Introduction to Culture and Psychology

What is Culture?

Culture eludes most of us perhaps in part due to the complexity of the concept and the
confusion with which it has been defined. There is a lack of consensus about the meaning of
culture, yet it seems to permeate many aspects of our lives including personal tastes to
manners, beliefs, values, world views, and actions. Traditionally, culture has been thought of as
national identity; however, the scope has broadened to include many aspects of social
difference including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender, social class, religion, and sexuality.
Even though much of culture in terms of national identity is tangible and visual (e.g., food,
clothing, housing, rituals, etc.), some aspects of culture may not necessarily be
“seen”-socioeconomic status, religion, and sexual orientation.

Broadly, culture can be defined as integrated patterns of learned beliefs and behaviors that are
shared among groups and include thoughts, communication styles, ways of interacting, views of
roles and relationships, values, practices, and customs (Berry, Poortinga, Breugelmans,
Chasiotis, & Sam, 2011) or more simply, “a total way of life of a people” (Geertz, 1973). Culture
can be expanded to include many factors which encompass aspects of daily life and social
influences/factors. This means we are all “culturally different” given different family backgrounds,
religions, occupations, disability, gender, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, etc. Beyond
race and ethnicity, we all are part of and influenced by multiple culture. Each of us is a
multicultural individual with many sets of cultures in diffirent context that may or may not
coincide. See figure 1.1 for different emphases in the definitions of culture.

Figure 1.1 Different Emphases of “Culture”

Culture is complex and multifaceted, pervasive and embedded in many aspects of life and
living. Berry and colleagues (Berry et al., 2011; see Figure 1.2) outline six general aspects in
which culture can be discussed.

1. Descriptive emphasizes the different activities and behaviors of a culture.

2. Historical aspects refer to the heritage and traditions associated with a particular cultural
group.
3. Normative signifies the rules and norms of a culture.
 4. Psychological refers to the behavioral aspects of culture like learning and problem
solving.
5. Structural depicts the social and organizational aspects of culture.
6. Genetic describes the origins of a culture.

Figure 1.2 Berry’s Six Aspects of Culture

Culture is used to reflect many different aspects of life. Another categorization of culture
contains nine broad categories: general characteristics; food and clothing; housing and
technology; economy and transportation; individual and family activities; community and
government; welfare; religion and science; and sex and the life cycle (see Figure 1.3)

Figure 1.3 Nine Characteristics of Culture

Ten categories of characteristics have been outlined to understand culture at both the micro and
macro level: (1) sense of self and space; (2) communication and language; (3) dress and
appearance; (4) food and feeding habits; (5) time and time consciousness; (6) relationships; (7)
values and norms; (8) beliefs and attitudes; (9) mental process and learning; and (10) work
habits and practices (Moran et al., 2014).

In defining culture, it is important to remember that “one size” does not fit all” which suggests
that cultural behavior is multi-determined and is likely a product of history, patterns of behaviors
associated with economic activity and the influence of philosophical religious views. Based on
culture, people structure their worlds and determine their social interactions. We all have diverse
ways of understanding the world and defining our cultural identities. The common
characteristics between humans and environments has shared elements, and is transmitted
across time periods and generations. Culture can be conceptualized on multiple levels. For
instance, Jandt (2018) describes subculture (groups within dominant cultures with which people
identify; often based on geographic region, ethnicity, or social class), co-culture (similar to
subculture but conveys the idea that no one cultural group is superior to other con-existing
cultures), and subgroups (membership groups within cultures such as occupation that influence
values and attitudes).

Culture is a difficult concept to grasp because it is so basic to human societies and so

intertwined with our very natures that its workings are seldom acknowledged or thought about
by those who have internalized it. It is all encompassing, like water for a fish, so it remains
largely preconscious and is obvious only when it is gone or has been seriously disturbed.
Anthropological definitions point to certain aspects of it. Culture comprises traditional ideas and
related values, it is learned. Shared, and transmitted from one generation to the next, and it
organizes life and helps individuals interpret their existence. In an interview for Live Science
website, Crisitna De Rossi, and anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College in London said,
“Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, out language, marriage,
music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how we
behave with loved ones, and a million other things” (Zimmermann, 2015). De Rossi went on to
explain that culture is fluid and constantly in motion, which makes it difficult for culture to be
defined just one way.

Culture vs. Race in the Definition of Group Differences

Before you learn about the various dimensions along which cultures differ, it is useful to take a
short digression to discuss difficulties with the concept of race. Increasingly of late, social
scientists have chosen to distinguish between human groups on the basis of culture rather than
race. For example, when they refer to tribal subgroups within the broader racial category of
Native Americans as separate ethnic groups, they are emphasizing cultural differences as
opposed to biological or physical ones. The term ethnic group defines as any distinguishable
people whose members share a culture and see themselves as separate and different from the
cultural majority.
The Dimensions of Culture

Culture differ depending on their worldview or particular philosophy of life or conception of the
world; the content and specifics of each vary from culture to culture. These differences and our
natural tendency toward ethnocentrism, the assumptions that everyone else views the world in
the same way as we do, are the reasons that cross- cultural misunderstanding. Brown and
Landrum-Brown (1995) enumerate the following dimensions of culture:

● Psychobehavioral modality refers to the mode of activity most preferred within a culture.
Do individuals actively engage their world (doing), more passively experiences it as a
process (being), or experience it with the intention of evolving (Becoming)?
● Axiology involves the interpersonal values that a culture teaches. Do they complete or
cooperate (competition vs. cooperation)? Are emotions freely expressed or held back
and controlled (emotional restraint vs emotional expressiveness)? Is verbal expression
direct or indirect (direct verbal expression vs. indirect verbal expression)? Do group
members seek help form others or do they keep problems hidden so as not to shame
their families (help seeking vs. “saving face”)?
● Ethos refers to widely held beliefs within a cultural group that guide social interactions.
Are people viewed as independent beings or as interdependent (independence vs.
interdependence)? Is one’s first allegiance to oneself to one’s family (individual right vs.
honor and family protection)? Are all individual group members seen as equal, or is there
an acknowledged hierarchy of status or power (egalitarianism vs. authoritarianism)? Are
harmony, respect, and deference toward others valued over controlling and dominating
them (control and dominance vs. harmony and deference)?
● Epistemology summarizes the preferred ways of gaining knowledge and learning about
the world. Do people rely more on their intellectual abilities (cognitive processes), their
emotions and intuition (affective processes, vibes, intuition), or a combination of both
(cognitive and affective)?
● Logic involves the kind of reasoning process that group members adopt. Are issues seen
as being either one way or the other (either-or thinking)? Can multiple possibilities be
considered at the same time (both-and thinking)? Or id thinking organized around inner
consistency (circular)?
● Ontology refers to how a culture views the nature of reality. Is what being real only what
can be seen and touched (objective material)? Is there a level of reality that exists
beyond the material senses (subjective spiritual)? Or are both levels of reality
experienced (spiritual and material)?
● Concept of Time involves how time is experienced within a culture. Is it clock-determined
and liner (clock-based), defined in relation to specific events (event-based), or
experienced as repetitive (cyclical)?
● Concept of Self refers to whether group members experience themselves as separate
beings (individual self) or as part of a greater collective (extended self)
Functions of Culture

In relation to psychology, culture serves four functions: evolutionary, buffer, epistemic, and
resulting from interpersonal interactions. From an evolutionary perspective, culture makes sense
because of our need for collective support in order to survive and reproduce and because
culture provides an adaptive function via cultural norms, beliefs, and practices all of which
contribute to efficient organization of societal groups. Another perspective on the function of
culture is from terror management theory. According to this theory, culture serves as a
productive factor/buffer against existential anxiety about our own mortality. Culture offers
mechanisms of “symbolic immortality” such as naming a baby after oneself so that the name
lives on, religious beliefs in life after death, and feelings of being a valuable member off and
contributor to culture. Culture may serve an epistemic need to validate our perceptions of the
world around us. Shared beliefs, expectations, and rules that come from culture help fulfil this
need. Another perspective on the emergence of culture is that it is an “unintended byproduct” of
interpersonal interaction. Through interaction that involves interpersonal communication, people
mutually influence one another toward shared beliefs, behaviors, and norms within a population
which results in culture (Hong, Gelfand, & Chiu, 2018) (see Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Functions of Culture