
o r that p ro p o n en ts of CLT favor lea rn er self- even greater instability and variability in terms of
expression w ithout re g a rd to form . W hile both the am ount and rate o f change. Moreover,
involvem ent in com m unicative events is seen as sociolinguistic concerns yvith identity' and accom
central to language developm ent, this involve m odation help to explain the construction by
m en t necessarilv requires attention to form . T he bilinguals o f a “variation space" that is different
natu re o f the co ntribution to language develop from that o f a native speaker. This mav include
m en t o f both form -focused and m eaning-focused reten tio n of anv n u m b er of features of a previ
classroom activitv rem ains a question in ongoing ously acquired code or sy stem o f phonology and
research. T he optim um com bination of these syntax as well as features of discourse an d prag
activities in any given in stru ctio n al setting m atics. in c lu d in g c o m m u n ic a tio n strategies.
depends no doubt on learner age. nature and T he p h e n o m e n o n may be individual or. in those
length o f instructional sequence, opportunities settings yvhere there is a com m unity o f learners,
for language contact outside the classroom , general. Differences not only in the code itself
teacher preparation, and o th er factors. However, b ut in the sem antic m eanings attrib u ted to these
for the developm ent of com m unicative abilitv, different encodings contribute to identification
research Findings overw helm inglv su p p o rt the yvith a speech com m unity or culture, the yvav a
integration o f form -focused exercises with speech com m unity views itself and the world.
m eaning-focused experience. G ram m ar is im This o ften in clu d es code m ixing a n d code
portant, and learners seem to focus best on gram switching. the use bv bilinguals o f resources from
m ar when it relates to their com m unicative needs m ore than one speech comm unity.
and experiences. S ociolinguistic perspectives have b e e n
C om m unicative com petence obviouslv does im portant in u n d e rsta n d in g the im plications of
not m ean the wholesale rejection o f fam iliar norm , appropriaev, and variability for CLT and
m aterials. T here is n o th in g to prevent com m u continue to suggest avenues o f inquiry for fu rth er
nicatively-based m aterials from being subjected research and m aterials developm ent. Use of
to gram m ar-translation treatm ent, just as there
authentic language data hits u n derscored the
may be n o th in g to prevent a teacher with onlv an
im portance of context, such as setting, roles, and
old gram m ar-translation book at his or h e r dis
genre, in in terpreting the m eaning of a text. A
posal from teaching communicativelv. W hat m at
range o f both oral and written texts in context
ters is the teacher's conception of what learning
provides learners yvith a variety of language expe
a language is and how it happens. T he basic p rin
riences. which they n eed to construct their own
ciple involved is an orientation towards collective
"variation space" and to m ake determ inations of
participation in a process o f use a n d discovery
a p p ro p ria te in their own expression of m eaning.
achieved bv c o o p e ra tio n betw een individual
"C om petent" in this instance is not necessarily
learners as well as betw een learners and teachers.
synonym ous with "nativelike." N egotiation in
CLT highlights the n e e d for interlinguistic, that
is. intcrcidturcd, awareness on the part of all
S O C IO L IN G U IS T IC ISSUES involved (Byram 1997). B etter tm clerstanding of
the strategies used in the negotiation o f m eaning
N um erous sociolinguistic issues await attention. offers a potential for im proving classroom prac
V ariation in the speech com m unity an d its tice of the n e e d ed skills.
relationship to language change are central to
sociolinguistic inquire. As we have seen above,
sociolinguistic perspectives on variability and
change highlight the folk of describing native Natives and Foreigners
speaker com petence, let alone non-native speaker We m ight begin bv asking ourselves whose lan
com petence, in terms of "mastery " or “com m and” guage we teach and for what purpose. W hat is
o f a system. .All language systems show instabilitv o u r own relationship with English? Do we con
and variation. L earner language systems show sider it to be a foreign, second, or native language?
Webster's New International Dictionary. 2nd English in Pattava is no excuse for ig n oring or
edition, published in 1950. a tim e w hen language avoiding o p p o rtu n ities for com m unication, both
te a c h in g in the U n ite d States was on the w ritten an d oral. T he potential o f com puter-
th re sh o ld o f a p e rio d of u n p re c e d e n te d scrutiny, m ed iated negotiation o f m ean in g for language
ex p erim en tatio n , an d grow th, p ro tid e s the fol learn in g and language change in the decades
lowing definitions of these term s we use so often ah e ad will be increasingly recognized, b o th
with respect to language. Foreign derives from inside and outside language classrooms.
M iddle English forein. forene. O ld French forain W hat mav be a p roblem is the te a c h e r’s
a n d Latin fonts, m ean in g outside. Related words com m unicative co m petence. Is he or she a
are foreclose, forest, forfeit. M odern definitions native speaker? If not. does he o r she consider
include “situated outside one's own country; born him- or herself bilingual? If not. whv not? Is it a
in, belonging to, derived from, or characteristic lack o f com m unicative com petence? Or, rather,
o f some place o th er than the one u n d e r consid a lack of com m unicative confidence? Is he or
eration; alien in character; not connected or she in tim id ated bv “native" speakers? Native
p e rtin e n t,” etc. Speaker is the title of a m oving first novel by
Those identified as teaching a foreign lan C hang-rae Tee. an A m erican raised in a K orean
guage, p erhaps even in a D ep artm en t of Foreign im m igrant family in New Jersey. It docum ents
Languages, should ask. "Whv?" W hat does the the struggle and frustration o f know ing two cul
label “foreign" signal to colleagues, learners, tures an d at the same tim e not com pletely
a n d the com m unity at large?- Toclav we are c o n belonging to e ith e r one. As such, it serves as a
ce rn e d with global ecology an d global economy. p o ig n an t rem in d er of the challenges o f bilin
A nd English has b een describe as a “global lan gualism a n d b icu ltu ralism . How does o n e
gu ag e” (Crystal 1997). N onetheless, one m ight "belong”? W hat does it m ean to be bilingual? To
object, “fo re ig n ” is still a useful term to use in be bicultural? To be a native speaker?
distinguishing betw een teaching English in. sat-. Again, the exam ple o f English is im portant.
Pattava, T h a ila n d , a n d te a c h in g E nglish in Such w idespread a d o p tio n of one language is
Youngstown, O hio. In Youngstown. English is u n p re c e d e n te d . English users todav in clu d e
taught as a second language w hereas in Pattava those who live in countries w here English is a pri
it is a foreign language. T he contexts of learning mary language — the U nited States, the U nited
are n o t the same, to be sure. N eith er are the Kingdom . Canada. Australia, and New Zealand;
learners. N o r the teachers. But do these facts those who live in countries w here English is an
change the n a tu re of the language? A nd what additional, m /ranational language o f co m m u n i
ab o u t the teaching of Spanish in Chicago, in c a tio n — fo r e x am p le. B an g lad esh , In d ia,
B arcelona, in B uenos Aires, in G uatem ala City, N igeria, Philippines, a n d Tanzania; those who
in M iami, o r in M adrid? In what sense can use English prim arily in /н/rrnational co n tex ts—
Spanish in each of these contexts be described countries such as C hina, Indonesia, Ja p a n , Saudi
as “fo reign” or “seco n d ”? And what are the im pli A rabia, a n d Russia. Bv conservative estim ates the
cations of the label selected for the learners? For n u m b e r of non-native speakers of English in the
the teachers? w orld todav o u tn u m b e rs native speakers by
H aving tau g h t F rench in U rbana, Illinois, m ore th an 2 to 1. a n d the ratio is increasing.
for m an \- years, I can easily identify with the M odels of appropriaev vary from c o n tex t to con
problem s o f teachers of English in Pattava. M ore text. So m uch, in fact, that som e scholars speak
so, p e rh a p s, th an those w ho teach ESL in n o t onlv of varieties of English b u t of World
U rb an a with easy access to English speaking Englishes, the title of a new journal devoted to
com m unities outside the classroom . O n the discussion of descriptive, pedagogical, and o th e r
o th e r h a n d , teach in g F rench in U rbana or issues in the global sp re a d o f the English
language. As лее have seen above, d e p e n d in g on theory o f in tercu ltu ral com m unicative com pe
the context as well as le a rn e r needs, "native" ten c e to be used in d ev e lo p in g m aterials
speakers mav or m ar- n o t be a p p ro p riate m odels an d m ethods a p p ro p riate to a given co n tex t of
(see also K achru 1992). learning. C ontexts change. A w orld o f carriages
an d petticoats evolves into one of genom es and
cyberspace. N o less th an the m eans a n d norm s
of com m unication thev are designed to reflect,
W H A T C L T IS N O T com m unicative teach in g m ethods designed to
D isappointm ent with both gram m ar-translation e n h a n c e th e in te rp re ta tio n , expression, and
an d audiolingual m ethods for th eir inabilitv negotiation o f m ean in g will co n tin u e to be
to prep are learners for the in terpretation, ex e x p lo red an d adapted.
pression, and negotiation of m eaning, along with
enthusiasm for an arrav of alternative m ethods
increasingly labeled communicative, has resulted in
no small am ount of uncertaintv as to what are D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
and are not essential features of CLT. Thus,
this sum m ary description would be incom plete 1. If vou h ad to choose th re e adjectives to
w ithout brief m ention of what CLT is not. describe CLT, what w ould thev be?
CLT is not exclusively co n c ern e d with face- 2. W hat m ight be som e obstacles e n c o u n te re d
to-face oral c o m m u n ic a tio n . T h e prin cip les bv teachers who wish to im p lem en t a com
o f CLT apply equally to reading and writing m unicative ap p ro ach to language teaching?
activities th at involve re a d e rs a n d winters How m ight these obstacles be overcom e?
engaged in the in te rp re ta tio n , expression, and 3. Do vou feel English to be a foreign, second, or
n e g o tia tio n o f m ean in g : the goals o f CLT native language? How m ight vour feelings
d e p e n d on lea rn er needs in a given context. influence vour classroom teaching?
CLT does not require sm all-group or p air work: 4. O f the five described co m p o n en ts o f a com
g ro u p tasks have been found helpful in mans m unicative curriculum , which are the m ost
contexts as a wav of providing increased o p p o r fam iliar to vou as a language learner? As a
tu nity a n d m otivation for c o m m u n ic a tio n . language teacher?
However, classroom g roup or pair work should 5. W ho sets the norm for English language use
not be considered an essential feature an d mav in vour p articular context o f situation? How?
well be in ap p ro p ria te in som e contexts. Finally. Whv?
CLT does not exclude a focus on m etalinguistic
aw areness o r know ledge of rules o f syntax,
discourse, and social appropriateness.
T he essence o f CLT is the en g ag em en t of
learners in com m unication in o rd e r to allow S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
them to develop th eir com m unicative com pe 1. Request perm ission to observe two or th ree
tence. Terms som etim es used to refer to features d iffe re n t in tro d u c to ry level ESL or EEL
o f CLT include process oriented, task-based, and classes. N ote the interaction betw een the
inductive, o r discoi'ery oriented. Inasm uch as strict tea c h e r an d the learners. W ho does m ost of
a d h e re n c e to a given text is n ot likelv to be true the talking? How m uch of the talking that
to its processes and goals, CLT c a n n o t be fo u n d vou h e a r is in English? Whv?
in any one textbook or set o f cu rricu lar m ateri 2. Interview som e language learners for their
als. In keeping with the n o tion of context o f sit views on whv thev are learn in g a foreign o r
uation, CLT is properly seen as an ap p ro ach or second language.
3. Look at the inverted pyram id diagram of Hollidav. A. 1994. Appropriate Methodology and Social
com m unicative com p eten ce on page 17. Do Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
you agree with the p ro p o rtio n s drawn? Draw Xunan. D. 1989a. Designing Tasks per the Commu
your own diagram to show the relationship nicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
betw een the fo u r co m p o n en ts o f com m u University Press.
Savignon. S. J. 1997. Communicative Competence: Theory
nicative com petence.
and Classroom Practice. New York: McGraw Hill.
4. Select one of the five co m p o n en ts o f a com
m unicative c u rricu lu m d e scrib ed in this
chapter. Make a list o f co rresp o n d in g lea rn
e r activities or experiences th at vou would ENDNO TES
like to use in your teaching.
1 The author copied this passage mam years ago while
visiting the Union School, a country school building
that teas moved to the citv of Goodland, Kansas, bv
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G the Sherman Countv Historical Society. It is owned
and operated as a school museum bv the Society.
Breen, M., and C. Candlin. 1980. The essentials of a - CRTDIF is the acronym for Centre de Recherche
communicative curriculum in language teaching. et d'Etude pour la Diffusion clu Francais. It was
Applied Linguistics 1(1) :89—112. an institution specializing in French as a foreign
Byram, M. 1997. Teaching and Assessing Inter- language and functioned in association with the
cultural Communicative Competence. Cleveclon. UK: Ecole Xormale Superieur de Saint-Cloud from
Multilingual Matters. 1939 to 1996.
Guidelines for Language Classroom
Instruction 1
GRAHAM CROOKES • CRAIG CHAUDRON
In "Guidelines for Language Classroom Instruction," Crookes and Chaudron review research and
practice in both second and foreign language contexts. The main areas of classroom instruction
described are: presentational modes and focus on form, types of activities and parameters of tasks
and interaction, classroom organization, teacher control of interaction, and corrective feedback.
6. C O N C L U S IO N S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
This introductory' review o f SL classroom teach 1. Prepare (individuallv) and com pare (as a
ing as an area of studv and professional practice group) a mini-lesson. Select a specific point
could be extended; indeed, m anv o th e r chapters of language form or function, rule of conver
of this volum e continue the discussion o f kev sation. o r o th e r social use o f English.
areas for classroom practice. N onetheless, it is Individuallv develop a sequence of activities
evident that teachers still e n c o u n te r m anv areas that vou m ight use to present, develop, and
evaluate this point, a n d then com pare your An illustrative collection of studies of pedago
suggestions in a group. Develop a jointlv gical applications of the concept o f ‘’task” in SL
agreed-upon way of teaching this point and teaching.
practice it with one another. Lurch. T. 1996. Communication in the Language Class
2. A useful alternative wav o f practicing the first
room. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
A useful introduction to basic processes of class
activity is for each person to teach a p o in t in
room interaction and teacher talk, with clear
a language unknow n to the others in the
examples.
group. Discuss your feelings on once again
being a second language learner.
3. W orking with a partner, discuss tvays in which
a teacher with a m ulticultural g roup of stu ENDNO TES
dents can best m aintain a positive classroom
1 We are grateful to mam people named for their
clim ate, p ro m o tin g s tu d e n t in te re st a n d
assistance with the previous version (Crookes and
m otivation.
Chaudron 1991) of this paper, and we wish to
continue acknowledgement of Marisol Valcarcel,
Mercedes Yerclu. and Julio Roca, of the
Universidad de Murcia.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G - Our discussion is traditional to the extent that we
will not deal with approaches to SL teaching that
Bailey, К. M., and D. Xunan, eds. 1996. Voices from the involve going outside the classroom (e.g., Ashworth
Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge 1985: Auerbach 1996: Fried Booth 1986).
University Press. 4 5Vhat "size" the elements are is not at issue here.
An extensive and accessible collection of recent That is to saw we are not concerned with whether
classroom SL studies, illustrating the range of the units presented are structural or functional,
current work of a more qualitative nature. or if the language of a given pedagogical task is an
Burns, A. 1999. Collaborative Action Research for English unanalvzed whole.
Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge 4 Though the idea is not a new one— see, e.g., West
University Press. (I960).
A practical introduction to teacher research in J This is. of course, a problem for the syllabus design
SL contexts based on actual investigations by a er to be aware of and to resolve bv proper choice of
team of SL teachers in Australia. learning targets (see Long and Crookes 1993).
Chaudron, C. 1988. Second Language Classrooms. b We should point out that we deliberately avoid the
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. word "method" here: we do not accept its general
A comprehensive survey of earlier SL classroom validity as a term of analysis (cf. Richards 1984).
research. ‘ This is particularly clear in the increased recogni
Crookes, G., and S. M. Gass. eds. 1993. Tasks in a tion of the importance of action research in the
Pedagogical Context: Integrating Theon and Practice. area of SL teaching (Bums 1999; Crookes 1993;
Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters. Freeman 1998).
English for Specific Purposes:
Tailoring Courses to Student Needs—
and to the Outside World
ANN M. J O H N S • DONNA P R I С E -M A C H A D О
In "English for Specific Purposes," Johns and Price-Machado argue that all good teaching is specific
purpose’ in approach. Using Vocational ESL and other examples, this chapter covers key questions such
as " W h o are the stakeholders?" and "W h a t is authenticity in the classroom?” which are addressed using
needs and discourse analysis. Various program models demonstrate how ESP values are realized in
different contexts.
English for Science English for Business English for Medical English for
and Technology (EST) and Economics (EBE) Purposes (EM P) the Law (ELP)
(Academic) (Academic) (Academic) (Academic)
English for
Professional Purposes
(EPP)
English for Medical English for Business Pre-employment Occupational- Cluster W orkplace
Purposes (EM P) Purposes (EBP) V ESL Specific V ESL V ESL V ESL
in the U n ited States, th ere are ESP courses in * relevant to the lea rn er
co m p u ter rep air an d o th e r areas of com puter ■ successful in im parting learning
language an d technology for the incarcerated. ■ m ore cost-effective th an “G eneral
T his rem a rk a b le diversity o f situations a n d E nglish."1
curricula highlights one of the virtues of ESP: the
program s are ad ap ted to the contexts and needs An ESP definition needs to distinguish betw een
of particular groups o f students. four absolute a n d two variable characteristics:
A lthough the m odern ESP m ovem ent has evolved ■ designed to m eet the specified needs of
in m any directions since it was fo u n d ed in the the lea rn er
m id 1960s (see Swales [1988] for an excellent ■ related to c o n te n t (i.e., in its them es
overview), several com ponents have rem ained a n d topics) to p a rticu la r disciplines,
relatively constant th ro u g h o u t its history. In occupations, o r activities
1988, P eter Strevens provided the following ■ centered on the language appropriate
overview o f ESP a n d its features. to these activities in syntax, lexis, dis
T he claims for ESP are th a t it is course, semantics, and the analysis of this
discourse
■ fo cu sed on th e le a r n e r ’s n e e d a n d
■ in contrast to “G eneral E nglish.”
wastes no tim e
2. Variable characteristics: ESP mav be. b ut is th ro u g h o u t the world require specialized lan
n o t necessarily guage training or education for certain employees
and students.
■ restricted to the language skills to be
Som etim es m andates, funding, a n d govern
learn ed (e.g., read in g only)
m en t reco m m en d atio n s create a intricate web
■ not taught according to any preordained
o f re q u ire m e n ts , resp o n ses, a n d oversight.
methodology.
For exam ple, vocational ESI. (VEST) program s
T he “absolute characteristics” of the m ovem ent, in the U nited States2 have b een developed as
in particular, have provided guidance in the com plex responses to welfare reform a n d the
design of ESP curricula and teaching over the needs o f fu n d in g agencies such as th e A dult
vears. Thus, they are im p o rtan t for u n derstand E ducation a n d Family Literacy Act.3 Many VEST
ing how ESP practitioners distinguish themselves program s, in th eir attem p t to m ee t c u rre n t
from o th e r ESL/EFL teachers in professional re q u ire m e n ts , are in fo rm e d by th e U.S.
organizations, such as TESOL, and elsewhere. D ep artm en t o f L a b o r’s SCANS R e p o rt1, th o u g h
Each characteristic will be discussed later in this no fu n d in g for \T.SL com es directly from this
chapter. agencv.
First, however, it is necessary to lat' a fo u n T he SCANS R eport established two levels of
dation, to consider those issues that ESP practi criteria for w orkplace skills (see, for exam ple,
tioners m ust address as they plan program s and M arshall 1997). At the first level, the F o u n d atio n
develop curricula. Skills include basic components (reading, writing,
active listening, quantitative operations, in te r
p retin g , o rg an izin g in fo rm a tio n a n d ideas),
ISSUES A D D R E SS E D IN ESP thinking skills (learning a n d reasoning, thinking
PROGRAM P L A N N IN G creatively, m aking decisions, solving problem s),
an d personal qualities (responsibility, self-esteem,
ESP pro g ram s are developed because th ere
sociability, integrity, self-m anagem ent). At the
is a d e m a n d , because teach ers, supervisors,
seco n d level, th e W orkplace C o m p eten cies
gov ern m en t agencies, professionals, students, or
include resource management (organizing, plan
o thers see a n e e d for language courses in which
ning. etc.), interpersonal skills (working in teams,
certain co n ten t, skills, m otivations, processes,
teaching others, negotiating, working effectively
a n d values are id entified a n d in teg rated into
within culturally diverse settings, etc.), informa
specialized, often short-term , courses. As ESP
tion management (acquiring a n d evaluating facts
p ra c titio n e rs a p p ro a c h course d ev elo p m en t,
an d data, using com puters, etc.), systems manage
they m ust consider a m u ltitu d e o f fa c to rs— an d
ment (u n d ersta n d in g social organization and
som e essential q u estio n s— before, an d during,
technological systems), an d technology (selecting
pro ject initiation. equ ip m en t and tools, applying technology to
1. Stakeholders in the Class or Project W hat tasks, etc.). Becattse of the influence of this report,
are the sources o f d em an d for this ESP program ? m anv \T S L textbook writers and teachers have
W ho are the clients? An employer, an agency, a used SCANS as the basis for their curricula (see,
governm ent, a m ore traditional educational insti for exam ple, Price-M achado 1998).
tution, o r the students themselves? W hat do the In o th er contexts, the stakeholders are the
stakeholders view as the essential elem ents of the stu d en ts them selves, particularly in private
ESP program they desire? ESL/EFL schools th ro u g h o u t the world which
These are the first questions posed— for a professionals attend to upgrade their language
n u m b er of reasons, one o f which is funding: skills. These students are often very precise about
Stakeholders generally provide the m oney for what thev want to learn and achieve. Even if the
courses and curriculum developm ent. A nother students do not, or cannot, initiate o r direct
reason is m andates: G overnm ents and institutions an ESP project, there has been considerable
attention given to wavs in which thev should be ESP teachers face challenges that o th e r
em pow ered to participate within it. Somerville instructors rnav be able to circum vent. O ne chal
(1997, p. 92), working in Australia, argues that we lenge relates to ESP content: discerning the p ar
m ust be asking questions such as the following if ticular vocabularv, discourses, an d processes that
we are to design workplace literacy curricula that are essential to the ESP training o f students
are learner-centered: w ithin a specialized context. W hat does the
teach er have to know about electrical e n g in e e r
■ W ho are the participants in workplace literacv
ing and its practices to assist students to write a
programs?
research p a p e r in that discipline? W hat does a
■ How do the workers experience the programs? tea c h e r have to know about the language of
■ How do program s change w orker participa
welding, or tourism , to address the needs of stu
tion in workplace culture? dents who have chosen these vocations? Manv
■ (W hat happens to the workplace during and ESP practitioners argue that if thev can analvze
after w orkers’ participation in the program ?) language an d discourses a n d study language
O th e r m ajor stakeholders are educational insti use. thev do n o t n e e d specialist expertise.
O th ers argue that tit least som e fam iliaritv with
tu tio n s, p a rticu larlv universities in v o k e d in
the students' discipline or vocation is valuable.
academ ic-purposes program s, an d private com
In all cases, the te a c h e r/p ra c titio n e r con
panies that n e e d focused English language an d
ducts some research in the form of needs assess
skills train in g for th eir professional emplovees.
m e n t a n d targ e t situ atio n analysis b efore
An exam ple of co m bined governm ent and
designing the curricu lu m — and often, th ro u g h
institutional stakeholder influence has taken
out the course. In English for Academ ic Purposes
place in re c e n t years in Tunisia. This countrv's
program s, practitioners often analyze the dis
president, with his en to u rag e, m ade diplom atic
courses of the stu d en ts’ discipline, visit classes,
a n d trade-related trips to countries such as
talk to faculty, and study the strategies and lan
South Africa w here English plavs a central role.
guage that students use to succeed. In business
A lthough the p re sid e n t’s m ajor advisors and
or diplom atic English, as discussed in the
business peo p le spoke F rench and Arabic, thev Tunisian exam ple above, the p ractitio n er may
did n o t have sufficient com m and of business have to accom pany a delegation to an English-
o r diplom atic English to be successful. As a speaking country in o rd er to u n d erstan d the
result., he has req u ired all institutions of h ig h er required language for that context. In VEST, this
learn in g in Tunisia to step up th eir teaching of needs analysis research often includes inter
the English language.5 viewing vocational instructors or em ployers and
atten d in g vocational classes. In Fairfax County
2. Available Teachers A central issue to be con
(Virginia) Adult EST Program s, for exam ple,
sidered is the natu re of the teachers who will be
involved in an ESP program . W hat content, skills, [The \T.SL. teacher attends vocational
a n d literacies will they be expected to teach? How classes], taking notes on troublesom e
m uch teacher training have thev com pleted? Are vocabularv, idiom s, slang, concepts,
they linguisticallv sophisticated, i.e., can they dis cultural differences, an d th en s /h e
cuss how English works and analvze specialized addresses these things in the EST class.
discourses? W hat tvpes o f cu rricu la a n d This makes up most o f the co n ten t of
approaches are thev m ost com fortable with? .All the EST class with additional practice
o f these questions are cen tral to design. in the developm ent o f reading, listen
Inexperienced or "traditional” teachers cannot ing. speaking, writing and problem
work within an experim ental ESP context, for solving skills (Schrage, personal com
exam ple. In nianv EFT contexts, the ESP teacher m unication, 2 /2 6 /0 0 ) •
is n o t a native speaker of English (See M edgves’s A n o th e r c h a llen g e fo r ESP tea c h e rs
ch ap ter in this volum e); this, too, will influence involves a tta in in g th e necessary b re a d th of
the type o f ESP curriculum designed. u n d e rsta n d in g about successful com m unication
w ithin a context that they, a n d th eir students, these texts lose th eir authenticity of context,
n e e d to develop. How is a good w orking and audience, an d o th e r factors:
com m unicative relationship established am ong
a traditional belief that now appears
professionals from differen t cultures who are
problem atic is that genres for use in
negotiating o r p resen tin g papers in English?
one co n tex t— historv lessons o r office
W hat kinds o f problem s a n d relationships exist
w ork— can be straightforw ardlv taught
betw een L2 w orkers a n d th eir supervisors? How
in a differen t co n tex t such as the
should a person use language to be polite, give
English lesson. . . . Producing an exam
orders, or perform o th er English language func
ple o f a genre is a m atter n o t ju st of
tions within the target context? Or, to give one
generating a text with certain form al
very specific purpose area, how does a pilot estab
characteristics b u t o f using generic
lish contact with a n d give clear messages to air
resources to art effectivelv on a situa
traffic controllers? These are subtle and not-so-
tion th rough a [written or spoken text]
subtle com m unications issues that can m ake or
(Freedm an and Medway 1994, p. 11).
break businesses and affect safetv and good work
ing relationships. Supporting this claim, som e practitioners argue
that authenticitv should relate to the transferabili
3. Authenticity Issues Because ESP involves
ty of strategies or activities rath e r than to spoken
special Englishes an d contexts, n o t "G eneral
or w ritten texts from target contexts. Thus, for
E nglish,” efforts to achieve m axim um linguistic,
exam ple, if students practice politeness strategies
strategic, a n d situational authenticitv are m ade
in the target language, thev may be able to use
in designing curricula. O n e of the m ost advanta
these approaches in a variety o f som ew hat u n p re
geous “a u th e n tic ” possibilities is provided bv
dictable contexts. In the following quote, which
courses offered wholly, or in part, on site in the
continues to influence ESP curricula, W iddowson
target location: at a w orkplace, such as a factorv
argues the following:
o r shipyard, or w ithin specific academ ic con
texts, such as an en g in e e rin g or biologv d e p a rt [a] process-oriented ap p ro ach accepts
m ent. On-site ESP provides o p p o rtu n ities for an from the outset th at the language data
accurate a n d rich needs assessm ent a n d o n given to the le a rn e r will n o t be p re
going training an d evaluation, as well as for served in store intact, b u t will be used
in p u t from the stakeholders involved. In univer in the m ental mill. H ence the lan
sities, on-site language training may occur in guage c o n te n t of the course is selected
ad ju n ct courses o r o th e r tvpes o f content-based not because it is representative of w hat
arran g em en ts th at p erm it students to ex p eri the learner will have to deal with after
ence language a n d literacies in th eir n atural the course is over b u t because it is
contexts (see J o h n s 1997). likelv to activate strategies for learning
If on-site courses c an n o t be offered, practi as the course progresses (1981, p. 5).
tioners search for o th e r wavs to provide students
with authenticitv. T h e re is a long a n d som etim es Efforts at activating strategies and processes in ESP
contentious historv o f in tro d u c in g in to th e class classrooms can take m anv forms. For exam ple,
room w ritten o r oral discourses th at are central after research in g the targ et EFL situation,
to, b u t rem oved from , the target situation in Souillard (1989. p. 24) found certain oral activities
w hich th e students will eventually be using for French students to be relevant and transfer
English. Manv curriculum designers analyze and able to their disciplinary classrooms in which
segm ent these discourses so th a t they can be English was the m edium o f instruction: dictating
studied w ithin a curriculum . However, som e calculations, describing a geom etric figure, giving
experts argue th a t when practitioners im p o rt instructions for a p ro ce d u re , describing a p lan t
into the classroom target situation texts (or site, p rep a rin g a schedule, a n d describing a
“g en res”) taken o u t o f th eir original settings, g rap h or flowchart.
4. Curricular Decisions O th e r chapters in this W h eth er practitioners choose p u blished
volum e address the issues o f curriculum . (See textbooks or develop th eir own m aterials, revi
especially those bv N unan, Snow, Erring, and sion an d u p d atin g m ust occur constantly in ESP.
M cGroarty.) All o f those issues m ust also be In "adjunct" EAP classes in universities, for
addressed in ESP. In m aking curricular decisions. exam ple, the ESP teachers m ust consult fre
ESP practitioners have b een influenced over the quently with the c o n te n t instructors to adjust or
years by trends in applied linguistics and general ren egotiate th eir assignm ents. In E O P A U S L
ESL/EFL teaching, w hen relevant to their stu program s, job shadow ing can be used to u p d ate
d en ts, m oving th ro u g h th e m eth o d o lo g ical curricula. \T S L program s are also frequently
variations, from gram m ar-based to com m unica revised an d new m odules created to reflect the
tive, to process-based, an d to genre-based curric language and o th e r skills n e e d ed for jobs that
ula. But whatever the c u rre n t trends, it is a basic becom e available in the com m unin'.
responsibility' o f an ESP practitio n er to be con
5. Assessm ent All ESI. EFL teach ers m ust
text- a n d student-sensitive. Thus, in several EFL
consider issues of assessm ent, discussed in the
contexts, only ESP reading is taught, often using
c h a p te r bv C ohen in this volum e. W hat is partic
m ethods such as intensive reading that are most
ularly c h allen g in g in ESP pro g ram s is that
am enable to local student learning. In o th er con
students and th eir sponsors, governm ents, or
texts, the con cen tratio n is u p o n o ra l/a u ra l skills.
academ ic institutions are anxious to see im m e
(See L azaraton’s c h ap ter in this volum e.) T he
diate a n d fo cu sed assessm ent results th a t
purpose of any ESP curriculum , then, is to m eet
address specific objectives. Tims, the dem ands
the specific linguistic and pragm atic needs of
of assessment, both in terms of formative and
students as they p rep are for identified English-
summative evaluation, are great. In a work on ESP
m edium contexts. No texts and discourses and
testing. Douglas (2000) points out the following:
no tasks or activities should be extraneous to
student needs a n d the req u irem en ts of the target [a] specific purpose language test is
context. one in which test c o n te n t a n d m eth
O f course, this makes the selection of o ff ods are derived from an analysis of the
the-shelf textbooks very difficult, as Swales characteristics of a specific target lan
(1980), am ong others, has noted. Should a text guage use situation, so that test tasks
book be Avide-angled" an d inclusive, such as and c o n te n t are authentically rep re
m any English for Business texts are. losing some sentative of the target situation, allow
o f the specificitv of local student needs? Should ing for an in teractio n betw een the test
textbooks be “narrow-angled," addressing some taker's language activity a n d specific
o f the focused needs of the learner? State-of-the- pu rp o se c o n te n t know ledge, on the
art ESP classes often m ust also include the inte one h an d , and the test tasks on the
g ratio n o f c o m p u te r technology. Plow this other. Such a test allows us to m ake
technolog)' is used, and which skills are integrat inferences about a test taker's capacity
ed, will again d e p e n d u p o n the specific needs of to use language in the specific p u r
the students. K appra (2000), for exam ple, makes pose dom ain (p. 19).
these suggestions for integrating SCANS ATSL
and co m puter technologies: ESP assessment m ust also be appropriate to the
a. Have students keep co m p u te r records of instructional context. In \T S L program s, for
th eir progress a n d assess that progress bv exam ple, interviewing supervisors or the students
com pleting reports, themselves about language, content, and task pro
b. Assign co m puter-related tasks such as dis ficiency can be m ore effective than anv traditional
trib u tin g disks an d trouble-shooting. oral exam ination or reading and writing test.
c. Use problem -solving activities that require Some ESP experts, particularh- in large YESL and
basic c o m p u te r skills (p. 14). EAP program s, are now testing students on-line to
encourage the developm ent of com puter skills m ark study o f the uses of the passive p u b
and to m ake testing m ore efficient. In EAP pro lished in The ESP Journal/ (Tarone et al.
grams, th ere is a long history o f attem p tin g to 1981).
design discipline-sensitive exam inations at insti In VESL (Vocational ESI.) a n d Business
tutions such as the Universitv o f M ichigan. English, interview ers ten d to rely u p o n the
supervisors and experts w ithin the target
situation in which the students w ould be
working, as well as the w o rk e rs/stu d e n ts
PREPARING A N ESP themselves.
3. O bservation, job-shaclowing, a n d analysis:
C U R R IC U LU M
T hese ap p ro ach es can take place on the
After this discussion of the questions and topics job. in academ ic contexts while students
th at m ust be addressed before a curriculum is are reading and writing (i.e., “processing”)
p rep ared , we notv tu rn to the "absolute charac texts, while individuals are speaking, work
teristics” m en tio n e d bv Strevens (1988) and ing in groups, etc. ESP needs assessments
their application to curriculum design. T h ough have been greatlv influenced bv recent qual
ESP shares m uch with "G eneral English" curric itative research, specificallv ethnography.
ula a n d overlaps with content-based designs, M uch o f the c u rren t work is "thicker” in
there are certain features which distinguish it term s of description than that o f the past, so
from o th e r approaches. careful observation tends to be integrated
with o th er forms o f needs assessment.
N eeds A ssessm ent In everv g e n u in e ESP
Job-shadowing is very valuable to YES I.
course, needs assessment is obligatorv. and in
teachers, who explore the linguistic, cultural,
m ant' program s, an ongoing needs assessment is
and pragm atic experiences of workers as they
integral to curriculum design and evaluation. In experience a tvpical dav on the job.
perform ing an assessment, practitioners attem pt
4. M ultiple intelligence an d lea rn in g stvle
to determ ine as closelv as possible what students
.survevs of the students: ESP practitioners use
will need to d o — and how thev will need to do
standard instrum ents as well as o th er m eth
it— in English language contexts or with English
ods for d eterm ining stu d en t approaches
language literacies. Over the tears, m ethods of
to learning and text production such as pro
assessing learner needs have becom e increasinglv
tocols and interviews (see S t.Jo h n 1987).
sophisticated a n d process-based. H e re are
5. M odes o f working: W orking in team s is
a few of those em ploved, often for the same
a n o th e r aspect o f job p erfo rm a n c e th a t is
curricular design:
com m on in m anv VEST contexts as well as
1. Q uestionnaires a n d survevs: These can be in som e academ ic classes. A needs assess
given to the students them selves, th eir m en t may thus include analysis o f how
em ployers or supervisors, or the audiences team s work in the target context, break
to w hom then will be w riting o r speaking. downs in negotiation in culturally m ixed
Thev can be adm in istered as “precourse groups, a n d o th e r factors th a t may in hibit
questionnaires" (Ducllev-Evans a n d St. John or e n h a n ce success.
1998), th ro u g h o u t the course, o r after it is 6. Spoken or w ritten reflections by the stu
com pleted. d e n ts — or th eir supervisors— before, d u r
2. Interviews o f experts, students, an d o th er ing. o r a fter in stru ctio n : In reflectio n ,
stakeholders: Particularlv useful for aca stakeholders are able to look back cm what
dem ic English are som e o f the interviews thev h a te experienced with an ESP p ro
about uses and functions of specific linguistic gram . Reflections can be used to determ ine
items in discourses, a practice th at has how a current program should be revised or
becom e increasinglv popular after a land future program s should be designed.
T here is im portant literature distinguishing e le m e n t o f successful c u rric u lu m d esig n is
between student needs, wants, and larks (see, for selecting c o n te n t th at m otivates students: those
exam ple, H u tc h in so n a n d W aters 1987, topics that these im p o rta n t stakeholders w ant
p. 55), and for adults, these are im portant distinc to address. In a volum e on adult participatory
tions. Readers interested in exploring these issues literacv instruction a n d VESL, A uerbach et al.
are encouraged to consult the considerable litera (1996) argue the following:
ture in both ESP an d jo b training program s on
verv o ften , [a d u lt stu d e n ts] are
needs assessment for curriculum design.
im m ersed in the struggles o f adjusting
From the established needs, specific objec
to a new cu ltu re, sep aratio n from
tives for students are w ritten, an d from these
families, p reo ccu p atio n with the polit
objectives, the classroom tasks a n d m ethod s
ical situation in th eir hom e countries,
for assessm ent o f th e p ro g ram a n d its students
trving to find work, a n d so on. R ather
are d e te rm in e d a n d revised as th e course
th a n seein g th ese p re o c c u p a tio n s
progresses.
as obstacles to lea rn in g , a partici-
patorv ap p ro ach allows them to focus
Relating to Content (of Occupations, Disciplines, on th em as p art o f learn in g . . . [and
etc.) Since 1988 w hen Strevens wrote his ESP thev are] m ore engaged in c o n te n t
overview, th ere has been an explosion of research (p. 158).
and theory on co n ten t (see, for exam ple, Snow’s
ch ap ter in this volum e), as well as on the wavs in
which values established within com m unities of Identifying and Analyzing Essential Language
workers and practitioners influence the m an n er and Discourses Since ESP can be co n sid ered a
in which c o n ten t is ap proached and visually dis subdiscipline of applied linguistics, practitioners
played. B erkenkotter and H uckin (1995, p. 14), have m ade effective use of the trends in this area
discussing academ ic content, argue that "what to analvze, for curricular purposes, the language
constitutes true . . . knowledge . . . is knowledge of a n d discourses (genres) o f the targ et situations
appropriate topics and relevant details.” O ne in which th eir students will be studying, living, or
exam ple from the litera tu re may show how working. In the 1960s, language analysis te n d e d
u n d erstan d in g the uses of c o n ten t influences stu to c e n te r on the p articu lar gram m atical o r lexi
d e n ts ’ success in universities. G iltrow a n d cal features (i.e.. “registers”) of discourses. Thus,
Valiquette (1994) asked teaching assistants from researchers fo u n d th at certain verb form s p re
psychology a n d crim inology to read their stu d o m in a te d in scientific discourses (B arb er
d e n ts’ papers a n d critique their ability to m anage 1966), th a t a lim ited g ro u p of cohesive devices
the knowledge o f their respective disciplines. T he are fo u n d in business letters (Johns 1980) and
teaching assistants found that successful student th at abbreviations are characteristic o f telexes
papers were quite different, d ep en d in g on the (Zak a n d Dudley-Evans 1986). Now, o f course,
field. In psychology, students were required to m uch business and academ ic com m unication
dem onstrate how thev could m anage details in takes place via e-mail, so p ractitio n ers are
texts by including some inform ation and exclud researching the registers of e-mail com m unication
ing o th er topics. In criminology, on the other in o rd er to develop m ore authentic curricular
hand, the m ost im portant skill involved relating m aterials (see, for exam ple, Gim enez 2000).
concepts to exam ples, again m aking the co n ten t .As com m unicative syllabus design (especially
work within a disciplinary framework. N otional Functional syllabi) becam e popular, the
W hat does this m ean about co n ten t selec types o f discourse analyses conducted relied m ore
tion for curricula? It tells us that in all ESP situa upon language function th an u p o n counts o f spe
tions, practitioners m ust continuouslv assess what cific linguistic item s. M atsunobu (1983), for
types o f c o n te n t are central, how content is used exam ple, fo u n d th at university business profes
a n d valued, and the relationships betw een vocab sors used th re e m ajor types o f speech acts in
ulary and central concepts. A nother essential th eir lectures: inform atives, m etastatem ents, and
discourse m arkers: thus, she developed a listen approaches h a te onlv recentlv influenced the
ing curriculum in which these acts were the teaching of reading an d waiting in academ ic set
focus. As it has m atu red , research into com m u tings, particularly at the graduate level (see Swales
nicative functions has drawn increasinglv from and Feak 1994).
pragm atics, showing, lo r exam ple, that the wavs
in which individuals are polite to each o th er
d e p e n d upon their disciplines an d u p o n their rel PROGRAM M ODELS
ative status. Hyland (1998) found that when pub
lished authors in the sciences write to their peers, W hat do ESP program s look like? It should be
they ten d to “hedge" their conclusions, m aking clear from this discussion th at th ere is a wide
com m ents such as, “T he data ap p ear to show . . range o f courses an d program s in a wide range
or “Perhaps this indicates . . . " o f locations, always keved to the language needs,
Nett surprisingly, com puters are now used skills, co n ten t, an d processes req u ired . Perhaps
to d e te rm in e the gram m atical features shared bv one of the best articulated a n d w idespread sets
large num bers o f spoken or w ritten discourses o f program m odels in EST contexts falls u n d e r
within certain genres (Biber 1994). A related the \T S E rubric. It includes the following:
app ro ach , m ore tvpical o f the British ESP spe
Preem ployment VESL This is a m odified ver
cialists, is c o n c o rd a n c in g (Jo h n s 1989). a
sion o f a "general" EST class in that the c o n te n t
m eth o d for d e te rm in in g lexical collocations in a
is den oted to job readiness and g en eral “soft” job
large n u m b e r of spoken and w ritten texts. In
skills as ou tlin ed in the SCANS R eport. Students
con co rd an cin g , p ractitio n ers d e te rm in e what
practice general jo b functions such as resp o n d
language most com m onlv surrounds a word in
ing to com plaints, m aking requests, an d answer
authentic discourses. Tliev m ight explore a com
ing the p h o n e. Tliev mav also p rep a re for job
m on word such as take, and through exam ining a
interviews and o th e r initial job skills.
large n u m b er of written and spoken discourses
from particular situations, they can determ ine the Occupation-Specific VESL H ere, the c o n te n t
linguistic environm ents in which take appears. is related to a particu lar job such as nu rsin g assis
This work is a boon to ESP. of course, since teach tant o r electronics assembler. It can be tau g h t
ers organize their curricula according to the most eith e r as p rep a ra tio n for. or con cu rren tly with, a
com m on contexts of central vocabularv. vocational program . An exam ple m ight be a
C on co rd an cin g and corpus linguistics tend th re e -h o u r class, th ree d ais a week, in w hich stu
to be m ost co n c ern e d with bottom -up studies of dents studv vocabularv an d o th e r skills they will
texts, m easuring the natu re and interactions of n eed for an electronics assem ble class th at also
various gram m atical and lexical features. O th e r enrolls native speakers o f English. .After the VESL
ESP practitioners have co n c en tra te d upon the class, thev atten d the regular electronics assembly
m acro features o f texts — and th eir co n tex ts— bv class— or thev mav attend both concurrently.
studving the relationships betw een the structure T here is freq u en t com m unication betw een the
an d language o f w ritten texts a n d the situations W S L and vocational instructors.
in which these texts appear. John Swales’s Genre
Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings Cluster VESL These classes include students
(1990) set the tone for ESP research of this type, from differen t vocations in one classroom .
an d mans others have followed his lead. Students studv all four "skills” (listening, speaking,
Drawing from earlier u'ork in applied lin reading, and writing), often in a them e-based pro
guistics. ESP specialists have studied genres from gram (e.g., "The World of W ork”). In one class, for
a variety of occupational and academ ic com m u exam ple, students read about how to m eet people
nities such as the law (Bhatia 1993) and business and make small talk in the workplace. T hen, they
(Eustace 1996). T hough using curricula in which m eet in pairs or teams answering jigsawr com pre
genres are central has been characteristic of hension questions o r com pleting a problem
EBP for a n u m b er of t ears ( Johns 1987). these solring or writing exercise. Later, students work
on individualized m odules devoted to th eir cho sulting various stakeholders— and th en produce
sen professions a n d are assessed on this work. curricula sensitive to the students and context.
(Note: Because o f the a tte n d an c e req u irem en ts T h e re is also a n e e d for discourse analysis
in m any ad u lt schools, this is probablv the most research, particularlv in English for Business
com m on type o f program .) a n d \T.SL contexts. In ad d itio n , th e re is a
grow ing d e m a n d for specialists who can develop
Workplace VESL This term applies to skills com puter-based curricula and m ore a u th en tic
a n d c o n te n t o f a specific w orkplace. It can be tests. T eachers with professional tra in in g in
job-specific, such as for electronics assemble, or these areas find them selves in great d e m a n d
it may have a b ro a d e r em phasis. O ften, the in tern atio n allv — an d often thev are leaders in
em ployer pays for som e o r all o f the course, and adult school sites within th eir ho m e countries.
em ployees are excused d u rin g th eir workdav to In the future, ESP mav include m uch m ore
a tte n d (Thom as, Bird, a n d G rover 1992, p. 108). studv o f genres, particularlv the “hom ely” genres
English for Business program s are the m ost of the workplace and community. It may lead to
p o p u la r in the English as a Foreign Language the developm ent of m ore sophisticated, learner-
world. Businesses, o r individuals, req u ire classes centered or team -oriented curricula, particularly
in \T S L and professional program s. T here may
in negotiation, co rresp o n d en ce, bid and rep o rt
also be greater involvement of ESP in econom ic
w riting, a n d in su p erv isin g b ilin g u al a n d
E SL /E FL workers. N ot surprisinglv, program developm ent and nation building.
design com es in m any shapes an d sizes d e p e n d ’W hatever its directions, ESP will rem ain
ing u p o n the large variety o f contexts an d stu central to ESL and EFL teaching th ro u g h o u t the
d en ts served. (See the special Business English world.
issue o f English for Specific Purposes, 15(1), 1996.)
English for Academic Purposes also has a
long historv o f program specialization, particularlv
in science and technology areas at advanced levels D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
(see Swales 1988). Some excellent research and
curricula (see, for exam ple, Swales and Feak 1. How can a \T S L teacher (or am - ESP teacher,
1994) have been developed for graduate students for that m atter) integrate the essential areas
in the areas o f research p a p e r analysis and o f sociabilitv, teamwork, and self-esteem into
advanced academ ic writing. U nfortunately for his or h er teaching?
m any ESL contexts, the EAP tradition at the 2. Your supervisor has decided th a t you will
undergraduate level has been clouded with con initiate a VESL class (an ESP program ) at
troversy. T here is little agreem ent on how, or what, your school. W hat are som e of the questions
EAP should consist of for those students who have you n e e d to ask a n d things you n e e d to do to
n o t yet advanced into their academ ic majors. p rep a re for th at class?
3. W hat areas of ESP appeal to you most? Why?
ESP and the Future T here is no question that If you were to teach a class in the m ost appeal
ESP is well established, particularly in EFL aca ing area, what would its focus be? Why?
dem ic an d business contexts and in VESL pro 4. How can a perso n effectively assess the
gram s in English-speaking countries. O u r largest results of an ESP program ? .After consulting
professional organization, TESOT, has an active the c h a p te r bv C ohen in this volum e or the
ESP Interest Section whose m em bers represent a work bv Douglas (2000), discuss som e possi
wide variety o f EFL and ESL contexts. T here is bilities for assessment.
considerable dem an d for ESP teachers who can 5. T h ro u g h o u t this chapter, the au th o rs ju x ta
p erfo rm a variety o f needs assessment tasks, such pose "G eneral E nglish” a n d ESP. W hat is
as collecting authentic discources and analyzing “G eneral E nglish” in vour view? To w hom
them , m aking appropriate observations, and con should it be taught?
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. D esign a “tria n g u la te d ” needs assessm ent for FU R T H ER R E A D IN G
a particu lar class, which includes obtaining Douglas, D. 2000. Assessing Languages for Specific
the same data in d ifferen t ways. C onsider Purposes. New York: Cambridge CYriversitv Press.
questionnaires, observation, interviews, and This is the first volume devoted exclusively to
discourse analysis. assessment, a central issue in ESP and in other
2. W h ere does c o m m u n ic a tio n b reak d o w n specific purposes languages (ESP). A text that is
occur? W here do E SL /EFL students face the accessible to nonexperts, it includes a variety of
m ost difficulty in using English in target actual test tasks taken from a num ber of LSP
areas.
situations? O bserve a class, a lab, bilingual
Dudlev-Evans, T, and M. f. St. John. 1998. Develop
workers on-line or at a construction site.
ments in ESP: A Multi-Disciplinary- Approach.
D ecide what th e areas of breakdow n are Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(e.g., question-posing skills) and how vou This is a verv good text for those new to ESP. It
m ight teach them . includes discussions and examples of all the
3. LTsing inform ation from needs assessments “absolute characteristics” of the movement and
o r o th e r sources, develop some g roup activ provides a variety of examples from EAP and
ities that relv u p o n e ith e r strategies for English for Occupational Purposes (both pro
achieving ends (e.g., negotiation) o r essen fessional and \TSL).
English for Specific Purposes: A n International
tial linguistic features (e.g., hedging). Assign
Journal (formerly The ESP Journal). Founded in
these activities to a class.
the earlv 1980s, the journal includes articles on
4. W hat are the features o f a p articular genre all of the "absolute characteristics” of ESP (needs
th at students will n e e d to read or write? assessment, discourse analysis, etc.) as well as
Classify som e o f these features an d discuss discussions of research and the practical issues of
how you m ight p resen t them to a class. curriculum design. .Also included are metre infor
5. If available, survey the th ree ''wide-angled" mal discussions of ESP issues and book reviews.
Gillespie. M. 1996. Learning to Work in a New Land:
VESL textbooks listed below. Make a list
A Review and Sourcebook for Vocational and
o f sim ilarities and differences am ong these
Workplace ESL. Washington, D.C.: Center for
volum es that considers: Applied linguistics.
a. the use a n d w eighing o f the SCANS This text examines the role of immigrants in
com petencies, the workforce, the status of English language
learning in vocational and workforce educa
b. the te x t’s organization.
tion. and the wavs the educational and govern
c. central activities. mental systems can enhance opportunities and
Does one textbook seem m ore ap p ro p riate productivity for the English language learner.
Grognet. A. 1997. Integrating Employment Skills into
for certain groups of students? Whv?
Adult ESL Education. (A project in adult immi
■ Price-Machado, D. (1998). Skills for Success. grant education. PAIE). Washington, D.C.:
New York: C am bridge University Press. National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Educa
tion. [Sponsoring agenev: Office of Educational
■ Magv, R. (1998). Working It Out. Boston: Research and Improvement, Washington,
H einle 8c H einle Publishers. D.C.] (ERIC PRODUCT 071). This question
and answer text discusses how employment
■ English ASAP (1999). Austin, TX: Steck- preparation can be integrated into an English as
Yaughn. a Second Language curriculum, whether in a
workplace or general ESL program.
Johns. A. M.. and T. Dudlev-Evans. 1991. English for
specific purposes: International in scope, specific
in purpose. TESOL Quarterh. 26(2): 297-614. - The authors would like to thank Gretchen Bitterlin,
Commissioned for TESOL’s twentv-fifth ESL Resource Teacher, San Diego Community
anniversary, this article provides a short College District: and Brigitte Marshall, Educational
overview of the ESP movement and its history. Programs Consultant, Adult Education Office,
California Department of Education, for their assis
tance in the \TiSL discussions found in this chapter.
4 As Title II of the Workforce Investment Act (WTA).
EN DN O TES 4 Secretary of Labor's Commission on Achieving
1 “General English” is enclosed bv quotes throughout Xecessarv Skills.
this chapter because the authors do not believe that ■’ The authors are indebted to Mohamecl Daoud, one
such a language exists. All language and language of Tunisia's foremost ESP experts, for this anecdote.
classes are specific to the learner, the context, and b Now called English for Specific Purposes: An Inter
the content. national Journal.
Syllabus Design
DAVI D NUNAN
in “ SyMabus Design," Nunan describes and evaluates a range of syllabus types including grammatical,
notional-functional, content-based, task-based, and integrated, he also sets out and illustrates key
procedures for developing syllabuses.These include needs analysis, goal and objective setting, and the
development of competencies.
Introduce X X
yourself
Identify X X
ownership
Introduce X
people
Talk about X X
where things
are
Talk about X X
likes and
dislikes
<
HH
Language Skills HH
H
z
Listening
Until quite recently, listening comprehension had been neglected with
regard to both its place in second or foreign language teaching
methodology and the development of techniques and materials for
use in the classroom. As Morley's chapter points out. listening
comprehension is now felt to be a prerequisite for oral proficiency as
well as an important skill in its own right. She offers guidelines for
developing activities and materials, including the development of a self-
access, self-study listening program. In Peterson's chapter the acquisition
of listening skills in a second or foreign language is explained with
reference to a cognitive processing model. She presents a taxonomy of
exercises and activities, showing how at eacn stage of learning, students
can be assisted in developing bottom-up and top-down listening
strategies and skills.
Aural Comprehension Instruction:
Principles and Practices
IO A N MO R L E Y
In "Aural Comprehension Instruction: Principles and Practices," Morley first traces the changing
patterns of second language listening instruction, outlines four generic instructional models, and
discusses some of the psycho-social dimensions of listening. She then goes on to present suggestions
for developing activities and materials for coursework, including detailed guidelines for developing a
self-access self-study listening program.
In "Skills and Strategies for Proficient Listening," Peterson offers a developmental view of second
language listeners at beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels. She describes the comprehension
processes of proficient listeners as being both top-down and bottom-up in nature, and offers exercises
for building listening skills and strategies at all profic iency levels.
Language Skills H
HH
z
Speaking p
In "Teaching Oral Skills," Lazaraton discusses current practice in o ral skills pedagogy in terms of how
to structure an oral skills class and determine its content, along with implementing a variety of
classroom activities that prom ote skills development, anc understanding issues related to classroom
evaluation of speaking skills and testing via large-scale о ’'a examinations.
In "Teaching Pronunciation." the goal of instructor s t - 'e e 'c c: to e^ab'e our (earners to understand
and be understood, to build their confidence in enter rg c c ' - o c i i ,e situations, and to enable them
to m onitor their speech based on input from the e w re-m em . To accomplish these goals, G oodw in
describes the tools we need to teach pronunciat c r n a s-stemate and pr'rc p ed wav.
“/ feel that I am judged hv my way of talk pairs.] In recent vears. the locus has shifted to
ing English. In other classes, teachers often include a b ro ad e r em phasis on suprasegmental-
treat me as inferior or academic disability features. such as stress and intonation. How
because of my muttering English." ever. m am teaching m aterials still do n ot m ake
U n d e rg ra d u a te stu d en t in an ESL d e a r that pronunciation is just one piece of
p ro n u n ciatio n course the whole com m unicative com petence puzzle. As
Seidlhofer (lT.fifi) states, '’p ronunciation is newer
“Sometime when I speak to native American. an end in itself but a m eans of negotiating m ean
I guess because of my Chinese a sense or m/s- ing in discourse, em bedded in specific sociocul
pronunciate the word, they ask me wind tural and interpersonal contexts" (p. 12). Indeed,
did you say. can you repeat, or I beg your pronunciation instruction needs to be taught as
pardon. Sometime my face turn red. and com m unicative in teractio n along with o th e r
become so embarrassed in front of them. I aspects of spoken discourse, such as pragm atic
remembered once my tears were in my eycc " m eaning and nonverbal com m unication.
G raduate student in an ESL
p ro n u n ciatio n course
T H E SEG M EN TA L/
SU PR A SEG M EN TA L D EBATE
Pronunciation instruction historicallv has em pha
sized masters of individual sounds. With the
IN T R O D U C T IO N advent of Com m unicative Language Teaching
The above quotes highlight whv the teaching of (see Savignon's chapter in this volum e), the focus
p ro n u n ciatio n is so crucial to o u r students. shifted to iluencv rather than accuracv, encourag
P ro n u n ciatio n is the language feature th at most ing an almost exclusive emphasis on supraseg-
readily identifies speakers as non-native. It is a m entals. However, just as ESL. teachers have
filtet th ro u g h which others see them a n d often acknow ledged that an emphasis on m eaning and
discrim inate against them . W hen we witness o th com m unicative intent alone will not suffice to
erwise proficient learners who are barely intelli achieve gram m atical accuracv pronunciation has
gible while speaking, we can u n d e rsta n d their em erged from the segm ental suprasegm ental
frustration an d the h o p e then place in us. debate to a m ore balanced view, which recognizes
In the past, p ro n u n ciatio n instruction usu that a lack of intelligibilitv can be attributed to
ally focused on the articulation of consonants both m icro and m acro features. It is clear that
and vowels an d the discrim ination o f minimal learners whose com m and of sounds deviates too
I 17
broadiv from standard speech will be h ard to ? Topic m anagem ent: how to signal and recog
understand no m atter how targetlike their stress nize where one topic ends and another begins
and intonation m ight be. Thus, it is no longer a * Inform ation status: how to mark what we
question of choosing between segmentals and assume to be shared knowledge as opposed to
suprasegm entals but of identifying which features something nrw
contribute most to kick of intelligibility, and which ■ Turn-taking: when to speak, and when to he
will be most useful in the com m unicative situa silent, how <not) to yield the floor to somebody else
tions in which our learners will need to function. ■ Social m eanings and roles: how to position
ourselves vis-a-vis our interloeutor(s) in terms
o f status, dominance/authority, politeness,
solida)ity/separa te>iess
S E T T IN G R E A L IS T IC G O A LS ■ D egree o f involvement: how to convey our
M orley (1999) has ou tlin ed four im p o rta n t goals attitudes, emotions, etc. (1994, p. 52)
for p ro n u n cia tio n instruction: functional intelli
If we teach learners how to em ploy pauses, pitch
gibility, functional com m unicability, increased
m ovem ent, an d stress to achieve the above com
self-confidence, and speech m o n ito rin g abilities.
m unicative goals, th en thev will have attain ed a
For o u r purposes, intelligibility is defined as
great deal of "functional com m unicability.”
spoken English in which an accent, if present, is
As ou r students gain com m unicative skill,
n o t distracting to the listener. Since learners
thev also need to gain confidence in their ability to
rarelv achieye an accent-free pro n u n ciatio n , eve
speak and be understood. To accom plish this, we
are setting o u r students up for failure if we striye
can design ou r materials aro u n d the situations
for natiyelike accuracy. Eradication of an accent
learners will actually face, move carefully from
should not be our goal; in fact, some practi
controlled to free production in our practice activ
tioners use the term accent addition as opposed to
ities. and provide consistent targeted feedback.
accent reduction to acknowledge the indiyidual’s
Bv teaching learners to pay a tte n tio n to
first language (L J) identity w ithout dem an d in g it
th eir own speech as well as th at of others, we
be sublim ated in the new second language (L2 ).
help o u r learners m ake b e tte r use o f the in p u t
Functional com m unicability is the learner's
thev receive. G ood learners "atten d ” to certain
ability to function successfully within the specific
aspects of the speech thev h e a r and th en try to
com m unicatiye situations he or she faces. Be
im itate it. Speech m on ito rin g activities help to
exam ining the discourse ou r students will need to
focus learn ers' atten tio n on such features both
use in real life, we can see which features of pro
in o u r courses a n d bevond them .
nunciation m ight be particularly im portant for
them to master. Ideally, this entails obserying
or videotaping the target com m unicatiye situa
t io n ^ ) , be it a bank transaction, a friendly A D E S C R IP T IO N O F T H E
conversation with neighbors, a patient-doctor S O U N D SYSTEM O F E N G LIS H
interview, or some o th er situation. At the very
least, it is useful to distribute a survey to students Traditionally, the sound svstem has been described
at the beginning of instruction that elicits their and taught in a building block fashion:
needs and interests. This inform ation guides us sounds "» syllables phrases and
b oth in the features we choose to em phasize and thought groups extended discourse
in the co n ten t into which the pronunciation prac
T hough this mav m ake sense from an analytical
tice should be em bedded.
point of view, this is n ot how our learners experi
Dalton and Seidlhofer list six com m unicathe
ence language. As speakers, we d o n 't usually think
abilities related to pronunciation:
about what w e're saying sound bv sound, or even
■ Prom inence: how to wake sat.lent the important syllable bv sellable unless com m unication breaks
points we make dow n. So the bottom-up approach of m astering one
sou n d at a tim e a n d eventually stringing them m em bers o f the clergy, ten d to pause m ore fre
all to g eth e r is being replaced by a m ore top-down quently in o rd e r to em phasize th eir ideas m ore
a p p ro a c h , in w hich th e so u n d system is strongly a n d m ake them easier to process. In a
addressed as it naturally occurs— in the stream speech, a politician m ight u tte r as a conclusion:
of speech. In this m ore balanced approach, both
Ms fellow eilizens/this/is/our/moment.
suprasegm ental and segm ental features can be
addressed th ro u g h a process akin to that of a O r a fru strated p a re n t m ight sav to a recalcitrant
zoom lens. Global aspects are addressed first: vet child:
w henever the "picture” of speech is unclear, we
Come/here/ right/ now!
"zoom in" to exam ine it at a m ore m icro level.
This approach recognizes that all features of the In each case, the speaker has a clear com m unica
sound svstem work in tandem . tive reason for w anting to em phasize each word.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
Classroom Achievement Tests
1. T hink about a foreign language vou have
Classroom achievem ent tests evaluate learners' learned. How good is vour accent? W hat fac
progress according to what has been taught and tors have contributed to how well you p ro
are consequentlv m ore focused than diagnostic nounce this language?
assessment. T he testing tasks should resemble 2. T hink of one communicative situation vou
the classroom teaching tasks in o rd e r to reduce engage in even’ day. W hat kinds of language
the effect of an unfamiliar format on learner do vou use? What aspects o f p ro n unciation
perform ance. do you n e e d to know to function well in this
Am oral p erform ance to be evaluated for a situation?
grade should be recorded on tape. This is not 3. W ho is better eq u ip p e d to teach p ro n u n c ia
only to m ake the teacher's evaluation of it easier tio n — a non-native who speaks the LI of her
(although this is the case); it also allows the learners or a native English teacher who
learner to review and revise the tape before tu rn does not? U pon which factors m ight vour
ing it in. In fact, since one of ou r goals is to help answer depend?
learners m o n ito r their own speech, this step is 4. W hich aspect of p ro n u nciation is the hardest
crucial. A lthough our ultimate goal is intclligi- to teach? Whv?
bilitv du rin g spontaneous speech, for assessment
purposes it is also critical to know w hether learn
ers can control their p ro n u nciation du rin g a
communicative task when thev are m onitoring S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
for specific features. This abilitv to determ ine
what m ight have gone wrong in their p ro n u n c i 1. Consult one o f the references listed below
ation allows learners to recover from a c o m m u that contain contrastive analyses a n d sum
nication breakdown in real life. In o th e r words, marize the inform ation for a language that
w hen thev notice the puzzled look or blank vou know well (other than English). W hat
stare, thev can mentallv run through what thev are the predicted pro n u n cia tio n errors for
just said and in all likelihood, reform ulate the learners from that language w hen learning
same utterance intelligible. English? How does this com pare with your
knowledge of the sound svstems o f the two
languages?
Averv. P., and S. Ehrlich. 1992. Teaching
C O N C L U S IO N American English Pronunciation. Oxford:
The discussion of assessment brings us full circle Oxford Lhiiversitv Press. (Chapter 8)
back to the goals we have set lor ourselves an d our Deterding, D. H., and G. R. Poedjosoedarmo.
learners. These goals are realistic— the ability of 1998. The Sounds of English: Phonetics and
our learners to understand and be understood in Phonology for English Teachers in Southeast
the communicative situations they face, the confi Asia. Singapore; Prentice Hall.
dence to enter these communicative situations Swan, M.. and B. Smith, eds. 2001. Eearner
with ease, and the abilitv to m onitor their speech English. 2d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge
in ord er to make adjustments and improvements Lhiiversitv Press.
2. Choose one pronunciation teaching point Miller, S. 2000. Targeting Pronunciation. Boston, MA:
(e.g., word stress in c o m pound nouns, / 1/ ver Houghton Mifflin.
sus / г / , one rhythm pattern). Develop one or
two activities for each of the five stages of the Collections o f Pronunciation Activities
communicative framework to teach this point. Boyven, T., and J. Marks. 1992. The Pronunciation Book:
3. Interview a non-native speaker of English Student-Centered Activities for Pronunciation Work.
who has a good accent. How did this person London: Longman.
achieve good pronunciation? Hancock, M. 1995. Pronunciation Смит. Cambridge:
4. Exam ine a textbook for teaching p ro n u n c i Cambridge University Press.
ation a n d evaluate it in terms of
■ Layout: Is it user-friendly? Are the diagrams,
charts, and explanations clear?
■ Use of phonetic symbols
■ Focus: segmentals, suprasegmentals, or both?
■ Exercises: logical progression from con TESOL Speech and Pronunciation Interest Section
trolled to communicative? .Are the instruc Contains information about pronunciation
tions clear? Is the language authentic? issues, resources, activities, articles, and links to
(See Byrd’s chapter in this volume as you relevant sites.
do this activitv.) http: / / www.public.iastate.edu/~jlevis / SPRIS
LATEFL Pronunciation Special Interest Group
.At international site for teachers of English.
Contains links, articles, bibliography, and infor
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G mation about SPEAK. OUT! (the neyvsletter for
this group).
Teacher References http: / / m em bers.aol.com /pronunciationsig/
Avery, P., and S. Erlich. 1992. Teaching American English Prolinks
Pronunciation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. John Murphv's list of sites related to phonology
Celce-Murcia, M., D. Brinton, and J. Goodwin. 1996. and teaching pronunciation. Includes Murphv's
Teaching Pronunciation: .4 Reference for Teachers of annotated list of resource books, journal articles
English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: classroom texts, etc.
Cambridge University Press. http: / /www. gsu.edu/~esljm m /ss / prolinks.htm
Dalton, C., and B. Seidlhofer. 1994. Pronunciation. The Internet TESL Journal's pronunciation links
Oxford: Oxford University Press. This site includes a variety of links for botf.
Morlev, J., ed. 1987. Current Perspectives on Pronun learners and teachers.
ciation. Washington, DC: TESOL. http: / / w w w .a itech .a c .j p / - ite s lj /lin k s /E S L
---------, ed. 1994. Pronunciation Pedagogy and Theory. /Pronunciation/
Washington, DC: TESOI..
Dave's ESL Cafe Web Guide for Pronunciation
Student Texts Dave Sperling's source of annotated pronuncia
tion links.
Dauer, R. 1993. Accurate English: A Complete Course in
yvww.eslcafe.com search Pronunciation
Pronunciation. Engleyvood Cliffs, X }: Prentice Hall
Regents. Lessons
Gilbert, J. 1993. Clear Speech. 2d ed. Neyv York: A nice selection of lesson ideas and links T
Cambridge University Press. both British and American English.
h ttp:/ / eleaston.com /pronunciation/
---------, 2001. Clear Speech from the Start. Neyv York:
Cambridge University Press. Pronunciation
Grant, I.. 2001. Well Said: Pronunciation for Clear Information and resources covering British ..
Communication. 2d ed. Boston, NLA. Heinle & Heinle. yvell as American resources. Well organized :
Heyvings, M. and S. Goldstein. 1998. Pronunciation Plus: learners and teachers.
Practice through Interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge http: / / esl.about.com /hom ew ork / esl / msuh
University Press. 17.htm
ENDNO TES 14 The -ed ending has three realizations in English,
depending on the sound preceding the ending.
1 A minimal pair is a set of two words that are alike Following any voiceless sound except / X/ , the
except for one sound, e.g., bet and bat, or great and
ending is pronounced / X/ . Following am voiced
crate. sound except / d / , the ending is pronounced / d /
- The term segmentals refers to the actual consonant
and following the sounds /X/ or / d / , the ending
and vowel sounds. The term suprasegmentals refers is an extra syllable: /э й / or /id /.
to the features which occur “above the segments." l j Good sources for minimal pair contrasts include
e.g., the stress, rhvthrn, and intonation.
Bowen (1975), Grate (1987), Henrichsen et al.
3 Other terms for this include tone units, breath
(1999), and Xilsen and Nilsen (1987). A very
groups, and intonation units.
thorough list of minimal pairs for British
4 1. Alfred said, "The boss is stupid.” 2. “Allred."
Received Pronunciation can be found at
said the boss, "is stupid."
http :/ www.stir.ac.uk/departm ents/hum an
° Other common terms for this include nuclear
sciences / ce lt/sta ff/h ig d o x / w ordlist/index.htm
stress, tonic syllable, focus word, emphasis, and primary 1,1 The series includes: fritz Chants (1978), Jazz Chants
phrase stress.
for Children (1979), Crammarrhants (1993), Small
8 When words of metre than one sellable are promi
Talk (1986). Mother Goose Jazz Chants (1994).
nent, it is onlv the sellable receiving primarv stress
1' Noll has many more examples in her book,
that is prominent (e.g.. SPEAKing. ecoXOMics). American Accent Skills: Intonation, Reductions and
' See Bolinger (1986); Brazil. Coulthard. and fohns
Word Connections, available at
(1980); Celce-Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin http: / / www.anieri-talk.coin /books.htm l
(1996) for descriptions of intonation patterns. 18 Videos bv Marsha Chan include “Using your
8 The correct answers are a, b, a. hands to teach pronunciation” and “Phrase by
9 In many North American learner textbooks, the Phrase." both available from Sunburst Media:
schwa / э / svmbol also represents the full stressed http: / / www.sunburstmedia.com
vowel / л / , as in "bus." This pedagogical simplifi 19 I am indebted to Anne Isaac for a workshop she
cation thus describes the two vowels in the word
gate at UCLA in 1998. Her presentation, “An inte
“above" as being similar in quality if not in length. grated approach to teaching spoken fluency” and
10 See Celce-Murcia. Brinton. and Goodwin (1996). the video "The rhythm of language” (1995)
for further explanation of cluster reduction. inspired mv version of the approach described
11 A diphthong is a sound that combines two vowel here.
sounds in one vowel nucleus. 2n These include Phrase by Phrase by Chan,
12 See Dickerson (1989). (1994) or Celce-Murcia. Pronunciation for Success bv Mevers and Holt, and
Brinton, and Goodwin (1996) for further expla Breaking the Accent Banierhs Stern.
nation of word stress rules. 21 One such technology is "PureYoice,” available for
13 These stages are not necessarily meant to occur in download at
one 50-minute lesson. They simply represent a http:/ www.eudora.com /purevoice
pedagogical sequence which could take place
over several lessons.
P la c e of A r t ic u la t io n
Fricative
f e s I h
V б z 3
Affricative tj
d3
Nasal
m n q
Liquid
1 r
Glide
w У
N o te: the voiceless sounds are in the top p a rt o f each box, voiced sounds are in the lower half.
Ma n n e r o f A r t ic u l a t io n *
W h at happens to the air stream as the sound is articulated
A. nasal passage
B. alveolar (tooth) ridge
C. hard palate
D. velum/soft palate
E. lips and teeth
F. tongue
1. tip
2. blade
3 . body
4 . root
G. uvula
H. jaw
I. pharynx
J- trachea
K. larynx and vocal cords
P o in t s o f A r t ic u l a t io n
(from the front of the mouth to the back)
N am e W h e r e th e Sound Is P ro n o u n ced E x a m p le
In "Developing Children's Listening and Speaking in E SL .1 Peck addresses teachers of adult ESLVEFL
who are beginning to work with children. She ouhmes how children differ from adults as classroom
learners of oral language. She also discusses how со maire use of resources such as songs, chants,
drama, and storytelling.
II C :
Language Skills
UNIT
Reading
Teaching reading skills to non-native speakers of English involves unique
problems and challenges at all conceivable levels of instruction. ESLTEFL
teachers working with young children will be greatly assisted by Ediger's
chapter, which provides background and review of issues and standards
while also recommending many helpful teaching activities and
techniques.The chapter by Weinstein is addressed to teachers of adult
ESL learners; such teachers must start by understanding the special
contexts in which adult literacy is taught. Weinstein synthesizes current
curricula and pedagogical approaches, including a number of promising
practices. In the final chapter of this section, Grabe and Stoller cover
theory and practice as they apply to reading for academic purposes. After
a discussion of curriculum-related issues, they recommend specific
practices for facilitating effective academic reading.
Teaching Children Literacy Skills
in a Second Language
A N N E EDIGER
“Teaching Children Literacy Skills in a Second Language" describes the background factors and issues
influencing children's literacy development in a second language, Ediger brings together unique needs
of child L2 learners, contributions of various instructional methods and recent ESL and English
Language Arts literacy standards. She recommends a wide range of specialized approaches and
techniques for teaching ESL/EFL reading and writing.
Display different genres of reading and writing printed-out inform ation from the Internet,
material or books. C h ild re n ’s books, newspa and students' own writing— display every
pers, magazines, dow nloaded messages or one's work, not just the “best” papers.
CHART 2
English Language Arts Standards Used in New York City Schools
E I . Reading
EI a Read at least twenty-five books of the quality and complexity illustrated
in the sample reading list,
Elb Read and comprehend at least four books on the same subject,
or by the same author, or in the same genre.
E lc Read and comprehend informational materials.
EI d Read aloud fluently.
E2. W riting
E2a Produce a report of information.
E2b Produce a response to literature.
E2c Produce a narrative account (fictional or autobiographical).
E2d Produce a narrative procedure.
E5. Literature
E5a Respond to non-fiction, fiction, poetry, and drama using interpretive
and critical processes,
E5b Produce work in at least one literary genre that follows the conventions
of the genre.
In "Developing Adult Literac es," W einstein invres ’‘e?.ders no examine the role of language and
literacies in learners' lives, examines critical contexts Am ESL Itemc-/ instruction, and provides a
synthesis of orientations to cummuium and teaching. See concludes with fve "promising practices"
that challenge both new anc ex p eo e rcec eeacners to --efect individual's and collectively on their
potentially life-transforming woi'k.
G rabe ana SccLe-fo chapter focuses on reac w re cx 2~d ow cace as the> appb to academic
concextsAne a m o r s c o n e central concepts u" ie r;. "g acacem c readrg ard thee* implications for
nstructionA^e'. th e " hgnign: issues concern ng "e ce.e oomem o*’ reading curricula inducing the
ana-ys's of re e cs a:fo choosing apoi'opriate texts 5~d materials.T-e-. describe soecfic pwctices that
Dui'd co n erert ?wd e m c c .e "eacmg c o r c o a ,
Key word
1. direct directs donate direct detect desire
2. trial cruel serial trail trial frail
3. through through though thorough borough thought
F ig u re 1. S a m p le W o r d - R e c c g " : E x e rc is e F o r m a t
7. Create incentives for students to read at from the teacher, students will becom e engaged
hom e and even look forward to extensive reading.
8. Have students share and re c o m m e n d read Teachers also n e e d to u n d e rsta n d that extensive
ing materials to classmates reading is n o t an occasional end-of-the-week, or
9. Keep records of the am ounts of extensive end-of-the-dav “reward." It is fu n d am e n ta l to the
reading com pleted bv students developm ent o f fluent reading abilities. If p u r
10. Seek out class sets of texts (or at least group sued as an instructional goal, it must be do n e
sets) that evervone can read a n d discuss consistentlv or students will not believe the
11. Make use of g raded readers, provided that teacher's rationale.
thev interest students, are attractive, create Extensive reading at school should be cou
sufficient challenge, a n d offer a good pled with extensive reading at hom e, with as
am o u n t of extensive reading practice m uch reading as students can be persu a d e d to
12. Read interesting materials aloud to stu do. At a m inim um , the books an d magazines
dents on a consistent basis read at h o m e should be discussed in class, with
13. Visit the school librarv regularlv an d set re c o m m e n d a tio n s m a d e to o t h e r students.
aside time for browsing an d reading T h e re should also be an ongoing log of what is
14. C reate a reading lab and designate time for read, how long the student read, a n d how manv
lab activities pages were covered; this log should be checked
regularlv bv the teacher. (See Dav and Bamlord
There are a n u m b er of specific instructional
1998 for advice on prom oting extensive reading.)
practices to consider when engaging students in
extensive reading. In-class extensive reading is Student Motivation Motivation is a n o th e r kev
most often carried out bv giving students 10-15 to successful reading, one that is tvpicallv
minutes of silent reading time. During this time, ignored in discussions of reading instruction.
students mav read a class reader: read a book or T h e m is. Iron ev er, a significant bodv of research
magazine of their choice while the teacher circu that argues that motivation has an im portant
lates to answer questions and offer assistance impact on reading developm ent. Motivation is a
(free-reading): or engage in sustained silent com plex concept with manv associated notions
reading (SSR). In SSR. the teacher does not cir (e.g.. interest, involvement, self-concept, sclf-
culate; rather he or she reads silentlv th roughout efficacv). We discuss motivation here (following
the entire SSR period, serving as a role model of Guthrie et al. 1999) as an individual trait, related
an engaged reader. (The teacher should not to a person's goals an d beliefs, that is observed
grade papers or plan future lessons during this though task persistence and positive feelings
time.) Students need to see that teachers reallv toward an activitv. The kev idea for teachers is
do read and that thev enjov it. After an u n in te r that motivation makes a real difference in stu
rupted SSR period, the teacher an d students dents' reading development, and teachers need
should take a m inute or two to share ideas or to consider how to motivate students to engage
make recom m endations about their reading. as activelv as possible with class texts and in
Students may be asked to keep a simple log of extensive reading.
what an d how manv pages thev read so that a T h e re are a n u m b e r of wavs to develop pos
record of reading is built up over time. In SSR itive motivation to read. First a n d foremost,
periods, there should be no evaluation, no teachers should discuss the im portance of read
instruction, and no interruptions. ing and the reasons for different activities used
Extensive reading, m uch like any new rou in class. Second, teachers need to talk about
tine, is e nhanced when the teacher discusses the what interests them as read ers a n d why.
goals with students and helps students find inter Students are often surprised to learn about what
esting a n d readable materials. T h e tea c h e r a n d whv their teachers like to read. Likewise,
should recognize that extended free-reading time teachers should invite students to share interests
or SSR mav generate resistance from certain stu with classmates. Third, all class activities should
dents. Over a n u m b e r of sessions, with support be related to course goals to which students have
b e e n introduced. Fourth, all reading tasks (short reading, writing, an d academic skills. T he m ost
and m ore extended) should have lead-ins (i.e., obvious a n d generic options — such as summary
prereading activities) that develop initial interest. writing, rep o rt writing, and o u tlin in g — should
Fifth, teachers need to build their students' not be downplavecl as too traditional. T h e re is
knowledge base so that students can manage clear evidence that summary writing an d outlin
complex ideas and develop a level of expertise on ing. w hen taught well, improve both reading an d
some topics. Sixth, teachers need to select texts writing abilities (Grabe 2001). A n u m b e r of
an d adapt activities with students' reading abili o th er writing activities can be developed from
ties an d the inherent difficulties of the reading read in g resources:
passages in mind. Seventh, teachers should nu r
ture “a com m unin' of learners" am ong students, 1. Students keep journals in which reactions to
thcrebv ensuring that students learn to relv on readings are rec orded a n d elaborated upon.
each o ther cl’fectivelv while working through Teachers collect journals periodically and
complex tasks and associated reading materials. add comm ents.
Finally, teachers need to look for wavs to 2. Students keep double-entrv notebooks in
help students e n c o u n te r "flow" in their reading. which thev summarize text ideas o f particu
Flow is a concept (developed bv the psvchologist lar significance on one side of the page. In
Csikszentmihalvi [1990]) that describes optimal later rereadings, students (and the teacher)
experiences. People e n c o u n te r flow when thev write additional com m ents on the opposite
are engaged fullv in activities in which their side of the page.
growing skills m atch well with task challenges. 3. Students write a simple response to some
Commonlv, the tasks have w ell-defined goals, the prom pt (e.g.. a minilecture, an object, a short
m ea n s for d e te r m in in g success are d e a t h video clip, a quick skim of the text to be read)
understood, a n d the achievement of success is to prepare themselves for the upcom ing
not east but is possible. People h a tin g How expe reading.
riences typicallv lose track of time, do not get 4. Students create graphic organizers to iden
distracted, and lose ant sense of personal p ro b tify main ideas from the text, restructure
lems. Csikszentmihalvi has consistently fo und inform ation, or com pare content from cari
(across many studies and h u n d red s of inter ous texts. Students then write an explanation
views) that a prim arv wav to e n c o u n te r flow is bv or critique of the reading(s) based on the
becom ing engaged in reading. Thus, flow expe graphic organizer.
riences lead students to seek out reading as an 5. Students connect new texts to previously read
optim al experience, resulting in intrinsic m oti texts through speed writes, graphic organ
vation to read regularlv. izers, or discussions.
Integrated-Skills Instruction In academic set 6. Students d e term ine the author's point of
tings, a c o m m o n expectation of reading is that view in a text and then adopt a different
it is used to e a rn out fu rth e r language- and point of view (not necessarily opposing).
content-learning tasks, most topically in c o n n e c Thee develop the alternative point of view
tion with writing activities, th o u g h listening and th rough an outline an d consultation with
speaking activities m a t also be linked to reading. o th e r resources, an d then write a critique of
A lth o u g h integrated-skills activities take on the text a n d the author's viewpoint.
greater significance as students move to higher 7. Students make a list of ideas from the text,
language proficiencv levels, a goal for EAP cur prioritize the list bv level of im portance, get
ricula should be the use of reading as a resource into groups a n d prioritize a group list, an d
for integrated-skills tasks. th en develop a visual representation of their
Taking reading and writing as a primary response (in the form of, for example, a dia
example, there are manv wavs in wTiich these skills gram. outline, o r figure) to be shared with
can be integrated and serve the developm ent of classmates.
T here are additional reasons for centering for confirm ing inform ation. F urtherm ore, stu
EAP reading instruction within an integrated- dents will have the chance to extend complex
skills framework. Aside from the authenticitv of learning, e a rn out purposeful integrated-skills
integrated-skills activities for advanced students, tasks, build expertise on a topic, an d becom e
integrated activities op en up valuable o p p o r tu m ore motivated. T he m ore com plex language
nities for extensive reading (during which stu and c ontent learning that occurs in content-
dents search for ad d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n i. based classrooms will also open tip opportunities
F urtherm ore, integrated-skills activities engage to discuss com prehension and focus on the
students in complex tasks that co m p le m e n t their strategies that students use to build c o m p r e h e n
academic goals and require strategic responses. sion abilities. In brief, we see content-based
Finally, students inevitable learn a considerable instruction as providing the best foundation for
am o u n t of connected, coherent, and stimulating academ ic reading instruction if it is p lan n e d and
content knowledge from complex integrated carried out well (Stoller and Grabe 1997). It is
tasks. T he resulting masters of a topic and sense likelv that the developm ent of new wavs to
of expertise often motivate them to learn even engage students through content-based instruc
more. T he most logical extension, then, from a tion will be a major locus of advanced reading
reading course with integrated-skills activities instruction for the com ing decade. (See Snow’s
is a reading course centered on a content- and c hapter in this volume.)
language-learning foundation. In this wav. aca Before closing this chapter, we would like to
demic reading instruction leads naturallv into address briellv three other future directions for
various tvpes of content-based instruction. reading instruction. First, we see technology as
growing in importance, and related issues as cen
tering on how to use technology to support read
C O N C L U S IO N
ing development. At the moment, the options for
This chapter has outlined com ponents of effec computer-based reading instruction are not verv
tive academic reading instruction. W hen looking advanced: in most cases, thev involve little more
across the range of com ponents ivocabularv. flu- than putting reading passages on the screen with a
enev, strategies, graphic representations, exten few tricks and gadgets. We expect that in the next
sive reading, etc.), a natural response might be to live to eight vears. this situation will change, and
say that all of these ideas cannot possible lit into a com puter tec hnologies and instructional software
reading course that is coherent and focused. Yet. will create new options for reading instruction.
over the past 20 vears. we have become firmlv con Second, we have not addressed reading
vinced that all of these com ponents can be draw n assessment in anv wav. but it is an issue that can
together coherentlv and effectivelv in an appro- not be ignored. Although assessment m ight not
priatelv developed content-based instruction be considered a direct c o m p o n e n t of instruc
approach. (There is. wc must add. nothing magi tion. it certainly should be. Teachers n e e d to
cal about content-based instruction: it needs to be know how to assess students' progress in addi
g rounded in the criteria discussed above, just like tion to assessing the effectiveness of various
anv other program or course in reading.) practices in a reading course. W hat works and
In a content-based approach to reading, what does not work should not rest only with a
one can assume that reading multiple sources of teacher's subjective judgm ent but should be
inform ation will be the norm and that there will de te rm in e d th ro u g h both formal a n d informal
be many opportunities for m eaningful extensive assessment procedures. (Good sources on rea d
reading. Yocabularv instruction should grow in ing assessment include Alderson 2000; Hamavan
complexitv an d there will be ongoing o p p o rtu 1995. See also C ohen's c hapter in this volume.)
nities to rec e d e vocabularv as students explore T hird, in addition to assessing student
sets of related c ontent material. Similarly, there progress, teachers need to evaluate course and
will be m am occasions to reread texts for new teaching effectiveness. T he most effective wav to
tasks, for new inform ation, for comparisons, and do this is th ro u g h teacher-initiated inquiry
(i.e., a ction re s e a rc h ). T h r o u g h systematic 2. Consider the characteristics of a fluent FI
reflection a n d data collection, teachers can reader (page 188) as the ultimate goal for an F2
investigate aspects o f their own reading class reading curriculum. What instructional prac
room s to improve future instruction. They can tices would vou incorporate into an F 2 reading
investigate aspects of reading (e.g., rate, recog class to move vour students toward that goal?
nition, vocabulary, skimming) in relation to dif What activities would vou assign to address each
ferent instructional techniques or learning characteiistic or cluster of characteristics?
activities (e.g., the use of graphic organizers, strat 3. Reflect on vour own experiences in reading
egy training, rereading) to determ ine their effec for academ ic purposes. Which purposes for
tiveness, or classroom materials to ascertain their reading have b e e n most im p o rta n t for you?
appropriateness, or a range of other issues. Action W hat have vou do n e to c o m p re h e n d texts
research provides teachers with a nonthreatening that have been challenging for vou? What
means for exploring what works best in their own can vou applv from vo u r experiences to your
teaching contexts (Grabe and Stoller in press). teaching?
W h e th e r or not reading teachers design 4. Consider the constraints that vou m ight face
content-based courses, engage in action re if vou were teaching reading for academic
search, or use technology in reading classes in purposes in an instructional setting of your
the future, we can be fairly certain that EAP choice. W hat would vou do to maximize the
instruction will continue to be im portant for F 2 effectiveness of vour reading instruction?
students. F2 teachers, w hether thev teach in ESL 5. In this chapter, Grabe an d Stoller assert that
or EFL settings, owe it to their students to make there is a difference between facilitating the
the most of the time they have allotted for read developm ent of strategic readers an d teach
ing instruction. If teachers are obliged to use ing r e a d in g strategies. How w ould you
m an d a ted materials, as most teachers are, thev explain the distinction thev are making?
should evaluate them carefullv, keeping in m ind 6. W hat is the relationship between content-
the complexities of fluent reading an d effective based instruction (CBI) a n d reading devel
reading instruction. T he goal should be to aug o p m e n t in F2 settings? How can CBI
m e n t and improve m an d a ted materials so that contribute to reading development?
students have the fullest reading developm ent
experience possible. For teachers who are in a
position to create academic reading curricula
a n d select materials on their own, this chapter S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
provides m any of the “ingredients" needed. It is 1. Create a graphic organizer that depicts your
tip to the teachers to put them together to m eet current view of reading for academic purpose^
students’ reading needs. Regardless of setting, 2. Select a short text (e.g., from a magazine
teachers must r e m e m b e r that students most often newspaper, textbook) that m ight be of inter
rise or fall to the level of expectation of their est to a class of F2 students.
teachers. Thus, teachers should set high expecta a. Analyze the text from the perspective o:
tions for their students and assist them in achiev these F2 students. W hat aspects of the
ing those expectations by m eans of purposeful text m ight prove difficult to them?
and principled reading instruction. b. Identify 10-15 words in the text that
m ight be unfam iliar to these students
Place each word into one of the follow
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S ing categories: + +, н— , — . How woulc
1. Flow has your conception of reading changed vou introduce words falling into the + -
since reading this chapter? Identify three ideas category?
or concepts from the chapter that vou think c. Design three postreading tasks that will
are im portant and rank order them. Provide a oblige students to engage in careful read
rationale for vour decisions. ing. Each task should focus on a different
aspect of careful reading (e.g., recogniz Dav. R. R.. ed. 1993. New Vbns in Leaching Reading.
ing main ideas: analyzing support infor Alexandria, YA: TESOL.'
mation. arguments, or details that explain Oast R. R.. and J. Bamford. 1998. Extensive Reading in
the main ideas: inferencing; unraveling the Second Language Classroom. Xew York:
information in complex sentences: deter Cambridge University Press.
S ilb erstein . .8. 1994. Techniques and Resources in
m ining author's attitudes: applying infor
lea c h in g Reading. X ew York: O x fo rd U niversity
mation). Be prepared to explain the aim
Press.
of each task that von design. Urquhart. A. H.. and C. Weir. 1998. Reading in a
3. Select three L2 reading textbooks. Examine Second Language: fhocess. Product and Practice.
them carefully to determ ine their effective Xew York: Longman.
ness. Do thev include motivating readings?
To what extent are the following aspects
of reading covered: strategy development,
fluency training, opportunities for rereading,
graphic organizers, vocabulary building activ- W E B S IT E S
ities, different purposes for reading, exercises
on discourse organization and text structure, R eposim ix to r in f o rm a tio n o n ex ten siv e re a d in g :
integrated-skills activities, pre-. during-, and http: www.kyoto-su.ac.jp /inform ation/er /
postreading activities, etc.?
I n v e n t o r y o f g r a p h i c o r g a n i z e r s , w ith m u l t i p l e links:
http: www.graphic.org goindex.html
http: w ww .sdcoe.kl2.ca.us/SCO RE/actbank/
torganiz.htm
FU R TH ER R EA D IN G http: www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/stu-
dents learning lrigrorg.htm
A e b e r s o l d . J. A., a n d M. L. F ield. 1997. I m a m R e a d e r to
http: www.macropress.com / lgrorg.htm
R ea d in g ’t e a c h e r : hum s and Strategics ja r Seconal
Language C lassroom s. N e w W)rk: C am bridge
L’n i v e r s m Press. T e a c h e r g u id e lin e s for d e s ig n in g g ra p h ic o rganizers:
.A nderson , X. 1999. E x p l o r i n g S e c o n d L a n g u a g e R e a d i n g : http: "www.wm .edu/TTAC/articles/learning/
I s s u e s a n d S t r a t e g i e s . B o s to n . MA: I le i n le X l i e i n l e . graphic.htm
W riting
UNIT II D
I I D:
Language Skills
UNIT
Writing
T he ability to express one's ideas in writing in a second or foreign
language and to do so with reasonable coherence and accuracy is a
major achievement; many native speakers of English never truly master
this skill. Olshtain’s chapter shows how the teacher o f even beginning-
level ESITEFL students can provide practice in writing that reinforces the
language the students have learned while teaching the mechanics of
writing (e.g., the Roman alphabet, penmanship, spelling, punctuation,
formats) right from the start. Knoll's chapter gives the reader a
comprehensive overview of current theory and practice in teaching
writing to non-native speakers of English, with special focus on developing
courses for teaching writing to these learners. Finally, Frodesens chapter
explores the problematic area of grammar (i.e„ accuracy) in writing, which
plagues so many non-native speakers even after they have m ore o r less
mastered the m ore global features of written English such as organization
and coherence,
Functional Tasks for Mastering
the Mechanics of Writing
and Going Just Beyond
ELITE О L S H ТА :N
Olshtain's chapter feats "".г vvvt-ng sk Is *cr сл -е.е ESl EFL !ea<rers. It sta-~ts with letter and word
recognition, discnnonatico anc prccrczor а-m т о .е а so bas c rules o* Eng1ish spelling, oanctuation, and
capitalization. W ith tocos on boon content anc acctnac.. ^ asson ct z~ese sklls tnen allows learners to
perform more comncmcat -e cases socn as roTing ,sss, messages, c arc ewnes, and school assignments.
A P P E N D IX В
I. Writing Practice: Tracing Letters, Words, and Sentences
C c "■ e Г
V ✓
4 / %
У Ч
S
У
r%
V >
/ ”"
----- Г '
s
[
✓ Ч
■ rs
..С c ....
. 1
-------------------
C 4 ✓
"N . S — 4 / n N ✓ 4 s ✓ s
-- X s
r C ..r . . r
- 1 ----------------- --- - \ I ------------------ — 1
C
N 1 /• s 1 /• ч 1
'j \_
1 1
'
, ■■ 1
1_________ !___
l‘J iW.
>'—
1 4 ✓
•
-------------- 1-
•
1
'
V
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( a d a p t e d f r o m O l s h t a i n e t al. 19 70 )
II. Meaningful Copying Activities
(Adapted from Olshtain et al. 1998. pp. 76, 85, an d 157)
1. Read and decide.
Dan wants to win at tennis. He doesn't practice a lot, but when he goes to
plav he takes a lucky ring with him. He thinks it can help hint win. What do
von think?
W hat is he doing?
3. Who is Luckv
у the Rock Star? Read and check ( t / ) .
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
1. Observe a single ESI. EFT writing class for
three to four class meetings in a row (with FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
the teacher's permission!). O n the basis of
your observations, design a set of criteria Background Resources
that could be used to evaluate the extent to Campbell. C. 1498. Teaching Second Language Writing:
which the students are m aking progress in Interm ting u'ith Text. Pacific Grove. CA: Heinle 8c
their writing. Heinle Publishers.
2. Collect several com position textbooks A short and practical guide that peeks into the
designed for use in an ESL or EFL writing author's own ESL writing classrooms and those
course. Review each textbook to determ ine of several other experienced teachers, provid
ing verv practical ideas for a varietv of teaching
the view each a uthor adopts as to what consti
situations. Focused primarily on immigrant
tutes the best wavs to have students become
rather than foreign students.
more proficient writers. To justify vour con Ferris. D.. and J. S. Hedgcock. 1998. Teaching ESL
clusions. use such "data" as the a u th o r’s intro Composition. Purpose. Process and Practice. Mahwah,
duction to the teacher, the nature of the XJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
readings presented in the text, the type of An extremely thorough teacher-training text
writing assignments included, and so on. providing extensive coverage of classroom
3. Conduct an interview with the director of the concerns, well grounded in current theoretical
English language composition program on perspectives.
vour campus to explore how the composition Harklau. L.. к. M. Losev, and Л1. Siegel, eds. 1999.
program addresses the needs of students (,encration 1.5 Meets College Composition. Mahwah,
whose first language is o th er than English. XJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
An anthologv of 12 articles addressing a variety Second Language Writing Research Network Forum
of issues related to how best to meet the writing Facilitates the exchange of information bv pro
needs of English language learners who have viding links to bibliographical information, a
graduated from U.S. high schools. directory of specialists, a discussion bulletin
Leki, I. 1992. Understanding ESL Writers: A Guide [or board, and related websites.
Teachers. Portsm outh. XH: Bovnton/Cook h ttp ://icdweb.cc.purdue.edu/~silvat/forum /
Heinemann.
A brief and highly readable compendium of
information identifying the special characteris ENDNO TES
tics and problem areas of ESL students, framed
within a discussion of the field of ESL writing as 1 While there are numerous distinctions to be
a profession and its connections to second lan drawn between writing classes for ESL students (in
guage learning. Especially helpful for those English-speaking countries) and writing classes for
with little background in applied linguistics. EFL students (studying in countries where English
Silva, T., and P. Matsuda. eds. 2001. On Second Language is not an official language), the discussion in this
Writing. Mahwah. XJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. chapter addresses issues of concern in shaping
.An anthology of 15 articles exploring central writing courses for both populations. Rather than
issues in theory, research, and instruction. focusing on the differences between these groups,
Authors are leading scholars in the field and pro I have chosen to blur the boundaries for the pur
tide a state-of-the-art analysis of their particular poses of this chapter. Where ESL is noted in the
area of focus. chapter, the claim is limited to courses offered in
North America and or reporting on a study con
Resources Containing Classroom Ideas for E F L ducted in this environment: where ESL/EEL is
Writing Teachers noted in the chapter, the discussion applies to
Brookes, A., and P. Grundv. 1998. Beginning to Write: either locale. ELI. is used to designate an English
Writing Activities for Elementary and Intermediate language learner in am context. Further,
Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Gumming (2000 ). in a study of both ESL and EFL
Press. writing classes in a number of countries around
Grellet, F. 1996. Writing for Advanced Learners of English. the world, found a certain core level of common
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. approaches and practices.
Hedge, T. 1988. Writing. Oxford: Oxford University - In this procedure, the writer is asked to verbalize
Press. all of his or her thoughts while composing and to
White, R. V.. ed. 1995. Xew lU/y.t in Teaching Writing. write down only those words and thoughts that
Alexandria. УА: TESOL. form part of the task of text production. The event
is either aucliotaped or videotaped, and a tran
script, referred to as a "protocol," is prepared for
subsequent analysis, also known as "protocol
analysis."
W E B S IT E S Я A heuristic device refers to a specific set of steps
one can follow in order to work through personal
Journal of Second Language On-line discoveries as a wav of finding a solution, answer,
Homepage for this specialized journal, pub or path to adopt in a given circumstance. While
lished three times a tear since 1992. providing there are guidelines for utilizing heuristic devices,
solid scholarly articles. Website includes all tables the important thing to remember is that thev will
of contents and helpful links. vielcl highly individual results, i.e. there are no
h ttp ://icdweb.cc.purdue.edu/~silvat/jslw/ "right" or "■wrong" answers. In contrast, algorith
mic devices are steps which are tightiv controlled
Purdue Lhiiversitv Online Writing Lab and invariable: thev vielcl the same results for all
Provides extensive writing help in all areas con those who follow a given algorithm, such as the
nected to written composition for both native process of addition. A full discussion of a wide
and non-native English speaking writers, with variety of heuristic devices useful in ESL, teaching
helpful links for teacher resources as well. is presented in Httghev ct al. (1983), pp. 62-84
http://owl.english.purdue/edu/ and in Ferris and Hedgcock (1998), pp. 101-113.
Grammar in Writing
JAN F R O D E S E N
"G ram m ar in W ritin g ” emphasizes that a hocus on norm in composition can help writers develop rich
linguistic resources needed to express .deas effectively in addition to providing assistance in error
correction, Fnodesen summarzes cuirent controversies about the role of grammar in writing, discusses
learner and situational variables, and describes activities for incorporating grammar into writing
nstruction.
In many U.S. towns, the opening of large retail If customers shop at chain superstores
chain stores known as superstores has made instead of their local businesses, the local
it difficult for the local small businesses to stores may have to close.
keep customers.
However, some of these local businesses are Unless small businesses find new ways to
now successfully using the W eb to increase attract customers, such as advertising on
sales and improve customer service. the Web, they may not be able to compete
with superstores.
In summarv. text elicitation can be list'd to resents a single word to fill in, in gapped texts the
focus on diagnosed structural problem s, to blanks mav require one or m ore words. A third
develop syntactic com plexity to familiarize stu type of text completion, which focuses attention
dents with discourse-based gram m ar conven on the flow of inform ation across sentence
tions (e.g.. the use of passive in survey reports), boundaries, requires students to use the dis
and to provide strategies for organizing and dis course context to select sentences that best
playing information. achieve "flow" and create effective cohesion. The
formats and purposes of each of these com ple
tion tvpes will be briefly described in this section.
Dictation Cloze passages can be created either bv ran
dom deletion of words (e.g.. deleting every sev
Dictation can be an effective wav to lamiliari/e
enth word) or bv deletion of a specific item (e.g.,
students with the wavs in which gram m ar and
articles). T he second tvpe is m ore suitable for
vocabulary interact in com m on collocations as
grammatical focus. The source could be a pub
well as to address errors in writing that mat result
lished text or student writing: if a student text, the
in part from mismatches between learners' aural
passage should be free of serious grammatical
perception of English forms and standard English
problems that might distract or confuse students.
gram m ar and spelling.
The following, from a student essay, has been
In one dictation procedure, the instructor
m ade into a cloze passage bv deleting articles.
reads aloud a short text several times, usually
(Blanks have also been put before nouns with no
one related to the topic or genre on which stu
article.)
dents are working. The text is first read at a n o r
mal pace, with the students just listening. For the 1 pollution may be defined as
second reading, the teacher pauses after each 2 deterioration of 3 every
phrase to allow students to write. Clare should be
day life’s natural resources. 4 pollu
taken not to put u n d u e emphasis on word e n d
ings or function words that are not norm alh tion is 5 global problem that has
stressed. T he third reading, do n e at a normal affected 6 quality of 7 water
pace, gives students the opportunity to read over
we drink, 8 air we breathe and
the texts and make corrections. The teacher
then shows students the passage so that the\ can 9 land we use. 10 scientific
check their versions with the original and edit solutions to overcome __ LL__ problem
their texts. If the activity's main objective is error
have increased 12 destruction.
detection correction, the instructor could give
more specific directions, such as to put a circle at T he text above illustrates the advantage of
the ends of all words with missed -v third person presenting a passage rather than a gro u p of
singular or -er/ endings. If the goal is to familiarize unrelated sentences for practice in article usage.
writers with particular grammatical features, stu In the last sentence, the definite article “th e ”
dents could be asked to underline them; the class is needed before the last two nouns because of
could then discuss meanings and or functions of second m ention: "problem" is a partial repeti
the target constructions.
tion of "global problem." and "destruction" mav
be in te rp re te d as either a synonvm for “deterio
ration" or as a .superordinate term for the effects
Text Completion
m en tio n e d previously
Grammar-based exercises involving text com ple Students usually enjov exercises based on
tion are. of course, very familiar to ESL/EET stu their own writing: thev could even create their
dents. Two of the most com m on types of text own cloze passages from a paragraph thev have
completion are the cloze passage and the gapped written a n d exchange them with a classmate.
text. Whereas in cloze passages each blank rep Gloze passages based on student texts can serve as
an e rror correction technique if the writer has ERROR D IA G N O S IS
p ro d u ce d errors in the grammatical item deleted.
A N D C O R R E C T IO N
Whatever the source, this type of cloze passage
can provide an excellent context for discussing T h e discussion of g ram m ar in writing in this
syntactic, semantic, or pragmatic features across c hapter has em phasized the m ultidim ensional
sentence boundaries, ones that mav influence aspects o f g ram m ar a n d the im portance of form-
writers’ selections of such grammatical items as focused instruction that does not c enter solely
articles and pronouns. on errors. G ram m ar issues related to errors will,
Since gapped text com pletion exercises do however, arise in almost every ESL/EFL writing
n o t specify the n u m b e r of words required for class and for ESL writers in m ainstream classes
each blank, they can be used to elicit deleted as well.
verbs that include forms with m ore than one Truscott (1996) g en erated m uch debate
word, such as passives, progressive aspect, and about the wisdom of dealing with errors in com
p rese n t perfect. O th e r grammatical items that position: in response. Ferris (1999) noted flaws
could be deleted for ga p p e d exercises are com in Truscott's definition of e rro r correction a n d
paratives, superlatives, phrasal verbs, and multi in the research he used to support his argum ent.
w o rd /p h ra s a l logical connectors. T eachers' classroom e x p e rie n c e as well as
T h e third type of text com pletion asks stu research has indicated that EST writers expect
dents to consider syntactic structures with essen and appreciate assistance in improving their lan
tially the same m ea n in g an d to choose the m ore guage accuracy (Ferris an d Hedgcock 1998).
a p p ropriate re n d e rin g of the inform ation based
on the preceding discourse context. This exer Error Detection and Correction
cise type focuses students' attention on how fea
Exercises
tures such as p ronouns, partial repetition, and
passive voice interact to create inform ation flow. O nce the teacher has assessed students’ lan
T h e following is an example, m odeled after one guage needs, text-based exercises can be
by R u therford (1988, p. 240). T he appropriate assigned to help students identify' and correct
choices are indicated bv check marks: errors and develop editing strategies. W henever
possible, the students' own writing should be
Climatologists have predicted that the con used for exercises: students who do not have a
tinual wanning of the earth's surface. com particular problem can contribute via pe e r cor
monly known as “the greenhouse effect. " rection. T he teacher will usually n e e d to adapt a
could have dramatic consequences. student text (e.g.. correcting errors that are not
the focus of the practice).
1. (a) T h e m elting of the polar ice caps T he following are useful e rror detection
could be one result. an d correction techniques:
(b) O n e result could be the m elting of the
1. In a text with different tvpes of errors, stu
polar ice caps.
dents are told the total n u m b e r of each kind
2. (a) This m elting would, in turn, cause a of e rro r to identify and correct.
rise o f the sea level. Example: The text below has the following
(b) A rise of the sea level would, in turn, errors: 1 preposition, 1 verb tense, 1 subject-
be caused bv this melting. verb agreem ent. 1 missing article.
This activity emphasizes the importance of This paper report on survey about values. Our
context in m aking grammatical choices and shows English class take the survey last week in UCLA.
how cohesion and coherence result from pre 2. To focus on just one e rror type, students are
senting information that is familiar to the reader given a text with n u m b ere d lines. Thcv are
at the beginning of the sentence, followed bv the told all of the line num bers that have a cer
new information the writer wants to convey. tain tvpe of error.
Example: Identify an d correct all of the verb T he following are editing techniques some
form errors in the following text. Use the students find work well for them:
guide below to find the errors.
1. Read-Aloud Technique .Many students find
1 The Olympics were hold in Sydney, Australia that slowly reading their drafts aloud to lis
2 in 2000. Athletes from all over the world partici- ten for errors can help them in m aking cor
3 paled. The Olympics have inspire many young rections. For shorter papers, some students
4 people to excel in athletics. who are aware of their e rro r patterns read
Guide: Errors — Lines 1. 3 through the p a per several times, listening
for different kinds of errors each time. Shih
3. I se sentences from students' drafts to focus (1998) notes that multiple readings are not
on one error type. Though the exercise will realistic for long papers.
not consist of short texts, sentences from 2. Pointing to Words Some writers use a pencil,
papers concerned with the same topic will pen. or linger to point to words one bv one.
preside coherence of them e and. most likely, 3. “Slow-Down” Techniques This involves
vocabulary. T he teacher can identify the reading a draft in some wav that is in contrast
gram m ar feature for correction focus, such as to the normal linear process, such as starting
articles, word forms, prepositions, verb tense, with the hist sentence in each paragraph and
or n o u n number. leading in reverse. Such a technique may
help writers detect certain kinds of m o rp h o
logical errors such as missing plural endings,
but would not work well for others, such as
Editing Strategies and Techniques
reference words or subject-verb agreement.
The benefits of focused work on diagnosing 4. Word Processing Grammar Checkers
errors and developing editing strategies will cer- G ram m ar checkers in word processors can
tainlv varv for students, d epending on m am com flag certain kinds of errors. As long as writers
plex variables involving the learners, the teachers' do not blindly follow the suggestions (since
knowledge and experience in pedagogical gram gram m ar checkers can often create errors
mar, and the writing context. rather than correct them if suggestions are
Shih (1998) identified characteristics of taken indiscriminately), checkers can be
effective editors a m o n g F.SL students. The m ore helpful in getting writers to pav attention to
accurate writers devoted m uch time to revising potential errors. If students do not u n d e r
and editing, continually worked on becom ing stand the suggested correction, tliev should
aware of their gaps in linguistic com petence and not make the change.
error patterns, an d m ade a habit of reviewing
their work constantly an d editing recursively.
The less accurate writers often waited until the
Teacher Feedback on Errors
final draft to give attention to language con
cerns, at which point tliev were overwhelm ed bv The preceding discussion has focused on class
errors. Thus, the c om m on advice to delay a tten room exercises for identifying and collecting
tion to g ram m ar and editing until the final draft errors and on strategies for student editing.
did not s e n e these students well. A nother significant issue related to language
Most ESL writers need to devote consider errors in writing is. of course, teacher feedback
able time and effort to becoming good editors. on student writing. Kroll's chapter in this volume
Otherwise, m am trill fail to benefit from class discusses this topic, which includes m am kinds of
room exercises and practice or even from indi response o ther than error feedback.
vidual conferencing. Students should be T he following are some general guidelines
encouraged to explore different strategies to find a n d suggestions for providing fee dback on
ones that serve them effectively grammar.
1. Indirect feedback is generally m ore useful can help students identify errors that create
(and often m ore desired bv students) than re a d e r confusion or m isinterpretation, explore
direct correction of errors. Indirect feed the strategies for editing that best fit the waiters’
back could involve one or m ore of the fol learning stvles. set goals for im provem ent, and
lowing: putting a check in the m argin of the assess progress in these goals. Students can also
lines where errors occur, u n d e rlin in g or provide insight into the sources of error, ones
highlighting selected errors: coding errors that a teacher might not even have considered,
either in the margins or above selected such as interference from a third language or an
errors with symbols such as W for verb tense. inaccurately form ulated "rule." W hen students
?r/Tor word form, art for article, etc. (see. for are able to analyze their e rro r sources, the
example. Lane and Lange 1999): attaching teacher can m ore effectively suggest editing
a sheet to the w riter’s draft with a list of sev strategies.
eral structural errors along with exercise's or
handouts to help the writer better u n d e r
stand the grammatical system or feature C O N C L U S IO N
involved (Celce-Mttrcia and Hilles 1988).
2. Teachers should not provide feedback on till Second language writing pedagogy has been
errors in am one piece of writing— this cam greath influenced bv developm ents in LI com
be overwhelming to students — but should position teaching which have p ro m o te d the
focus on several errors the teacher considers teaching of writing as a process an d as a social
as most n eeding attention. activity. This process and social activity is also
3. Deciding which errors most deserve inten about language, however. This chapter's discus
tion requires consideration of m am student sion of gram m ar in writing has supported the
variables (e.g.. m etalinguistic knowledge, view that second language writers need attention
proficiency level) and the instructional situa to form in developing writing proficiency and
tion. Errors to be po in ted out ma\ be those than attention to form is not just about error but
representing an individual's frequent e rror about resources for communicative goals. As
patterns, errors that most seriously affect Ponsot and Been (1982. p. 133) put it. "Grammar
com m unication, or stigmatizing errors. is clearlv not remedial. Like baking powder, it
4. While the bulk of teacher feedback on errors can't be stirred into the cake after the batter has
should occur in later stages of the writing been [toured into pans."
process, teachers can alert students to areas ESI. EFL writing classroom pedagogy will
of concern in earlv drafts also, so that all the certainh continue to change as the result of new
attention to language errors does not need research in related areas such as second lan
to be given with the last draff, when many guage acquisition, rhetoric and composition,
students find thev do not have sufficient linguistics, e d u c a tio n , an d psychology. A nd
time to address them effectively. future sociopolitical and sociolinguistic develop
m ents will no doubt cause us to reconsider long-
If the teaching environm ent permits con h e ld views ab o u t lan guage a n d language
ferencing with students outside of class, confer teaching. Increased globalization and the devel
ences are excellent opportunities to provide o p m e n t of world Englishes are even now chal
individual help. Alternatively, the teacher can lenging notions of "Standard E nglish(es).” The
h o ld '‘m in ico n fe re n c e s" with individuals or increasing non-native English-speaking imm i
small groups in the classroom. In conferences, grant populations in English-speaking countries,
teachers can dem onstrate directly the difficulties especially in institutions of higher education,
a rea d e r m ight have as a result of the gram m ati raise questions a b out what the expectations
cal errors in the students' waiting. This setting should be of "linguistic correctness,” even in for
allows the teacher to act as a collaborator rather mal written English. And, of course, rapidiv devel
than as an e rro r dete c to r/co rrec to r. He or she oping com puter technology offers resources for
individual tutorials in form-focused language a p p ro p r ia te d related to the discourse o f that
instruction that were u n d re a m e d of in decades context? (e) If the exercise is not part of a
past. All these raise issues that writing teachers larger writing context, for what aspect of
will need to be aware of an d reflect on in m aking writing instruction do vou think it would be
decisions about g ram m ar in the writing class appropriate? (f) Does the lev el o f difficultv
room. Nevertheless, it seems that, in some form, seem appropriate for the in te n d e d learners?
the role of g ram m ar will rem ain as an essential (g) Based on the previous criteria a n d anv
c o m p o n e n t o f effective written com m unication. others vou think relevant, summarize the
strengths a n d weaknesses of the exercise or
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S exercises.
2. Select a text that vou think illustrates well the
1. In what wavs has the role of g ram m ar in writ use of a particular grammatical structure
ing instruction been characterized? How do (e.g.. n o n c o u n t nouns, frequence acherbs,
the different attitudes about grammatical agentless passives, presentative "there" to
instruction in composition rellect different introduce inform ation). Develop an exercise
ways of defining what gram m ar means? to accom panv the text that students could
2. How can g ram m ar instruction be considered com plete in small groups as a classroom task
compatible with approaches that locus on or individuallv as a hom ew ork assignment.
writing as a process or with writing as a social Explain the objective of the exercise and the
activitv? writing context in which it might be used.
3. Whv is it important for gram m ar exercises 3. Write a reflective essav or journal entrv on
to be (a) text based rather than a series of vottr own experiences with gram m ar in writ
unrelated sentences, (b) developed from ing as a second language learner. To what
authentic discourse, and tc> presented in a extent was gram m ar associated primarilv with
communicative context rather than onh as diagnosing and correcting errors in vottr own
practice in grammatical structures? second language writing? To what extent were
4. If one of vottr students expressed disap vou aware of the wavs in which expanding
p o in tm en t that vou did not correct all of the vottr grammatical knowledge h e lp e d vou
errors in his or h e r final drafts, how would improve vottr linguistic resources to express
vou respond? vottr ideas?
5. What are some advantages of teacher-student 4. Examine several ESI. EFE compositions that
conferences in helping students with gram have f re q u e n t a n d varied gram m atical
matical problem s in writing? errors. For each composition, identifv two of
the most frequent or serious errors. Describe
sets of exercises or activities that would help
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S the writer to address these gram m atical
1. Evaluate one or m ore gram m ar-oriented problems.
exercises in an ESL composition textbook or 5. Intel view ESI. writing teachers about the
workbook. Use the following criteria: (a) techniques, both oral a n d written, that thev
W hat appears to be the purpose of the exer have used to provide feedback on gram m ati
cises? Do vou think it is pedagogicallv sound? cal errors in their students' writing. D ining
(b) Is the exercise text based? If not. do con what stages of com posing processes do thev
think it is still appropriate for its purpose? address ervorsr W hich e rr o r fee dback
(c) Does the language seem authentic? (cl) If a n d or correction tec h n iq u es have thev
the exercise is included in a content-based found to be most effective? What student
or rhetorical framework (e.g.. as p a n of a variables have affected the success of tech
unit on persuasive writing), is it clearlv and niques used?
Provides a comprehensive overview of research
on error feedback and other forms of grammar
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G instruction. Discusses how teachers can prepare
themselves to treat student error, describes error
Bvrd, P., and j. Reid. 1998. Grammar in the Composition
correction options, and other error treatment
Classroom: Essays on Teaching ESI. for College-
options such as revision and peer editing.
bound Students. Boston. MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Includes numerous suggestions and ideas for
A collection of essays offering theoretical dis
cussion and practical information for incorpo activities and lessons.
rating grammar in writing classes. Emphasizes Shill. M. 1998. ESI. Writers' Grammar Editing
learner-based approaches and selection of Strategies. College EST. 8(L):64-86.
grammatical features based on corpus text Describes characteristics of university ESL writers
analysis for teaching academic writing. who developed successful editing strategies and
Ferris, D. Forthcoming. 'Treatment of Error in 1.2 those who were less successful. Offers suggestions
Student Writing. Ann Arbor. MI: University of for helping writers develop effective strategies
Michigan Press. and practice in all stages of composing.
G ram m ar a n d V ocabulary
UNIT II E
Language Skills
h—I
In 'Teaching G ram m ar" Larsen-Freeman challenges conventional views of grammar Instead of simply
analyzing grammatical form, she includes grammatical meaning and use as well. Then, building on
w hat is known about the way grammar is learned, she offers ways to teach grammar consistent with
contem porary th eo ry and the need to "focus on form " within a meaning-based or communicative
approach.
Step 2: Selective Perception The student is 1. The learner notices linguistic features in
already par ing attention and consciously focuses processed input.
on the location of the indirect object. Does it 2. T he learner makes a com parison between
com e directly after the verb or is it a clause-final his or h e r existing linguistic knowledge, or
prepositional phraser Are both positions possi interlanguage, and the newlv processed
ble? At this point, the location of the indirect input.
object is selectively perceived in input. 3. T he learner th en constructs new linguistic
hypotheses on the basis of the new infor
Step 3: Short-Term Memory C orrect place m ation and his o r her existing system.
m e n t of the indirect object with different verbs
enters short-term m em ory th rough conscious Step 7: Retrieval from Long-Term M emory
effort gained by directed attention and o th e r C onnectionist models of parallel processing sug
cognitive strategies such as practicing, analyzing, gest that there are "prom pts'’ which either excite
a n d reasoning, a n d by creating structure for the or inhibit elem ents in long-term memory, result
new in p u t, often t h ro u g h written m eans ing in a pattern of activity am ong sets of inter
(Oxford 1990). These strategies are also used for related elements. Experience is seen as strength
the next step. ening the connections which exist am ong the ele
ments. thus allowing easier retrieval.
Step 8: Production Strategies and Output In report active use of strategies are likelv to be
the interactive task for indirect object place m ore successful in learning new skills than are
m ent, the students do not have to pro d u ce the students who do not use strategies. W hen stu
correct form, only recogni/e it. so there is no dents have clearlv defined goals, high motiva
n e e d for simplification or correction of ou tp u t tion, a n d control of their learning through
d u rin g task perform ance. However, subsequent strategy use. favorable learning outcom es result.
practice activities will require output, a n d the Therefore, no cognitive m odel of se co n d /fo r-
use of planning an d correcting strategies will be eign language gram m ar learning would be com
helpful at this time (McLaughlin 1987: O xford plete without considering strategies.
1990). It is im portant to recogni/e that since Although there are manv researchers inves
im provem ent o f perfo rm a n c e is related to the tigating strategies for language learning (e.g.,
a m o u n t o f autom aticitv. the res tru c tu rin g see the literature review and strategy taxonomy
process often results in discontinuities which in C ohen 1998). Oxford's a pproach (1990) is
delav successful production. T herefore, even useful because she uses a simple taxonomy,
th o u g h students can recogni/e which pattern of dividing strategies into direct a n d indirect types,
indirect object placem ent various verbs take, a n d th en r e c o m m e n d s specific pedagogical
they cannot be expected to im m ediateh p ro applications. Direct strategies consist of m em ory
duce the g ram m ar forms correctly in c o m m u strategies, cognitive strategies, and com pensa
nicative utterances. However, student output tion strategies, all of which involve conscious
d u rin g task perfo rm a n c e — reading sentences m anipulation of the target language structure.
from task cards and discussing which pattern of T he first type, m em ory strategies, facilitates stor
indirect object placement the various verbs take— age and retrieval of new inform ation through
becomes new input that then provides feedback to grouping, associating, an d contextualizing new
the learners' implicit knowledge system. inform ation. Cognitive strategies include prac
ticing new language items, analyzing new m ate
Step 9: Feedback Feedback on the correctness rial such as g ram m ar rules, an d organizing
of language is essential for hypothesis testing and structure for new material. T he last step is often
the developm ent o f implicit linguistic knowl written practice and mav involve summarization.
edge. T he learner tests hypotheses in two main Indirect strategies enable the student to control
ways: receptively, bv com paring input to existing learning, and include ( 1 ) metacognitive strate
interlanguage, and productively, bv producing gies. such as using Advance O rganizers to
utterances in the target language a n d assessing approach new material at a h igher level o f gen
their correctness from the feedback receiv ed. In erality. and goal setting: (2 ) affective strategies
the gram m ar lesson a n d task described earlier, for m anaging em otion a n d developing motiva
the students receive feedback from the teacher tion: and ( 3 ) social strategies for interaction and
on the correctness of the indirect object place the collaborative creation of meaning. Manv
m en t patterns. educators have suggested that students should
receive special training on the active use ol
strategies to control and e n h a n ce their language
Strategy Use learning process (see Oxford's c hapter in this
Strategies can be defined as conscious tech volume and C ohen 1998).
niques for achieving a goal and have been shown
to m ediate cognitive change (O xford 1990);
they have also b e e n d e fin e d as “lea rn in g
Summary
processes which are consciously selected by the This cognitive m odel of language processing
le a rn e r” (C ohen 1998, p. 4). Both definitions illustrates how a g ram m ar lesson given in the tar
emphasize the learner's conscious decision to get lan g u a g e a n d c o n ta in in g b o th form al
use strategies. In fact, extensive research in ge n instruction a n d communicative activities can be
eral e d u c a tio n indicates that stu d e n ts who e x p e c te d to p r o m o te lan g u a g e acquisition
th ro u g h d e v e lo p m e n t o f b o th im plicit a n d rectness o f th e ir language. P ro d u c tio n
explicit knowledge. Even th o u g h the nature of activities also proside new input.
the relationship between these two forms of 5. Group work and task performance are recom
knowledge is still u n d e te rm in e d , the critical mended since they give students the chance to
process in language acquisition— a n d all learn receive communicative input and produce
in g — is the modification o f the le a r n e r ’s existing output; such interaction allows the collabora
knowledge system on the basis of comparisons tive construction of meaning to occur.
between it a n d newlv processed input. An im por 6. Postlesson activities include further com m u
tant pedagogical implication of the model is that nicative exposure to the gram m ar point as
there will necessarilv be a lag between the pres well as a systematic review of the instructed
entation of the gram m ar lesson an d the lea rn er’s form that points out its use in a variety of
ability to use the target form successfully in com communicative contexts.
m unication. However, practice will help the
process bv allowing the proceduralization of
explicit knowledge, and communicative activities A Cognitive Approach
containing the gram m ar form will facilitate the to Traditional Grammar Teaching
developm ent of implicit knowledge.
Traditional gram m ar instruction has generally
consisted of a presentation of g ram m ar rules fol
lowed bv practice drills, sentence production,
P E D A G O G IC A L IM P LIC A TIO N S an d translation. This ap p ro a c h is still p ro m in e n t
in m am parts of the world although a c o m m u
T h e p receding sections have identified an d dis
nicative c o m p o n e n t has often been added. T he
cussed the following features of a cognitive
following is a generalized version of an English
a pproach to g ram m ar teaching:
lesson currently used in m any EFL settings.
1. It is useful if students receive an orientation
1. T h e new7g ram m ar po in t is explained:
in advance of the gram m ar lesson to acti
2. new words an d phrases are explained and
vate their previous knowledge and to p ro
there mav be a pro n u n cia tio n lesson as
m ote the integration of the new material
well:
into their existing knowledge hierarchies.
3. a tape of a dialogue containing the new
2. Some tvpe of gram m ar instruction is neces-
g r a m m a r stru c tu re a n d vocabulary is
sarv for students to attain high levels of accu-
plaved:
racv in the target language. This instruction
4. students practice the dialogue in chorus or
mav be explicit or mav be implicit (involving
in pairs:
only communicative use of the target struc
5. students translate the dialogue into their
tures). and rule presentation mav be induc
native language;
tive or deductive. Communicative activities
6. as a final activity, listening exercises and
used alone are not considered to be suffi
practice drills are presented.
cient for development of learner accuracy in
the use of gram m ar points. From a cognitive perspective emphasizing
3. Extensive communicative exposure to the skills development, the problem with this lesson
instructed g ram m ar point is essential for is that the gram m ar point is not presented in a
s tu d e n ts to notice, th e n process, the wav that facilitates its processing a n d procedural
instructed form, linking it to previously ization; n o r have form -m eaning correlations
developed linguistic knowledge. been tirade through the presentation o f co m m u
4. Production activities are essential to p ro nicative activities designed to p rom ote noticing
vide practice in the use of the form, to raise of the form's variety of meanings in discourse.
awareness of the form, and to give students Transforming the traditional lesson, therefore,
the chance to receive feedback on the cor m eans adding communicative activities using the
Form in various wavs. These activities are struc acceptably serious tvpe of communicative activity
tured to require both interaction and output within the framework of a traditional approach to
using the form, as well as corrective feedback gram m ar instruction.
from group m em bers or the teacher. T he lesson
is reinforced bv subsequent communicative activ
ities which use the form to perform a variety of
discourse functions, and also bv teacher review. C O N C L U S IO N
Repeated communicative practice of instructed This chapter has presented a cognitive approach
forms can lead to their eventual automatization. to language learning and gram m ar instruction. A
cognitive model has been ttsed to design a gram
m ar lesson which develops both explicit and
A Cognitive Approach implicit knowledge of a gram m ar point, supplies
to Communicative Teaching opportunities for information exchange through
task perform ance, and then provides purelv com
Researchers now agree that it is essential to inte municative input containing the target structures
grate some form of g ram m ar instruction within so that students can notice form-meaning rela
a communicative framework if students are to tionships. 'fh e approach described is useful for
attain high levels of target language accuracv, traditional institu tional settings as well as prim a
particularly in the F.FL context, where o p p o rtu rily meaning-focused classrooms.
nities to e n c o u n te r communicative use of the
target language are rare. As an alternative to
cleliverv of a formal g ram m ar lesson, task work
has been r e c o m m e n d e d to supple students with D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
comm unicative use of target gram m ar points, as
1 . W hat are the general features of a cognitive
well as to p rom ote interaction, production, and
a pproach to g ram m ar teaching learning?
opportunities for corrective feedback (Skehan
2. What is the Noticing Hypothesis and whv is it
1998a). T he use of purely communicative tasks
considered important for gram m ar teachin g/
which nonetheless requite com prehension and
learning- Discuss this hypothesis in relation to
production of target gram m ar points has been
explicit and implicit approaches to gram m ar
r e c o m m e n d e d (Loschv and Blev-Yroman 1993).
instruction.
In addition, gram m ar problem-solving tasks in
3. Manv theories of second language acquisition
which students discuss the structure as task con
maintain that practice is not necessary for
tent, such as the previous example requiring stu
learning to take place. However, a cognitive
dents to assign verbs to patterns of indirect
approach to gram m ar instruction suggests
object placem ent, are also useful since thev com
that it mav be useful. Do vou agree or dis
bin e com m unicative task p e rf o r m a n c e with
agree? Whv?
explicit instruction on gram m ar points. Such
4. What tvpe of language learner would find a
tasks have even been suggested to be equivalent
cognitive approach to gram m ar tea c h in g /
to traditional gram m ar lessons in the develop
learning most effective and whv? Would a cog
m en t of explicit knowledge (Fotos 1993: 2001).
nitive approach work for vou? Whv or whv not?
vet do not com prom ise the essentially meaning-
focused n a tu re of com m unicative pedagogy.
Furtherm ore, when students discuss the language
thev produce during task perform ance, it is sug
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
gested that this "meratalk" helps them develop
awareness of the relationship of form to m eaning 1. Select a g ram m ar point with easily explained
(Swain 1983). It should also be acknowledged rules a n d develop the outline of a lesson
that such structure-based interactive tasks, with using the cognitive approach suggested for
their obvious grammatical content, provide an teaching indirect object placement.
2. Using the same g ram m ar point, design a workings of memory, knowledge creation,
focus-on-form activity featuring onlv com attention and awareness, and language com
municative use of the g ram m ar structure. prehension and production.
T h e c o m m u n ic a tiv e m aterial sh o u ld be Hinkel. E., and S. Fotos. eels. 2001. .Yew Perspectives on
Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms.
designed so that the students will notice it
Mahwah, Nj: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
an d have to use the target structure to com
A useful collection of articles presenting a range
plete the activity.
of grammar teaching approaches and activities
3. Develop an interactive structure-based task for ESL/EFL classrooms.
requiring students to rea d each o th e r sen Skehan. P. 1998a. A Cognitwe Approach to Language
tences containing the structure, to write the Processing. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
sentences down, an d th en to develop gram A kev book for understanding the cognitive
m ar rules for the stru c tu re ’s use. (Possible aspects of language acquisition and the role of
stru c tu re s with easily ex p la in ab le rules individual differences, such as learning style, in
in c lu d e adverb p lac e m e n t; the m odals promoting favorable learning outcomes. The
would, could, a n d should; o rd e r of adjectives: book also presents a strong rationale for task-
cause and result with so, such, vers, and too: based instruction.
\Xh + n o u n questions; comparisons.) Tomasello. \E. eel. 1998. The Sew Psychology of
Language: Cognitive and Functional Approaches to
4. Design three follow-up communicative activi
Language Structure. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
ties for the task in Activitv 3. The c om m u
Erlbaum Associates.
nicative activities should prom ote noticing This edited volume presents papers bv authors
of the structure in a varietv of functional working in the area of Cognitive-Functional
contexts. Linguistics, an approach to grammar develop
ment based on consideration of the communica
tive function of a form and the cultural context
for expressing that function. Tomasello's intro
duction is especially useful.
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
Bialvsiok. E.. and K. Hakuta. 1994. In Other Words: The
Science and Psychology of Second-Language
Acquisition. New York: Basic Books.
ENDNO TES
An easv-to-read survey presenting theories of 1 Give)n (1998) suggests that the use of grammar
second language acquisition illustrated bv real- appeared relatively late in human cognitive evolu
world examples. The book pats special atten tion. commenting that hominoids appear to possess
tion to issues of bilingualism and the impact of both noun and verb concepts as well as the neces-
culture on language learning. san brain neurology for semantic and episodic
Ellis, R. 1997. Second Language Research and Language memory. He therefore considers grammar to con
'Leaching. Oxford: Oxford Universitv Press. sist of the following components: (1) morphology;
An essential reference for ESL. EFT teachers, (2) intonation, including clause-level intonation
this book accessible summarizes the extensive contours and word stress; (3) rhythmics, including
bodv of research on language learning and links length and pattses; and (4) sequential order of
the findings to classroom practice and opportu words and or morphemes (pp. 48-49).
nities for action research. - In this chapter, declarative knowledge is consid
Evsenck. M.. and M. Keane. 1995. Cognitive Psychology: ered to be the same as explicit knowledge and pro
A Student’s Handbook. East Sussex, UK: cedural knowledge is considered to be the same as
Psychology Press. implicit knowledge. However, some researchers
A psychology textbook useful as a general refer distinguish among each type. For a fuller discus
ence because of its clear explanations of the sion. see Skehan 1998a.
Vocabulary Learning
and Teaching
IEANETTE S. D EC ARRICO
"Vocabulary Learning andTeaching" focuses initially on current issues in teaching, i.e., deciding which items
to teach and how to teach them; on explicit and implicit learning and vocabulary learning strategies; and
on the role of collocations.The other focus is recent corpus studies and their implications for analysis of
multiword phrasal units and for new directions in vocabulary instruction.
Idioms R E C E N T D EV E LO P M E N TS
In the previous section, collocations were dis Corpus Studies
cussed in terms of restricted pairs or sets of multi
word combinations. Restrictions on patterns are Recent developm ents in corpus studies have led
described in terms of kev words and the range or to m ajor changes in language description and
set of associated words that can co-occur with have greatlv e x p a n d ed ou r knowledge of collo
them. Not all collocational patterns are entirely cations. idioms, a n d o th e r multiword units (see
equal, however, as some are relativelv m ore especiallv Sinclair 1991). O n e problem in teach
"fixed” than others. ing collocations, for example, is deciding which
ones ought to he included. Researchers h a te word that is chosen guides an d constrains the lex
p o in te d out that, given the huge n u m b e r of pos ical choices several words awav. Schmitt (2000)
sible collocations for even a limited n u m b e r of discusses this discourse pa tte rn in g in relation to
words, there needs to be some principled wav to the word sorry. He describes various contexts
limit the total to a m anageable num ber. Data and patterns for this word and notes that, for
from corpus studies have provided new possibil example, one of its collocates is so, creating the
ities for finding solutions to such problems. sequence so sorry. If the c oncordance data from
Computers have made possible the collec the corpus are exam ined m ore carefully, how
tion of huge databases of language ranging in ever. it turns out that the pa tte rn in g is m uch
length from short phrases or sentences up to m ore restricted.
entire books. These corpus studies allow access to T he main occurrences of so sorry are in two
a variety of samples from language as it is actually patterns, one with so sorry to an d o n e with so sorry
used in real-world settings in a wide range of gen for. T he form er is usually followed bv some
res, both written and spoken. O ne of the most in c o n v e n ie n c e the sp e ak e r regrets having
often cited studies is the COBUILD project (The caused, such as being late or troubling someone.
Collins-Birmingham University International An exam ple is I'm so sorry to have to ask you these
Language Database), with a corpus of many mil personal questions. The latter, on the o ther hand, is
lions of words. This project has also produced normally followed bv a reference to people who
several dictionaries and grammars, including a have experienced some tvpe of unfortunate situa
dictionary of collocations. tion such tts injure or loss of a loved one, and it
O ne insight from corpus studies is that mam- tends to cluster with some form of the verb feel, as
words collocate with other words from a definable in / feel so sorry for that dead boy's family. Schmitt
semantic set. This insight gives teachers guidance notes that, from this perspective, we see that
by providing a n o th e r criterion for choosing words are not chosen in isolation, but rather, can
which collocational sets to include in vocabulary have ramifications some distance awav from their
lessons. Stubbs (1993). for instance, shores that actual placement in the discourse.
cause tvpicallv collocates -with unpleasant things While it is difficult to see how this sort of
such as problems, difficulties, trouble, damage, death, patterning could be taught explicitly, it does
pain, anguish, and disease. Conversely, provide col seem worthwhile to at least point it out in vocab-
locates mainlv with positive things such as insights, u la n lessons. Ifle a rn e rs are m ade aware of such
information, sendees, aid. assistance, support, and patterns as part of the context in which colloca
money. This difference can be highlighted with the tions occur, thev can then be encouraged to pav
word work. To provide work is considered a good attention to similar patterns in the context of
thing, but to cause work is not. new words thev encounter.
T he results of corpus studies has been
in co rporated into recent dictionaries such as the
Collins C 0BL1ID English Dictionary (1993) or the Lexical Phrases
Dictionary of Selected Collocations (Hill a n d Tewis
1997). Advanced learners can be e n c ouraged to Lexica!phrases represent an o th e r com m on tvpe of
use these dictionaries themselves to look up col multiword unit. Xattinger and DeCarrico (1992)
locations for p a rtic u la r words they mav define lexical phrases as "chunks" of language' of
e n c o u n te r incidentally in reading or elsewhere. varying length, conventionalized form /funclion
Also, teachers can refer to such dictionaries to composites that occur m ore frequently and have
select collocational sets for words chosen from m ore idiomatically determ ined m eaning than
frequency lists for explicit vocabulary studies. language that is put together from scratch. Some
A nother innovation from corpus research are completely fixed expressions such as by the
concerns Sinclair's observations of patterns that way. how do you do?, give me a break. Others are
extend bevond the collocational units them relativelv fixed phrases that have a basic frame
selves. In particular, there are cases in which a with slots for various fillers. Thev include shorter
phrases such as a ___ ago, or longer phrases or shopping: how much is X?; 1 want to buy/see X;
clauses such as the___erX, the___ er Y; If I X, then it tdoesn 7) jilts)
I ’ll Y. Examples with the slots filled are a year ago; etc.
a month ago; the higher the mountain, the harder the
climb; the longer you unit, the sleepier you get; if I hear Discourse Desires
that one more time, I'll scream. logical
Lexical phrases are tvpes of collocations connectors: as a result (of X); nevertheless;
a n d thev are m ore or less idiomatic (e.g., m ore because (of) X; in spite o fX
so in by the way, how do you ?, but less so in the high tem poral
er the mountain, the harder the climb). However, con nectors: the day/week/month/year/before/
they differ from idioms and o ther ordinary collo after X; and then
cations in that each is associated with a particular qualifiers: if depends on X; the catch here is X;
discourse function, such as expressing time, it \ only in X that Y
greetings, relationships a m o n g ideas, or condi relators: on the other hand: but look at X:
tion. T he evidence from various studies, espe in addition: not only in X hut )
cially c o m p u te r analyses of texts, indicates that
exemplifiers: in other words: for example; to give
lexical phrases a n d o th e r prefabricated units are
you an example
pervasive in language.
etc.
In general, social interactions and discourse
Types of Lexical Phrases devices proride lexical phrases for the framework of
In o rd e r to make lexical phrases m ore pedagogi- the discourse, whereas necessary topics proride
cally useful, thev har e been classified according them for the subject at hand. These phrases are the
to function and g rouped into three broad cate primary markers which signal the direction of dis
gories. A few representative examples are the fol course. whether spoken or written. When they
lowing (for m ore detailed lists of tvpes and s e n e as discourse devices, their function is to sig
functions, see Xattinger and DeCarrico 1992): nal. for instance, whether the information to fol
low is in contrast to. in addition to. or an example
Social Interactions of information that has preceded. Those such as
greetings/ on the other hand, hut look at X signal contrast; in
closings: hi; how are you?; what's up?/ gotta addition, moreover signal addition: it depends on X,
run now; see you later the catch here is A signal qualification of previous
politeness/ comm ents, a n d so on. W hen lexical phrases
routines: thanks so/very much: if you don 7 serve as social interactional markers, on the
mind; if you please o th e r hand, their primary function is to describe
social relations and. in general, to help structure
requesting: Modal + P ronoun + Verb phrase
discourse in wavs appropriate to m aintaining
(i.e., would/could you [mind] X?)
social relations.
complying: of course, sure thing; I'd by happy to;
no problem (at all)
etc. W h y Teach Lexical Phrases
Integrated Approaches
Since the 1980s, w e nave witnessed a gradual movement away from
rather narrow language teaching methods toward broader integrated
approaches in language teaching, approaches that encourage the team -g
of all four skills within the general fram ework of using o 'g w g e w *
learning as well as for communication.The first such appro am w e s e m e :
in this section is content-based language teaching, which s c s c w s e c '
Snow's chapter This approach assumes that language s cost ewe:
when it is used as a medium of instruction for learning s ec ern ' g e m
such as academic content. McKay's chapter advocates a oem swe-sese;
approach by showing the teacher how to use well-se^ctec c ece: w
literature in the target language as content for a variety of act . ces mat
enhance language learning, Eyring's chapter shows how the leame-s w
experiences (those he or she has already had and those the class initiates,!
can form the basis for meaningful language development and use. Finally
M cGroarty's chapter surveys the various models used in bilingual
education, noting that the more effective maintenance and two-way
models offer learners an opportunity for quality content education along
with a mastery of at least tw o languages. All four of these multiskills
approaches prom ote effective language development; they indicate both
the cutting edge and future directions for the profession,
Content-Based and Immersion
Models for Second and Foreign
Language Teaching
M A R G U E R IT E A N N S N O W
n "Content-Based and Immersion Models," Snow orcvices a rationale for Integrated language and
content instruction as well as detailed descriptions of orogmm models in both second and foreign
language teaching. She also provides examples of instructions, strategies that can be used by language
and content instructors and discusses current and future trends in content-based teaching.
Immersion Education
M O DELS O F C O N T E N T -B A S E D
T he im m ersion m odel of foreign language ed u
IN S T R U C T IO N cation is perhaps the prototypical content-based
M odels of content-based instruction can be dis approach. First established in 1965 in a suburb of
tinguished from each o th e r by several different M ontreal. Canada, im m ersion program s can now
m eans. O ne is by setting; som e m odels are typi be found across C anada and the U nited States,
cally im p lem en ted in the foreign language set providing education in such foreign languages
ting while others are m ore com m on in the as F rench. Spanish. G erm an, C hinese, a n d
second language context. A n o th e r wavy to distin Japanese. 1 In the total im m ersion m odel, English-
guish content-based m odels is by instructional speaking elem entary school students receive the
leyel. T h ere are m any well-developed exam ples majority of their schooling th ro u g h the m edium
re p o rte d in the literatu re o f in teg rated language of their second language. Im m ersion students, in
and c o n te n t teaching at the elem entary school Culver City. California, for instance, learn to read,
level; o th e r m odels have tvpicallv b een im ple to do m athem atics problem s, an d to conduct
m ented successfully at the secondary or post- science experim ents in Spanish; in fact, they
secondarv levels with adolescents or adults. A third go about the business o f school like all o th er
wav to capture underlying differences in content- children, albeit in their second language. T he
based models is to look at the degree of emphasis im m ersion m odel is one o f the most carefully
on language and content which underlies a partic researched language program s (see G enesee
ular program (Met 1998). In Figure 1, Met (1999. 1987: J o h n so n and Swain 1997). Im m ersion
p. 7), envisioning a continuum , places ''content- children consistently perform at o r above grade
driven" models at one end while "language-driven" lev el scholastically, are on par with th eir m onolin
models appear at the other end. gual peers in English language developm ent, and
In the sections that follow, five m odels of bv the end of the elem entary school, becom e
content-based instruction are described. T he first functional bilinguals.
two are w ell-developed exam ples of m odels T he Culver City Spanish Im m ersion pro
designed to teacli foreign languages to English- gram is an exam ple of early total im m ersion; in
speaking children at the elem entary school level. earlv im m ersion the foreign language is generally
The last three m odels hav e been im plem ented in used for most or all academ ic instruction begin
secondary and postsecondarv second language ning in kindergarten or grade 1. O th e r variations
SKILL; A C TIVITY 2:
Prewriting Using their dictations, students underline the nouns describing categories (e.g., types, kinds,
stages) and the logical connectors of classification; discussion of the rhetorical organization
of classification
SKILL: A C TIVITY 3:
Prewriting Using a list of characteristics of individuals, students classify the information into the appro
priate categories and label them (e.g., shyness, assertiveness, aggressiveness)
SKILL: A C TIVITY 5:
Speaking In groups, students compare/defend theircategories and classifications
SKILL: A C TIVITY 6:
Writing Students are giventhe following prompt:“ Grace Ursini, a junior high school student, has an
IQ of 140. She does well in school, especially in English, Spanish, and music." They are also
given several explanations such as “ Grace’s mother is president of the local Parent-Teacher
Association” to use as supporting data for their claims. Using this situation, students take
the example of Grace Ursini and compose a classification essay on the topic “ Environment
vs. Heredity”
SKILL: A C TIVITY 7:
Grammar Group w ork— Students examine sentences taken from their compositions, determine the
error patterns, and make the appropriate corrections; review of passive voice based on
error analysis of compositions
Unit 2: Focus— Text Coherence
SKILL: AC TIV ITY 1:
Reading/ Instructor introduces notion of text coherence; students read passage from content text
Speaking on “ The Development of Language” and underline elements of cohesion (e.g., pronouns,
logical connectors, lexical chains, etc); discussion of different ways in which ideas can be
joined (includes a review of articles/pronouns and a review of synonyms/word forms)
SKILL: A C TIVITY 2:
Listening/ Dictocomp— Teacher reads a short passage on “ Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Develop
Prewriting ment” two times; the students listen the first time, take notes during the second reading,
then recreate the passage in their own words; students compare their reformulations
with the original passage from the content text, noting the different types of cohesive
devices used
SKILL: A C T IV IT Y 4:
Speaking/ Students critique each other’s essays in peer editing groups and discuss ways to improve
Writing their papers; students revise their papers based on the feedback
SKILL; A C TIVITY 1:
Listening Lecture on “ Altered States of Consciousness” (simulated by the ESL instructor or pre
sented on video); students take notes
SKILL: A C TIVITY 2:
Study skills Students complete a cloze passage constructed from instructor’s model lecture notes
SKILL: A C TIVITY 3:
Speaking Group work— Students compare their notes with the model notes and discuss ways to
determine relevant/extraneous material, use of abbreviations, organization of notes
SKILL: A C TIVITY 4:
Writing Students prepare one-page summaries of the main points contained in their lecture notes
Strategies fo r C o n ten t Instructors T he first part d. realia (i.e., actual physical objects);
o f this section p rese n ted techniques which tiie e. bulletin boards;
ESL 'EEL instru cto r can use to teach language f. word banks (e.g., charts which associate m ath
skills th ro u g h co n ten t. In this case, the instruc vocabulary with their corresponding symbols);
to r is using the c o n te n t as a vehicle to p resen t g. b u ild in g p red ic ta b ility in to in stru c tio n a l
a n d practice language in the ESL, EFL class; the routines such as o p e n in g and closing activi
prim ary objective is the teaching o f language ties. directions, a n d hom ew ork assignm ents
skills, alth o u g h the c o n te n t is clearly reinforced so that students can figure o u t w hat to do
in the process. In c o n te n t classes, on th e o th e r from the context even if they do not com
h an d , the in stru cto r is prim arily c o n c ern e d with pletely u n d e rsta n d the spoken instructions;
delivering subject m atte r instruction. Im m ersion h. building redundance' into lessons through
a n d sh eltered m odel instructors, for exam ple, repetition, restatem ent, and exem plification.
are resp o n sib le fo r p re s e n tin g cognitively
3. Checking for Understanding T here are a variety
d e m a n d in g subject m atter in a m a n n e r th a t is
of techniques which can be used to insure that
c o m p re h en sib le to s e c o n d /fo re ig n language
students understand both the language used in
students. T he same is true for regular classroom
instruction and the concepts being im parted.
teachers who have ESL students in their classes.
Am ong these checks of com prehension are
T he ch allenge to c o n te n t teach ers lies in
“unpacking"— to use a new te rm — difficult con a. asking students to decide if inform ation is
tent in wavs appropriate to the learner's develop true or false;
ing language svstem. To do this, teachers must b. asking students to proside exam ples;
utilize a variety o f techniques and strategies for c. having students parap h rase im p o rtan t term s
m aking c o n te n t in stru ctio n com p reh en sib le. in their own words;
These instructional techniques fall into lo u r gen d. having students sum m arize kev inform ation;
eral categories: e. asking students both factual questions (e.g.,
Who?, What?) a n d re fe re n tia l q u estio n s
1. Modifying InputRecalling that second lan
( Why? an d What would you do if. . . ?);
guage learners have difficulty with the cognitively
f. hasing students ask each o th e r questions.
dem and ing language of academ ic texts, it is criti
cal that content teachers adapt the delivery of 4. Designing Appropriate Lessons All effective
instruction to the second language learners' level instruction requires adequate pacing, attention to
of proficiency. T he following techniques are use students' developm ental levels, specification of
ful wavs to modilv input: appropriate objectives, a variety of actisity types,
and ongoing, formative evaluation. In addition to
a. slower (vet natural) rate of speech;
these basic considerations, content teachers work
b. clear enunciation:
ing svith second language learners must take extra
c. controlled vocabulary lim ited initial use of
m easures in lesson planning in the following
idioms.
areas:
2. Using C o n tex tu al C ues C o n te n t teachers
a. Vocabulary instruction Systematic activities
m ust provide second language learners with m ul
for vocabulary instruction m ust be devised
tiple cues to m eaning so that thev do not have to
since second language learn ers often lack
rely solely on the spoken or written word to
the basic and specialized vocabulary th at
und erstan d difficult m aterial. These contextual
characterizes academ ic texts.
cues include
b. Prioritizing objectives T he c o n te n t teacher
a. gestures: m ust d ecid e w hat kev co n c ep ts sh o u ld
b. dram atization o f m eaning th ro u g h facial receive the m ost a tten tio n since covering all
expressions, pantom im e, role plav; o f the m aterial may not always be possible.
c. visuals, in clu d in g pictures, p h o to g ra p h s, c. Providing schema-building activities T ech
slides, maps, graphs, diagrams: niques such as reviewing previously covered
m aterials, relating ideas to the students' own content-based instruction. T he recen t literature
experiences, an d using brain sto rm in g or is rich in exam ples. Stoller (1997). for instance,
clustering activities help students develop a describes how she in teg rated project work into
fram e of reference for cognitiveh d e m a n d c o n ten t-b ased in stru ctio n a n d S hort (1997)
ing cp o n te n t m aterial. Advance organizers reports on the use o f graphic organizers to teach
such as outlines, charts, and studs' guides social studies: similarlv. B rinton an d H olten
also help students see the in h e re n t structure (1997) applv ''into, thro u g h , an d bevond" tech
o f academ ic m aterial. niques into a content-based lesson p lan n in g
d. Learner grouping strategies A variety of fram ew ork. Teachers are also in teg ratin g tech-
grouping arrangem ents should be emploved. nologv into content-based instruction, increas-
Students can work in pairs, in small groups, inglv looking to the Internet as a rich resource for
and in stru c tu re d cooperative learn in g language and content activities. The need to teach
groups to maximize different sources of input inform ation c< im potence in ESL classes to prepare
and output and to increase interaction. students lot content-area classes has also been
u n d e rsto re d t Minima and Son 1999). A rich col
lection of teaching techniques for integrating
language and content can Ire found in Brinton
C U R R E N T A N D FU TU R E an d Masters i 1 9 9 / !.
T R E N D S IN C O N T E N T -B A S E D Expansion and innovation in content-based
instruction will undoubtedh be boosted bv the
IN S T R U C T IO N tren d toward stanclards-based instruction and
O n e o f the m ore noticeable current trends is the assessment. In the U nited States, educational
innovative wavs in which teachers have incorpo reform has led to federal legislation supporting
rated com m unicative teach in g practices into the developm ent of standards for the public
О
W E B S IT E S
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign
Languages (ACTFL):
www.actfl.org
Center for Applied Linguistics:
www.cal.org
Literature as Content
for ESL/EFL
SAND RA LEE MCKAY
In "Literature as C ontent for ESL/EFL," McKay ai'gues that using literature as content provides three
major benefits for learners: ( I ) it demonstrates the ''importance of authors' choice of form to achieve
specific communicative goals. (2) it is an ideal msource for integrating the four skills, and (3) it raises
cross-cutural awareness. Example classroom activities are developed based on tw o short stories.
“Eleven” an d “O u t of O rder" are both told from 1. W ho does tlm refer to? Why do you think the
the first person point o f view bv Rachel and au th o r chose to ttse they rath er than a specific
W illiam, who share th eir feelings ab o u t the reference? W ho do vou think you refers to?
events. In both stories, the authors let the read er Why do you think the au th o r chose to use уout
into the thoughts o f the ju n io r high student. T he 2. W hat effect does the a u th o r achieve bv h a t
o p e n in g o f each storv illustrates this first person ing Rachel list all of the years of h er life rath er
p o in t o f view. than just saving "W hen vou're eleven, vou’re
also all the o th er vears of t o u r life"?
“Eleven” begins with the following:
“O i l of O rder”
W hat thev d o n 't u n d e rsta n d about
birthdavs and what they never tell to n 1. W illiam is in seventh grade vet points o ut the
is that w hen you're eleven, vou're also first a n d m iddle nam es of Longfellow. Why
ten, and nine, and eight, and seven, do vou th in k W illiam Sarovan (the adult
a u th o r o f the storv) has William, the seventh
and six, and five, and four, and three,
grader, p o in t this out?
and two, and one. And when von wake
2. W hat kinds o f things astonish vou? W ht do
u p on vour eleventh birthday von
expect to feel eleven, but you don't. to n think S arotan chose to describe him self
as a seventh g rad er using that word? Whv do
You open vour eves and everything's
vou think S arotan described him self as a
just like yesterday, only it's today. And
t on d o n 't feel eleven at all. You feel like tnils original mind}
vou’re still ten. And von a re — u n d e r The aim of such questions is to help students rec
neath the vear that makes vou eleven. ognize the wav in which their assessment of the two
characters has been influenced bv how the authors
“O ut of O rd er,” on the o th e r h and, begins
have used first person point of tietv to develop a
in the following wav. childlike voice for Rachel and a self-confident and
Longfellow High was not strictly speak arrogant voice for William. In the case of “O ut
ing a high school at all. It teas the sev of Order." the relationship of the author and
enth and eighth grades of gram m ar narrator is even m ore complex since Sarot an, the
school, and its full nam e was Longfellow author, is writing about his own youth.
Ju n io r High School. The Longfellow A nother activity that could be used to high
in question was of course the Mr. light the m an n er in which the authors depict the
Longfellow, o r H enrv W adsworth, characters is to have students list all of the sen
although nothing m uch was ever m ade tences in "Eleven" that sound childlike. This list
of that. m ight include such sentences as the following:
It was in ancient history class that I 1. "Like some davs you m ight sav som ething
first astonished mv class into an aware stupid, and th a t’s the part of vou that's still
ness that h ere was a truly original ten."
m ind. It h ap p en ed that this was the 2. "O r mavbe som e davs you m ight n e e d to sit
first class of the v e il first dav. on vour m am a ’s lap because v o u ’re scared,
and that's the p a rt o f you that's live.”
In o rd e r to help students recognize how the
difference in tone betw een the two openings Students m ight also m ake a list of com m ents
is achieved, a teach er m ight pose a series of William makes that dem onstrate his outspoken
questions for students to consider, such as the self-confidence. This m ight include com m ents
following. like the following:
1. "I rem arked th at it would seem m ore in o rd er A n o th er way of addressing the tem poral
to turn to page one for the first lesson." p o in t o f view is to ask students to visualize key
2. “I was asked mv nam e, w h ereu p o n , I was only events in a story by com pleting a collage. In the
too glad to say honestly, ‘William Saroyan."' case o f “O u t o f O rd e r,” students could be asked
to identify what they consider to be central
T he m ain p o in t o f such activities is req u irin g stu
events erf the store, such as Miss S h e n sto n e ’s chas
dents to re tu rn to the text to exam ine how the
ing William, the p rin c ip al’s q u estio n in g William,
story is told and in w hat ways this has influenced
and U ncle A lecksander’s com ing to the p rin ci
th eir ju d g m e n t o f the characters.
pal's office. T hen individually o r in small groups,
students create a collage o f these events using
Spatio-Temporal Point ofView
photo g rap h s, objects, line drawings, a n d texts.
Cisneros chose to tise th e p re se n t tense to As m en tio n ed earlier, what Fowler calls the
reco u n t h er storv while Saroyan uses the past spatial p o in t ofview addresses how objects, b uild
tense. To explore the difference that verb tense ings. and landscapes are described. For exam ple,
has on telling a storv, teachers m ight refe r to pas in "Eleven" the red sweater is in tro d u c ed in the
sages such as the following a n d ask students storv when Mrs. Price “holds the sweater u p in
which of the two accounts thev felt thev were the air for all the class to see.” E ater she takes the
actually witnessing. “ugh sweater with red plastic bu tto n s a n d a col
“E i .fat.x " lar an d sleeves all stretched out like you could
use it for a ju m p ro p e ” an d puts it on R achel’s
“W hose is this?" Mrs. Price savs, and she
desk. This leads Rachel to "move the red sweater
holds the red sweater up in the air for
to the co rn er o f mv desk” until eventually she
all the class to see. "Whose? It's been
shoves “the red sweater to the tippv-tip c o rn e r” of
sitting in the coatroom for a m onth."
h e r desk an d "it's hanging all over the edge like a
“O ut of O rder" waterfall." To address the spatial dim ension,
Miss S henstone flung h erself at me teachers m ight begin bv asking students why they
with such speed that I was scarcely able think Rachel felt so hum iliated bv having the
to get awav. For h alf a m o m en t she teacher insist that the sweater was hers. This
clung to mv hom ek n it sweater, and undoubtedly would lead to a discussion of what
dam aged it before I got awav. the sweater was like. At this point, students m ight
be asked to list all o f the descriptions of the
Such com parisons are useful in helping students sweater in the storv. T he goal o f such an activity’ is
recognize that the use of the present tense in sto to help students recognize th at th eir o p inion of
rytelling suggests the im m ediacy o f events, incit the sweater has been influenced by how the
ing the reader to witness them . a u th o r chose to describe it.
T he tem poral point of view also involves the
o rd er in which the events of a store are told. In
Ideological Point ofView
some instances the store time and real time are
identical, whereas in others the au th o r uses flash Exam ining stories' ideological point of view is
backs so that the store time and real time differ. closelv related to what has been term ed critical
In dealing evith such stories, teachers m ight have literacy or critical reading, Kress (1985) m aintains
students com plete a chart such as the one at the that readers should approach all texts with three
bottom of this page in which students use clues questions in m ind; namelv, whv is the topic being
from the text to guess at the actual time o f the written about, how is the topic being written
event. This tvpe of chart is particularly useful in about, and what o th er wavs could the topic have
situations where the store- line is quite com plex been written about? In critical reading, readers
temporally. are encouraged to exam ine the values and belief
Eynngs chapter derives the W e s te rn “ Experiential and Negotiated Language Learning" movement
from the humanistic classroom of the 1960s and I 970s and the community-based learning and project
w o rk of the 1970s and 1980s. Because it provides rich opportunities for negotiation and attends to
individual and collaborative learning, teachers of all cultures may find this approach relevant well into
the 2000s,
Collection Projects
a. Scavenger hunt to collect items from a list (a twig, something red, something brittle, etc. (Jerald and
Clark 1983)
b. Map display showing the origin of various collected bottles, food labels, wrappings on cartons, tins,
packets from around the world (Fried-Booth 1986)
c. Cookbook with favorite collected recipes from around the world (G aer 1995)
d. Creation of a rock and fossil museum for real audience after collecting and borrowing various rock
and fossil specimens (Diffily 1996)
e. Classification guide for authentic English language materials (newspapers, tourist brochures, letters,
etc.) for a library for future project work use (EFL setting) (Haines 1989)
f. Report on how English-speaking cultures have influenced the way of life in the students’ native
country after collecting photographs, realia, videos, etc. (EFL setting) (Haines 1989)
g. Report on potential English language institutes or schools for students wishing to study English out
side their native country after collecting language school prospectuses, maps, and tourist information
(EFL setting). (Haines 1989)
Informational Projects
a. Report on recorded interviews between students and English-speaking travelers in airport (EFL
setting) (Legutke 1984/1985)
b. Article for local newspaper based on a news event (EFL setting) (Fried-Booth 1986)
c. Cafe-Theater Evening/Day which informs guests of food, music, and entertainment of target culture
(foreign language/EFL settings) (Semke 1980; Haines 1989; Fried-Booth 1986)
d. Buffet luncheon for invited second language guests hosted by students preparing for an overseas
assignment (foreign language setting) (Kaplan 1997)
e. Report on interviews with performers (members of a circus and of the Theater Royale) about their
crafts (Victoria Markee 1988, personal communication)
f. Report on training and education needed for jobs after researching employment information (W rigley
1998)
g. Correspondence project report after students write letters and get information from school waste
basket or junk mail or from a week’s post delivery from another school (EFL setting) (Legutke
and Thomas 1991)
h. Survey report after interviewing townspeople about their knowledge of English (EFL setting) (Haines
1989)
i. Simulated political debate related to American elections after reading newspapers and magazines,
writing letters to political parties, locating relevant organizations (Stoller 1997)
j. Videotape and dossier on a contemporary topic incorporating sketches, interviews, discussions, music,
etc. (foreign language setting) (Coleman 1992)
Orientation Projects
a. City guide for Los Angeles after investigating beaches, parks, amusement parks, restaurants, and night
spots (Eyring 1989)
b. Slide show and oral presentation to Rotary Club and elderly residents on cultural and recreational
opportunities in one city (Candlin et al. 1988)
d. Leaflets and advertisements for university self-access center to orient other students to available
computer software, satellite channel access, magazines, etc. (Aston 1993)
e. Orientation handbook for women after researching no-cost activities in the city (Cray 1988)
b. Jumble (rummage) sale after collecting items to sell for charity (Legutke and Thomas 1991)
c. “Animals in Danger” article and poster about threatened species (Hutchinson 1991)
d. Oral histories created for elderly interviewees (Jerald and Clark 1983)
e. W heelchair guide for handicapped visitors, which was shared with city tourist offices and the media
(Fried-Booth 1986)
f. Third W orld display and shanty house based on research of people living in developing countries
(Fried-Booth 1986).
g. Videotape of spastic unit in a hospital which was shown to prospective patients’ parents (Fried-Booth
1986)
h. Storytelling performance of native Laotian folktales to middle school children (Gaer 1998)
i. Teaching four-day unit to elementary school students following extensive preparation in the subject
matter (C arter and Thomas 1986)
Looking ahead, we need to know m ore cultivated largelv in W estern civilizations and
about the best conditions for achieving negotia dem ocracies in the tw entieth century, will be
tion o f m eaning betw een learners an d their adopted bv learners and teachers aro u n d the
teachers as well as between learners and their world in this new inform ation age. If the trans
environm ent in o rd e r for this approach to be lated and fam iliar words o f Confucius in 451 B.C.
im plem ented on a wider scale. T he effects of age, are a reflection o f what, was and is to com e in
language proficiency, and educational context on Eastern populations aro u n d the globe, it is very
student learning m ediated by teacher experts, likelv that project-based learning will take root
peers, texts, and com puters d em an d fu rth e r and be adapted to cultures far different politically
inv estigation. M ore also needs to be known about and culturallv than the ones in which it originated.
how to train teach ers to im p le m e n t this Confucius savs, ‘‘W hat I hear, I forget: what 1 see, I
approach. Tim e will tell if experiential learning, rem em ber: W hat I do, I understand."
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S leader, passive observer) d u rin g the discus
sion and (2) the problem s or surprises which
1. Is experiential language learn in g a viable
o cc u rre d d u rin g th e n eg o tiatio n process.
a p p ro a c h fo r fo ste rin g se co n d lan g u ag e
acquisition? W hy or \vhv not?
2. W hat are th e sim ilarities a n d differences
betw een S toller’s a n d L egutke a n d T hom as's FU R T H E R R E A D IN G
steps for organizing project work? W hich
fram ew ork do you p refer an d why? Haines. S. 1989. Projects for the EEI. Classroom.
3. W hat rela tio n sh ip does “p o w er” have to Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson and Sons.
neg o tiatin g a curriculum in an experiential A practical handbook with case studies of past
language lea rn in g classroom? projects in EFL settings, resource material, and
step-bv-step instructions for additional projects
4 . W hat are some of the challenges an d benefits
to be implemented in international contexts.
o f incorporating com puter-assisted language
I.egutke. M.. and H. Thomas. 1991. Process and
learning into the project work classroom? Experience in the Language Classroom. Harlow, UK:
5. Based on student backgrounds, ages, inter Longman.
ests, learning styles, etc. o f English learners in A comprehensive book about the theoretical
your community, how well do the goals of roots of experiential language learning and key
experiential language learning correspond to components of the framework.
the goals for vour schools? Xunan. D. 1995. Closing the gap between learning and
instruction. TESOL Quarterly 29 (1): 133-158.
An article that proposes that giving learners a
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S kev role in selecting experiential content, learn
ing processes, and language content will lessen
1. Review Table 1 sum m arizing class projects the gap between teaching and learning.
and products an d th en brainstorm various
topics for large-scale relevant projects which
co uld be c o n d u c te d in so u r com m unity.
C hoose one o f these topics an d outline how
lib rary rese a rc h , ob serv atio n , interview s,
W E B S IT E S
q u e stio n n a ires, a n d field trips could be This on-line version of Eocus on Basics, a publication
in co rp o rate d into the learn in g process. of the National Center for the Study of Adult
2. Read the pivotal work on experiential learn Learning and Literacy, focuses on project-based
ing by J o h n Dewev (Experience and Education. learning. It includes the Gaer and Wriglev articles
Xew York: MacMillan. 1938). T hen, jo in the mentioned in this chapter.
Detrey discussion group linked to the website http:/ g sew eb.h arvard .ed u /-n csall/fo b / 1 9 9 8 /
for the C enter for Dewev Sttidies at Southern fobv2id.htm
Illinois University at C arbondale. Provide EORl'M. a traditional paper-based as well as on-line
com m ents about how Dewey's original ideas journal, published bv the United States
Information Agency, focuses on the teaching of
can be applied to experiential language learn
English abroad. This particular issue presents a use
ing today a n d sum m arize for vour classmates
ful framework bv Stoller for organizing projects.
the on-line responses to n receive.
http: e . u s i a .g o v / f o r u m / v o l s / v o l 3 5 / n o 4 /
http: / / www.siu.edu/~deweyctr/ p2.htm
3. N egotiation is a kev elem en t o f project work The National Society for Experiential Education is a
instruction. W ith a g ro u p of th re e o r four national organization committed to all forms of
o th e r te a c h e r train ees, sp e n d o n e h o u r experiential learning in the classroom, workplace,
negotiating a topic an d a plan for a ten-week or community. It sponsors conferences and publi
social welfare project in vour com m unity. cations for anvone wishing to extend their knowl
W rite a sh o rt re p o rt on (1) the roles that edge in this area.
g ro u p m em bers assum ed (e.g., secretary. http: / / wvcvv.nsee.org
The National Service [.earning Clearinglmme. main kindergarten to university levels. Consult the
tained bv the University of Minnesota, is a consor Frequently Asked Questions page, which has special
tium of various organizations committed to links to English and foreign language projects.
service learning project work opportunities from www.nicsl.coled.umn.edu
A P P E N D IX I
General Structure for Project Work
(1) O P E N IN G
- process materials • introducing learners • what did l/we feel doing • awareness and - posters
- information to a communicative the task? trust building - profiles
materials approach • what was the purpose for me/ • information sharing - stories
• developing group us of the task? • problem solving - drawings/
dynamics • how did 1 communicate • process evaluation photographs
• introducing use of with others? • imagination gap and captions
media for text • how did we organize - diary entries
retrieval and ourselves? - collages
production • what communication
• introducing texts difficulties did we have?
as data for research
PR O JE C T ID EA
(2) T O P IC
O R IE N T A T IO N
- open-ended • sensitizing towards • what do we know about • imagination-gap - word-roses
stimuli (pictures, the theme the problems, the theme as projection (word clusters)
words, sentences, • mobilizing existing shown in pictures or texts? • awareness activities - associograms
titles) knowledge • how do 1 react to the picture? • communicative tasks - slogans
- short texts • arousing curiosity • what do we associate it with? • values clarification - collages
- slogans • exchanging personal • what makes us stop and think? • plus/minus interesting - posters
- preceding experiences • what does not seem evaluation
learner texts • creating awareness interesting at first glance? • brain/heart-storming OHP-hypotheses
and information of the research area • which of the items attract me poster-hypotheses
materials • appreciation of most or least?
difficulties
• formulation of
hypotheses after
evaluating prior
knowledge and
experience
Inputs Process Phases Stimulus Questions Activities Learner Texts
(teacher/learner) (examples) (examples) (examples)
(3) R ES E A R C H
A N D DATA
C O L L E C T IO N
- teacher lecture • focusing on the • which of the items, topics • communicative tasks - list of themes
- language input theme would 1 like to w ork on? (interpersonality - project plan
- information • articulating • who would 1 cooperate with? and interaction: - work contracts
materials interest • how much time is needed values clarification)
- process materials • defining project to accomplish the task? • language exercises
- preceding learner tasks • does the group have • skills training
texts • weighing up time sufficient knowledge to go • determined by the
factors about working on the tasks? group themselves
• determining areas • how can 1 collect more • interim plenary
of deficit in terms information on the topic? process evaluation
of skills and
competence
• carrying out the
target tasks of the
project
(4) PR E PA R IN G
DATA
P R E SE N T A T IO N
- information • selecting results for • which parts of our results • determined many types of texts:
materials presentation would be interesting for the by the group - poster/collage
- process materials • deciding on the whole class? - minutes/essays
- preceding learner form of the • how can we put our results - commentary
texts presentation across to the class? - summary
• practicing the • what should we tell the others - listening text
presentation in spoken text, in writing. - information - film text
• allocating areas of pictures? handout - drama script
responsibility • what could be difficult - song texts
• creating the to communicate? - mime instructions
presentation texts • what kind of help do our - programme
classmates need to o f events
understand our presentation?
• do we have to produce extra
worksheets?
• do we want to use media for
our presentation (OHP,
blackboard, tape, film)?
(5) PR ESEN T A T IO N
A N D S H A R IN G
- preceding learner • giving a lead-in • determined
texts to a video film by groups: many
• giving a short forms of
lecture communicative task
• acting in a drama/ possible (learners
sketch/mime as leaders
• giving a show-and- and participants)
tell session
• presenting a tape/
slide show
• singing a "song"
Inputs Process Phases Stimulus Questions Activities Learner Texts
(teacher/learner) (examples) (examples) (examples)
(6) EV A L U A T IO N
- teacher lecture • evaluating process how did the project tasks, • process-evaluation - theme list
- teacher feedback and product the demonstration w ork out? activities for follow-up
- group feedback • extending ability to which activities/presentations
(evaluation sheets) make judgements were particularly effective,
• raising cognitive ineffective?
sensitivity what could o r should
• evaluating input be improved?
materials were there any language
• evaluating the roles problems?
of the experts what could or should be
• evaluating the group done about them?
dynamic processes, how did the group
etc. cooperate with the teacher?
could the group make use of
his/her competence?
was the textbook/workbook/
resource package
a satisfactory help?
etc.
(7) FO LL O W - U P
- preceding • further w ork on
learner texts areas of language
weakness
• w ork on gaps in
knowledge of
content
• agreeing on
follow-up projects
• changing to
related/non-related
themes as basis for
new project idea
E X T E N S IO N
PR O JEC T S
(So u rce : L e g u t k e a n d T h o m a s 1 9 9 1 . p p . 1 8 2 - 1 8 6 . U s e d b v p e r m i s s i o n . !
Bilingual Approaches
to Language Learning
MARY MCGRO ARTY
"Bilingual Approaches to Language Learning” describes the various bilingual models found at different
levels (elementary, secondary, post-secondary, and adult education), identifying key instructional
features and emphasizing the drive for quality instruction. The chapter makes reference to
consideration of the political contexts as well as pedagogical factors affecting the choices and
outcomes related to bilingual instruction.
W H O C A N B E N E FIT FROM
B IL IN G U A L A P P R O A C H E S?
B IL IN G U A L A P P R O A C H ES:
Any stu d en t has the potential to benefit from a
bilingual ap proach to instruction as long as the
PROGRAM T Y P E S
p articu lar ap proach chosen suits the student's T he following discussion of bilingual program s is
linguistic situation and provides good quality m ean t to illustrate the co n sid erab le variety
instruction. Bilingual education is not onlv for observed in program s designated bilingual. It is
re c e n t im m ig ran ts: th e re are p a rtic u la r not exhaustive and is based on program tvpes
approaches aim ed at m onolingual students who most com m on in N orth America, draw ing on the
speak onlv the majority language and wish to descriptions in Crawford 1999: G enesee 1999;
develop strong proficiency in an o th er language H o rn b e rg e r et al. 1999: a n d K uhlm an a n d
(TESOI. 1992). It is potentially appropriate for Murray 2000. It should attain be noted, though,
linguistic m ajority stu d en ts — students whose that the degree to which anv educational pro
native language is that spoken in the larger gram in N orth .America or elsewhere can reason
natio n al co m m u n ity e.g.. native speakers of ably be called bilingual can onlv be established by
English in the U nited States or in A nglophone direct observation of the language use p a tte rn s—
C anada— as well as linguistic m inority students— oral and literate — observed in the classrooms
students whose native language is not the same as concerned. Program s are labeled bilingual for a
that used in larger national community, e.g., variety of reasons, onlv some of which reflect the
native speakers of Spanish. Chinese, or Navajo in actual language of instruction, the criterial feature
the U nited States. F urtherm ore, som e of the em phasized here. Each of the program m odels
approaches used in bilingual education may also sum m arized here has different implications for
prove useful for bidialectal students (that is, stu program length, type of curriculum , materials
dents who regularly use a dialect different from n eed ed , teach er qualifications expected, an d
the sta n d a rd , such as speakers o f African- nature of assessments used to determ ine success.
Am erican V ernacular English in ET.S. schools, for Most bilingual program types com bine considera
whom Adgcr. Christian, and Taylor [1999] suggest tions of the language of instruction with the age
some particularly pertinent issues). ’W hile the lin of the students involved. H ence, it is com m on
guistic and sociocultural circumstances of bilin to see somewhat different types at elementary,
gual and bidialectal students are not com parable sccondan. and postsecondary levels.
Elementary-Level Program Models a p p ro p riate an d reg u lar assessm ent of stu d e n t
progress; a n d su p p o rt for an d from stu d e n ts’
Bilingual program s fo u n d at the elem entary
family an d com m unity m em bers. O n e such p ro
school level are generally one of three types:
gram , b e g in n in g at k in d e rg a rte n level a n d
early-exit (or transitional) bilingual instruction;
described by G enesee a n d his collaborators
late-exit (or m aintenance) bilingual instruction;
(1999, pp. 17-19), is fo u n d at a school they call
o r im m ersion/dual-language im m ersion (see also
Kinney Elem entary, located in a Spanish-speak
Snow’s ch ap ter in this volum e for m ore inform a
ing com m unity. E x p erien ced bilingual teachers
tion on the im m ersion approach to language
a n d th e bilingual program c o o rd in a to r work
education). Each o f these is explained below.
with students e n te rin g the school in grades К
Early-exit, or transitional, bilingual educa
a n d 1 to assist th em in developing literacv skills
tion program s are usually developed to serve
a n d conversation skills in Spanish an d English.
voting students who are rec e n t im m igrants to a
Teachers in grades 3 and 4, with t ears o f experi
new country (and thus are language-m inoritv
ence in h elp in g students in the process o f tra n
students). T hese program s aim to use two lan
sition, use m anv sh eltered English techniques
guages for classroom in struction u p until the
(see Snow’s c h a p te r in this volum e) to su p p o rt
p o in t at which children have developed suffi
stu d e n ts’ academ ic progress d u rin g th e transi
cient oral a n d literacy skills to receive all class
tion to m ainstream English-m edium instruction.
room in stru ctio n in th eir second language.
Late-exit. or m ain ten an ce (or developmental
(Thus the label transitional; two languages, the
bilingual, in som e sources), m odels also aim to
ch ildren's native language an d the d o m in an t
serve voting students who are e ith e r im m igrants
societal language, are used in classroom instruc
to a country o r who are m em bers o f relatively'
tion onlv until the ch ild ren can m ake the transi
large groups w ithin a country a n d who speak a
tion to receiving all instruction in the do m in an t
native language d ifferent from th e d o m in a n t
language.) Earlv-exit program s alwavs include
one. T hus such program s, too, have b e e n estab
oral use of the c h ild re n ’s native language in the
lished to serve language-m inority students. The
classroom ; thev mav o r mav n o t include the
goals of such program s ty'picallv include develop
active teaching o f literacy skills in the children's
m en t o f literacy skills in both the nativ e language
native language. To the degree thev do, thev
an d the second language, a n d developm ent
may aim to develop biliteracv. hut onlv the
of academ ic literacy skills in both languages th e
degree o f biliteracv n e e d ed to m ake a transition
oretically continues fo r the d u ratio n of the
to literacv in the d o m in an t language. Program
program . Thus such program s explicitly aim to
length varies, usually from one to th ree tears.
Most such program s begin in kind erg arten or develop biliteracv. (T he designation of mainte
first grade. T he goals of transitional bilingual nance refers to the p rogram goal o f m aintaining
program s are to ensure m astery o f grade-appro the use of the c h ild ren ’s native language all the
p ria te acad em ic c o n te n t a n d facilitate the wav th ro u g h the program . This goal does n o t in
speedv acquisition o f the d o m in an t language so am wav exclude the learning of academ ic literacy
that children can move into m ainstream class skills in the second language. O n the contrary',
room s within th re e tea rs o f p rogram entry m aintenance bilingual program s are m eant to use
(G enesee 1999, p. 14). Transitional program s and develop two languages to the point o f age-
req u ire a sufficient n u m b e r of certified bilingual app ro p riate academ ic literacy skills.) Because
teachers able to teach at the c o rresp o n d in g such program s aim to m aintain and develop skills
grade level; access to sufficient academ ic m ateri in two languages, there is no theoretical limit on
als in the stu d e n ts’ native language; specialized the n u m b e r of vears thev m ight extend. In prac
in struction in the second language (English, in tice. however, such progrants are usually fo u n d
m ost cases in the U n ited States) so that students at the elem entary level, and ex ten d from grades
are p re p a re d to move into classroom s using onlv К th ro u g h 6. d e p e n d in g som ew hat on how the
th at language, a n d specialized linguistic support p a rtic u la r school system organizes levels o f
for students d u rin g a n d after the transition; instruction.
W hat kinds o f resources are req u ired to with literaev instruction in their native language
im p lem en t a n d sustain such program s? Like ad d e d once thev have established a base of liter
transitional bilingual program s, m ain ten an ce acy in the second language. Bv the latter vears of
bilingual program s req u ire a sufficient n u m b er the program , thev usuallv receive instruction in
of certified bilingual teachers to teach all the each language about half the time. This progres
grade levels inclu d ed in the program ; access to sion of tim e allocation is thus referred to as start
sufficient academ ic m aterials in the stu d e n ts’ ing with 90 10 (most instruction initiallv takes
native language a n d in the second language place in the second language, with little or no use
(English, in the U nited States): specialized sec o f the students' native language) and moves to
o n d language instruction; a p p ro p riate assess 50 50. Im m ersion m odels mav extend all the wav
m ent; an d paren tal an d com m unitv support. through elem entarv and even secondarv educa
Because the program s ex ten d lo n g er th an tra n tion. For exam ples of im m ersion approaches
sitional program s, thev require a greater n u m used in various in te rn a tio n a l contexts, see
b e r o f certified bilingual teachers and native G enesee 1987 and Jo h n so n and Swain 1997.
language academ ic m aterials that cover a wider In the U nited States, there is a great deal of
range o f grade levels. In m ain ten an ce bilingual interest in dual-language im m ersion (also called
education, teachers are enco u rag ed to keep the two-wav im m ersion), a variant of the im m ersion
languages separate, a n d the entire school staff m odel, designed to serve both language-m inority
a n d com m unitv is expected to create an atm os and language-majoritv children who wish to learn
p h e re o f eq u al status fo r b o th languages through the m edium of two languages and de
involved. M a in te n an c e b ilin g u al p ro g ra m s velop literaev skills in b oth languages (see
d e p e n d to som e degree on the interest of a p ar Christian 1996 and Christian et al. 1997). Such
ticular language com m unitv in suppo rtin g the program s tvpicallv begin in k in d erg arten or
academ ic use o f its language, along with the sec grades 1 or 2 and extend all the wav through ele
o n d language, a n d insisting on high academ ic mentarv school. Instructional allocation of lan
standards in both languages. G enesee and col guages follows one of several patterns: It mav be
laborators (1999, pp. 21-24) describe a K-5 based on subject m atter (i.e.. m ath taught in one
m ain te n a n c e bilingual p ro g ram at M ariposa language, social studies in the o th er): on partic
E lem entarv School, which grew out of a previ- ular davs of the week (e.g.. two days p e r week are
ouslv im p lem en ted transitional bilingual p ro "English" davs. three davs are "Spanish" davs, then
gram . C ah n m an n (1998) shows how the deliverv the allocation is changed the following w eek); on
o f bilingual in stru ctio n at o n e P hiladelphia parts of the dav (e.g.. m orning in Spanish, after
school shifted over tim e from transitional to noon in English): or on weekly assignm ent (a
m ain ten an ce to transitional, in p art as a result of week in Spanish, then a week in English, etc.).
changes in fu n d in g sources a n d leadership. W hatever pattern is chosen, the teaching staff and
Im m ersion program s, pioneered in C anada students know and follow it. Initiallv. children
to serve language majoritv students, in this case, entering such program s are proficient in only one
native speakers of English desirous of developing of the two languages but, because the enrolled stu
high levels of skill in French (see also G enesee dents are nativ e speakers of each of the languages
1987, and Snow's chapter in this volum e), aim to used, children teach each o th er in addition to
im m erse students in a language different from learning from the adult m odels around them .
their native language. T he ultim ate goal is to Because there are native-speaker or highlv profi
build strong academ ic literaev skills in that lan cient m odels of both languages am ong both
guage and to give students access to subject m at teaching staff and student participants, the likeli
ter taught entirelv through the second language. hood that students will in fact dev elop high lev els
In the classic im m ersion m odel, students receive of proficiency in both languages is increased.
in stru ctio n com pletelv o r alm ost com pletely Freem an (1998) provides a com prehensive
through the m edium of the second language for description o f the history and function of a
the first few vears of their educational experience, Spanish-English dual language program at the
Oyster School in northw est W ashington, D.C. Spanish-English two-way im m ersion p rogram ,
H e r acco u n t offers m any insights into the con students spend m ost of the day to gether; con
fluence o f p aren tal an d com m unity interest, ten t courses such as algebra, biology, an d w orld
presence of qualified a n d ded icated teachers historv are tau g h t in b o th languages, with lan
a n d adm inistrators, a n d o th e r issues to be con guages altern atin g by u n it of instruction w ithin
sidered in im p lem en tin g such program s. am given subject. T he program -w ithin-a-school
m odel is also followed at Casey M iddle School in
B oulder, C olorado, w here TWI students are
in structed to g eth e r for two o n e-h o u r blocks, one
Secondary Bilingual Approaches
in science an d social studies a n d the o th e r in
At the secondary level, issues o f program m odel language arts. For all o th e r classes, TWI students
and choice o f instructional language are affected are m ixed with o th e r students. O th e r secondarv-
by the departm entalized nature o f instruction level TWI program s have b een established in
found in m ost secondary schools. Moreover, the A rlington, Virginia; Brooklyn, New York; and
greater cognitive dem ands of secondary school Santa M o n ic a /M a lib u a n d Valiev C enter,
instruction also create pressures for both students C alifornia (all p rogram in fo rm atio n cited is
an d teachers to cover m ore, and m ore challeng from M ontone an d Loeb 2000).
ing, co n ten t m aterial in a lim ited p eriod of time. A dditionallv, in som e localities, notably
H ence, bilingual program s found at the second large cities w here th ere are new com er schools
ary level are usuallv some variant of earlv-exit or (or new com er program s within schools)4 th at
transitional bilingual program s in which the stu se n e large num bers o f im m igrant students from
d e n ts’ native language is used just long enough to the sam e language background, th ere mav well
help them m ake a transition to the sociallv and be bilingual content-area classes, n u m b ers o f stu
politically do m in an t language, which thev are dents a n d availability o f qualified teachers p e r
th en expected to use th rough the rest of second m itting. For exam ple, core secondarv school
ary school. classes such as social studies a n d science have
Because o f the specialized nature of instruc been offered in Spanish, C hinese, and Bengali,
tion at the secondarv school level, it is rare to find according to the prevalent language groups
an entire program th at is com pletelv bilingual. en ro lled , at N ew com ers H igh in Q ueens. New
Some secondary schools serving students who York (Schnailberg 1996, p. 36). W hile som e p ar
com e largely from a single language background ticular classes may be offered p red o m in an tly in
have b een successful in establishing bilingual languages o th e r th an those used in the m ain
in struction th a t continues th ro u g h school; for stream , th ere is still program w ide em phasis on
an exam ple o f one such p rogram serving Navajo assisting students to develop the English lan
students, see M cLaughlin 1992. N onetheless, guage skills n e e d e d to m ake a speech transition
th ere is grow ing interest in devising adaptations to English language instruction. H ence, while
o f the two-way im m ersion a p p ro ach for second such program s are n o t called transitional bilin
arv schools (M o n to n e a n d L oeb 2000). gual program s, certain classes w ithin them (and
A lthough the n u m b er o f two-wav im m ersion the overall goal of transition to English) m ake
(TWI) program s in m iddle schools a n d second them som ew hat com parable to such program s.
ary schools is still quite small, mans' districts E ducators a n d others have som e concerns about
a ro u n d the L’n ited States, especiallv those in separating new com er students from o thers for
which elem entarv level dual im m ersion p ro too long a period, but this ap p ro ach has been
gram s have b eco m e b e tte r estab lish ed , are used successfullv in parts o f C alifornia a n d in
exploring the possibilitv of ad apting this m odel som e o th e r large cities across the country with
to suit older students. Tim e a n d subject alloca large num bers o f secondarv level students from
tions v a n considerable, according to stu d e n t the sam e language groups (A dger a n d Peyton
p o p u latio n a n d tea c h e r expertise. For exam ple, 1999; C hang 1990). H ence it should figure
at Bowen H igh School in Chicago, a 5 0 /5 0 am ong the options to be co n sid ered as teachers
a n d adm inistrators seek alternatives to provide a ciency. (In such cases, the instruction is m ainly
variety o f paths to success for secondary level in th e second language, so these program s
students (Lucas 1997). w ould not necessarily qualify as bilingual pro
gram s, alth o u g h they are aim ed at pro d u cin g
students who becom e bilingual to som e degree
Postsecondary Bilingual Approaches
as a result o f participation.) Many colleges and
Postsecondary institutions s e n e students beyond universities in the U nited States offer special
the age o f com pulsory attendance. In the US, language courses ("heritage language”) th a t may
postsecondary students are an extrem ely diverse be taught e ith e r bilinguallv or entirely in Spanish
lot of traditional- and nontraditional- age stu for native speakers of Spanish: often, though not
dents whose goals range from very specific occu always, the goal o f such courses is language m ain
pational training to m ore general aims such as tenance and developm ent o f form al literacy skills
acquiring a liberal education to highly specialized in Spanish for students who have received all or
prep aratio n for fu rth e r professional study The most of their form al education in schools in the
role and extent of bilingual approaches observed U nited States and thus have not had the o p p o r
for each such stu d en t g roup varies considerably tunity to build advanced literacy skills in Spanish
Because no national body or organization is (Valdes 1995). Finally, some postsecondarv institu
c h arg ed with collecting related data, it is quite tions in the U nited States offer courses that com
difficult to d e te rm in e w hen a n d w here bilingual bine language instruction with occupationally
ap p ro ach es are used. relevant material in courses designed for particu
Som e bilingual program s for adults in the lar majors such as education or business. Courses
U n ited States h a te b e e n developed to provide em phasizing Spanish for teachers or business-
short-term , highly focused vocational training people mav or mav not be taught bilingually,
for special populations such as refugees who d ep en d in g on the level of proficiency shown by
qualify for special governm ent support. W here the students and the instructor's language capa
th ere are large nu m b ers of English learners who bilities. In Canada, some univ ersities offer highly
share a native language background, native lan proficient students the option o f taking special
guage in struction mav be included as a part of content area courses com pletely th ro u g h the
relatively short (less than six m onths) program s m edium of their second language, either English
aim ed at help in g participants find em ploym ent or French: such courses, a kind of te rtia n ’ "shel
as soon as possible.■’ Bilingual program s that tered" approach, offer graduates of secondary
include native language literacy instruction for level im m ersion program s a wav to m aintain and
adults ten d to be fo u n d in the geographic areas develop proficiency while learning new subject
rep re sen tin g the largest p ro p o rtio n al settlem ent m atter (see Snow's ch ap ter in this volum e).
o f re c e n t im m igrants: Xew York. California.
Texas, and Illinois (Gillespie 1994).
Postsccondarv students en ro lled in degree FROM PROGRAM M O DELS
program s mav have access to language instruc
TO Q U A L IT Y IN D ICA TO R S
tion designed to accom m odate various profes
sional a n d personal goals. Som e universities From the 1960s until a b o u t 1990, m ost discus
offer im m ersion program s that are best viewed sion of bilingual ed u cation c e n te re d on the pos
as a variant of foreign language im m ersion p ro sible p rogram m odels. T hus, m any m ethods
gram s (again, see Snow's c h a p te r in this vol texts em phasized taxonom ies, often elaborate,
u m e ). U niversity im m ersio n p ro g ra m s mav of tvpes of bilingual ed u cation an d descriptions
com bine intensive language in struction (th at is, of various bilingual approaches (e.g., Mackey
instruction from fo u r to six hours p e r day for a 1978). Increasingly, th ough, researchers, policy
sem ester o r sum m er term ) with a p e rio d o f resi m akers, a n d practicing educators have realized
d en ce in a n o th e r country w here the language is th ere are, in fact, very few “p u re ” bilingual pro
spoken, with the goal of rapidly b u ilding profi gram m odels in existence, a n d that, in practice,
m ost bilin g u al p ro g ra m s co m b in e e le m en ts stu d e n ts’ first o r native language for instruction
fo u n d in various m odels. Consequently, it makes is p art o f any bilingual p rogram , but is not bv
little sense to discuss educational m odels w ithout itself sufficient to g u aran tee program quality
reference to the social, political, an d econom ic (C um m ins 1999), which is influenced by addi
contexts in which they are im p lem en ted (Brisk tional factors. Effective bilingual ap p ro ach es
2000, 1998). C ontem porary discussions of bilin exem plify the sam e characteristics as o th e r effec
gual ed u catio n (August a n d H akuta 1997; Brisk tive program s, including access to the core cur
1998. 2000; D en tler an d H afn er 1997; G enesee riculum ; close articulation of grade an d subject
1999) em phasize the m atch betw een the charac levels; flexible groupings; team teaching; use of
teristics o f an ed ucational program , the socio m eaningful tasks and pedagogy th at actively
cultural context o f the students it serves, an d the involve the students in instruction; teaching
resources (both tangible and intangible) avail m aterials a p p ro p riate in quantity and quality to
able to su p p o rt educational efforts. All these subjects taught: p e e r a n d cross-age tutoring; and
affect the n atu re o f related tea c h e r expertise, collaborative staff p lan n in g (D entler an d H afner
choice of instructional ap p ro ach , an d outcom es 1997. p. 40; Brisk 1998). Such cu rricu lar m atters
to be expected in anv instructional program , require careful p lan n in g and m onitoring, and
including bilingual approaches. We now turn to must be im plem ented sensibly, keeping in m ind
those quality indicators m ost closelv related to local conditions such as average class size, budget
1a n g u age t e ac h i n g. for m aterials and teacher training, and o ther
resources, tangible and intangible, available to
Availability of Qualified Teachers support and m aintain bilingual instruction.
To this must be added, specifically for bilin
and O ther School Staff
gual approaches, the selection an d consistent
It is im possible to im plem ent anv sort o f bilin im plem entation of a school- and program w ide
gual p rogram w ithout qualified bilingual teach plan for language allocation th ro u g h o u t the
ers. For this reason, availability of qualified staff school dav and across the length o f the school
m em bers is the c o rn ersto n e of successful bilin program (Baker 1996, pp. 232-241). A ppropriate
gual program s (D entler and H afn er 1997. pp. decisions ab o u t language allocation d e p e n d
40-49). Teachers m ust be both highly proficient greatlv on the particular school, neighborhood,
in at least one o f the languages o f the program and com m unity context (fre em a n 1998; Perez
a n d appropriately certified to teach the grade and Torres-Guzman 1992); thus, it is impossible to
level or subject area for which thev will be m ake blanket rec o m m e n d a tio n s, e x c ep t to
responsible. M oreover, program effectiveness is observe that, if both languages are to be devel
e n h a n c e d if teachers share the linguistic an d cul oped appropriately, both m ust be accorded the
tural backgrounds of the students then teach. status of m edium of instruction for a variety of
A lthough teachers are vital, thev are not the onlv curricular activities and. d ep en d in g on student
relev an t p e rso n n e l; th e p re se n c e o f school age and program tvpe. both may also be school
adm inistrators com m itted to bilingual instruc subjects. (For fu rth er considerations related to
tion (Soto 1997) an d o th e r instructional p erso n sound pedagogical techniques for second lan
nel such as classroom aides in crease the guage developm ent and subject m atter m asterv in
likelihood o f effective a n d consistent instruction. classrooms, see chapters bv Fdiger and Hawkins
in this volume.)
Sound Curriculum
and Instructional Organization Appropriate Regular Assessment
Q ualified staff m em bers m ust establish a n d fol G ood bilingual program s dem onstrate a regular
low high quality age-appropriate curricula. Too and systematic approach to assessment o f student
often, bilingual ed u catio n program s are viewed progress in all curricular subjects in the relevant
as rem edial ra th e r than enriching. T he use of language. In assessm ent o f overall p ro g ram
quality, these two aspects o f evaluation are related Multiple Channels of Parent/Community
b u t distinct. Each requires attention, though the Outreach
natu re and tvpes of assessments used to gather
relevant data varies considerable according to Besides h a rin g the leadership n e e d ed to recru it
local and national assessment traditions and prac a n d retain qualified teaching staff and plan and
tices. In the U nited States for the last several im p lem en t a sound curriculum , bilingual p ro
decades, public (and most private) schools have gram s o f till sorts m ust d eterm in e the m ost effec
d e p e n d ed on large-scale, norm -referenced stan tive wavs to establish and m aintain links betw een
dardized tests given in English as indicators of stu school-level efforts and the activities of stu d e n ts’
d e n t progress, hr some states, standardized tests fam ilies and com m unities (M cG roartv 1998).
in Spanish may also be used, particularlv w here (O ptim ally all educational program s should do
elem entarv level bilingual program s have existed this, but the n eed for com m unitv linkages is par
for some tim e.1’ Tests that relv on lead in g and ticularlv crucial w hen one o f the languages in a
w riting certainly have a place in all educational bilingual p rogram represents a language regu-
program s, but researchers caution that, p articu larlv used bv the students' families.) Individual
larly for second language learners, ant test that teachers can take m anv steps w ithin th eir own
uses a second language reflects, in part, lan classroom s to draw on parents' interests in their
guage proficiencv as well as w hatever o th e r con ch ild ren 's ed u catio n (see M cCaleb 1994 for
structs or concepts are being tested (AERA m am relevant suggestions), but effective com
2000). C onsiderable tension su rrounds the use munitv linkages also require schoolw ide lead er
o f such tests in all school program s, and bilin ship and support. Explicit efforts to create such
gual program s are no ex cep tio n .' O n the one links are particularlv crucial w hen teachers do
h an d , m am politicians and state legislators are not share the linguistic a n d cultural characteris
com m itted to the idea that institution of large- tics o f their students. T he challenge is greater
scale testing program s will im prove education: on still w hen students rep resen t not one single lin
the other, practicing educators, researchers, and guistic a n d cultural background b ut mans dif
professionals in assessm ent express concerns feren t ones, as is often the case in large urban
about the inordinate im portance accorded to and suburban school districts. C om m unitv out
standardized testing (H eubert and H auser 1999). reach is an area in which verv few teachers or
In the U nited States at present, scholars in edu o th e r school p ersonnel receive am systematic
cation generallv (Shepard 2000) and those con training, but it is one that shows up repeatedly as
cerned specificallv with second language (Gottlieb a characteristic of eflective school program s for
2000; Katz 2000) a n d bilingual assessm ent second language learners and bilingual students
(M iram ontes, N adeau, and Com m ins 1997). call (D e n tle r a n d H a fn e r 1997; M iram ontes,
fo r a m ore diverse, curriculum -specific, and N adeau, and C om m ins 1997).
engaging philosophv of the assessment of student
progress. W ithin the realm of inform ed second
Ongoing Concerns
language practice, then, there is growing consen
sus about the need for alternative m ethods of stu T he im p lem en tatio n of good bilingual educa
d e n t assessm ent, in cluding portfolio svstems. tion program s requires co n certed efforts on the
learning logs, checklists of student learning, etc. parts of teachers, school leaders, students, and
(see also C o h en 's c h a p te r in this volum e). families. To establish good program s, schools
Because m anv n o n tra d itio n al ap p ro ach es to m ust d elin e p rogram goals an d instructional
assessment are so labor intensive to develop and designs th at focus on the developm ent of profT
score, thev require some investm ent of time ciencv in twro languages while at the sam e tim e
and resources bevond conventional, published p ro m o tin g access to the full range o f curricular
m ultiple-choice tests. T heir use thus dem ands subjects a p p ro p riate to students' ages and devel
increased teacher training and administrative and o p m en ta l levels. In stitu tin g a p ro g ram th a t
public support. m eets am definition o f bilingual instruction is
not alwavs an easy task, b u t it is certainly feasible 2. In vour teach in g context, whv are teachers,
given train ed personnel, leadership, an d sup students, an d fam ilies in terested in bilingual
port. M oreover, successful bilingual program s a p p ro a c h e s to lan g u ag e learn in g ? W hat
have been established in m am places in N orth kinds o f goals do they h o p e to achiev e?
A m erica a n d internationally. 3. In vour locality, are th ere any o th e r institu
T h e re is no single best m odel for bilingual tions, co m m u n ity g ro u p s, o r b ro a d c a st
instruction; a range of possibilities exists, each m edia w here use o f a language o th e r th an
with p articular requirem ents. At the same tim e, the d o m in a n t one is usual? Identify any
results o f bilingual program s are in p a rt a func settings w here use of a n o th e r language is a
tion o f the com m unity contexts su rro u n d in g regular occurrence; co m m en t on w h eth er
schools. As Crawford (1998) notes, it is ironic and how the use o f language in such a set
(an d u n fo rtu n a te ) that, even as th e fo u n d atio n ting m ight pro m o te an in te rest in bilingual
of research results a n d in fo rm ed practice sur in struction in th at language.
ro u n d in g bilingual education in th e U nited 4. In your view, is com prehensive academ ic liter
States has becom e b e tte r established since the acy in two languages a reasonable goal for
1960s, public opposition, based partially on mis students enrolled in the bilingual program s
u n d e rsta n d in g . has grown. It is often believed vou know about? Whv or whv not? W hat con
th at bilingual instruction m eans instruction in ditions are conducive to the developm ent and
one non-English language onlv, w hen, as e m p h a m aintenance of literacy in two languages?
sized in this discussion, the bilingual approaches 5. Has vour citv o r state ever considered any
m ost com m only used in the U nited States ahvavs kind o f language legislation? W hat was the
involve the use of !u>o languages, one o f which is proposal, an d w hat kinds of public discus
English. Associations o f linguists (e.g.. AAAL sion su rro u n d e d it? Did the discussion o f this
1996. 1997; LSA 1996) and language educators language m easure reveal anything about atti
(NCTE 1982; TESOL 1992) have, for some t ears, tudes tow ard language a n d O r education?
endorsed the usefulness and potential com ple
m en tarity of both bilingual o r bidialectal
approaches and specific second language tech S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
niques in education and hat e opposed ant sort of
official language designation that would restrict 1. Call vour local school district to find out
access to bilingual instruction. As teachers-in- w h eth er they have any classroom s that follow
training an d practicing language instructors, som e sort o f bilingual m odel. If thev do. trv
readers of this chapter can be instrum ental in to visit a classroom for an h o u r o r two to
clarifying some of the m isunderstandings related observ e som e typical classroom activities and
to bilingual instruction while at the same time- see how the teachers a n d students negotiate
working to provide good quality- language educa the use of two languages.
tion program s. D e p e n d in g on co n tex t a n d 2. If th ere are any bilingual program s located
resources, m am such program s m ight well at schools (public o r private) n e a r you,
include some o f the bilingual approaches to lan arrange to talk with one o f the teachers in
guage proficiency and academ ic progress the program . Ask the tea c h e r how the cur
described here. ricular design and m aterials are em ployed to
develop p ro ficien cy in two languages.
E xam ine the m aterials used fo r literacy
instruction in each language to get. som e
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S idea o f the language m odels used to h elp stu
1. In your country o r state, what is m ean t by the dents becom e biliterate.
term bilingual? W hich languages does this 3. G ather some inform ation on student assess
term usually' refer to. an d which o f these are m ent from one o r two schools o r school dis
fo u n d in the educational svstem? tricts. W hat kinds of student assessments are
regularly ad m inistered, a n d in what lan A cle a r a n d re a d a b le a c c o u n t o f th e d e v e lo p
guage? If the district includes nun-native m ent and program v a rie tie s o b s e r v e d in c o n
of outreach are likels to engage students' for R esearch on E d u c a tio n . D iv e rsity , and
In "Language Learning Styles and Strategies,” O xford synthesizes research from various parts of the
world on tw o key variables affecting language learning: srx'es, i.e.. ones general approach to learning a
language: and strategies, the specific behaviors or thoughts 'earners use to enhance their language
learning.These factors influence the student’s ability m a particular instructional framework.
Hawkins's chapter examines teaching academic content to children in their L2, basing it on teaching
and learning academic content in the primary language, Sne proposes that teaching academic content
in the L2 is not helped by the Basic Interpersonal Comm unication Skills and Cognitive Academ ic
Language Proficiency distinction, and suggests that it is more useful to concentrate on the context
required to teach academic content successfully.
In "Teaching Adults,” Hilles and Sutton define adult education and briefly review its history.They give
an overview of adults as second language learners and consider one program in depth to construct
an adult-school teacher student, and program profile, They conclude with practical suggestions for
working with this population and a review of recent research directions.
of the item s are distributed, each stu d e n t hold each g roup should be posted in each group
ing an item is asked to stand an d tell the class area. A dhere stringentlv to the schedule for the
w hat he or she has. If the stu d e n t c an 't answer, first few weeks, and it will becom e autom atic for
the tea c h e r elicits h elp from the entire class. If the students. It is not unusual for a tea c h e r to
n o one in th e class knot vs, the teach er provides take a kitchen tim er to class an d set it for each
the lexical item . A fter the p ro p e r term has been activity. Som e have watches with alarm clocks,
elicited, it is w ritten on the board, a n d the an d som e brin g in bedside alarm clocks. O nce
teacher m odels the pro n u n ciatio n several times. the ro u tin e has b een established, students move
H e or she then allows students to repeat bv asking from one station to the next with surprising effi
for the nam e o f the item being held bv their class ciency an d veteran students can help new stu
m ate. As the list of items progresses and becom es dents get used to the routine. A ccustom ing
longer, the teacher reviews them frequentlv and students to transitioning betw een activities is
random ly, asking the student holding the item to crucial if this m odel is to work, but it can be verv
stand up as the item is called. T he task becom es challenging. D ep en d in g on th eir cultural sense
m ore and m ore lively as the teacher calls off items o f tim e, som e students mav find p u n c tu a tin g
m ore quickly and students stand up and sit down, th eir experiences in this wav to be bizarre and
often at the en couragem ent of their classmates. deeplv arb itrary
For variety7, a student may volunteer to com e to Pedagogically the idea b e h in d such a
the front o f the room and p ro n o u n ce and iden tim etable is that all students spend opening and
tify each of the objects. It is suggested that items closing time with the teacher, and one-third or
be reviewed frequently, and after items from the one-half of the rem aining time (depending on the
house are exhausted, including cleaning supplies, n u m b er of groups) in teacher-clirected acthities.
teachers may substitute items from business, chil Each teacher-directed lesson leads to individual
d re n ’s small toy animals, or anything else relevant desk work, which can then move naturallv into
to the students. com m unicative group work. Advanced students
After the opening acti\ity, students divide mav be able to work from written instructions, but
into groups according to level. It is essential that m ost students wall n e e d verbal instructions
students know exactly what to do at this point. supplied d u rin g the teacher-clirected lesson,
They n e e d to know w here in the room to go and which can be reinforced by the posted schedule.
exactly what activity to begin with. Early training Som etim es advanced students can also help
is the key to success at this p o in t because teachers beginning students, u n d e r teacher supervision.
have found that tim e spent directing students to Teachers agree that multilevel classrooms are
their p ro p er groups d u ring the first few days of challenging b u t definitely m anageable, as long as
class is tim e well invested an d results in sm ooth the students are properly grouped and sufficient
transitions later. A schedule o f class activities for time is devoted to learning the class routine.
Testing o f language at all. Surely a com m unicative test
(Wesche 1987) w ould be closer to the ideal.
M anaging a m ultilevel class req u ires a valid a n d
U n fo rtu n ately , s h e e r n u m b e rs d isco u rag e a
reliable p lac e m e n t in stru m e n t (see C o h en 's
direct, com m unicative test in m ost schools. (See
c h a p te r in this volum e). F requently textbooks
Stovnoff 1996 for a helpful review of th ree good
have placem en t exam s in the te a c h e r’s guide
testing books.)
th at reflect the scope an d sequence o f th e text.
Currently, all California adult schools have
It is also very likely th at the school will have some
m oved over to com petencv-based program s,
sort o f placem en t in strum ent. In schools in
which in theory should require com petency-
which m ultilevel g ro u p in g is n o t dictated bv
based exams. M clntire (1988, p. 15) defines
necessity, it is probably m ost efficacious to place
com petencv-based education as “[cju rricu lu m
students with others o f like proficiency.
based on pred eterm in ed com petencies identified
At B elm ont, for exam ple, all e n te rin g stu
as necessary' for adults to function successfully.
dents take a p lacem ent test. In the u p p e r levels,
Students m ust dem onstrate mastery' of these com
thev are tracked according to th eir language
petencies successfully to com plete a class or a pro
strengths a n d deficiencies. They are offered
g ram .” T he idea, th en , is that a stu d en t m ight be
classes in gram m ar, reading, listening, speaking,
req u ired to be able to enroll his o r h e r child in
w riting, a n d co m p u te r-b a se d in stru ctio n .
school, write a letter o f excuse to the teacher,
S tudents take two classes per night. Those who
rep o rt the child's h ealth an d im m unization his
are weak in gram m ar but strong in reading m ight
tory, a n d sim ilar details in o rd e r to pass a unit.
take two gram m ar classes, or a reading class at A ccording to M clntire, “An underlying p h ilo
one level and a gram m ar class at a lower level. sophical ten e t of com petency based ed u catio n is
Over the course of several years, this system the belief that a student m ust achieve skills rath e r
changed the structure of the school's FSL pro than 'earn credits.’ Thus adults mat' a tten d a class
gram from a pyram id configuration, with the for a short or for an extended p eriod of tim e in
majority of students at the lower levels, to a o rd er to satisfactorily dem onstrate the attainm ent
colum nar configuration. In o th er words, the attri of com petencies . . . Success is m easured in the
tion rate decreased as m ore an d m ore students m asterv of specific com petencies rath e r than
m oved on to the u p p e r levels and fewer students through hours o f attendance, com m only referred
d ro p p ed out. T he school also developed exit to as ‘seat tim e’” (p. 37).
tests for each level so that students with like pro T he state of California has specified the
ficiency ten d ed to rem ain grouped. It is often felt proficiencies and outcom es for each level of ESL
(erroneously, we think) that actual testing is so (frequently called the model standards) in the
stressful that it will cause students to ab andon English-as-a-Second Language Model Standards for
classes. T he B elm ont ex perience seem s to ind i Adult Education Programs (1992). This do cu m en t
cate otherw ise. O bservation suggests th a t stu (or the appropriate equivalent) is vital for teachers
dents expect a n d respect form al testing a n d are who are teaching in a school with m andated
challenged ra th e r th an overw helm ed by the m odel standards. Programs, assessment, place
process. In fact, it is not unusual for a tten d an ce m ent. funding, and accreditation in such a system
to be particularly high on nights d u rin g which will all most likelv be tied to the relevant docu
testing is scheduled, or for som e students to m ent and to dem onstrable com pliance with it. At
insist on rem ain in g in a level, regardless of test first blush it mav seem that this takes away from
results, until thev m eet th eir own criteria for the autonom y and creativity o f the individual
passing the course. T h e fact th at students a p p re teacher; based on our experience, however, we
ciate h o n est a n d valid testing should com e as no argue that teachers can still be autonom ous and
surprise a n d is very m uch in keeping with the creative, an d that m odel standards simply help
adult learn er profile o u tlined earlier. O f course, it to focus w here the teacher’s autonom y and creativ
is certainly q u estionable, on the face of it, ity can be exercised. T he m odel standards assure
w hether a paper-and-pencil test is a valid m easure continuity for the students as yvell as provide
continuity ancl d irection for new teachers. For th eir significance can n o t be overstated. Both the
e x p e rie n c e d teach ers, th e m o d el sta n d a rd s im m igrant com m unity a n d the com m unity at
m ake “levels of proficiency" com petencies and large benefit greatly from such effects, even if
outcom es sufficiently explicit that teachers can the students do not im m ediately achieve great
m ore accurately select from or e x p an d th eir wealth an d native-like m astery o f English.
rep e rto ire o f pedagogical m aterials and strate
gies. At the same tim e, the language in the doc
u m e n t is sufficiently generic to allow teachers to
exercise as m uch o r as little in d e p e n d e n c e and Future Trends
creativity as they are com fortable with, while W ithout question, state-m andated standards and
assuring d irection an d benchm arks of progress accountability (evidence th rough student per
for the student. In C alifornia, the m odel stan form ance that com petencies and outcom es have
dards are based on the in p u t o f literally th o u been dem onstrated) seem to be the direction in
sands o f practicing teachers and adm inistrators. which adult education as a field is headed. Many
As a result, the outcom es and com petencies are states require them , and it seems likelv that o ther
realistic a n d g ro u n d e d in practice. Thus far. they states will follow. T here are also o th er factors in
have b een well received and ap p ear to benefit the field of second language acquisition that we
both students and teachers. think will hav e an im pact on adult education.
R ecent so ciocultural sociohis tori c a l/la n
guage socialization studies have dem o n strated
The Value o f Adult Education that the d em ands and consequences of o u r pro
fession are considerable m ore com plex th an we
T he w orkplace is vitally im portant for o u r stu m ight previously have tho u g h t. A n u m b e r of
dents, an d often the adult EST class has to take research ers' have argued quite com pellinglv for
a back seat to our students' w orking overtim e or a shift in second language research. They have
train in g for a new jo b . As Iwataki (1981) points fo u n d ev idence that learning ancl teaching a sec
out, ad u lt ESL students have as their fram e of o n d language is considerably m ore com plex, lay
reference “n ot the school but their families, ered. and p ro fo u n d than we had ever im agined,
jobs, th eir outside responsibilities" (p. 24). Adult ancl that o u r c u rre n t pedagogy does not begin to
ESL teachers n e e d to be aware o f the im p o r reflect or take into account "the com plex social
tance o f family an d econom ic factors in the lives and cultural worlds into which a second lan
o f th eir students. For m any adult students, eco guage lea rn er m ust enter" (Rvmes 1997. p. 143).
nom ic upw ard m obility will be achieved, if not Onlv a sea change in ou r research paradigm will
bv them , bv fu tu re generations. If thee learn illum inate these worlds and ultim ately lead to
e n o u g h English to survive, th eir children a n d m ore effective classrooms. Virtually all o f the
g ran d c h ild re n will m ost likely be able to take researchers w orking from this perspective
advantage of the upw ard m obility that education
can bring. Even th o u g h not all of o u r students place language learning within the
will becom e rich as a result of th eir adult ESL m o re c o m p re h en siv e d o m ain of
classes, th ere are by-products o f education which socialization, th e lifelong process
m ost o f o u r students routinely do experience through which individuals are initiated
that n e e d to be considered. In addition to brin g into cultural m eaning ancl learn to per
ing students “com fortably into the classroom ," form the skills, tasks, roles and identi
adult schools, in m am cases, are the first positive ties ex p ected bv w hatever society
co ntact im m igrants have with A m erican social or societies thev may live in . . . T he
institutions. Increased self-esteem, cultural aware lan g u ag e socialization perspective
ness, tolerance, and a positive affective stance im plies th a t lan g u ag e is le a rn e d
toward Am erican schools and teachers are im por th ro u g h social in te ra c tio n . It also
tant e p ip h en o m en a of adult ESL classes, and im plies that language is a prim ary
vehicle of socialization: W hen we learn ESL class because the ex p erien ce is so exciting
a second language, we are learning a n d intense. T h e b o n d betw een ESL stu d e n t and
m ore than a structure for com m unica tea c h e r is n o th in g sh o rt o f rem arkable, a n d the
tion; we are also learning (for example) satisfaction teachers ex p erien ce is truly p ro
social and cultural norm s, procedures found. It has b e e n said th a t in the U n ited States,
for interpretation, and forms o f reason the last bastion o f g en u in e respect fo r teachers
ing (Watson-Gegeo 1988, p. 582). and, in d eed , for ed u catio n in general is the
adult ESL classroom . Perhaps Dale M clntire8
Prelim inary findings from this tvpe o f research
said it best: A dult ESL is yvhat you th o u g h t e d u
suggest that using o n e ’s first language can be an
cation yvas going to be yvhen you first decid ed to
act of resistance, as opposed to an unwillingness
becom e a teacher.
to cooperate with the teacher o r to practice
English, an d that what appears to be an o p p o rtu
nity for language practice can actually discourage
second language use (Rymes 1996). Rymes and D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
Pash (2000) fo u n d th at students can be so 1. W hat are som e characteristics o f ad u lt lea rn
involved in “looking like they’re lea rn in g ” th at it ers which set th em a p a rt from younger lan
can in te rfe re with learning. In a n o th e r stttdv of guage learners o r from university students?
high school students in Los Angeles, Rvmes In yvhat wav(s) do you th ink those differ
(1996) found that collaboration am ong students ences should or do affect your a p p ro ach to
is vital for second language learning, though such adult school students?
collaboration mav be beset bv difficulty- in “inte 2. Investigate the adult education program in
grating students’ own perspectives an d experi the area in which you in ten d to teach. How is
ences with what collaboration is and how it works" it different from and how is it similar to the
(p. 409). Hall (1995) found that learn in g a lan program described in this chapter? You m ight
guage is inseparable from issues of (shifting) want to consider the m ajor points covered,
pow er an d that specific social forces ra th e r than such as the history o f the program , its fu n d
“language proficiency'” constrain the tvpe and ing. the target population, classes available,
am o u n t o f linguistic participation afforded a sec placem ent, etc.
o n d language learner. In fact, the social aspects 3. T he state o f C alifornia currently m andates
o f learn in g a second language mav be m ore that schools that receive public funds p ro
basic th an the intellectual ones. Finally, learning vide quantitative and qualitatiy-e evidence
a se co n d lan g u a g e ch an g es o n e ’s identity that students are m aking progress. This m an
(Trosset 1986). Add to this S chum ann's sugges date is tied to fu n d in g (am ong o th e r th in g s ),
tion (1997) th at cognition an d affect are in prac so it is taken very seriously. 1 lowever. we
tice inseparable an d th at everyone is on an occasionally find learners yvho simply fail to
individual affective/cognitive trajectory in lan m ake progress or who insist on rep eatin g a
guage learning. Clearly these are n o t trivial m at class with a single teach er over an d over
ters and very likelv this research d irection yvill again. W hat kind of tension m ig h t this situa
affect the form a n d c o n te n t o f the adult class tion create? How m ight th a t tension be
room in the twentv-first centurv. resolved o r at least lived with?
C O N C L U S IO N
A dult ESL teachers are routinely effusive when S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
describing their adult ESL experience, as are the 1. If von hav e access to the internet, go to the
students. Teachers yvho come to work “exhausted” yvebsite fo r the N ational C learin g h o u se
speak about renew ed energy and of taking several for ESL Literacy E d u catio n (h ttp ://
hottrs to “wind down" after teaching an adult www.cal.org.ncle) a n d look at the ten areas in
w hich th e re are concise overviews of
research a n d best practices. Select th ree th at
you find particularly helpful an d share them FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
with your group.
For understanding and teaching English grammar
2. Find o u t if the state, province, o r country in
which you plan to teach has m an d ated stan Celce-Murcia, M., and D. Larsen-Freeman. 1999. The
dards. If so, get a copy of the do cu m en t and Grammar Book: An F.SL/EFI. Teacher’s Course,
read it carefully. (You m ight begin online with 2d ed. Boston. MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
th e S tate /P ro v in c ia l/N atio n a l D ep artm en t Celce-Murcia, M., and S. Hilles. (1988). Techniques
o f Education.) Based on the docum ent, plan and Resources in Teaching Grammar. New York:
Oxford Universitv Press.
a lesson to teach the following to adult ESL
students: For understanding adult education and relevant
a. use o f p rese n t tense pedagogy
b. p ro n u n cia tio n o f final /d/ in English Ilvin, D., and T. Tragardh, eds. 1978. Classroom
c. w riting an absence excuse to a ch ild ’s Practices in Adult FSL. Washington, DC: TESOL.
teach er Rose, M. 1989. Lives on the Boundary. New York: Free
d. w riting a note of explanation to a su p er Press.
visor o r cow orker
Other useful resources
3. Part o f a gram m ar lesson m ight include ask
ing students to practice using a structure in a Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Teaching by Principles:
com m unicative context. This would occur An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.
after the presentation a n d the focused prac Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
U.S. Department of Labor. 1991. The Secretary's Com
tice phases o f the lesson. Im agine that you are
mission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington,
teaching the p resent perfect to an interm e
DC: Department of Labor.
diate adult ESL class and are now readv to
begin the com m unicative phase o f the lesson. Your state, provincial, or national standards document.
If you have access to the In te rn et, search
u n d e r SCANS Report o r go to one o f the fol
lowing w'ebsites:
h ttp ://w w w .coe.tany.edu/~epsy/cded/
jennyl.htm ЧЩ Г W E B S IT E S
or
NCLE ERIC Digests and Q&A.
h ttp ://www.academ icinnovations.com / http://www.cal.org/ncle/DIGESTS/
report.html. Both the U.S. National Literacy Act of 1991 and the
U.S. Adult Education Act of 1991, along with
W ork o u t several com m unicative exercises related policv resources, are available on-line at:
th a t w ould in co rp o rate SCANS into your
www.nifl.gov/lincs/ collections/policy/
gram m ar lesson. resource.html
4. Plan in detail a two-and-a-half h o u r lesson
for a m ultilevel ESL class. D ecide the profi
ciency o f each level. W hat will your o p e n in g
exercise (s) be? Why will this exercise be a
good one for students at d ifferent levels? EN DN O TES
How will you tim e the rest o f the lesson? How
1 We are indebted to Dale Mclntire, Marianne Celce-
wall you move students from one activity to Murcia, and to the late Sadae Iwataki for their very
another? How7 wrill vou assure that when the helpful comments, suggestions, and discussions
teacher is with one group, he o r she will n o t regarding earlier versions of this chapter. We would
be n e e d ed by another? also like to thank Marianne Celce-Murcia and Kit
Bell for their invaluable input. The responsibility 4 Work by Bley-Vroman 1988; Celce-Murcia and
for any errors, omissions, or problems in interpre Hilles 1988; Higgs and Clifford 1982; Mclndre
tation is ours, of course. 1988; Selinker 1972 and sources cited therein
2 For the complete text of Lincoln’s eloquent 1838 discuss this issue.
address to the Young Men’s Lyceum of Springfield, 0 Affect is a term from psychology, which the American
see Current 1967, pp. 11-21. Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition (1991)
3 All the statistical data regarding Belmont defines as “a feeling or emotion as distinguished
Community Adult School are taken from the 1995 from cognition, thought, or action” (p. 84).
Application for Accreditation and current school 6 Studies by Bley-Vroman 1988; Hilles 1991; Johnson
demographics. Although many of our illustrations and Newport 1989; Krashen, Scarcella, and Long
will be drawn from this one particular adult 1982; Long 1990; Richards 1985; Schumann 1997
school, our observations will be informed by pro (among others) address this issue. For a different
grams in other schools, as well as conversations perspective, see Bialystok and Hakuta 1994.
and consultations with colleagues, teachers, ' For example, see Hall 1995; Markee 1994; Rymes
administrators, and students throughout the 1997; Trosset 1986; and Watson-Gegeo 1988.
United States and in other countries. 8 Dale McIntyre, personal communication.
UNIT V
Skills fo r Teachers
W e end with a section on the needs of ESL/EFL teachers. W hat do
teachers need to know to perform their jobs effectively and
professionally? W hat are the skills and competencies all too frequently
left undiscussed? Jensen's chapter shows how lesson plans can be
structured and prepared in the context of an entire course. Byrd's
chapter then discusses textbooks: how to evaluate them for initial
selection and how to analyze them to ensure effective implementation.
Medgyes raises issues important for those ESLVEFL teachers who are
non-native speakers of English. Since these teachers now constitute the
majority of English language teachers worldwide, all ESUEFL teachers—
native and non-native— should be informed of and sensitive to the
issues. Hinkel’s chapter treats culture, a related matter; since all ESL7EFL
learners have a non-English-speaking cultural background, their teachers
must be aware of the cultural differences between their learners and
native speakers of English. Hinkel gives suggestions on how to foster
cross-cultural communication. Next, Brinton shows teachers the genuine
usefulness of instructional media along with demonstrating how both
technical and non-technical resources can be used in lessons to enhance
teaching. Sokolik then gives an introduction to the use of computers, the
most technical of media, in language teaching, stressing that sound
V : Skills for Teachers
Jensen’s "Lesson Planning" chapter serves as a guide for novice teachers who need to create
formalized lesson plans.The chapter covers why, when, and how teachers plan lessons, as well as basic
lesson plan principles and a lesson plan template. A sample lesson plan is provided in the context of
a weekly overview, module overview, and course overview.
aims/objectives
3- 5 warm-up transitions
10 presentation activities
3-5 questions/homework
Comments/Evaluation:
Course Overview (10 Weeks) E S L 3 3 C / U C L A Service Courses
LISTENING: SPEAKING:
lectures: group work
History 160 and Anthropology 9 discussions/presentations
READING: WRITING:
A ca d e m ic Publishing Services (APS) in-class essays
Farew ell to M a n z a n a r (FM) out-of-class essays
weekly paced and timed readings 3-5 pp. research paper
Insights 1 weekly journals
St. M a r t in ’s H a n d b o o k (SM)
2. Outlining
3. Mapping
4. Summaries
B. Speaking
1. Group work
2. Presentations
C. Reading: Core Readings
1. Previewing/Skimming
3. Vocabulary Development
4. Comprehension Questions
5. Rate Development
D. Writing/Structure
1. Paraphrasing
2. Summaries
4. Relative Clauses
5. Comparison and Contrast Essay Questions
6. Cause and Effect Essay Questions
E. Assignments
1. Journals
7. In-class Essay
8. Conferencing/Rewrite
W eekly O v erv iew (W eek 3) ESL 3 3 C /U C L A S erv ice C o u rse s
R EA D IN G
Insights I: Assimilation and Amalgamation
Farew ell to M a n z a n a r (ch. 3-11)
W R IT IN G
using relative clauses in definitions
brief and extended definitions
Journal #3— //p. 124,Task 23
S T U D Y S K IL L S
summary
paraphrasing
predicting exam content
LIS T E N IN G
video seg. 2 “ Variables of Assimilation”
video seg. 3 “ The Melting Pot Model”
S P E A K IN G
group work
class discussions
LESSON SEQUENCING
H our O ne: Insights p. I 16— video seg. 2 “ Variables of Assimilation"
Insights pp. I 17-120 (brief definitions/relative clauses)
H o u r F o u r: summary / I. 123-124
(Amalgamation)
group work: begin extended definition— amalgamation
FM 9-1 I
Farew ell to M a n z a n a r
T im e F ra m e P ro ce d u re s: N o te s:
(in minutes)
5 Warm-up: greetings/questions about weekend whole class
plans/check roll
C o m m e n ts/E v a lu a tio n :
Good idea to focus feedback on relative cla uses
only with their extended definitions of
amalgamation; otherwise the activity takes too
much time.
Students did a great job of predicting the terms
that they will be asked to define.
Textbooks: Evaluation for Selection
and Analysis for Implementation
PATRICIA BYRD
In "Textbooks: Evaluation for Selection and Analysis for Implementation," Byrd argues that the decisions
made in selecting textbooks are different from the decisions made for implementing textbooks. A fter
showing how the processes differ and the confusion that results from using the same approach for
both, she provides guiaelines for selecting as well as implementing textbooks.
IN T R O D U C T IO N EV A LU A TIO N FO R S E L E C T IO N
In addition to our students and ourselves, an o th er Evaluation and selection o f textbooks is a com
constant in the lives o f most teachers is ou r plex process that is carried out in many different
textbook. Few teachers en ter class without a text wavs. In a few settings, teachers decide on the
book— (then a required textbook— that protides books that thev want to use in th eir classes. For
c o n te n t and teaching learn in g activities that exam ple, in university settings in the U nited
shape m uch of what happens in that classroom. States a n d elsewhere, ESI. teachers can often
For teachers, use of a textbook involves first the m ake individual decisions ab o u t the textbooks
selection of a book and then the steps taken to that thev will use. W ith inform ation from p u b
im plem ent the book in class. lishers and colleagues, thev select a text or texts,
W hile having rational a n d effective selec have tire books o rd e re d th ro u g h the cam pus
tion pro ced u res is surelv im p o rtan t for educa bookstore, and th en use them in th eir classes. In
tional svstems, program s, schools, teachers, and m anv o th e r settings, such text selections are
students, the selection process is one th at is not m ade bv adm inistrators o r bv com m ittees of
open to m am E SL /EFL teachers w orking in set teachers. A n o th er scenario, centralized decision
tings w here tex tb o o k s have b e e n selected m aking bv the governm ent, can be seen in
th ro u g h an adm inistrative process— at the m in Egypt, w here decisions about the English lan
isterial level or bv the school b o a rd or bv the p ro guage curriculum and the textbooks used to
gram d ire c to r o r bv a com m ittee of teachers that teach it are m ade bv the M inistry o f E ducation in
selects texts for the whole program , o r bv the Cairo. In this system, a unified series of text
teach er who taught the course the previous books is created for use th ro u g h o u t the country,
sem ester b ut who is teach in g som ething else this ra th e r than selecting textbooks from a generic
term . As a result, although inform ation ab o u t collection c reated by com m ercial publishing
evaluation for selection is im p o rta n t for teachers com panies. A m uch sm aller centralized approach
to u n d e rsta n d , m ost teachers have different is seen in boards o f education in various U.S.
e n co u n ters with textbooks as thev m ake deci states that have svstems th rough which textbooks
sions about how to im p lem en t and su p p lem en t are analyzed and lists of reco m m en d ed books
m aterials for the m ost effective classes possible developed. Because of the decentralized nature
for th eir students an d for themselves. To reflect o f U.S. education, no national req u irem en ts
on the two different ways in which textbooks are exist, a n d individual schools often have consider
scrutinized bv teachers, I will separate “evalua able flexibility in im plem enting state curricular
tion for selection" from "analysis for im p lem en requirem ents. Textbooks and supplem ental m ate
tatio n ” in the following discussion. rials are. however, frequently selected th ro u g h a
system th at involves input from supervisors and writing lab reports or reviews o f books for history
colleagues, a n d does n o t em phasize the individ courses. Similarly, m aking a com prehensive yet
ual teach er m aking a personal decision. Even in reasonable checklist for evaluation of textbooks
schools that are not p art o f centralized m iniste is an en o rm o u s challenge that requires different
rial o r b oard systems, textbook selection is often lists for different types of courses in different set
the work o f a faculty com m ittee or of a program tings. Published checklists like those referenced
adm inistrator. An intensive English p rogram above are offered as m odels that p resen t im p o r
m ight have a textbook com m ittee to evaluate tan t categories th at should be considered in the
textbooks an d to m ake selections as a way of selection process. Like o th e r suggestions from
en suring som e unitv across m ultiple sections of colleagues, these m odels n eed to be considered
die sam e course. Overall, few E SL /EFL teachers carefully an d a d ap ted to lit the p articular situa
use textbooks th at thev have them selves selected tion in which thev will be ttsed. In the body of
th ro u g h a process that has focused simpiv on this chapter. I will provide a general rationale for
th eir interests a n d the needs of the students in the considerations that seem fu n d am en tal to
th eir individual section of a course. such a selection-guicling checklist, d e la tin g until
However, teachers can som etim es influence the "Suggested Activities" creation of detailed
the decision-m aking process an d thus n e e d to be checklists designed to fit the situations o f the
aware o f how it works in th eir own situation. teachers using this book. T he issues that m ust be
T h a t is, teachers have to he aware not ju st of addressed in a textbook evaluation system are the
th e ir lives inside th eir classroom s, but thev m ust fit betw een the m aterials and ( 1 ) the curriculum .
also be know ledgeable ab o u t the larger system (2 ) the students, and (3) the teachers.
in which thev work and about possible wavs that
the system m ight allots' for tea c h e r participation
in its adm inistrative processes. Influencing the
selection process in these situations is not just a T h e F it B etw ee n C u rric u lu m
m atte r o f pedagogical know ledge but also of a n d T ex ts
political skill.
Generally, the first area in cluded in textbook
analysis is the fit betw een the m aterials a n d the
curriculum . For large educational systems, pub
S y stem atic E v alu atio n lishers create m aterials based on published cur
Systems for evaluation of textbooks (and o th e r riculum statem ents. For exam ple, in Egypt, the
instructional m aterials) generally provide check Ministry o f E ducation arranges for publication
lists built a ro u n d n u m ero u s aspects o f teaching of its own textbooks. Because the books are cre
a n d stu d en t-teach er interactions (B ader 2000; ated for use onlv in Egy pt, the M inistry can be
D aoud an d Celce-M urcia 1979; Gom es de Matos sure that the m aterials are ap p ro p riate and earn
2000; Skierso 1991). In reviewing such lists, I am out its particu lar curricular goals. In the U nitec
re m in d e d o f the tim e m am years ago w hen a col States, som e public school systems publish their
league an d I sat down to m ake a list o f things for curriculum guidelines and invite publishers te
o u r students to check as thev revised th eir com subm it m aterials that fit those guidelines. For
positions. O u r first list h ad over 100 item s on it. states with large ESI. populations, such as Texan
Clearly, it w asn’t going to be very useful for m any Florida, New York, a n d C alifornia, p u b lish er'
students. We quickly revised it to a m ore reason com pete fiercely to provide m aterials that m eet
able n u m b e r th at we a n d o u r students could the stated curricular guidelines. For these e d u
h andle. But we also realized that o u r checklist cational systems with th eir considerable p u r
was useful only for a particu lar kind of writing; it chasing pow er a n d various m ethods for control
w orked reasonably well for the personal essays of co n ten t, the fit betw een the textbook and the
bein g w ritten for o u r course b u t w ould not have curriculum is assum ed to be a reasonable and
w orked nearly so well if the students had been achievable goal.
For sm aller program s and individual teach 2. Examples: Are the exam ples ap p ro p riate to
ers, the fit betw een curriculum and textbooks can the Uses and interests of the students? Do
be h a rd e r to achieve for two reasons. First, all too the exam ples fit closely with the concepts
m am program s do not hare clearlv articulated they are supposed to be explaining?
curriculum statem ents; teachers have groups of 3. Exercises Tasks: Do the exercises or tasks
students who want to learn English but the p ro p rot ide e n o u g h varietv to m eet the needs of
gram lacks a general statem ent o f purposes and different kinds of learners in the class(es)?
m ethods. Second, when there is a curriculum Will the\ be o f in terest to these students?
statem ent for a sm aller program or an individual 4. Presentation/Form at: Does the book look
class, it mav har e features that are unique to that rig h t for these students? Are the illustrations
particular program ; however, the program is not a n d o th e r graphical an d design elem ents
large enough for publishers to provide textbooks a p p ro p riate for th eir age a n d educational
based on its individual curriculum statem ent. In level? Is th e p rin te d text easy to read an d
the first situation, the textbook must be selected a p p ro p riate for th eir read in g level? Is the
based on features o th er than curricu lu m — and m ix betw een p rin t and white space balanced
therefore the text itself becom es the curriculum . so th at readability is e n h a n c e d an d a p p ro
In the second situation, textbooks are unlikely to priate? Does the book have an index, a p p e n
be found that are com pletelv con g ru en t with the dices, or o th e r sections th a t are usable by
pedagogical goals of the program , and the p u r students? Is the book well c o n stru c te d — will
pose of the selection process m ust be to find it last a term of h a rd use by students?
books that have as good a fit as possible— with the
expectation that the textbooks will n eed to be
adapted and supplem ented with additional m ate T h e F it B etw ee n T e a c h e rs a n d T ex ts
rials to support the curriculum . Textbooks are also for teachers. As with students,
teachers seek three things from textbooks: con-
ten t/ex p lan atio n s. exam ples, and exercises or
T h e F it B etw een S tu d e n ts a n d T ex ts
tasks. T he evaluation-for-selection process needs
Textbooks are for students. To m eet their needs, to find out if the textbook can be used effectively
the textbook must have not just the English lan bv the teachers to whom it will be assigned. T he
guage o r com m unication skill content dem an d ed basic questions will alwavs be Can our teachers han
by the curriculum , but it m ust also fit the needs of dle this material? and Will our teachers find that the
students as learners of English. Textbooks are textbook meets their needs and preferences for teaching
m ade up o f three m ajor elem ents: content (and materials ?
explanations), exam ples, and exercises or tasks. Questions such as the following should be
In support of these three elem ents, textbooks also included in the analysis o f the fit between a poten
employ a varietv of graphical elem ents, including tial textbook and the teachers who will use it.
print size and stele and white space as well as illus
1. Content/Explanations: In all settings, evalua
trations. In the evaluation-for-selection process,
tors need to consider if the textbook prorides
the person or group m aking the selection needs
content that teachers will find useful to carry'
to knots' enough about the students to be able to
out the goals of the course and the p ro g ram —
answer questions such as the following.
is this a teacher-friendlv textbook? In some
1. Content/Explanations: Is the content likelv to settings, it is im portant to ask if teachers will
be o f interest or use to the students? Is there have adequate English to be able to u n d e r
anv chance that the content could be offen stand the content an d to be able to explain it
sive or inappropriate for its in te n d e d audi to their students. A question of special im por
ence? Do the explanations work for these tance in English for Specific Purposes texts
learn ers— do dies help learners und erstan d but of im portance in all textbook analysis is, is
what thev n eed in o rd er to learn? there a reasonable fit between the content
a n d th e know ledge-base o f the teacher? want it to have so that we ran adopt it ?After adoption,
O th e r questions include. Is there an instruc the basic question changes to, How do I as a teacher
to r’s m anual that helps the teacher belter working with particular students in a particular class
u n derstand the c o n ten t and wavs o f using the in a particular program make this book work to ensure
content with the students? Does the textbook effective and interesting lessons?
supply or require ancillaries such as audio- To avoid confusion over the tvpe o f ’’evalu
tapes or workbooks? If so. is the content of a tio n ” req u ired at this stage in the life o f a text
these ancillaries appropriate to and usable by book in a course o r program , I would like talk
the teachers in this program ? ab o u t textbook analysis in the implementation process.
2. Examples: Are the exam ples usable for the T he categories that a tea c h e r can use are the
te a c h e r— can thee be e x p a n d ed on o r recast sam e as in the selection process: the textbook
to be useful in the lessons? provides content, explanations, exam ples, and
3. Exercises/Tasks: Does the text provide exercises or tasks. T he text m ight also provide
enough things for the teacher to give his or illustrative or graphic m aterials that can be used
her students to do for the period of time to be for teaching purposes. A dditionally the publisher
covered by the course? Are the exercises or of the textbook m ight provide an instructor's
tasks doable in this setting? Do thev pro\ide m anual that should help in the im plem entation
for a variety of learning styles? Is there an of the materials. While the categories are the
instructor’s m anual and does it make sugges same, the purpose is m uch different and often
tions for im plem entation of tlte exercises? m uch m ore urgent, since teachers can find them
Does it prot ide an answer kev for anv exer selves analyzing a textbook only hours before
cises that have discrete answers, such as going into a class to teach a lesson that will be
gram m ar drills o r vocabulary activities? built aro u n d the m aterials in the text.
4. P resen tatio n /F o rm at: Does the illustrative
m aterial provide the tea c h e r with teaching
opportunities? Is there a close co n n ectio n G e ttin g a n O v erv iew
betw een the c o n te n t and the illustrations? o f th e R e so u rc e s in th e T e x tb o o k
Prior to im p lem en tin g a textbook, a teache:
needs to read the whole b o o k — from start to fin
A N A LYSIS ish. including anv appendices. In w orking wit:',
in ex p e rie n c e d teachers, I've found th at one :
FO R IM PLEM ENTATIO N th eir mistakes in w orking with a textbook is m .'
A lthough th e evaluation-for-selection systems seeing it as a whole and not finding o u t abou:
are created to m ake the selection process as the text in detail before the first dav o f class. 1
rational as possible, o u r en c o u n te rs with text have repeatedly h ad the ex perience o f having :
books in the selection process always involve a new teacher tell m e near the e n d o f a term th.v
series o f value judgm ents: this is good or this is he or she has just discovered som e useful featui v
bad or this fits well or this d o e sn ’t fit at all. of the tex tb o o k — som ething that was in a law
Evaluation is about m aking a ju d g m e n t call — section o f the book o r in an appendix. A ban.;
ves or no, in or out, buv it o r d o n ’t buy it, rule o f textbook im plem entation: You can or.:
thum bs up o r thum bs down. Because the types im p lem en t m aterials if vou know thev are there
o f analysis an d decision-m aking w hen using a T eaching usually involves an o v e rla p p ir.
textbook in the classroom are radically different cvcle of presen tatio n , practice, a n d evaluatio:
from those in the selection process, the experi Presentation can involve in tro d u c tio n o f n c
ences o f classroom teachers with the textbook m aterials or info rm atio n o r a re-introduction t :
involve an evaluation th at uses different criteria. a review session; it can be d irect o r indirect; it
In the evaluation-for-selection process, the basic whatever the teach er does to get students startc
question is Does this book have the features that we on a unit o f study. Practice can be anv type
activity, from a drill to w riting an essay, from the the book? Are the instructions for th e activi
least com m unicative form o f rep etitio n to an ties clear e n o u g h for m e to know exactly
u n scripted discussion; it is w hatever th e teacher w hat the students a n d I are supposed to do?
sets up to help the students learn to do whatever
This initial read in g of the textbook should give
it is they are studying in th at unit. Evaluation is
the tea c h e r an overview o f the features o f the
whatever the tea c h e r does to fin d o u t w hat the
book an d o f the ways th at the textbook organizes
students have learned. This teach in g cycle is
its com bination o f c o n te n t and activities. After
b o u n d e d by the academ ic calen d ar o f the school
gaining that overview, the teacher needs to ana
system in which the class is taught; a class is
lyze the text in m ore detail while m aking plans
always lim ited in tim e to the n u m b e r o f hours a
for using the m aterials over the tim e allowed for
week it will be taught a n d to any ad d itio n al tim e
th e course.
that m ight be ad d ed for hom ew ork, if h o m e
work is a p p ro p riate in the setting.
A nalysis o f th e C o n te n t
o f th e T e x tb o o k
In itial R e a d in g o f a T e x tb o o k Language textbooks differ considerably from
Before u n d e rta k in g a d etailed analvsis of the those in o th e r disciplinary areas. A biology text
textbook to be used in a course, a teach er can book, for exam ple, is d o m in a te d by p resentation
benefit from doing a general overview reading o f in form ation a b o u t biology— theory, exam
of the book. A reasonable series o f questions ples, and definitions o f term inology. T he p u r
that a tea c h e r should ask d u rin g an initial read pose of the book is for students to learn a certain
ing shou ld include the following. segm ent of the body o f know ledge th at m akes
op the disciplinary area o f “biology.” Discussions
1. Presentation/Form at: W hat kinds of units of problem s with public school textbooks for
does the book have? How is each organized? o th er disciplines often concentrate on two related
W hat kinds o f illustrations o r o th e r graphic areas: ( 1 ) inaccurate or incom plete c o n ten t (see
elem ents are used? How m any o f these for exam ple, Suidan et al. 1995) a n d (2) p o o r
graphic elem ents are there? How are they readability for the stu d e n t aud ien ce because
co n n e cte d to the rest of the m aterials in the c o n te n t experts do n o t necessarily u n d e rsta n d
unit? W hat additional features does the book how to p rese n t com plex c o n te n t for new, young
have beyond the basic units— appendices, learners (see for exam ple, Britton, W oodward,
index, glossary? Are th ere any ancillary m ate a n d Binkely 1993). T hese problem s should be
rials such as w orkbooks or audiotapes? o f c o n c e rn to E S L /E F L p ro g ram s th a t use
2. C ontent/Inform ation: W h a t does each u n it a u th en tic m aterials as the basis fo r ESL/EFL
give me to present? W hat is each u n it about? study, especially those th at use content-area text
3. Practice: W hat does each u n it give m e to books as reso u rces fo r E S L /E F L m aterials.
use with my students for practice? W here are Kearsev a n d T urner (1999) used genre analysis
the exercises o r tasks placed a n d how do techniques to evaluate textbook m aterials written
they relate to the p resen tatio n o f content? in Great Britain for secondary science courses;
W hat connections are m ade betw een the they reveal a text th at is m ade up o f very simple
activities provided in the various units? exam ples written for the audience (although
4. Evaluation: W hat does each u n it give m e to probably not accessible to newcom ers to th at soci
use for evaluation of student learning? W hen ety), interspersed with h ard nuggets o f scientific
will assessm ent occur d u ring the term ? How writing to provide the co n ten t th at is the real
long will each activity take? focus o f the curriculum .
5. Support for the teacher: Is th ere an instruc In contrast, E SL /E FL textbooks te n d to be
to r ’s m anual? Is th ere an in tro d u c tio n for m ade up o f two strands o f content: ( 1 ) the lin
the in stru cto r th at has inform ation on using guistic c o n te n t (gram m ar, vocabulary, skill area)
and (2) the them atic content (“school," "gender decisions about how different activities will be
issues," “Native Americans." and the topical con used d u rin g the academ ic term , asking ques
tent nsed to present and practice the linguistic tions such as those in Table 2.
co n tent). T he teacher can expect the topics in
content-based m aterials to be em phasized and
clearly risible. In most o th er m aterials, however,
the teacher will n eed to look past the linguistic Seeking Help in Implementation
c o n te n t to find out what them es have been o f the Textbook
included in the textbook. Ik for exam ple, the
Teachers have both form al a n d inform al source'
teacher notices in his or h er initial analvsis that a
of inform ation an d su p p o rt as thev analvze text
gram m ar textbook includes num erous exam ples
books for im p lem entation. Form al reso u rce'
and passages based on biographies of famous
in clu d e th e in s tr u c to r ’s m an u a l as we к
people, then he or she can plan to supplem ent
as o th e r w ritten m aterials av ailable in the school
the text with o th er m aterials and activities (visits
or program . These o th e r m aterials can include
to local m useum s, readings about people fam ous
a curriculum statem ent, course svllabi used ir.
in the cultures of the students, and so on). The
previous term s, an d copies o f h an d o u ts used lx
analvsis-for-im plem cntation angle on c o n te n t
previous teachers. Additionallv, m am school'
involves both the linguistic and the them atic con
prov ide teachers with form al help th ro u g h struc
ten t of the textbook, as shown in Table 1.
tu re d in te rac tio n s with sen io r teachers and
supervisors.
Analysis of Exercises/Tasks Inform al su p p o rt is generallv available i:
in the Textbook for teachers seek it. W hen teaching a course for the
first tim e or for the first tim e with a particula:
Implementation in Classes textbook, teachers can som etim es get help with
W hile p lan n in g the wavs in which the textbook im p lem en tatio n o f m aterials in a course by talk
will be used for the whole academ ic term , a ing with colleagues who are teaching the same
tea c h e r needs to be m aking co n crete if tentativ e course or who have taught it before.
like t o m a k e in c o n t e n t an d se q u e n c in g to b e t t e r fit m y c o u r s e an d m y s tu d e n ts ?
W h a t c o n n e c tio n s can I m a k e b e tw e e n th e s e to p ic s an d th e b a c k g ro u n d s / in te re s ts o f m y
s tu d e n ts ? H o w can I m ak e e n ric h e d u se o f th e s e th e m e s ?
Table 2. Analysis of Teaching Activities for Implementation in Teaching
h ig h - e n e rg y ta sk , re q u irin g a lo t of m o v in g a ro u n d , b a la n c e d by s o m e th in g m o re
c o n te m p la tiv e .
English. S o m e t e a c h e r s u se h o m e w o r k t o p re p a re s tu d e n ts f o r n e w w o r k , n o t ju s t to
r e v ie w an d p ra c t ic e things a lre a d y p re s e n te d .
p e rio d s o f tim e to b y th e te a ch e r.
a c c o m p lis h — sp e cia l
p ro je c ts ?
sp e cia l e q u ip m e n t th a t
has t o b e o r d e r e d
a h e a d o f tim e ?
W h e r e a re c o n n e c t io n s B y re a d in g th e w h o le b o o k p r io r t o th e b e g in n in g o f th e t e r m , th e t e a c h e r can b e c o m e
b e in g m a d e b e tw e e n a w a r e o f to p ic s a n d th e m e s th a t r e c u r in th e b o o k . C o n n e c t io n s can b e m a d e th a t
Totally lacking
Adequate
Excellent
T h e C h e cklist
W eak
Good
The Textbook
a. S u b je c t m a t t e r
i
1. D o e s th e su b je c t m a t t e r c o v e r a v a r ie t y o f to p ic s a p p ro p ria te t o th e in te re s ts 4 3 2 1 0
o f th e le a rn e rs f o r w h o m th e t e x t b o o k is in te n d e d (u rb a n o r ru ra l e n v iro n m e n t;
ch ild o r a d u lt le a rn e rs ; m a le a n d / o r fe m a le s tu d e n ts )?
2. Is th e o r d e r in g o f m a te ria ls d o n e by to p ic s o r th e m e s th a t a re a rra n g e d in a logical
fa sh io n ?
3. Is th e c o n t e n t g ra d e d a c c o rd in g t o th e n e e d s o f th e s tu d e n ts o r th e re q u ire m e n ts
o f th e e x is tin g sylla b u s (if t h e r e is o n e )?
4. Is th e m a te ria l a c c u r a t e an d up -to -d ate?
b. V o c a b u la r y and s t ru c tu re s
1. D o e s th e v o c a b u la r y lo a d (i.e., th e n u m b e r o f n e w w o r d s in t ro d u c e d e v e r y le s so n )
s e e m t o b e re a s o n a b le f o r th e s tu d e n ts o f t h a t level?
2. A r e th e v o c a b u la r y ite m s c o n tr o lle d to e n s u re s y s te m a tic g ra d a tio n fro m sim p le
t o c o m p le x ite m s?
3. Is th e n e w v o c a b u la r y re p e a te d in s u b s e q u e n t le s so n s f o r r e in fo rc e m e n t?
4. D o e s th e s e n t e n c e len g th s e e m re a s o n a b le f o r th e s tu d e n ts o f th a t level?
5. Is th e n u m b e r o f g ra m m a tic a l p o in ts as w e ll as th e ir s e q u e n c e a p p ro p ria te ?
6. D o t h e s t r u c tu r e s g ra d u a lly in c re a s e in c o m p le x it y t o su it th e g r o w in g rea d in g
a b ility o f th e s tu d e n ts ?
7. D o e s th e w r i t e r u se c u r r e n t e v e r y d a y language, and s e n t e n c e s t r u c tu r e s th a t f o llo w
n o rm a l w o r d o r d e r ?
8. D o th e s e n te n c e s and p a ra g ra p h s f o llo w o n e a n o t h e r in a logical s e q u e n c e ?
9. A r e lin gu istic ite m s in t ro d u c e d in m ean in g fu l situ a tio n s to fa c ilita te u n d e rs ta n d in g
and e n s u re a s sim ila tio n and c o n s o lid a tio n ?
c. E x e rc is e s
1. D o th e e x e rc is e s d e v e lo p c o m p r e h e n s io n and te s t k n o w le d g e o f m ain id eas, d etails,
and s e q u e n c e o f id eas?
2. D o th e e x e rc is e s in v o lv e v o c a b u la r y and s t r u c tu r e s w h ic h build up th e le a rn e r's
r e p e r t o ir e ?
3. D o th e e x e rc is e s p ro v id e p ra c t ic e in d iffe re n t ty p e s o f w r it t e n w o r k (s e n te n c e
c o m p le tio n , sp ellin g and d ic ta tio n , g u id e d c o m p o s it io n )?
4. D o e s th e b o o k p ro v id e a p a tte rn o f re v ie w w ith in lessons and cu m u latively te s t n e w
m aterial?
5. D o th e e x e rc is e s p r o m o t e m e an in g fu l c o m m u n ic a tio n by re fe rrin g to re a listic
a c tiv itie s an d s itu a tio n s ?
c. M e th o d o lo g ic a l/ p e d a g o g ic a l g u id a n c e
1. D o e s th e M a n u a l h elp th e t e a c h e r w it h ea ch n e w ty p e o f lesso n in tro d u c e d ?
2. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e su g g e stio n s t o h e lp th e t e a c h e r r e v ie w o ld le sso n s
an d in t r o d u c e n e w le sso n s?
3. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e p ra c tic a l su g g e stio n s f o r te a c h in g p ro n u n c ia tio n and
in to n a tio n ?
4. D o e s th e m an u al p r o v id e su g g estio n s t o h elp th e t e a c h e r in t r o d u c e n e w rea d in g
passages?
5. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e g u id a n c e t o th e t e a c h e r f o r in tro d u c in g v a rio u s ty p e s o f
w r it t e n w o r k ?
6. D o e s th e M a n u a l p r o v id e g u id a n c e t o th e t e a c h e r f o r e v a lu a tin g w r it t e n w o r k and
id e n tify in g th e s t u d e n ts ’ m o s t s e r io u s m ista k e s?
7. D o e s th e M a n u a l a d v is e th e t e a c h e r o n th e u se o f a u d io visu a l aids?
d. L in g u istic b a c k g ro u n d in fo rm a tio n
1. D o e s th e M a n u a l p ro v id e c o n tr a s tiv e in fo rm a tio n f o r th e t e a c h e r o n likely
p ro n u n c ia tio n p ro b le m s ?
2. A r e En glish v o c a b u la r y ite m s an d English s t r u c tu r e s w e ll e x p la in e d ?
3. A r e lists o f c o g n a te w o r d s ( t r u e an d false c o g n a te s ) p ro v id e d f o r th e te a c h e r ?
4. D o e s t h e M a n u a l p r o v id e in fo rm a tio n o n g r a m m a r t o h elp th e t e a c h e r ex p la in
g ra m m a tic a l p a tte rn s p re s e n te d in th e le sso n s and a n tic ip a te lik ely p ro b le m s (i.e., d a ta
fr o m c o n t r a s t iv e an alysis an d e r r o r an a lysis)?
Textbook Evaluation Checklist
Source: P a tr ic i a B m x I a n d M a r i a n n e C e lc e - M n r c i a
* fits c u rric u lu m / g o a ls
* has a p p r o p r ia te th e m a t ic c o n t e n t
* e x p la n a tio n s u n d e rs ta n d a b le an d u sa b le
f o r s tu d e n ts
* e x a m p le s u n d e rs ta n d a b le and u sa b le
f o r s tu d e n ts
* a c tiv itie s a p p r o p r ia te f o r s tu d e n ts
* th e m a t ic c o n t e n t u n d e rs ta n d a b le and
c u ltu r a lly a p p r o p r ia te f o r s tu d e n ts
* fits th e k n o w le d g e - b a s e o f o u r t e a c h e r s
* p ro v id e s e x a m p le s th a t can b e u sed
and e x p a n d e d b y o u r te a c h e r s
* fits th e n e e d s an d p re fe re n c e s
o f o u r te a c h e r s
* p ro v id e s in - b o o k o r in s tr u c to r 's m an u al
s u p p o rt fo r te a ch e rs
Overall evaluation of the fit of the book for this course in this program
S h o u ld th e t e x t b e s e le c te d /
When the Teacher Is
a Non-native Speaker
P ЁТЕ R M E D G Y E S
In "W h e n the Teacher Is a Non-native Speaker" Medgyes examines the differences in teaching
behavior between native and non-native teachers of English, and then specifies the causes o f those
differences. The aim of the discussion is to raise the awareness o f both groups of teachers to their
respective strengths and weaknesses, and thus help them becom e better teachers,
general attitude
adopt a more flexible approach adopt a more guided approach
are more innovative are more cautious
are less empathetic are more empathetic
attend to perceived needs attend to real needs
have far-fetched expectations have realistic expectations
are more casual are stricter
are less committed are more committed
in a context-poor environm ent o r in isolation. for standard coursebooks, which by their very
Preoccupied with their own language difficulties, nature provide security. For the same reason, non-
they are reluctant to loosen their grip over the NESTs are inclined to adopt a m ore controlled and
class. As group work and pair work often create cautious pedagogic approach. Incidentally, these
unpredictable situations full of linguistic traps, results tie in nicely with m ore recent data reported
non-NESTs favor m ore secure form s of classwork, by Samimv and Brutt-Griffler (1999). (Further
such as lock-step activities. Similar reasons were divergences displayed in Table 1 are dealt with in
claimed to account for the non-NESTs preference the following sections.)
Before providing argum ents to prove the of a language m odel, non-NESTs are relativelv
fo u rth assum ption, let us turn to a discussion of h in d ere d , since thev are learners o f English just
certain advantages a ttrib u ted to non-XESTs over like th eir students, albeit at a h ig h er level.
NESTs. A lthough a m ore proficient non-XEST is likelv
to provide a b e tte r language m odel th an a less
proficient one, non-NESTs c a n n o t rival NESTs.
The Bright Side o f Being In com pensation, as it were, onlv non-NESTs can
a N on-NEST be set as p ro p e r le a rn e r m odels, since thev
O n e item in th e q u estio n n aire in q u ired w h eth er learned English after thev acq u ired th eir native
th e participants th o u g h t the NEST o r the non- language, unlike NESTs who acquired English as
NEST was a b e tte r teacher. W hile an ap p ro x i th eir native language — two com pletelv different
m ately equal n u m b e r o f votes w ent for e ith e r processes (K rashen 1981).
o p tio n (27 p e rc e n t for NESTs an d 29 p e rc e n t for A n o th er area o f investigation concerns a
non-NESTs), 44 p e rc e n t in serted "both." an com parison of learning success an d teaching
alternative which h ad n o t even b een supplied in efficacv. In this regard, two questions may be
the q uestionnaire. T he p ro p o rtio n of partici asked. T h e first one is, Do von have to be a suc
pants who chose non-NESTs as th eir favorites is cessful lea rn er in o rd e r to becom e a successful
high, especially given th eir linguistic inferioritv. teacher? M edgves’s answer is a tentative yes.
It follows from this th at non-NESTs should be in arguing that a successful teach er by definition i-
possession o f certain u n iq u e features that NESTs a successful lea rn er o f English: p o o r language
lack. B ut w hat are they? W hat gives non-NESTs learners clo n ot m ake good language teachers.
th eir com petitive edge? W hat assets enable them This is not to deny that th ere are unsuccessful
to m ake up for th eir linguistic handicap? learners equipped with outstanding teaching qual
Partly inspired by the teachers participating ities which help them offset their language defi
in th e survey, Medgves advanced a second set ciencies. However, such teachers are few and far
o f assum ptions. Namely, c o m p ared to NESTs, between, and hence onlv those non-NESTs should
non-NESTs can: be set as m odels who are successful learners them
selves— anvthing less is a comprom ise.
1 . provide a b e tte r le a rn e r m odel: T he second question is, Does every success
2. teach lan g u a g e -le a rn in g strateg ies m ore ful lea rn er becom e a successful teacher? The
effectively; answer to this question is a definite no. If a per
3. supply m ore in form ation a b o u t the English fect com m and were a sufficient prerequisite for
language; successful teaching, Medgves contends, NESTs
4. b e tte r an ticipate a n d prev en t language w ould bv definition be b e tte r teach ers— which
difficulties; thev are not! W ith respect to non-NESTs, too. h
5. be m ore sensitive to th eir students; is com m on experience th at successful learner-
6 . b enefit from th eir abilitv to use the stu d e n ts’ tu rn out to be lousv teachers. This may be
m o th e r tongue. explained bv several factors, m ost evidently hi
Below, we elaborate on these six assumptions. in ad e q u a te professional training. It ap p eal-
th en . that success in learning English is a n e c e -
sarv but not a sufficient condition for success ir.
I. Non-NESTs Provide a Better teaching it.
Learner Model
2. Non-NESTs Teach Language-learning
Any language teacher can set two kinds of models
before the students: a language m odel and a
Strategies More Effectively
lea rn er m odel. M edgyes’s basic claim is that, It is a truism th a t som e people pick up language-
while NESTs m ake b e tte r language m odels, non- m ore quickly an d effectively than others. Succe--
NESTs can provide b e tte r learner m odels. In term s d ep en d s on several things, such as background.
m otivation, age, intelligence, ap titude, level of 3. Non-NESTs Supply More
education, and quality o f instruction, as well as Information About the English Language
know ledge o f o th e r foreign languages. An addi
tional factor with a bearing on success is the use Any language teacher's expertise consists o f three
com ponents: (a) language proficiencv, (b) lan
of language learning strategies. W hat are thev?
guage awareness, and (c) pedagogic skills. W hile
L an g u ag e le a rn in g strategies, a c c o rd in g to
language proficiency implies skills in the target
W enden a n d Rubin (1987), are specific actions
language, language awareness involves explicit
em ployed to facilitate the lea rn in g an d recall of
knowledge about the language, which does n o t
o n e o r several c o m p o n e n ts o f proficiencv.
necessarily assume near-native language profi
Facilitation implies not only m aking the process
ciencv. In his o r h e r role as an instructor, the
easier, but also m aking it “faster, m ore enjovablc.
teacher obviously exhibits varying degrees o f p ed
m ore self-directed, m ore effective, and m ore trans-
agogic skills as well.
ferrable to new situations" (Oxford 1990. p. 8).
R etu rn in g to a com parison o f teach in g
All le a rn e rs em ploy lan g u ag e le a rn in g
behavior betw een NESTs a n d non-NESTs shown
strategies. Success with learning largely depends
in Table 1, non-NESTs were fo u n d to be m ore
u p o n the ability to select the m ost app ro p riate
insightful th an NESTs. This follows from the dif
strategy for dealing with a specific learning task.
ferences in the process o f m astering th e English
G ood learners are capable of gleaning a rep e r
language. T h e ir acquisition being largely u n c o n
toire o f strategies which suits their personalitv as
scious, NESTs were perceived as largely unaw are
well as th eir particular learning environm ent.
o f the internal m echanism s d irecting language
However, the m ajority of language learn ers
use and, th erefo re, less able to give th eir stu
grope in the dark unless thev are fortunate
d en ts relevant inform ation ab o u t the target lan
en o u g h to receive tailor-m ade su p p o rt from
guage. O n the o th e r h an d , non-NESTs have
know ledgeable teachers. .Although researchers
am assed a w ealth o f know ledge a b o u t th e
have long been intrigued bv the question of the
English language d u rin g th eir own learning
teachability of strategies, hardlv anv tangible
process. T h eir a n te n n a e can in te rc e p t as a possi
results have been p ro d u ce d thus far. .After having
ble source of problem s even the m in u test item
interview ed seven extrem ely successful language
which NESTs mav take no notice of. P ut differ-
learners, Stevick concludes that there is no com
entlv, w hereas NESTs have b e tte r in tu itio n s
m on p a tte rn em erging: everyone seems to learn ab o u t what is right an d w rong in language use,
in his o r h e r own wav. W hat works for som e learn
non-NESTs have d e e p e r insights into w hat is easy
ers utterly fails for others: “H ardlv a clear m odel
an d difficult in the learn in g process.
for an aspiring language student who wants to Naturally, NESTs are also capable o f refin
profit from th eir exam ple!” (1989, p. 138). ing th eir language awareness. They can im prove,
As successful learn ers o f English, non- provided that they avail them selves o f the o p p o r
NESTs are supposed to be conscious strategy tunities offered by te a c h e r education, foreign
users, able to tell which strategies have w orked language learning, and, above all, experience.
for them an d which have not. T hus they stand a Those NESTs who have spent an ex ten d ed period
better chance o f sensitizing th eir students to the o f time in a host country and have taken pains to
em ploym ent o f strategies th an th e ir native learn the students’ m o th er tongue should be
speaking colleagues do. T h e ir ability consists in
incom parably m ore know ledgeable than those
im parting th eir own learn in g experiences as well
who have not.
as providing assistance for students to discover
o th er strategies that should work specifically for 4. Non-NESTs Better Anticipate
them . To be fair, NESTs have also p u rsu e d strate
and Prevent Language Difficulties
gies in their contact with foreign languages.
However short-lived o r distant th eir learn in g Having ju m p ed off the sam e sp rin g b o ard as
experience m ar have been, they may harness it th eir students, non-NESTs are intrinsically m ore
:n th eir job as teachers of English. p e rc e p tiv e a b o u t lan g u a g e difficulties th a n
NESTs. F or th em to discover tro u b le spots To be sure, the non-XEST teaching in a mot: •
requires little tim e an d energy; messages can be lingual class has far m ore background inform . ■
exchanged m erely bv w inking an eve. Most non- tion about his o r h er students than even u t
NESTs have developed a "sixth sense." and those m ost well-inform ed NEST can. Indirectly, tit
who have b e e n on the job long eno u g h are able know ledge is instrum ental in e n h a n cin g
to predict, with a fair degree of accuracy, w hat is te a c h e r’s capacity to anticipate and prevt
likelv to go w rong before the stu d en t opens his cross-cultural difficulties.
or h e r m outh. In possession o f this anticipatory
device, non-XESTs stand a good chance of p re
venting linguistic problem s which m aterialize in 5. N on-N ESTsA re More Sensitive
the form o f deviant usage or, for want oi a better
to Their Students
word, errors.
,\s Table l shows, NESTs and non-XESTs As ['able 1 dem onstrates. non-XESTs are pov.
behave differently with regard to erro r correction. tiallv m o te sensitive on several counts. First, c.
Since native speakers generally view language as a can be m ore responsive to the students' :u
m eans of achieving some com m unicative goal, needs. In contrast. NESTs. w orking e ith e r v.v
they tend not to make a fuss about errors unless linguisticallv h e te ro g e n e o u s g ro u p s in
they h in d er com m unication. In contrast. non- English-speaking country o r with m onoline
XESTs are notorious for penalizing errors, gram groups overseas, probably have but a vague ::
matical errors in particular, probably because lure of th eir stu d e n ts’ needs and aspiratio:
thev regard English prim arily as a school subject including th eir linguistic, cultural, and person
to be m astered and onlv secondarily as a m edium backgrounds.
o f genuine com m unication. A nother reason for Second, thanks to th o ro u g h familiarity v.u
their heavy-handed attitude mat lie in their defi the teaching learn in g context. non-XESTs .
cient knowledge of English. In anv case, teacher in a position to set realistic aims for students. F
education should perhaps place m ore em phasis exam ple, thev are m ore cognizant of the c
on strategies for e rro r /invention than on tech straints of the national curriculum , the teach: .
niques of erro r norm lion. m aterials available, and the exam inations to
As far as NESTs are concerned, those expa taken. Thev are also better able to gauge u
triates who stav put in one country m anage to level of m otivation that students studying ir.
gath er far m ore experience about their students' particular tvpe of school at e supposed to ha\ -
specific language problem s than those who drift Thircl. due to their d e e p e r understand:: _
from place to place, sear after sear. Since lan of the prevalent circum stances, non-NESTs .
guage is a m ajor carrier of. and in fact is insepa usually stricter than th eir native-speaking c
rable from , a people's culture, familiarity svith leagues. If thev are aware o f an im m in en t I.
the local language can bring NESTs closer to guage exam ination, for instance, them will ad.
their students' cultural toots and shed light on their teaching m ethods to the stringent ex.
the students' inability to c o m p re h en d a specific requirem ents; this mat involve having to a s e .
language elem ent. m ore tests and m ore hom ew ork, l.iving in a k::
Speaking of culture, fable 1 indicates that oi'symbiosis with the students. non-NESTs cam.
NESTs an d non-XESTs also differ in term s of a.(ford to be as casual as NESTs.
th eir attitude toward teaching culture, bv viitue It must be added, however, that a hi.,
o f com ing from an English-speaking country, degree of sensitivity is m erely a potential; jits; .
NESTs are able to proside m ote inform ation ih e ie are non-NESTs who exhibit precious liu.
about th eir native culture. Howeser. the m ore em pathy, som e NESTs are am azingly u ik F.
the English language spreads an d diversifies in standing. It m ust be rep e a te d here that, in ac
the world, the less it rem ains the privilege of lion to teach er education, the best sensitive
NESTs, which harks back to the issue <>f English n a m in g for NESTs is to learn the language
as an In te rn atio n a l L anguage a d d r e s s e d earlier. the host country.
6. Non-NESTs Benefit from Their Be th at as it may, the idea of a m ixed staff is
Ability to Use the Students’ wishful th inking for m ost schools in m ost parts
of the world. S hort o f NESTs, schools use the few
Mother Tongue a ro u n d as efficiently as possible. O n g ro u n d s of
As native speakers o f the local language, non- th eir native proficiency in English, in m any
NESTs can obviously take advantage of this places NESTs are assigned advanced level groups
shared co m petence, provided they are allowed a n d conversation classes. Elsew here, in o rd e r to
to harness it. m ake th e ir co n trib u tio n accessible to everybody,
To use or n o t to use the m o th e r tongue? thev are to m into as m any small bits as th ere are
This was one o f the thorniest problem s in lan grotips in the school. Needless to say, NESTs are
guage teaching m ethodology th ro u g h o u t the n o t always pleased with this task allo catio n — a
tw entieth century as the p en d u lu m swung from re c u rre n t com plaint is th at they are reg a rd e d as
one extrem e to the other. U ntil recently, the rare anim als in a zoo (Arva a n d Medgyes 2000).
m o n o lin g u al prin cip le p red o m in a te d , mostly T hese results correlate strongly with the
advocated by NESTs, if onlv because thev th em results o f a n o th e r item in the q u estio n n aire
selves felt disabled by th eir lack of com petence in ■which asked: W ho is the b e tte r teacher, the
the stu d en ts’ first language (L I). As a conse NEST or the non-NEST? As m en tio n e d previ
quence, non-NESTs were m ade to feel either ously, a sim ilar percen tag e favored e ith e r NESTs
defensive or guilty at th eir inability or unwilling or non-NESTs, w hereas nearly h alf the resp o n
ness to co n d u ct a class entirely in English. In the dents said th at the two groups h ad an equal
1990s, however, the judicious use o f the learners' chance o f success. W hen asked to justify th eir
native language was once again legitim ized. choice, participants typically re fe rre d to the dif
A m ong the reasons for its com eback is the recog ferences sum m arized in Table 1. T h e sam e
nition o f the LI as the m ost gen u in e vehicle of attrib u te was often judged as a positive feature
com m unication betw een non-NESTs a n d their bv som e an d a negative feature by others.
students in the m onolingual classroom . A nother A part from a few extrem ists, survey partici
m ajor reason is that the native language proves pants expressed m o d erate views. They ag reed
to be a pow erful te a c h in g /le a rn in g tool in count that since each g ro u p had its own strengths a n d
less situations. Suffice it to sav, todav non-NESTs weaknesses, thev would com p lem en t each o th e r
may switch into the L.l at their discretion, and so well in am school. A p ro p o rtio n a te n u m b e r o f
may NESTs— to the extent thev can. natives and non-natives w ould give the fu rth e r
advantage o f offering a variety o f ideas and
teaching m ethods. Som e resp o n d en ts refe rre d
W H O IS MORE V A LU A B LE, to the desirability- o f nativ e/n o n -n ativ e in terac
tion an d cooperation; “T h ere is a lot we can
T H E N E S T O R T H E N O N -N E S T ? learn from each o th e r!” one perso n rem arked.
O ne item in the survey q u estio n n aire in q u ired O rganized collaboration a n d its m ost in te n
about the ideal p ro p o rtio n of NESTs o r non- sive form , team teaching, have b ecom e fairly
NESTs to be em ployed in schools. W hereas 52 well researched areas in recen t years (N unan
p e rc e n t of the participants said th a t they would 1992). Team teaching is a system w hereby a
prefer an equal n u m b e r o f NESTs a n d non- g ro u p o f teachers jo in tly u n d e rta k e a p rogram
NESTs, 17 p e rc e n t favored m ore NESTs a n d 31 of work with a g roup o f students. In the co n tex t
percen t m ore non-NESTs. A fu rth e r breakdow n of N E ST /non-N E ST collaboration, the largest
of th e d a ta reveals th a t b o th native a n d a n d best d o c u m e n ted team teach in g initiative
non-native p articipants w ould ra th e r have a has b een developed in Ja p an , called the Ja p a n
majority of th eir own language g ro u p in the E xchange a n d T eaching Program , also know n as
staff; as th ere were m ore non-NEST than NEST the JE T p rogram (Tajino an d Tajino 2000). T he
participants in the sam ple, the balance o f choice pro g ram 's prim ary aim is to rec ru it young native
tilted towards non-NESTs. speakers from E nglish-speaking co u n tries to
teach u n d e r the guidance of, an d to g eth e r with, som ebody with a b e tte r com m and o f English
qualified Jap an ese teachers o f English. stand a b e tte r chance o f becom ing an idea)
Let us reiterate: XESTs and non-XESTs teacher? In o th er words: Is a m ore proficient
teach differently in several respects. Xon-XESTs speaker a m ore efficient teacher as well? Ah
are (m ore o r less) h a n d ic a p p e d in term s of their o th e r things being equal, the answer is yes: tin
co m m an d o f English. Paradoxically, this short ideal non-XES'f is som eone who has achieved
com ing is th eir m ost valuable asset, as it helps near-native proficiency in English. T he im por
them develop capacities that XESTs m ust strug tance of this attribute is seldom questioned in
gle to acquire. XESTs an d non-XESTs are p o ten the literature. Britten (198o) claims that ait
tially equally effective teachers, because in the excellent com m and o f English is a m ajor selec
final analysis th e ir respective strengths an d tion criterion and a good pred icto r o f a noit-
weaknesses balance each o th er out. Different does XEST's professional success. Lange (1990) rate-
not imply better or worse! Thus the question. W ho's language proficiency as the most essential char
worth metre, the native o r the non-native? is acteristic o f a good lan g u ag e teacher, and
pointless, conducive to draw ing wrong conclu M urdoch (1994) calls it the bedrock of the noir-
sions from the differences discovered in teaching XEST's professional confidence. Liu’s (1999
behavior, ft is suggested, therefore, that language stuclv conducted am ong non-native TESOL stu
teachers should be h ired solelv on the basis of dents at a university in the U nited States confirm '
their professional virtues, regardless of their lan that English-language proficiency is generally rec
guage background. T he data and the argum ents ognized as a make-or-break req u irem en t in ESL
supplied thus far seem to be powerful enough to environm ents as well. T herefore, it m ust be .
validate the fourth assum ption put forward on valid claim that the most im portant profession,;,
page 434, nam elv that XESTs and non-XESTs can dutv that non-XESTs have to perform is to make
be equally good teachers on their own terms. linguistic im provem ents in their English.
In contrast, the success o f XESTs hinges or.
the extent to which thev can acquire the distin
guishing features of non-XESTs. In view of thi-
the ideal X E ST is som eone who has achieved a fair
C O N C L U S IO N :
degree of proficiency in the students' native lan
T H E ID E A L T E A C H E R guage. Cook (1999) must be right in saving that
In rec e n t literature, the co ncept of the ideal the m ulticom petent, m ultilingual teacher is qual
tea c h e r has gained som e notoriety, especially in itatively different and incom parably m ore capa
relation to the native/non-native dichotom y. It ble than the m onolingual teacher.
appears that the glorv once attached to the T he trouble is that "all o th e r things” arc
XEST has faded, a n d an increasing n u m b e r of never equal in the classroom , so the phrase “the
ELT experts assert th at the "ideal te a c h e r” is no m ore proficient, the m ore efficient" is only p ar
lo n g er a category reserved for XESTs. It is tially valid. In this regard, Samimv (1997) m en
becom ing a generally accepted view th at o u t tions certain factors which are as im p o rta n t a'
standing teachers c an n o t be squeezed into any language proficiency, particularly relevant teach
pigeonhole: all ou tstan d in g teachers are ideal in ing qualifications and extent of one's teaching-
th eir own wavs, and as such are different from ex p e rien c e . S eid lh o fer reiterates this point:
each other. T he co n cep t o f the ideal teacher "There has often b een the d an g er of an auto
resists clear-cut definitions, because th ere are matic extrapolation from competent speaker to com
too m any variables to consider. petent teacher based on linguistic grounds alone,
In o rd e r to get a b e tte r grasp o f the ideal w ithout taking into consideration the criteria ot
teacher, however, let us suppose that all the vari cu ltu ral, social a n d p edagogic a p p ro p ria te "
ables are kept constant m om entarily, except for (1996, p. 69). Indeed, an issue waiting to be
the language proficiency co m p o n en t. In rela addressed is the com plex relationship between
tion to non-XESTs, the question arises: Does the d iffe re n t aspects o f teach ers' classroom
practice. T he study o f the non-NEST rem ains were highly proficient speakers of English;
overall a largely u n e x p lo re d area in language the native speakers (16 persons) were mostly
education. speakers of British English. Davies included
In conclusion, within the fram ew ork of the 12 sentences in his survey, an d the partici
native/non-native division, the ideal NEST and pants were required to rate the sentences on
the ideal non-NEST arrive from different direc a 4-point scale as follows:
tions but eventually stand quite close to each
1 T h e s e n te n c e so u n d s p e rfe c t. You
other. Both groups of teachers serve equally use
w ould use it w ithout hesitation.
ful purposes in their own wavs. In an ideal school,
2 T he sentence is less th an p e rfe c t—
therefore, there should be a good balance of
so m eth in g in it just d o e sn ’t feel com
NESTs and non-XESTs. who com plem ent each
fortable. Maybe lots of peo p le could say
o th er in their strengths and weaknesses. Given a
it, b u t you never feel quite com fortable
favorable mix, various forms of collaboration are
with it.
possible, and learners can onlv gain from such
3 W orse th an (2), b ut n o t com pletely
cross-fertilization.
im possible. Maybe som ebody m ight use
the sentence, b u t certainly n o t vou. T he
sentence is alm ost bevond h ope.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S 4 T he sentence is absolutely out. Impossible
1. W hat is your native language? Are there any to un d erstan d , nobodv would say it.
“com plicating factors" concerning vour lin L’n-English.
guistic and cultural identity? H ere are the 12 sentences to be rated on
2. Do you agree or disagree with the native the scale:
s p e a k e r'n o n -n a tiv e sp e a k e r distin ctio n ? 1 U n d e r no circum stances w ould I accept
W hat are vour argum ents for or against? that offer.
3. a. If vou are a native speaker o f English, do 2 X obodv who 1 get along with is h ere
you think that the English language is vour who I want to talk to.
property, or are vou willing to share the 3 We d o n ’t believe the claim th at Jim son
“copyright" with non-native speakers? ever had anv monev.
b. If vou are a non-native speaker, do vou 4 T he fact he wasn’t in the store sh o u ld n ’t
believe vou have the right to "tinker" with be forgotten.
the norm s an d rules o f English to the 5 W hat will the g ran d fa th e r clock stand
sam e ex ten t as native speakers have? betw een the bed and.
4. Take a close look at Table 1 in this chapter. 6 I u rg e th a t an y th in g h e to u c h be
W hich are the points vour own experience b u rn ed .
supports and which are the ones it challenges? 7 All the fu rth e r we got was to Sudbury
5. In addition to the six advantages assigned to 8 T h a t is a fre q u e n tly talk ed a b o u t
non-XESTs, can vou th ink of anv m ore? In proposal.
addition to th eir linguistic superiority, can 9 Xobodv is h ere who I get along with
vou list anv fu rth e r assets for NESTs? who I w ant to talk to.
10 T he d o c to r is sure th a t th ere will be no
problem s.
S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S 11 T he idea h e w asn’t in the store is
1. In a replication study. Davies (1996) m easured preposterous.
differences between native and non-native 12 Such form ulas should be writable down.
speakers of English in term s of grammaticalitv G rade these sentences on th e 4-point scale.
judgm ents. Elis sample consisted of applied R em em ber to give 1 p o in t fo r a p erfect sen
linguists with experience as English teachers. tence an d 4 points for a totally u n acceptable
All the non-native participants (18 persons) sentence.
H ere are the results o f Davies's stuclv: 4. In groups, collect as m anv features o f the
successful language te a c h e r as vou car.
Sentence Mean
Suppose that the "ideal teacher" is som eone
Natives (N= 16) Non-natives (N=18) who has a m axim um score o f 25 p o in t'
Individuallv. allocate as m anv points as to .
1.1 wish for each feature w ithin the m axim um
2 2.7 3.0 25 points. T h en , in groups again, com pare
3 1.6 1.8 vour scores a n d argue for to u r allocation.
4 1.7 1.6 5. Interview ten non-native speakers of Englix.
5 2.7 3.5 to find out what traits thev value most in lan
6 1.7 2.5 guage teachers. Do thev specify any feature -
7 3.3 3.0 which are metre characteristic of non-NEST-
8 1.2 2.2 than NESTs?
9 2.3 2.5
10 1.0 1.0
11 1.7 1.5
12 3.0 3.3
FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
N ote that the aggregate m ean for all 12 sen
B r a i n e . G . . ee l. 1 9 9 9 . X o u - n a tiv e E d u c a to r s in Engl
tences for natives an d non-natives is 1.99 and Language le a c h in g . M ahw ah. X J: L a w re r.:
2.23, respectively. This suggests that natives E rlb a u m .
are m ore to le ran t o f uncertain tv with regard A c o lle c tio n o f essavs t h a t a r tic u la te s t h e o r ■
to gram m aticalitv. C om pute vour own score fern s, stru g g les, and triu m p h s of n o n -n an -
and com pare it with the m ean of natives and t e a c h e r s , m o s t l v t h o s e li v in g a n d w o r k i n g in
non-natives in Davies's sam ple. Are vou l n i n e : S tates.
Hinkel's chapter points out the im portance of developing cultural com petence when teaching and
learning a second language, noting that cultural assumptions affect practically all aspects o f language
use, even though they may not be obvious to native speakers o r L2 learners. It offers examples of
cultural impact on language use and provides guidelines for teaching culture.
In "The Use of Media in Language Teaching," Brinton presents a rationale for and an overview of media
materials and equipment traditionally used in the second/foreign language classroom.To better guide
teachers in their use of media, she provides a five-part framework for structuring media-based
language lessons, accompanied by a variety of sample lessons that illustrate this framework.
Teachin g
O b je ctiv e : To provide students with the language needed to express pleasure/
displeasure; request an exchange for an unwanted item.
M edia: Mounted magazine picture of woman holding an ugly lamp (see Figure 2).
P ro c e d u re s:
1. Teacher introduces the concept of gift giving and receiving. If appropriate
(e.g., holiday time), students may want to share information about what they
are giving to friends or wish to receive [I].
2. Teacher introduces the magazine picture of the ugly lamp (see Figure 2), elic
iting explicit vocabulary (e.g., lampshade, bow, frown) [II.I.] and structures
(present progressive, descriptive adjectives) [II.2.].
3. The students and teacher examine the picture more closely, and the teacher
asks questions which elicit more implicit vocabulary [II. I.] and structures
[Н.2.]. For example:“ W h o do you think gave the woman this gift?” (sister-in-
law, elderly relative); “W h ere do you think Aunt Harriet m ight have bought
the lamp?” (She might have bought it from a thrift shop/garage sale/etc.).
4. Teacher presents language functions relevant to giving and receiving gifts
[11.3] and provides students with guided practice [lll.2.a.]. In pairs (gift giver
and receiver), students practice the sequence of giving the gift, opening it, and
expressing thanks [ Ш . З . С . ] .
5. For homework, as follow-up writing practice, students write a letter to the
giver of the gift thanking him or her [IV.4.].
6 . On a subsequent day, the context is recycled, and the language necessary
for returning unwanted items to a store and requesting cash/an exchange is
presented [11.4.] and practiced [III.2.a.].
7. Students are videotaped [V.I.] role-playing the situation [IV.2.a.]. They
then watch the video footage [V.2.] and receive peer [V.4.] and teacher [V.5.]
feedback.
8 . As a culminating activity, students bring in unwanted items they have received
and share their reactions to receiving these gifts with their classmates [IV.5.].
Sam ple Lesson 2: C o m p u te r H ardw are/Softw are A d s
(m ounted advertisem ents from m agazines and jo u rn a ls)10
Teachin g To introduce, practice, and reinforce the task of writing formal definitions for academic
O b je c tiv e : purposes; secondary objectives include reading practice involving skimming and scanning,
speaking in small groups, in-class writing, and follow-up writing error detection.
M edia: Mounted advertisements of computer hardware and software products with accompa
nying text from magazines and journals.
P ro c e d u re s:
1. Students are led in a brief discussion of where we are apt to find academic definitions
of items— e.g., in textbooks, product manuals, journals, and magazines [I.].
2. Teacher reviews previously covered material— i.e., the structure of sentences of
definition [И.2.].
3. Teacher distributes photocopies of a computer hardware or software advertise
ment. Together, the class members identify the item being advertised and locate any
information relevant to writing a concise sentence definition of the product
[lll.2.b.]. [Note: This advertisement and the subsequent advertisements should be
carefully selected so that there is no overt sentence definition of the product.The
ad should, however, contain the necessary information for students to draw from
in writing their definition.]
4. Together, students construct a complete sentence definition of the product.
The teacher writes this definition on the blackboard [III.I.], stressing the previously
studied formula for definitions, as in the following example:
A(n) [ X ] is a(n)
[Y] that [Z]
[X ] [Y] [Z]
5. Students are next divided into small groups of three or four students, with each
group receiving one advertisement for a computer software or hardware item.
Using the pattern provided, each group of students works for roughly four or five
minutes to construct a sentence definition of the product [Ш.З.С.]. A t the end of
this time period, the groups pass their ads to another group, with each group
receiving a new ad. This process continues until all groups have seen all ads and
students in each group have had a chance to write appropriate sentences with def
initions for each product.
6. W ith the help of the teacher, students now pool their answers.They decide for them
selves the most useful information to include [IV. I .]; the teacher then writes the
agreed-upon definition on the board under the headings indicated above. Errors
in spelling, sentence structure, etc., can be dealt with at this stage by eliciting peer
correction.
7. On a subsequent day, the teacher can recycle the material in a more game-like
atmosphere [IV.2.d.], either by giving students names of fictional products and
having them compete to write the “ best” definition of the product or by having
students play a “ sort and unscramble” game in which they are given mixed-up items
from categories X,Y, and Z on separate strips of paper and asked to put the items
together to form sentence definitions.
S a m p le L e s s o n 3: O v e ^ t h e - c o u n t e r D r u g s 11
Procedures:
1. Teacher introduces concept of over-the-counter (O TC ) drugs; elicits
from students information on the types of O TC products they typi
cally use [I].
2. Common complaints (e.g., headache, allergy, cold sores, constipation)
are reviewed [И.1.].
3. Teacher introduces information grid and demonstrates the procedure
students are to follow via the example (Sudafed) [III. I .].Terms in the
grid are explained [1.1.].
4. Students are divided into small groups of four or five and O TC prod
ucts are distributed to each group.
5. Students work in groups to transfer information into the grid [lll.3.b.].
6 . Once all student groups have completed the task, they share their
results with the class at large.
7. Students discuss previous experiences they have had with O TC drugs
(side effects experienced, etc.) [IV.5.]
8 . As a follow-up, each student is assigned a symptom (e.g., warts, fever
blisters, heartburn) and told to go to the drug store and find three
products intended to remedy this condition. They are to compare
these products using the grid format and report back on their find
ings to the class on the following day [IV.3.].
The Use of Media in Language Teaching
1.
.S u d n (e d cold tnblet 1,-11ДК0 ' rtiull ewei-ц Adult n, ь Not pOk neh/Ouone n o
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
469
F ig u re 3. O v e r - th e - c o u n t e r D r u g s C h a r t
S a m p le L e s s o n 4: P o s tc a r d D e s c r ip t io n A c t iv it y
(p h o to g r a p h ic p o s tc a rd s f r o m v a r io u s c o u n t r ie s ) 12
Audience: Recently arrived international students living in the ESL context (any level).
Teaching To increase awareness of cultural stereotyping; to serve as a discussion stimulus for
Objective: impressions formed of the United States, its people, and its culture.
Media: Picture postcards depicting stereotypical images of countries (one for each pair of
students); a barrier (e.g., a notebook, manila folder) to separate students.
Procedures:
1. Teacher introduces the activity by discussing postcards in general and the kinds
of postcards that people send to their friends when they are on vacation [l.].A
model postcard (e.g., one depicting a Dutch girl wearing wooden shoes with a
windmill and tulips in the background) may be shown to promote discussion.
2. Students are asked what kinds of postcards they have sent home since arriving
in the United States, who they have sent these to, and what kinds of messages
they have written on them [11.4].
3. Teacher explains/models the paired activity: Students are to form pairs, with
Student A receiving a postcard from a given country. They erect a barrier
between them so Student В cannot see Student A ’s postcard. It is Student A s
task to describe this postcard to Student B, without mentioning the name of the
country [III. I .]. Student В then attempts to discover the identity of the country
[IV.2.C.].
4. Once all students have completed the task, students share their postcards and
the cultural stereotype depicted with the rest of the class.
5. Follow-up discussion ensues on the general topic of cultural stereotyping, with
the teacher eliciting a definition of cultural stereotyping from the students
[IV. I].
6 . Teacher elicits cultural stereotypes of Americans and organizes these on the
blackboard under the headings “ Positive” and “ Negative” [Н.4.]. Students discuss
the possible harm of cultural stereotyping and share some stereotypes held
about their own cultures [IV.I.].
7. As a follow-up assignment, students are asked to bring in postcards from their
country (alternately: postcards from the United States) and share further infor
mation [IV.5.]. Depending on class level and focus, they may be asked as well to
write a brief paragraph defining cultural stereotypes [IV.4].
8 . Teacher videotapes the student activity [ V I .] for subsequent playback. He or
she has students view the tape [V.2.]; in groups, they discuss the performances
and give each other feedback [V.4.].
S a m p le L e s s o n 5: R a d io P s y c h ia t r is t
(p h o n e - in b r o a d c a s t ta p e d o ff- a ir)13
Teaching To expose students to authentic English; to help them gain insights into issues
Objective: which concern Americans; to provide them with a forum for problem solving
activities.
Media: Advice column (Dear Abby,Ann Landers) on topic of audiotape (mounted on index
cards); pre-prepared audiotape of phone-in radio psychiatrist show (possibly slight
ly edited).14
Media: Videotape of “ People’s Court,” a broadcast of actual small claims court proceedings,
recorded off-air.
Xew VErys
L a r i m e r , R. E ., a n d L. S c h l e i c h e r , e d s . 1 9 9 9 , (1 9 8 9 ). P allv (2 0 0 0 ). and M urphv and S to lle r
Video in Action:
S t e m p l e s k i , S ., a n d B . T o m a l i n . 1 9 9 0 . e n c o u n t e r e d in th e s e c o n d l a n g u a g e c la s s r o o m .
Y ork: P r e n t i c e H a ll.
r e f e r to m a te r ia ls t h a t w e re not p ro d u c e d fo r la n
guage te a c h in g pu rp o ses per se. B o th ty p e s of
l. ’ r, P. 1984. Teaching Listening Comprehension.
C a m b r id g e : C a m b r i d g e U n iv e rs ity Press. m a te ria ls (i.e.. a u t h e n t i c and p e d a g o g ic a l) have
t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e tise in t h e l a n g u a g e c l a s s r o o m .
W rig h t, A. 1989. Pictures for Language Learning.
' T h i s f r a m e w o r k is l o o s e l v a d a p t e d f r o m a fram e
C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n iv e rs ity P ress.
w o r k f o r u s i n g m a g a z i n e p i c t u r e s in t h e l a n g u a g e
c la s sro o m d e v e lo p e d bv M c A lp in (1 9 8 0 ).
4 T h e s e stag es a re a d a p te d fr o m E d e lh o f f (1 9 8 1 ).
EN DN O TES 4 I h a te chosen to h ig h lig h t te a c h e r-p ro d u c e d
! T h i s c h a p t e r is a r e v i s i o n o f t h e o n e t h a t I w r o t e m e d ia le s so n s ra th e r th a n co m m ercial m a te ria ls
f o r t h e 2 n d e d i t i o n o f th is te x t (C e lc e - M u r c ia . e d .. sin ce th e la tte r are u su alh a c c o m p a n ie d w ith
1 9 9 1 , p p . 4 5 4 - 4 7 2 ) . T h a t c h a p t e r r e p l a c e d tw o in te a c h e r g u id e lin e s.
t h e 1st e d i t i o n — " A n A u d i o v i s u a l M e t h o d f o r E S U ' 1,1 T h i s i d e a w a s p r o v i d e d b v D o u g B e c k w i t h a n d is
bv Jam es H e a to n a n d " L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g A id s ' u s e d w ith h is p e r m i s s i o n .
b v M a r i a n n e C e l c e - M u r c i a ( C e l c e - M u r c i a . M .. a n d 11 T h i s i d e a a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g g r i d w e r e p r o v i d e d
T. M c I n to s h , e d .. 1979. p p . 9 8 - 4 8 : 3 0 7 - 3 1 5 ) . I a m bv J e a n T u r n e r a n d a re u s e d w ith h e r p e rm is s io n .
g ratefu l to b o th a u th o rs lo r th e ir id e a s, fro m T h is id e a w as p r o v id e d bv K a re n O 'N e a l and is
w h ic h I h a v e b o r r o w e d lib erally . I a m a ls o g r a t e f u l u s e d w ith h e r p e rm is s io n .
to M a r ia n n e C e lc e -M u rc ia fo r h e r su g g e s tio n s c o n 1:’’ T h i s i d e a w a s p r o v i d e d b v W e n d v S a u l a n d A t s u k o
c e r n i n g re v is io n s to th is c h a p te r , a n d to C h r is ti n e K a t o a n d is u s e d w i t h t h e i r p e r m i s s i o n .
H o lte n , Janet G o o d w in . L in aw ati S ic la rto , A lik e 14 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e g u i d e l i n e s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r o f f - a i r
S ilv e rm a n , and Susan Rvan fo r th e ir a d d itio n a l r e c o r d in g bv n o n p r o f it e d u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n s, a
in p u t. broadcast p ro g ram m av be reco rd ed o il-a ir and
- I r e f e r h e r e to th e d is tin c tio n m a d e bv R ic h a rd s r e ta in e d bv th e e d u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n fo r a p e rio d
and R odgers (1 9 8 7 ) in th eir use o f th e te rm s o f u p to 45 c a l e n d a r davs a f te r th e d a te o f r e c o r d in g .
In "Com puters in Language Teaching," Sokolik examines the forms and functions of com puter
technology in second language learning.These forms and functions, she contends, are separate from
any particular state of technology. She concludes that good teaching methodology depends more on
sound pedagogy than on access to any particular form of com puter technology,
LE PORTIER (a un autre cavalier THE D O O R K EEPER (to another The GATEKEEPER (with another
qui vient d’entrer): trooper who enters): rider who has just entered):
Vous? And you? You?
F ig u re 5. O u t p u t fr o m th e C o b u il d D ir e c t C o r p u s S a m p le r (e d ite d f o r le n g th ),
se a rc h in g f o r th e te r m “ p a ra d ise .”
Use e-mail discussion lists Submit assignments by e-mail Discuss current events among
for peer support rather than on paper groups of geographically
dispersed students
Receive resources such as Question and answer sessions Group work conducted
syllabi and class materials outside of class time electronically
from other instructors
text-based virtual spaces that relv on the ability T h e follow ing was w ritten by a nativr
of the user to (1 ) describe environm ents (asyn Spanish speaker who was also learn in g Arabic:
chronously or synchronously), and (2 ) interact
within those environm ents (svnchronouslv).
T h e S u lta n ’s R o o m
T he following are two b rief descriptions of
areas within a virtual space called "Storytelling Ahlan wa Shahlan, you have entered The Sultan’s
C entral” (part of Cafe M O O lano, the University Room. There is a rectangular Persian rug from
of California, Berkeley’s M OO) written bv stu the 14th century on the floor.To your right there
dents in the Fall o f 1999. T he first is bv a native is a big bookshelf with The One Thousand and
Spanish speaker: One Books collection. One of the books contains
a secret code that will enable you to open
T h e G a ra g e the Nightingale’s Eye Bottle located on the very
You have entered a large, plain, and cold room. top of the bookshelf. The bottle is seal with a
Three of the walls are made of solid cement, beautiful Syrian silk scarf, soft as the touch of a
as well as the floor. The fourth wall is a large rose’s petal.
wooden door. A pole hangs above the wooden
door.The pole has a dusty red cloth hanging from
it that drops all the way to the floor. In the center MUD a n d M OO users create stories b
inventing rich environm ents filled with object-
of the room there lies an old rug, weathered by
that o th e r users can m anipulate an d investigate
time. There is an old chest in the right corner,
Bv navigating th ro u g h space, students create
sealed shut by a rusty lock. You also see an artifi
stories in an im p ro m p tu fashion. They hole
cial Christmas tree in the left-hand corner with a dialogues, open boxes, find secret messages anc
few ornaments on it.The room has makes you feel secret passages, an d move th ro u g h “space.”
like something happened here long, long, ago ... This o p e o f interaction is m ore than m ere
You see mouse and Old Chest here. game-plaving. Aside from provoking learners te
use language in b o th p lan n e d wavs (i.e., writing
Obvious exits: [south] to Home Sweet Home, an d u n p la n n e d ways (i.e., in teractin g in the vir
[north] to The Barn, [west] to Top of the Hill tual space), it is also satisfies the neurobiological
correlate of “fo raging” for inform ation, critical
in the learn in g process (Schum ann 1994).
5. Multimedia Production T he m edia for a n d process of m aking web
pages is well d o c u m e n ted elsew here (see, for
Currently, th ere are two widely used m edia (or
exam ple, O ’H aver 1995). However, an im p o r
sets of m edia) for m ultim edia production:
tan t p a rt o f this process is the creation of story—
■ Digital video in w hich digital m ultim edia in particular, a discussion of the n o nlinearitv o f
tools are used to construct, edit, and p ro w riting in this environm ent. S tu d e n ts’ pages can
duce a linear storv be w ritten as storyboards in which they indicate
■ H ypertext,/W eb-based stories in w hich links, sketch o u t m edia use, and create a n d edit
digital m ultim edia tools are used to build text in a collaborative environm ent.
an d deliver stories (via the W eb o r local
storage m edia) th at allow user interaction
th ro u g h hvperlinks C R E A T IN G A N D E V A LU A TIN G
C O M P U T E R -B A S E D A C T IV IT IE S
Digital Video W h e th e r an in stru cto r decides to create his or
Digital video requires that learners b ring a storv h e r own m aterials, or use m aterials fo u n d on the
to life with voice, images, a soundtrack o r sound In te rn e t or on com m erciallv available software,
effects, an d a sense of m ovem ent, th ro u g h cuts it is im p o rta n t that several features be evaluated
an d transitions. T he m ost com plex o f the CALL a n d addressed. T he follow ing list will help
options, learners often find it the m ost satisfv- an instru cto r in e ith e r evaluating o r in creating
ing. This form at allows learners to relate a storv com puter-delivered instructional m aterials.
of im p o rtan ce in the target language, with a tte n
tion not only to language, but also to im age and
Appearance
sound an d th eir in terco n n ectio n .
M u ltim ed ia p ro d u c tio n s are b e c o m in g G ood instructional m aterial should be attractive,
increasingly com m on, an d are now p art o f the b u t good design goes beyond being m erely “eye
standard hardw are a n d software that com es with catch in g .” Several issues reg ard in g the a p p e ar
man\- h o m e com puters. Table 2 below sum m a ance of an application should be a tte n d e d to.
rizes the hardw are and software n e e d e d for dig
■ Colors should be chosen carefullv. R e d /
ital video p ro d u ctio n .
g reen colorblindness is com m on, so avoid
colors th at are likelv to cause problem s for
Hypertext/Web-Based Stories users with this. Low-glare hues are p refer
H ypertext, or interactive stories, create a m edium able for reading; grays, soft whites, blues,
on the Web th rough which learners can explore an d browns are b e tte r choices th an b rig h t
issues o f nonlinearitv. M ore accessible than digital yellows, reds, a n d greens.
video, the Web is an e n v iro n m en t in which ■ Fonts should be simple and without serifs
learners can im agine an d p ro d u ce stories. (This font has no serifs; this f o n t has serifs).
Software Hardware
Photo or image editing software Computer capable of running software named in first column
Audio editing software for voice Video capture and output card (Necessary only if capturing from
recording, capturing, and editing or outputting to traditional linear video)
■ T he viewable screen should not ex ten d to interactivitv. a n d n ot m erelv p re s e n te d
the rig h t o f the viewing space on an average as potential p rin to u ts to be com pleted with
c o m p u te r m onitor. a pencil.
■ G raphics should be kept small for faster
loading over slow In te rn e t connections.
■ Lim it the a m o u n t of text on one page. Value
Keep dow nw ard scrolling to a m inim um . ■ T he com puter activitv should be som ething
that is done better with a com puter than
without. That is. does the activitv require
Navigation
interactivitv, large databases, or o th er things
■ Navigating th ro u g h an activitv should be the com puter does well, or could it be done
easy. Arrows or o th e r navigational links as easilv (or m ore easilv) with paper and
should be clear to the user. pencil?
■ Avoid “click h e re ’' for linking. Use c o n te n t ■ T he activitv' should address a specific n e e d
words for text links. in the p lan n e d curriculum .
■ Provide navigation that takes the user back
ward as well as forw ard when practical. Other Considerations
■ Alwavs provide a wav to quit the activitv.
■ Navigation for im p o rta n t actions should ■ Instructions should be minimal. G ood plan
a p p e ar on the first screen o f a page. T hat is, ning should obviate the need for elaborate
the navigation should not be outside the and com plex instructions.
norm ally visible area on an average com * Require special hardw are or software onlv if
p u ter m onitor. vouTe certain vour users will hav e easv access
■ Navigation should be "shallow." T hat is. to it.
learners should n o t have to click th ro u g h * C heck c o m p u te r-d e liv e re d activities on
screen after screen in o rd e r to reach a p ar different tvpes of com puters, if possible.
ticular piece of inform ation. G ood activities should be in d e p e n d e n t of
co m p u te r tvpc.
Interactivity and Feedback
If an activitv is in te n d e d as self-studv. feedback is C O N C L U S IO N
ex trem ely im p o rta n t. E v e n - le a rn e r action T he hope that com puters would be a panacea
should provide an o p p o rtu n itv for learning. for those trving to learn second languages has
■ Feedback should anticipate the learner's not been realized. However, it is clear that com
possible w rong responses an d give full p uters are providing instructors and students
explanations. alike with a new b a tte n of tools with which lan
■ C orrect answers should also be explained, guage can be lea rn ed m ore effectivelv.
in the event that the user chose random ly. T he adv ent o f the In te rn e t has ch an g ed the
■ T he answers m ust reflect the full range of wav we look at C o m p u ter Assisted Language
possible answers. Ambiguity should not be L earning (CALL). M achines are now used as
in h ere n t in the activities unless there is tools for com m unication ra th e r th an simple as
p lan n ed teacher interaction. wav s o f deliv ering auto m ated drills o r exercises.
■ Links to re\iew m aterial should be provided Vast am ounts o f read in g on am topic and in
w hen available. m anv languages are now available on the Web,
■ T he activitv should take advantage o f inter a n d the chance to participate in discussions with
activity. Unless form atted for printing, pages people from all walks of life is m otivating for
should be presented on the co m p u ter using manv learners.
In addition, the speed and size o f com puters S U G G E S T E D A C T IV IT IE S
now allow large databases to be m anipulated,
offering insights into language that we did not 1. C hoose a website o r a software package that
have access to previously. Corpus linguistics and focuses on English language learning. Based
concordancing can help provide the data and o n your u n d e rsta n d in g o f good educational
tools that students and instructors n eed to make practices, list at least five things th at you
sense o ut of usage. w ould im prove the website or package.
T h ere is n o th in g certain ab o u t the future 2. C reate a syllabus for a b eg in n in g English
o f technolog}-, except th at it will no d o u b t gram m ar course for E SL /EFL learners in
becom e m ore ubiquitous an pow erful. It is no which you integrate at least th re e d ifferent
lo n g er possible in language education to ignore tvpes o f co m p u te r use (for exam ple, drills,
this force, which is changing global cultures. e-mail, an d so fo rth ). Discuss how vour use
Fortunately, the same principles th at instructors o f technolog}- will en h an ce the gram m ar
an d policvm akers use to evaluate p rin t m aterials learn in g experience.
can be b ro u g h t to bear on technological m ateri 3. Look at Table 1 (p. 484). W hat activities could
als as well. In e ith e r case, it obliges us to ask and you add to this table? Try to think o f one new
answ er this question: How can this tool be used activity lo r each colum n.
to au g m en t the language learn in g process? 4. Locate a website in te n d e d for E SL /E FL
teachers. P ro tid e a sum m ary an d review of
what this site offers, a n d how it is useful to
E SL /EFL instructors.
D IS C U S S IO N Q U E S T IO N S
1. In vour opinion, what is the m ost useful FU R T H ER R EA D IN G
application o f c o m p u te r technology to lan
B o s w o o d . T . e d . 1997. X e i v Ияул o f U s i n g C o m p u t e r s i n
guage learning? W hat is the least useful?
L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g . A l e x a n d r i a , VA: T E S O L .
2. Som e instructors worry that too m uch class
P a r t o f T E S O L 's “N e w Wavs" se rie s, th is v o l u m e
tim e is spent "teaching technology" at the
fo c u s e s o n p e d a g o g y r a t h e r t h a n t e c h n o l o g y . It
expense of teach in g language. Do vou agree p r e s e n t s a n a r r a v o f activities i n c l u d i n g w o r d
with this observation? Why or whv not? p r o c e s s i n g a n d d e s k t o p p u b l i s h i n g , e -m a il a n d
3. Policy m akers an d others are co n cern ed M O O s. th e W eb. m u ltim e d ia , c o n c o rd a n c in g ,
ab o u t the "digital divide"— the econom ic a n d o th e r a p p licatio n s.
differences th at give greater access to tech E g b e r t . J.. a n d E. H a n s o n - S m i t h , e d s . 19 99 . C A L L
nology to those institutions an d people with e n v i r o n m e n t s : R e se a r c h , P r a c tic e , a n d C r itic a l
Bailey's chapter compares and contrasts three terms that are often confused: action research, teacher
research, and classroom research. W h ile action research is an actual research method, teacher research
is defined by w ho conducts it, and classroom research is defined by the setting in which the data
are collected.
IN T R O D U C T IO N W H A T IS LA N G U A G E
T he purpose of this chapter is to introduce CLA SSR O O M R ESEA R CH ?
language teachers to the research being done O f these th re e concepts, the o n e with the
in language classrooms. 1 have structured the longest tradition in language teaching is c l a s s
ch ap ter aro u n d a series of questions. It begins r o o m r e s e a r c h (or c l a s s r o o m - c e n t e r e d r e s e a r c h , as it
with a com parison o f classroom research, teacher used to be called). As early as 1980, Long
research, and action research. It includes a sum- defined classroom research as “research on sec
m a n of some recent studies directly related to the o n d language learn in g a n d teaching, a l l o r p a r t
work o f language teachers, and ends with some o f w h o s e d a ta a re d e r iv e d fr o m th e o b s e r v a tio n o r m e a s
activities readers can do to enhance their u n d e r u r e m e n t o f th e c la s s r o o m p e r f o r m a n c e o f te a c h e r s a n d
stan d in g o f the concepts p re se n te d h ere. (Long 1980, p. 3). In o th e r words, a
s tu d e n ts "
A lthough space constraints do not perm it a com study about language learn in g in form al instruc
prehensive review o f the available literature. I tional settings for which students had filled out
hope the studies cited here will encourage teach a q u estio n n aire about th eir p articipation in lan
ers to learn m ore about classroom research. guage lessons, while interesting a n d potentially
useful, would not fit this definition of classroom
research. If. however, the researchers ad d ed a
D E F IN IT IO N S O F K EY TERM S classroom observation co m p o n e n t to the study,
visiting classroom s to see if those learners actu
In recent years there has been a m arked increase
ally ex h ib ited the same behaviors thev h ad
in the frequency with which studies of c l a s s r o o m
re p o rte d in th eir q u estio n n aire responses, we
r e s e a r c h , t e a c h e r r e s e a r c h , an d a c t i o n r e s e a r c h have
w ould th en have an exam ple o f classroom
been published in the held of language teaching.
research, according to L ong's definition.
These them es occur regularly in the program
C lassroom rese a rc h , however, isn ’t ju st
abstracts at language teachers' conferences. But
research w here th e data are collected within the
what do the three term s mean? Thev are som e
coniines of a physical classroom . Consider, for
times used interchangeable, but are they in fact
exam ple. A llw righfs statem ent:
synonymous? We will begin bv com paring and
contrasting these th ree term s in o rd er to get a C lassroom -centered research is just
better u n d erstan d in g of what sorts of research that — research c e n t e r e d on the class
projects are being done in language classrooms. room . as distinct from , for exam ple,
rese a rc h th at c o n c e n tra te s on the F.8L. students th ro u g h the students' dialogue
i n p u t s t o the classroom (the scllabus. journals a n d his or h e r responses to them . W hile
the teach in g m aterials) or on the o u t ntch a studv would not be considered classroom
p u ts fro m th e classroom (le a rn e r research, it would be tea c h e r research, because
a c h ie v e m e n t scores). It does n o t it was designed and carried o u t bv a teacher. I:.
ignore in am wav or trv to devalue the this case, th e n , th e a g e n t c o n d u c tin g tit-
im p o rtan ce o f such inputs and out research is the defining feature. In o u r field vot
puts. It simple tries to investigate what can find discussions of teach er research wrim
h a p p en s inside the classroom when by B urns (1993). F reem an (1998), Jo h n so n
learners and teachers com e together. (1998, 1999). and X unan ( 1997b), am ong others
At its m ost narrow, classroom -centered
research is in fact research that treats
the language classroom n ot just as the W H A T IS A C T IO N R ESEA R CH ?
s e t t i n g f o r investigation bu t. m o re
im portantly, as the o b j e c t o f investiga Finallv. the term a c t i o n r e s e a r c h does in d ee d imp)
tion. Classroom processes becom e the a particular m ethodological approach. T he con
central focus (1983, p. 191 ). cept is som etim es co n fu sed with teach e.
research and classroom research because in or:
Classroom research, th en , can be con d u cted bv field, at lion research is often c o n d u c te d 1"
anyone using any ap proach to data collection teachers in language classrooms. In addition, n
an d analysis, so long as it m eets the definitions focuses on p articular features o f classroom in te r
above. It is not the province o f one school of action. But action research is m ore than simp:
th o u g h t, o n e g ro u p o f research ers, or one research co n d u c te d bv teachers in classrooms.
m ethodological tradition. T he term a c t i o n r e s e a r c h is an approach t
collecting and in terpreting data that involves .
clear, re p e a te d cvcle of p ro ce d u re s. Tim
W H A T IS T E A C H E R R ESEA R CH ? rese a rc h e r begins bv p lan n in g an action t
T e a c h e r r e s e a r c h , in contrast, is research conducted address a problem , issue, or question in his or he:
bv classroom teachers. A lthough the idea of own context. This action (which is also called a
teachers doing research was not com m on when ''small-scale intervention") is then carried out
the experim ental approach teas dom inant, it has ( This is the source of the label a c t i o n r e s e a r c h .) The
gained m o m en tu m in the past two decades, par- next step is the svstematic observation of the out
ticularlv in first language ed u cation (see. e.g.. comes of the action. T he observation is done
K incheloe 1991). T eacher research is often con through a variet\ o f procedures for collecting
n ected with the co ncept o f teach er developm ent data. These include audio or video recordings,
and em pow erm ent (Brindlev 1991)— the idea teachers' diarv entries, observers' notes, etc.
being that bv investigating teaching and learn (Christison and Bassano L1993J provide clear
ing processes in classrooms, we ourselves learn exam ples o f several data collection procedures
m ore about the craft and the science o f teaching teachers can use in action research to gather
so th a t we mav im prove o u r work as teachers. inform ation from students.) .After observing the
T he T e a c h e r s D e v e l o p T e a c h e r s R e s e a r c h series (e.g.. ap parent results of the action, the researcher
Edge and Richards 1993) reports on language reflects on the outcom e and plans a subsequent
teaching projects that take this stance. action, after w hich the cvcle begins again
T eacher research usuallv does take place in (Ixemmis and McTaggart 1982; X unan 1993; van
classroom s, an d it typicallv focuses on som e ele Tier 1994).
m en t (s) o f classroom in teraction, Inn it d o e sn ’t I he broad goals o f action research are to
necessarily h are to. For exam ple, a teacher seek local u n d erstan d in g an d to bring about
could studv the w ritten negotiation for m eaning im provem ent in the context u n d e r studv (Bailee
betw een him or h e r and his or h e r interm ed iate 1998a). Ixemmis a n d M cTaggart describe action
research as "a form of ‘self-reflective enquire' 1 = Classroom research conducted by teachers using
und ertak en bv participants in social situations in approaches other than action research
2 = Research conducted by teachers outside of classrooms
o rd e r to im prove the rationality a n d justice of
using approaches other than action research
th eir own social o r educational practices, as well 3 = Action research conducted by teachers outside of
as th eir u n d e rsta n d in g of these practices and the classrooms
situations in which these practices tire carried 4 = Classroom research conducted by teachers using the
out" (1989. p. 2 ). action research approach
M urphy’s chapter introduces several intriguing pathways for long-term professional growth. It features
tools to learn more about w ho w e are as teachers (including students' perceptions) through such
procedures as five-minute papers, teacher-assessment surveys, student focus groups, retrospective field
notes, and non-supervisory peer feedback.The chapter also highlights purposes o f reflective teaching
and topics explored by reflective teachers.
D E F IN IT IO N O FTER M S
T O P IC S E X P LO R E D
Richards and Lockhart (1994) define reflective
BY R E F L E C T IV E T E A C H E R S
teaching as an approach to second language (L2)
classroom in stru ctio n in w hich c u rre n t an d To exam ine some of the topics ty pically explorer,
prospective teachers “collect data about teaching, bv reflective teachers, we first need to acknowl
exam ine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, and edge that each language course is unique. English
teach in g practices, a n d use the inform ation language teaching and language learning are
obtained as a basis for critical reflection” about processes em bedded within com plex arrays o:
their efforts in language courses (p. 1). They posit dvnamic and socially interactive events. Earls
five basic assumptions: stages of reflective teaching begin with a class
■ An in fo rm e d te a c h e r has an extensive room teacher's desire to better u n derstand the
know ledge base ab o u t teaching dynamics of a single language course as it is being
■ M uch can be learned about teaching through experienced bv a group of learners and their
self-inquiry teacher. This is not to sat that reflective teaching
■ Much o f what happens in teaching is un cannot extend beyond the scope of a single
known to the teacher course: at later stages it often does. But as a place
■ T eaching ex perience alone is insufficient as to begin, most teachers find an individual course
a basis for co n tin u in g developm ent to be the m ost useful place to initiate what even
■ Critical reflection can trigger a deeper under tually becomes systematic efforts at reflective teach
standing o f teaching ing. Some general topic areas reflective te a c h e r'
often explore are: ( 1 ) com m unication patterns a close (calling for atten tio n , assigning h o m e
in the classroom : (2 ) teach er decision m aking: work, preview ing upco m in g events). Most lan
(3) ways in which learners apply knowledge; (4) guage lessons fe a tu re id en tifiab le segm ents
the affective clim ate of the classroom , (o) the strad d led by transitions from one segm ent to
instructional environm ent; an d (6) a teacher's another. An in terestin g way to increase u n d e r
self-assessment of grow th a n d developm ent as a standing of c u rre n t wavs of teach in g is to g ath er
professional. inform ation on how to n structure, pace, and
sequence lesson segm ents. By gen eratin g an
R e fle c tio n B r e a k #1 audio o r video recording of their teaching, for
exam ple, and then m oving betw een m acro- and
In a d d itio n to th e s e six g en era l areas, w h a t a re so m e
o t h e r areas yo u th in k re fle c tive te a c h e rs w h o w o r k in
microlevel exam inations o f whole lessons, reflec
E L T settings m ight p ro fita b ly e x p lo re ? A lte rn a tiv e ly , w h a t
tive teachers can begin to b e tte r u n d erstan d such
m ight be s o m e specific e x am p les o f th e six areas listed features. Close review of their ways o f teaching
ab o ve? leads m anv teachers to th en consider ways of
m anipulating lesson segments, an d some o f the
features e m b e d d e d with them , to increased
Com m unication Patterns in the Classroom
effect.
Teachers who are in terested in pattern s of com
m u n ic a tio n in lan g u ag e classroom s often Lesson Participant Interactions A n o th e r h e lp
explore classroom m an ag em en t issues such as. ful topic to explore is to exam ine m ore specific
W ho is d o in g w hat d u rin g lessons? As the p attern s o f learner-to-learner a n d teacher-to-
teacher, am I the sole source o f pow er and con learn er(s) interactions in the classroom . W ho
trol? Do learners som etim es have an im pact on speaks to whom , how often, in what sequence,
what takes place? Classroom com m unication and for how long? How are speaking turns dis
patterns is one of the m ore com m on topics tributed? Is the teach er the only o n e who con
explored bv reflective teachers. Most of us are trols th eir distribution? How are topics an d shifts
in terested in b e tte r u n d e rsta n d in g how com m u in topic developm ent introduced? W hat are
nications betw een evervone p resent in the class som e o f the ways in which learners take the floor
room mav in flu en ce tea c h in g a n d lea rn in g as speakers in the m idst of classroom co m m u n i
processes. For exam ple, a teacher m ight exam ine cations? Are th ere learners who are relativelv
recurring features within the instructional rou m ore or less participator} during particular lesson
tine to better understand students' learning pref phases? Do patterns of com m unication in the
erences. A teacher interested in com m unication classroom p ro \id e opportunities for learners to
patterns m ight ask if lessons usuallv begin and take the initiative?
end in the sam e wav. With video support, it is Teacher Decision Making This area for explo
possible to divide a language lesson in to a series ration includes a vast, and as vet poorlv u n d e r
of m anageable segm ents for analysis. M ultiple stood. dim ension of language teaching. Acts of
viewing reveals how lessons begin (openings language teaching spring from sources w ithin us
which ten d to be broadlv focused), introductions th a t in c lu d e o u r cognitive a n d e m o tio n a l
to specific activities (setting things up, giving responses to external classroom events. Because
directions, clarifving, providing support for what all o f us d e p e n d u p o n know ledge, values, and
is to follow), core lesson segm ents (individual beliefs about teach in g an d learn in g in o rd e r to
activities th at ten d to reflect p re p la n n e d teach function as teachers in the classroom, ou r in ter
ing d ecisio n s), wavs in which the tea c h e r and the nal understandings and expectations contribute
class move from one activitv to a n o th e r (transi to o u r teach in g decisions a n d behaviors.
tions between lesson segm ents), how lesson seg Specialists sketch an in trig u in g territo ry o f
ments are sequenced (pre-, core-, and post-activitv teacher decision m aking which Richards and
phases), how students respond to teacher feed Lockhart (1994) divide into pre-, during-, and
back, and the teacher's wav of draw ing a lesson to post-lesson decisions. In the case o f during-lesson
decisions, teachers have v en little tim e to follow T O O L S FO R R E F L E C T IV E
th ro u g h on what tliev decide to do since the T E A C H IN G /G A T H E R IN G
process unfolds in collaboration with — and in
front of— a group of learners. At such m om ents,
IN FO RM A TIO N
a teacher's decisions mac seem nearly instanta Just as th ere are m anv topics to be ex p lo red bv
n eo u s alth o u g h thee are in fo rm ed bv the reflective teachers, there are also m anv different
teacher's background and precious experiences. wavs to g a th e r inform ation. I refer to wavs o f
C om m unication pattern s in classrooms, les g athering inform ation included in this section
son particip an t interactions, and teach er deci as tools in a positive sense since these are the
sion m aking are just a few of the topics often "tools of the trade" that growing nu m b ers of
explored by reflective teachers. A more.- com plete reflective teachers d e p e n d upon to explore the
listing would include learning to identih and teaching-learning process. Teachers use differ
explore: ent tools to access different sorts o f inform ation.
Bv com bining two or m ore tools over the span of
я T he teacher's wavs ol giving insttactions,
an entire1 course, a teacher gains access to alter
resp o n d in g to students' errors, providing
feedback, using language, in tro d u cin g new native vantage points. T hough space lim itations
perm it onlv a lew tools to be featu red in this
teaching strategies, enco u rag in g language
chapter, fable 1 depicts a m ore com prehensive
ttse bevond the classroom , identifying and
a tten d in g to learners' needs, w orking with listing of some of the m ajor tools reflective
tea c h e rs use. U nless otherw ise in d ic a te d ,
relu ctan t learners, resp o n d in g to students'
resources for learning m ore about them are
errors
featu red in the "F u rth er R eading" section.
■ L earn ers' wavs of requesting clarifications,
Expanding on Table 1. I discuss five tools that
resp o n d in g to feedback, applying knowl
should be especially useful to teachers interested
edge, using language, in teractin g with their
in becom ing m ore involved in processes and pro
peers, resp o n d in g to changes in teaching,
cedures of reflective teaching. These tools are:
using learn in g strategies
five-minute papers, formative teacher assessment
■ Even m ore general topics such as the affec
survevm student locus groups, retrospective field
tive clim ate of the classroom , debilitative
notes, and formative feedback from peers.
and facilitative anxietv. cultural considera
tions, the instructional environm ent, the
physical setup of the classroom , textbooks
a n d o th e r resources, stu d e n t-g e n e ra te d FIV E -M IN U T E PAPERS
m aterials, resources bevond the classroom R egular use o f five-minute papers is a direct wav
o f finding out how learners are perceiving and
T he above list illustrates the kinds of topics that
resp o n d in g to ou r efforts as teachers. A few
all language teachers are interested in learn in g
m inutes before the en d o f the lesson, the
m ore about but that reflective teachers take
teacher asks everyone to take out a sheet of
d eliberate action to explore.
p ap er and to w rite responses to one or two open-
e n d e d prom pts such as: (1) W hat is the one
R e fle c t io n B r e a k # 2
thing u iu are likelv to rem e m b e r from today's
G e n e r a t e a list o f to p ic s re la te d to y o u r o w n te a ch in g class? : if i W hat was the m ost confusing concept
th a t y o u th in k w o u ld be w o r t h le a rn in g m o re ab o u t.
we covered? if) Is there anything vou would like
S e e if y o u can c o m e up w ith a t least fo u r e x a m p le s n o t
to know m ore about? (4) Is theta1 anything vou
m e n tio n e d in th e p re c e d in g se c tio n . O n c e y o u r list is
think I should be doing differently? L earner
c o m p le te , c o m p a re it to th a t o f o n e o r m o r e o t h e r lan
responses to such questions are especially useful
guage te a c h e r (s ). H o w m igh t y o u s e t a b o u t in crea sin g
y o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f a t least s o m e o f th e to p ic s o f
if the teach er em phasizes that th eir purpose is to
in te re s t t o yo u ? provide form ative feedback on how the course is
going. In m ain EEL courses teachers are able to
Table I. Some Tools of Reflective Teaching: Ways of Gathering Information
ask students to com pose five-minute papers in vocabularv choice but onlv for the ideas thev
English. In settings where it is possible, students convev.
m ight he given the option of writing live-minute As their teach er I will be reading for the
papers in their first language(s). T hough five- purpose o f im proving mv teaching in the
m inute papers take time awav from the regular course and not to evaluate th eir progress.
part of a lesson, using them at the end of class can
Invariable. 1 find som ething of value in w hat stu
better inform a teacher's post-lesson decisions.
dents have to say. I will occasionallv ask a col
W ie n introducing them for the first time, 1
league to read the papers first, a n d th en discuss
explain to students that:
with me th e gist o f s tu d e n ts ’ co m m en ts.
■ T h eir nam es should not ap p e ar on their Involving som eone else is a small step toward
papers (th eir writings will be kept in confi gaining access to an outside perspective on my
den ce). work. As well as providing an o p p o rtu n itv to talk
■ W hen read in g the papers I will not be look about im teaching with a n o th e r teacher, it helps
ing at things like gram m ar, spelling, or to ensure Г will be responsive to what students
have to sav. E xperience with five-minute papers work in an ESI. setting w here the len g th of
over the past fete w a rs lias taught m e th at a courses I teach is 13 weeks. I g a th e r form ative
te a c h e r’s sense of tim ing is essential since using assessm ent inform ation th ro u g h stu d e n t survevs
them can be overdone. If students are asked to after the third, eighth, an d th irte e n th weeks of
com pose them too often, thev lose interest an d class. A survev earlv in the course serves as a win
mav even begin to resent being asked to do so. dow into students' initial responses to the course.
In courses that m eet two or th ree times a week, Bv the eighth week their im pressions are even
I line! that once even' two or th ree weeks is often b e tte r inform ed since learners are bevond the
en o u g h . U sing them wiselv a m serve as vivid m id p o in t an d have h ad am ple o p p o rtu n ities to
rem inders to students that th eir responses to the develop u n d e rsta n d in g s a n d im pressions o f
course are valued a n d giv en serious attention. both the course an d mv role as th eir teacher.
These first two survevs are the ones that directlv
im pact on mv teaching decisions in the section
of the course students are taking. T h o u g h I also
FO RM ATIVE T E A C H E R find a stu d en t survev in the th irte e n th week to
be useful, at this p o in t the course is com ing to a
A SSESSM EN T SU RVEYS: close and students' com m ents will have m ore of
A c o m p le m e n t to five-m inute p a p e rs is to an im pact on fu tu re iterations of the course.
schedule several survevs of students' perceptions W hen using form ative tea c h e r assessm ent
of how well the course is going. These m ight Lie survevs. a practical strategy is to place at the verv
in clud ed in the course svllabus on the first clav en d of the course sv llabus a copv of the first sur
o f class so students will know from the start that vev sheet to be collected. Bv positioning it at the
th e ir im pressions will be valued, when their end. students onlv have to detach the first survev
im pressions will lie solicited, a n d what the sur- sheet on the a p p ro p riate dav to com plete it an d
vcv will include. Som e advantages o f form ative h a n d it in. I arrange the second survev sheet
assessm ent survevs are that thev can be clearly (eighth week) as the second-to-last page in the svl
stru ctu red in advance, it is easv to keep students' labus. with the third one (th irteenth week) imme-
com m ents anonvm ous. a lot o f inform ation can diatelv before the second. T he following is an
be g a th e red at one tim e, and the p ro ce d u re mav illustration of a formative teacher assessment
be carried out at regular intervals. O ne option is survev I recenth included in the svllabus for a
to im p lem en t such survevs th ree tim es durin g high-interm ediate level ESL Oral Com m unication
th e span o f an entire course. For exam ple. I course I offer.
F o r m a t iv e F e e d b a c k (1 s t o f 3) t o th e In s t r u c t o r
P le a s e c o m p le te an d p la c e in a s ta c k o n t h e f r o n t d e s k a t th e e n d o f o u r 8 th day o f class,
W e d n e s d a y , S e p t e m b e r X X X . (A lte r n a t iv e ly , y o u a r e w e lc o m e to p la ce it in m y m a ilb o x in
th e m ain o ffic e .)
I W h a t a r e s o m e fe a tu re s o f th e c o u r s e th a t y o u th in k a r e w o r k in g o u t p r e t t y w e ll
(fe a tu re s y o u w o u ld like t o s e e c o n tin u e d f o r th e r e m a in d e r o f th e c o u r s e )?
2. W h a t a r e s o m e p o s s ib le ch a n g e s y o u w o u ld like t o s e e in c o r p o r a t e d in to th e c o u r s e
fr o m th is p o in t f o r w a r d ?
A n o th er option is to follow sim ilar p ro ced u res S T U D E N T F O C U S G R O U PS
b u t to use a form at that involves less w riting by
T he use o f stu d e n t focus groups is a simple т е л .
providing a list o f items to w hich students can
vet one und eru tilized in o u r field. It is m ore
resp o n d on an easilv accessible scale, such as:
inv olv ed than five-minute papers or stu d en t sur-
vev s and takes careful planning. Bevond the field
Yes, I agree. I agree somewhat. No, I do not agree. o f language teaching, focus groups are becom ing
increasinglv fam iliar in rnanv walks o f life, includ
ing advertising and politics. In language teaching,
Illustrations of sam ple items to include are:
student focus groups engage eith er all m em bers
In general, the textbooks, m aterials, and assign of a class or a subset o fle a rn e rs in a discussion of
m ents in this course: 1 how a course is going. T h ough eith er the class
■ are interesting an d useful room teacher or a colleague-consultant may serve
■ are at the right level as focus group discussion leader, I prefer asking a
■ help m e to practice and im prove mv lan colleague to perform this role. Som e options are
guage skills as follows. Make arrangem ents for a colleague
■ require the right am ount of hom ew ork vou trust, and with whom vou have a constructive
working relationship, to serve as the focus group
In general, the teach er of this course: facilitator. I deliberately avoid working with a
supervisor or program adm inistrator at such
■ presents w ell-organized lessons times since student focus groups work best when
■ speaks in a war that is clear a n d ease to thev are not being used for form al evaluative p u r
u n d erstan d poses. I trv to tim e mv use o f the pro ced u re for a
■ is knowledgeable about the subjects we cover p eriod in the course w hen things seem to be
* answers mv questions well going relativelv well (or at least norm ally). Invite
* grades assignm ents and tests fairlv vour colleague to visit the class for a lesson during
■ m akes good use of class tim e which vou will n ot be present b ut for which stu
■ retu rn s work (that I h a n d in) on tim e dents have been p rep ared in advance. As agreed
■ gives m e individual help w hen I n eed it (or u p o n with the class, your colleague’s role is
when I ask for it) to lead the whole class in a discussion o f broad
■ encourages me to do mv best topics such as:
■ relates well to students
■ provides a p p ro p riate o p p o rtu n ities for m e ■ How is the course going?
to participate in class ■ W hat do vou like ab o u t the course (or the
teacher)?
A final survev item m ight ask: I f you were in a con ■ W hat are vour least favorite things?
versation with a friend, would you recommend taking ■ D oes the course te x tb o o k — o r o th e r
a course from this teacher? II7tv or why not? instructional m aterial— seem helpful?
■ W hat are som e characteristics o f the
teacher’s instructional style that work well?
R e fle c t io n B r e a k # 3
■ W hat are som e characteristics you find to
H a v e y o u e v e r had an o p p o r t u n it y t o r e c e iv e le a r n e r
be less helpful?
fe e d b a c k o n y o u r te a ch in g ? If so, w h a t did y o u le a rn ■ Do assessm ent pro ced u res seem fair?
fr o m th e e x p e r ie n c e ? If n o t, d o y o u th in k su ch s o u r c e s ■ W hat are som e of the wavs in which the
o f in fo rm a tio n m ig h t be u sefu l? W o u l d y o u e x p e c t th e course m ight be im proved?
q u a lity o f le a r n e r fe e d b a c k t o v a r y d e p e n d in g u p o n
le a r n e r s ’ c u ltu r a l b a c k g ro u n d s ? If so, w h a t c o u ld yo u T he facilitator could distribute a h a n d o u t listing
d o t o c o m p e n s a te f o r c u ltu ra l d iffe re n ce s ? the above questions or he or she m ight use a copv
of the teacher assessment survev from the preced
ing section. Students can then pick and choose
their preferred topics for discussion. Prior to the on a regular basis a n d it is im p o rta n t to start xvrit-
dav of the locus group and at the start of the actual ing soon after the en d of a class (for exam ple,
discussion, students need to be assured that their within 30-60 m inutes). If too m uch time elapses,
com m ents will be kept in confidence. The facilita o u r m em ories of classroom exents quickly fade.
to r’s role is to listen carefully and empatheticallv, T he activity is sim ilar to keeping a personal jo u r
keep the discussion on track, and take notes nal or diarx, xvith the difference that retrospective
(when possible) on what students have to say. field notes focus on course-related events. To pro
W hen the class is finished, the facilitator duce them , the teacher writes about whatexer is
com poses a written rep o rt ( not to be used for for fresh in his o r h er inemoiv. G eneral guidelines are
m al evaluation purposes) that provides a synopsis to try to keep track of classroom issues that seem
for the teacher o f the students' suggestions for relex’ant to the lesson recentlx- com pleted and to
the course. No nam es should appear in the treat field notes as an eth n o g rap h er treats raw
report; it needs to be phrased to protect students’ data. Rellectixe teachers using this procedure sax’e
identities. O nce it is com pleted, the visiting col their notes oxer time, rexiexv them on a regular
league gives the classroom teacher a copv and basis, and look for what their notes may reveal
m akes arrangem ents to discuss what took place. about recurring patterns. After you have rexx’orked
A ven- effective situation for those interested xotir notes bx deleting or m odifying anything th at
in student focus groups is to build toward a recip m ight be personally uncom fortable, a colleague
rocal p eer arran g em en t in which two teachers m ight be inxited to read them an d discuss what
may serve as the discussion facilitator for each ever concerns хеш about a course. R etrospecti\7e
o th e r’s classes. Ideally, a m utually supportive col field notes can becom e a xaluable source of
laboration evolves betw een teachers that could inform ation ab o u t o ne's un d erstan d in g s a n d a
develop over tim e. O n e m odification to the richlv tex tu red reco rd o f o ne's explanations o f
focus groups is to avoid involving the whole teach in g oxer tim e. Som e general waxs to fram e
class, b u t to discuss the focus g roup process with fieldnotes are to respond to questions about your
th em an d ask for onlv a few m em bers o f the class self as a teacher, the teaching process, students in
(e.g., 20-25 percen t) to vo lu n teer to participate. the class, the learning process, or anything tied to
In this o p tion, students choose w h eth er to par the dynamics of the lesson itself. A wav to get
ticipate. Manx language teachers find the kind started xvith retrospective field notes, a n d a use
of inform ation revealed as a result of stu d en t ful task to return to whenexer xou haxe too little
focus groups to be trem endously helpful for to write about, is to spend time generating a list of
fine-tuning th eir p lan n in g decisions an d increas questions xou m ight be able to use as xvriting
ing awareness o f th eir strengths as well as areas prom pts in the future.
thex could im prove.
| R e fle c tio n B r e a k # 4
------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ►
etic emic
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
In '“Second i_anguage Assessment." Cohen considers key issues in the construction of assessment
instruments. Beginning with a theoretical framework for types of instruments and types of items, he
gives guidelines for reviewing or constructing tests, as well as giving insights into the types of items
possible. Approaches to testing reading comprehension are provided, with sample approaches to
other skills included in an appendix.
ties be used)? B o s t o n . M A : H e i n l e 8c H e i n l e P u b l i s h e r s .
Crandall's chapter identifies a number of strategies and resources for continuing professional
development. The strategies include participating in professional associations, serving on curriculum
developm ent or textbook selection committees, researching classroom issues and practice, and
working collaboratively with professionals Tom other fields. Also discussed are relevant journals,
clearinghouses/centers, publishers, and Internet resources.
M ARIANNE С E L С E - M U R С I A, E D IT O R